Personality and Individual Differences 53 (2012) 1034–1038

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Personality and Individual Differences

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A will and a proper way leading to happiness: Self-Directedness Mediatesthe Effect of Persistence on Positive Affectivity

Danilo Garcia a,b,⇑, Nóra Kerekes a,b,c, Trevor Archer d

a Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Swedenb Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Swedenc Swedish Prison and Probation Service, R&D Unit, Gothenburg, Swedend Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history:Received 9 March 2012Received in revised form 3 June 2012Accepted 17 July 2012Available online 11 August 2012

Keywords:HappinessLife SatisfactionMediation analysisNegative AffectPersistencePositive AffectSelf-DirectednessSubjective Well-Being

0191-8869/$ - see front matter � 2012 Elsevier Ltd. Ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.07.025

⇑ Corresponding author at: CELAM, University of Go431 41 Mölndal, Sweden. Tel.: +46 733105153.

E-mail addresses: danilo.garcia@neuro.gu.se,(D. Garcia).

Persistence is a temperament dimension that enables maintenance of behaviors. Persistent pursuit ofneed-satisfying goals is suggested to lead to increased Subjective Well-Being (SWB). The psychologicaladvantages of being highly persistent can be evaluated by investigating the interactions of Persistencewith other personality dimensions in relation to SWB. The aim of the present study is to investigate ifSelf-Directedness, defined as the ability to develop good habits and behave in accordance with long-termvalues and goals, mediates the relationship between Persistence and SWB. In two studies high schoolpupils (n = 468) reported Persistence, Self-Directedness, Positive and Negative Affect, and Life Satisfac-tion. Mediation analysis showed that Self-Directedness accounts for a significant amount of the sharedvariance between Persistence and Positive affect, but did not mediate the relationship of Persistence toNegative affect neither to Life Satisfaction. It can be concluded that Persistence itself might maintainmotivation through delay periods, while Self-Directedness guides behavior towards long-term pleasantexperiences.

� 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Persistence is a temperament dimension in Cloninger psychobi-ological model of temperament and character (Cloninger, Przybeck,Svrakic, & Wetzel, 1994) that is coupled to the brain’s noradrenergicsystem and explains maintenance of behaviour. Adolescents high inPersistence are described as hardworking, and stable despite frus-tration and fatigue. They are also expected to increase their effortsin response to anticipated reward (Cloninger, Svrakic, & Przybeck,1993). In other words, frustration and fatigue may be perceived asa personal challenge, they do not give up easily and are probablywilling to make major sacrifices to be a success (e.g., good grades).In a recent study, for example, Garcia (under review) found thatadolescents who reported high levels of Persistence also reportedengaging in the pursuit of goals, studying to raise grades, and striv-ing to accomplish things in order to increase positive emotions.Sheldon and colleagues (2010) found that persistent pursuit ofneed-satisfying goals lead to increased Subjective Well-Being(SWB: Life Satisfaction, frequency of positive affect, and infrequency

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danilo.garcia@euromail.se

of negative affect). However, persistent pursuit to unachievablegoals may lie behind medical conditions such as long-term risk fordiabetes, and heart disease (Miller & Wrosch, 2007). In situationsin which a key life-goal cannot be realized, the most adaptive re-sponse for mental and physical health may be to disengage fromthat goal (Miller & Wrosch, 2007). Indeed, Sheldon and colleaguesacknowledge that ‘‘a will and proper way’’ is a prerequisite if gainsin SWB are to be maintained (Sheldon et al., 2010, p. 39).

Persistence among adolescents seems to be an important per-sonality dimension in the prediction of the experience of high levelsof positive affect and low levels of Life Satisfaction (Garcia, 2011a,b;Garcia, Kerekes, Andersson-Arntén, & Archer, 2012; Garcia &Moradi, 2011). Perseveration might naturally lead to high levelsof positive experience when goals are achieved. Nevertheless, highPersistence may be an adaptive behaviour only when rewards areintermittent but the contingencies remain stable (Cloninger et al.,1994). In the context of daily problems adolescents encounter anequally stressful experience as if they would be major life events(McCullough, Huebner, & Laughlin, 2000). Hence, at least amongadolescents, perseveration can become maladaptive and might leadto low SWB and bad physical health. The psychological advantagesor disadvantages of Persistence can be evaluated by investigatingits interactions with other personality dimensions in relation toSWB (Cloninger, Zohar, Hirschmann, & Dahan, 2012). Before we

D. Garcia et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 53 (2012) 1034–1038 1035

disentangle these interacting dimensions of personality we brieflypresent SWB as a measure of happiness and some of the benefitsrelated to high levels of happiness.

1.1. Subjective Well-Being

Within the field of positive psychology, happiness is usuallymeasured through subjective evaluation of individuals’ experienceof pleasure versus displeasure, involving both a cognitive and anaffective component (Pavot, 2008). Life Satisfaction (LS) is sug-gested as the cognitive component, and refers to a comparisonprocess in which individuals assess the quality of their lives onthe basis of their own self-imposed standard (Pavot & Diener,1993). The affective component of SWB involves the experience ofpositive (PA) and negative affect (NA) (Schimmack, 2008). Thesetwo components of SWB, cognitive and affective, are related to eachother, but it is not clear how much. Some of the variations betweenthese components can be attributed to methodological factors (e.g.,reliable measures yield higher correlations between LS and affectbalance), but they are still far from being collinear (Schimmack,2008). In other words, SWB presents a compelling measure ofwell-being with components that are differently related to person-ality (see Garcia & Erlandsson, 2011).

According to Martin and Huebner (2007) the multidimensionalmodel of SWB (i.e., LS, PA, and NA) is valid for adolescents as well.Thus, a happy adolescent can be recognized by: being satisfiedwith life and experiencing more positive than negative affect.Happiness by itself may appear to be an attractive goal, but it alsohas important implications in adolescents’ lives—adolescents thatexperience high levels of happiness show less emotional andbehavioural problems (Suldo & Huebner, 2006).

1.2. Persistence and Self-Directedness

Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality (Cloningeret al., 1993) is based on findings from neuroanatomy and neuro-physiology as well as developmental and clinical psychology andpsychiatry. Differences in the major brain systems for proceduralversus propositional learning lead to the distinction between fourdimensions of temperament and three dimensions of character(Cloninger, 2004). Temperament reflects the basic organization ofdifferent brain systems for the activation, maintenance and inhibi-tion of behavior in response to stimuli. In contrast, character in-volves individual differences in self-concepts about goals andvalues (Cloninger, 2004). Cloninger’s model can serve as a toolfor unravelling and understanding which other interacting person-ality dimensions are important in the evaluation of the psycholog-ical advantages or disadvantages of persistence. An imperative inthis evaluation is to outline how Persistence regulates the informa-tion processing of affective stimuli (Cloninger et al., 2012; Gusnard,Akbudak, Shulman, & Raichle, 2001; Gusnard et al., 2003). Asstated in the introduction, Persistence is a temperament dimensioncharacterized by the extent to which a person will continue toexpect and seek rewards even when the expected outcome is onlyrarely successful, whereas Self-Directedness is a character dimen-sion based on the concept of the self as an autonomous individual.Self-Directedness allows the individual to engage in purposeful ac-tions because the individual has a ‘‘sense of following a meaningfuldirection in one’s life’’ (Cloninger, 2004, p. 120).

A specific brain circuit, involving ventral striatum, the anteriorcingulate cortex, and the orbital frontal cortex, is strongly corre-lated to TCI Persistence (Gusnard et al., 2003). As explained byCloninger and colleagues (2012), this specific brain circuit regu-lates the behavioral conditioning of reward-seeking behavior (seealso Schultz, Tremblay, & Hollerman, 2000, 2003 among others).Highly persistent individuals show increased activity in this

specific brain circuit when evaluating pleasant, neutral, or unpleas-ant stimuli (assessed by the International Affective Picture System;Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997). In contrast, those low in Persis-tence show decreased activity in this brain circuit. Moreover, whenthe number of neutral stimuli increases, in relation to pleasant andunpleasant stimuli, the activity of the brain circuit in high persis-tent individuals increases even further. However, the tendency torate stimuli as pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant is independent ofthe number of neutral stimuli. Instead, the tendency to rate specificstimuli as pleasant depends on the interaction of Persistence andthe character dimension of Self-Directedness, no other characterdimension was involved. That is, individuals high in Persistenceand high in Self-Directedness make more pleasant judgments atthe expense of neutral ratings (Gusnard et al., 2003; see alsoCloninger et al., 2012 for a review).

Accordingly, Self-Directedness is related to activation of themedial prefrontal cortex when individuals are consciously evaluat-ing whether a stimulus is felt to be pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant(Cloninger, 2004; Gusnard et al., 2001). Self-Directedness, for in-stance, predicts high levels SWB among adolescents (Garcia,2011a,b; Garcia, Archer, Moradi, & Andersson-Arntén, 2012; Garcia& Moradi, 2011; Garcia, under review). Adolescents that are self-directed develop good habits and automatically behave in accordwith their long-term values and goals, probably as a consequenceof self-discipline (Cloninger et al., 1994). Persistence seems to hold‘‘incentive information in representational memory during delayperiods in the guidance of goal-directed behavior’’ (Cloningeret al., 2012, p. 759), while Self-Directedness probably mediatesthe significance or meaning of what is experienced, in turn, influ-encing adolescents’ happiness (Cloninger, 2004).

1.3. The present study

The present study aims to investigate if the TCI characterdimension of Self-Directedness mediates the relationship betweenPersistence and SWB. In two separate studies we use mediationanalysis to investigate if Self-Directedness accounts for a signifi-cant amount of the shared variance between Persistence andSWB measures.

2. Study 1

2.1. Method

2.1.1. Participants and procedureA total of 304 high school pupils (123 girls and 181 boys, age

mean of 17.78, SD = .81) at one high school in west Sweden, partic-ipated. All parents and teachers have received written and oralinformation about the nature of the study (e.g., aim, methods,instruments, anonymity), the researchers answered all eventualquestions, and written consents were collected from both adoles-cents and their parents. Participation was voluntary and anony-mous. Each participating adolescent received a cinema ticket atthe end of the data collection.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Persistence and Self-DirectednessThe TCI (Cloninger et al., 1993) measures personality in the se-

ven dimensions by Cloninger’s psychobiological model (238-itemswith forced binary answer: yes or no). Participants were asked tocomplete the whole instrument. Nevertheless, the only dimensionsused in the present analysis were Persistence, with 8 questions likee.g., ‘‘I often push myself to the point of exhaustion or try to domore than I really can’’) and Self-Directedness, with 44 questions

.42*** (.36***)

Independent Variable

Persistence

Mediating Variable

Self-Directedness

Outcome Variable

Positive Affect

.34*** (.26***)

.23***

1036 D. Garcia et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 53 (2012) 1034–1038

e.g., ‘‘In most situations my natural responses are based on goodhabits that I have developed’’.

2.2.2. Subjective Well-BeingThe Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS;

Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) was used in order to measurePA and NA. The PANAS instructs participants to rate to what extent(1 = very slightly, 5 = extremely) they generally have experienced 10positive emotions (e.g., strong, proud, and interested) and 10negative emotions (e.g., afraid, ashamed, and nervous).

Fig. 1. Model of the mediating role of Self-Directedness in the relationship betweenPersistence and Positive Affect in Study 1. Value in parentheses is the reducedcorrelation coefficient when the mediator is present. Note: ⁄⁄⁄p < .001.

3. Results and discussion

As Table 1 shows, PA was the only SWB measure to be associ-ated to both Persistence and Self-Directedness. NA was associatedonly to Self-Directedness. Hence, only the relationship betweenPersistence and PA was submitted to the mediation analysis. Themediation analysis described next, implemented in Study 1 and2, used procedures recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986).

A series of three equations were conducted for PA. Firstly, Self-Directedness was regressed on Persistence. Persistence contributeda significant amount of variance to Self-Directedness (23%).Secondly, PA was regressed on Persistence. Persistence accountedfor 34 % of the variance in positive affect. Finally, PA was simulta-neously regressed on both Persistence and Self-Directedness. Themodel accounted for 49 % of the variance in PA. Comparisons be-tween the beta weights in the second and third equations wereundertaken to contrast the beta weights for Persistence alone withthe beta weights when Self-Directedness was included. The result-ing beta weights for Persistence were reduced when Self-Directed-ness was included (see Fig. 1). These reductions suggest thatSelf-Directedness serves to partially mediate the relationshipbetween Persistence and PA. Specifically, Self-Directedness as amediator yielded a Sobel Z-value = 3.47 (p < .001). The indirect(.08) and total effects (.34) of Self-Directedness in this model sug-gest a partial mediation of 24%.

As expected adolescents that are persistent (e.g., industrious,hard-working, ambitious, and perseverant) experience more posi-tive emotions as long as they are self-directed as well (e.g., mature,responsible, purposeful, self-accepted, display habits congruentwith long term goals). Nevertheless, in Study 2 we aimed to repli-cate the results presented here and to investigate if Self-Directed-ness mediates the relationship between Persistence and LS.

4. Study 2

4.1. Method

4.1.1. ParticipantsA total of 164 pupils (63 boys and 101 girls, age mean of 16.78,

SD = .95) at a high school in the south of Sweden, participated inthe study. The same procedure as in Study 1 was followed in Study 2.

Table 1Correlations between personality and well-being variables in Study 1 (n = 304).

P SD PA NA

Persistence (P) –Self-Directedness (SD) .23* –Positive Affect (PA) .34* .42* –Negative Affect (NA) �.07ns �.40* �.24* –Cronbach’s a .62 .81 .74 .76

Mean and SD 4.05 ± 2.07 25.02 ± 6.96 3.44 ± .67 2.13 ± .69

Note: ns = nonsignificant.* p < .001.

4.2. Measures

4.2.1. Persistence and Self-DirectednessAs in Study 1 pupils responded to the complete TCI and only

work analyses on Persistence and Self-Directedness were used.

4.2.2. Subjective Well-BeingAs in Study 1 the PANAS was used to measure PA and NA, the

affective components of SWB. Moreover, in this second study,Diener and colleagues’ (1985) Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS)was added to measure the cognitive component (LS) of SWB. TheSWLS consists of 5 statements (e.g., ‘‘In most ways my life is closeto my ideal’’) and a 7-point Likert scale.

5. Results and discussion

The correlation analysis showed that PA was the only SWB mea-sure to be associated to both Persistence and Self-Directedness,while NA and LS were associated only to Self-Directedness, (seeTable 2). Hence, as in Study 1, only the relationship betweenPersistence and PA was submitted to the mediation analysis.

A series of three equations were conducted for PA. Firstly, Self-Directedness was regressed on Persistence. Persistence contributeda significant amount of variance to Self-Directedness (46%).Secondly, PA was regressed on Persistence. Persistence accountedfor 26 % of the variance in positive affect. Finally, PA was simulta-neously regressed on both Persistence and Self-Directedness. Themodel accounted for 48 % of the variance in PA. Comparisons be-tween the beta weights in the second and third equations wereundertaken to contrast the beta weights for Persistence alone withthe beta weights when Self-Directedness was included. The result-ing beta weights for Persistence were reduced when Self-Directed-ness was included (see Fig. 2).

These reductions suggest that Self-Directedness serves topartially mediate the relationship between Persistence and PA.Specifically, Self-Directedness as a mediator yielded a Sobel Z-va-lue = 4.24 (p < .001). The indirect (.11) and total effects (.26) ofSelf-Directedness in this model suggest a partial mediation of 42%.

6. General discussion

The character construct of Self-Directedness emerged as beingrelated to all measures of SWB used in the present set of studies.Specifically, Self-Directedness was positively related to PA and tothe feeling of being satisfied with life. In contrast, Self-Directednesswas negatively related to NA.

Although the results from both studies are consistent, it is plau-sible to ask why the model, that SD mediates effects between P andcomponents of SWB, only holds for PA. In regard to the affectivecomponent (PA and NA), the results might be the consequence of

.46*** (.42***)

Independent Variable

Persistence

Mediating Variable

Self-Directedness

Outcome Variable

Positive Affect

.26*** (.15)

.46***

Fig. 2. Model of the mediating role of Self-Directedness in the relationship betweenPersistence and Positive Affect in Study 2. Value in parentheses is the reducedcorrelation coefficient when the mediator is present. Note: ⁄⁄⁄p < .001.

Fig. 3. A two-way model showing the interaction of Self-Directedness, Persistence,and Subjective Well-Being or Happiness.

Table 2Correlations between personality and well-being variables in Study 2 (n = 164).

P SD LS PA NA

Persistence (P) –Self-Directedness (SD) .46* –Life Satisfaction (LS) .08ns .54* –Positive Affect (PA) .26* .46* .42* –Negative Affect (NA) .00ns �.46* �.35* �.25* –Cronbach’s a .58 .80 .80 .85 .78

Mean and SD 4.00 ± 2.00 23.63 ± 6.87 23.89 ± 6.17 3.52 ± .65 2.36 ± .66

Note: ns = nonsignificant.* p < .001.

D. Garcia et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 53 (2012) 1034–1038 1037

the instrument used to measure affect. As one of the most usedinstruments to measure affect, the PANAS has been developed onthe idea that PA and NA represent two orthogonal dimensionsrather than two ends of one dimension (Watson et al., 1988). ThePANAS scales are predominated by high arousal items (Green &Salovey, 1999; Russell & Carroll, 1999), which reflect engagementwith stimuli (for a review see Schimmack, 2007). Urry andcolleagues (2004), for instance, found correlations between indi-vidual differences in baseline prefrontal activation and engage-ment with goal-directed stimuli. Specifically, approach-related PA(e.g., ‘‘interested,’’ ‘‘strong’’, measured by the PANAS), emerged asan important factor in the prediction of the engagement withgoal-directed stimuli. Hence, seeing that Self-Directedness isdefined as the individual’s ability to engage in purposeful actions,it is plausible that Self-Directedness only mediates the relationshipbetween Persistence and PA, which could explain our results. Usingother measures, for example the Emotional Well-Being Scale(Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008), which instrument, in contrast tothe PANAS, includes low arousal items such as: happy, contented,sad, and depressed (see also Garcia, Archer et al., 2012), might yielddifferent results in a similar study set up. Future studies mightneed to analyze whether the approach-related PA items, comparedto low aroused PA items, show different association patterns toSelf-Directedness and Persistence.

Nevertheless, the cognitive component of SWB (LS) and Persis-tence were not related in the present set of studies, while in otherstudies a negative relationship between TCI Persistence and LS hasbeen found (e.g., Garcia, 2011a). As suggested in the Introduction,adolescents experience daily problems equally stressful to major lifeevents (McCullough et al., 2000) and persistent behaviour might beadaptive only when rewards are intermittent but the contingenciesremain stable (Cloninger et al., 1994). Perhaps, during adolescence,small daily negative and positive experiences diminish or enhancethe psychological advantages persistence might have on LS. Anotherpoint of discussion is that the model is partially theoretically basedon the nature of temperament (i.e., Persistence) preceding character(i.e., Self-Directedness), which can mediate effects of temperament,

while both preceding SWB. Such assumption might be problematicbecause there are so many possible alternative models. The abilityto work in accord with one’s long-term values and goals, i.e., self-directed behavior, can for instance cause persistent behavior. In life,probably it is not a one-way model, but there is an active, continuousand two-way model that would give the perfect fit (see Fig. 3). How-ever, the model is not based on empirical fit. Even if it’s true that per-sonality precedes SWB, the suggested model is based also in thespecific brain circuit that is active when individuals valence stimulias pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant. However, both the theoreticalground of Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality andthose findings showing Persistence as responsible for holdingrewarding stimuli into memory during delay periods (Cloningeret al., 2012) support the model proposed here.

Moreover, Heckhausen, Wrosch and Schulz’s (2010) Motiva-tional Theory of Life-Span Development suggests that goal engage-ment involves selective primary control and selective secondarycontrol. Selective primary control refers to behavioral resources(e.g., time, effort, skills, persistence) used when individuals pursuegoals. Selective secondary control (e.g., volitional self-regulation)enhances motivational commitment to chosen goals, ‘‘particularlywhen the goal is challenged by unexpected obstacles or attractivealternatives’’ (Heckhausen et al., 2010, p. 38). In their theory, TCIPersistence represents the selective primary control, whereasselective secondary control includes strategies such as positiveillusions about the individual’s own control for achieving the cho-sen goal. Seeing that TCI Self-Directedness also comprises internallocus of control, self-efficacy, and self-acceptance (Cloninger,2004), we suggest that it represents a selective secondary controlof goal engagement. Hence, also supporting the model presentedhere.

1038 D. Garcia et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 53 (2012) 1034–1038

7. Concluding remarks

Paraphrasing the most asserted conclusion from Sheldon andcolleagues (2010): at least among adolescents Persistence (will)and Self-Directedness (proper way) leads to happiness. We suggestthat, although the mediational effect of Self-Directedness was onlytrue for the relationship between Persistence and positive emo-tions, this specific finding is important. For instance, positive emo-tions, in contrast to negative emotions, are related to adaptivecoping, which in turn is related with student engagement amongyoung adolescents (Reschly, Huebner, Appleton, & Antaramian,2008). According to Larson (2000, p. 170) ‘‘a central question ofyouth development is how to get adolescents’ fires lit, how to havethem develop the complex of dispositions and skills needed to takecharge of their lives’’. Thus, if the goal is to teach adolescents todirect attention and effort toward a challenging goal, this mightbe facilitated through the promotion of Self-Directedness. In otherwords, Persistence might maintain motivation through delay peri-ods, while Self-Directedness can guide behavior towards long-termpleasant experiences of positive affect.

‘‘Running is the source of my stamina. Early in my career I learnedto run until I’m tired, then run more after that. The running I dobefore the fatigue and pain is just the introduction. The real condi-tioning begins when the pain comes in; then it’s time to start push-ing. And after that I count every mile as extra strength and stamina.The reserve tank. What counts in the ring is what you can do afteryou’re tired. Training is tough and boring; sometimes it helps tohave something to think about and take my mind off of the pain.Champions aren’t made in gyms. Champions are made from some-thing they have deep inside them— a desire, a dream, a vision. Theyhave to have last-minute stamina, they have to be a little faster,they have to have the skill and the will.’’ Muhammad Ali

Acknowledgments

As the first author I would like to thank The Stiftelsen Kempe-Carlgrenska Fonden for supporting the development of this paper.Appreciation is also directed to reviewers who helped improvethe manuscript and to the adolescents who participated in thestudy.

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