A Volume inManaging the Complex

Volume TwoOrganizations as Complex Systems:

An Introduction to Knowledge Cybernetics

Organizations as Complex Systems:An Introduction to Knowledge

Cybernetics

Written by

Maurice YollesSchool of Business Information,

Liverpool John Moores University, UK

Series EditorsKurt A. Richardson & Michael R. Lissack

ISCE Research, USA

80, Mason StreetGreenwich, Connecticut 06830

Managing the Complex: Volume Two

IAPINFORMATION AGEP U B L I S H I N G

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Yolles, Maurice. Organizations as complex systems : an introduction to knowledge cybernetics / written by Maurice Yolles. p. cm. -- (I.S.C.E book series : managing the complex) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-59311-432-9 (pbk.) ISBN-13: 978-1-59311-433-6 (hardcover) 1. Organizational behavior. 2. Social systems. 3. Knowledge management.4. Communication in organizations. 5. Cybernetics. I. Title. II. Title:Knowledge cybernetics. Hd58.7.Y65 2006 658.4’038--dc22 2006018221

Copy © 2006 Information Age Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored on a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America.

Cover designed by Kurt A. Richardson. Main graphic is a distorted version of an actual phase space of a complex system (a Boolean network).

Series Editors’ Introduction

We are pleased to introduce to you the second volume in the Manag-ing the Complex series. Whereas volume one, like most volumes planned for this series, comprised chapters contributed by a number

of different authors, some from quite different traditions, this second volume was composed by a single author, Maurice Yolles. Not only does the singular authorship distinguish this volume from past and future volumes, but the depth and breadth of the analysis provided is quite staggering - this volume represents a truly impressive achievement.

In this volume Maurice attempts to develop a comprehensive theory of social collectives as complex systems. Not only has he utilized ideas and frameworks already familiar to complex systems researchers, but he has also incorporated other perspectives (such as third order cybernetics, viable systems theory and social constructivism, as a few examples) some of which the reader may not already be aware of, and some of which the reader may be surprised to learn are not disparate and disconnected. This pluralistic synthesis results in a text that not only contains a thorough review of the existing literature and its various interconnections (which is of considerable value in itself), but also a wealth of new and original insights - more than one would usually expect from a single volume.

The series editors’ own research highlights the importance of adopting a critically pluralist position in any effort to understand complex systems, and the unlikelihood of any single overarching framework of being able to ‘con-tain’ complex systems. However, the ‘story’ Yolles tells of organizations as complex systems does at times seem so convincing that one might find oneself beginning to question the impossibility of constructing such an all-embracing framework - maybe ‘plurality’ can be effectively abstracted/transformed into a ‘meta-singularity’.

We are very grateful to Maurice for approaching us and allowing us to include his tour de force as part of the ongoing Managing the Complex series. We strongly believe that the motivated reader will discover an abundance of intellectual gems within these pages that will enrich both their own intellec-tual (internal) journey and their practical (external) attempts to make ‘social collectives’ thrive in every possible sense.

Kurt A. RichardsonMichael R. Lissack

June 14th, 2006

iOrganizations as Complex Systems

ORgAnizAtiOns As COMpLex sYsteMs: An intROduCtiOn tO

KnOwLedge CYbeRnetiCsMaurice Yolles

ii Maurice Yolles

ContentsPreface 1

Introduction 3

Part I: FundamentalsChapter 1:

Social Communities as Complex Systems

1.1 Social Complexity 34

1.2 Paradigms of the Organization 361.2.1 The Rational Positivism Paradigm 371.2.2 The Chaos Paradigm 421.2.3 Management Systems and Complexity 47

1.3 Modeling Social Communities as Cybernetic Systems 55

1.4 Conclusion 64

Chapter 2:Philosophic Perspectives and the Autonomous Holon

2.1 General Introduction 662.1.1 Philosophic Perspectives 672.1.2 Epistemological Objectivism 70

Positivism 70Postpositivism 74

2.1.3 Epistemological Subjectivism 75Critical Theory 75Social, Radical and Cybernetic Constructivism 79

2.1.4 Seeing Philosophic Perspectives in a Continuum 85Epistemology 86Ontology 89

2.2 The Need for Ontology and Epistemology 932.2.1 Ontology and Habermas’s Validity Claims About Reality 932.2.2 A Cybernetic Ontology 942.2.3 Phenomenal Domain Ontology 992.2.4 Noumenal Domain Ontology 1022.2.5 Existential Domain Ontology 1032.2.6 Philosophical Reflection On the Three Domains 104

2.3 Ontology, Epistemology and Interactive Coupling 1072.3.1 Ontological Coupling and System Autonomy 1082.3.2 Practical Illustrations of Coupling 111

CONTENTS

iiiOrganizations as Complex Systems

Recursion 114

2.4 System Thinking and the Strategic Use of Knowledge and Information 118

2.5 Summary 120

Chapter 3:Organizations in a Complex World

3.1 Introduction 122

3.2 Situations as a Set of Interacting Actors or Agents 1223.2.1 Situations as Conditioned Structures 126

3.3 From Situations to an Organized Body 129

3.4 The Apprehendability of Situations and Their Problems 1313.4.1 Symptoms and Problem Situations 1323.4.2 Beyond Bounded Rationality 1333.4.3 Seeing Situations as Simple or Complex 134

3.5 Systems, Complexity and Focus 1363.5.1 Systems, Structures, and Patterns of Behavior 1363.5.2 The Notion of System Emergence 1393.5.3 Complexity as Structural Variety 1413.5.4 Structure and Uncertainty 1423.5.5 Seeing Microstructural Variety Through a Shift in Focus 143

3.6 Messes and Difficulties 1443.6.1 Distinguishing a Mess From a Difficulty 1443.6.2 Formal and Informal Worldviews 146

3.7 Organizational Survival Through Control 1513.7.1 Survivability Through ‘Luck’ 153

Systematic Luck Through Social Power 153Power Through Preference Management 155

3.7.2 Survivability Through Adaptability 157Operational and Informational Variety 157

3.3.3 Viability and Adaptability 159

3.8 Summary Propositions 1603.8.1 Propositions On the Nature of Situations 1603.8.2 Proposition On Situations and Their Problems 1603.8.3 Propositions On Systems, Complexity and Focus 1623.8.4 Propositions On Nature, Scope and Purpose of Managing Information 1633.8.5 Propositions On Organizational Survival Through Control 164

3.9 Summary 165

iv Maurice Yolles

Chapter 4:Information, Data, Knowledge and Methodology

4.1 Introduction 168

4.2 The Creative Observer and Generic Inquiry 170

4.3 The Nature of Data 1794.3.1 Definitions of Data 1794.3.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Data 1804.3.3 Primary and Secondary Data 1824.3.4 Types of Data Analysis 184

Qualitative and Quantitative Data and Analysis 184Primary and Secondary Data and Analysis 186

4.4 The Nature of Information 1874.4.1 Bound Information 188

Entropy, Negentropy and Information 190Bound Information through Differentiation 191

4.4.2 Acquired Information 192

4.5 The Nature of Knowledge 1944.5.1 Primary and Secondary Knowledge 1944.5.2 Knowledge, Reality and Meaning 1974.5.3 Patterns of Knowledge 2004.5.4 Self-Knowledge and Reflection 201

Brown’s Reflective Evaluation 201Habermas on Self-Reflection 204

4.5.5 Types of Knowledge 206

4.6 Relationships between Data, Information, and Knowledge 207

Part II: Complex OrganizationsChapter 5:

Intelligence and Decision Making

5.1 Introduction 236

5.2 Decision Making and Decision Making Behavior 237

5.3 Plural Actor Intelligence and Decision-Making 2435.3.1 Individualism and Collectivism 2455.3.2 The Psychological Frame of Reference 2465.3.3 Actor Intelligence 257

Non-conscious Intelligence 257Capability due to Intelligence 258Decision Making Intelligence 261Cybernetic Intelligence 264

5.3.4 Formulating a Model for Actor Intelligence 264

5.4 Another View of Intelligence 2695.4.1 Dealtry’s Strategic Model of Intelligence 269

vOrganizations as Complex Systems

5.4.2 Exploring the PPP Model through SVS 272

5.5 Knowledge Schema and Decision Making 274

5.6 Summary Propositions 279Decision Making, Goal Formation and Intelligence 281Knowledge Schema and Decision Making: 282

5.7 Summary 282

Chapter 6:A Theory of Organization

6.1 The Need to Make Organizations Viable 286

6.2 Organizational Development 2876.2.1 The Organization as a Transforming System 2886.2.2 Generic Problems, Needs and Actions for Organizational Change 290

6.3 Viable Organizations 2926.3.1 The System and the Metasystem 2926.3.2 The Viable System Model 293

Variety 293Adaptive Systems 295The Principle of VSM 296

6.4 Social Viable Systems Theory 3016.4.1 The Phenomenal Domain 3036.4.2 The Noumenal domain 3046.4.3 The Existential domain 3066.4.4 Domain Properties 308

Cognitive Interests 310Cognitive Purposes 314Cognitive Influence 316

6.4.5 Organizational Patterning 3196.4.6 Validating the OP Approach 325

6.5 Summary Propositions 328Organization Development 328Viable Organizations 329Organizational Patterning 330

6.6 Summary 332

Part III: Knowledge and CyberneticsChapter 7:

Knowledge Management

7.1 Introduction 338

7.2 The Antecedents of Knowledge Management 3397.2.1 Knowledge Tracking 339

vi Maurice Yolles

7.2.2 From Strategic Management to Knowledge Management 3427.2.3 The Nature of Knowledge Management 3447.2.4 The Nonaka and Takeuchi SECI model of Knowledge Creation 345

7.3 Problems in Knowledge Creation 3487.3.1 Constraining Knowledge through Structural Violence 3487.3.2 Problems with the SECI model of Knowledge Creation 349

7.4 The Viable Theory of Knowledge Management 3517.4.1 The Lifeworld and Knowledge Migration 3537.4.2 Critical Knowledge Creation 358

Knowledge Migration 361Knowledge Accommodation 363Knowledgeable Action 364

7.5 The Individual/Group Knowledge Process 3647.5.1 Learning and Learning Styles 3657.5.2 Viable Learning Styles as Knowledge Profiles 369

7.6 Evaluating Knowledge profile 376

7.7 Summary Propositions 383Antecedents of Knowledge Management 383Viable Theory of Knowledge Management 384Individual Knowledge Process 385

7.8 Summary 385

Chapter 8:Understanding the Intelligent Organization

8.1 Introduction 388

8.2 Objectivated/Social Knowledge and its Forms 3898.2.2 Individual and Organizational Learning 390

8.3 The Intelligent Organization 3928.3.1 The Viable System Model 3938.3.2 Team Syntegrity Model 3948.3.3 The Model of Systemic Control 3968.3.4 Overview and Elaboration of Schwaninger’s Model 399

8.4 Autonomous Organizations and Anticipation 4018.4.1 Autonomy and Autopoiesis 4038.4.2 From Viable to Pathological Organizations 4068.4.3 The Problem of Weak Anticipation 413

8.5 The Competence Development Method 4148.5.1 Competence Development and New Knowledge 4148.5.2 The Method of Holistic Competence Development 416

Step 1: The Paradigm 416Step 2: Knowledge Elicitation 417

viiOrganizations as Complex Systems

Step 3: Demanded Knowledge Furthering 418Step 4: Systemizing Accumulated Information. 418Step 5: Learning Organization Development 418Step 6: Implementation 419Summarizing the Method of Holistic Competence Development. 421

8.6 Formulating the Knowledge Migration Model as a Methodology 421

8.7 Summary Propositions 423Organizational Learning 423Intelligent Organization 426Anticipatory Systems 426

8.8 Summary 427

Chapter 9:Knowledge Intensification

9.1 Learning, Knowledge and Intelligent Organizations 4309.1.1 Comparing Types of Knowledge Intensifying Organization 4309.1.2 The Possible Political Geometries of Knowledge Intensified Organization 4319.1.3 Exploring Organization Types in Terms of Knowledge Intensification 433

9.2 The Epistemology of Knowledge Intensification 438

9.3 Worldviews and Knowledge Migration 4419.3.1 Nature of Worldviews and Thematic Knowledge 4419.3.2 Worldview Incommensurability and Knowledge Migration 445

9.4 Piaget’s Theory of Interaction 448Perspective Projection 452Emotional Projection 453

9.4 Developing Knowledge 454

9.5 Knowledge Mismanagement 458

9.6 The Dynamic of Knowledge Development 460

9.7 Sociality Traits 463

9.8 Summary 467

Part IV: The Cybernetics of CommunicationChapter 10:

Semantic Communication

10.1 The Nature of Semantic Communications 472

10.2 Luhmann’s Theory of Communication 477

viii Maurice Yolles

10.3 Semiotics 48210.3.1 Signs and Codes in Communicated Texts 48310.3.2 The Nature of Semiotics 485

10.4 Cybersemiotics 48810.4.1 Developing a Theory of Cybersemiotics 48910.4.2 Cybersemiotics and Viable Systems Theory 491

10.5 Knowledge, Meaning and Cognition 49210.5.1 Linguistic Mathematical Theory 49210.5.2 Connection L-M Theory to Viable Systems 494

10.6 Social Behavior, Communication, and the Lifeworld 498

10.7 Summary 506

Chapter 11:Communication Structures and Processes

11.1 Structure Communication 508

11.2 Action Research 509

11.3 The Political Nature of Action Research 513

11.4 The Dynamic Structure of Action Research 514

11.5 Generic Functions in Action Research 516

11.6 Directed Action Research 51911.6.1 Systems Intervention Strategy 52111.6.2 Organizational Development 52311.6.3 Viable Systems Model Methodology 525

11.7 Open Action Research 52811.7.1 Whole Systems Change 52811.7.2 Syntegration 532

The Infoset 534The Purpose 535The Organization 535The Action 536

11.7.3 The Geometry of Syntegration 536Entangled Geometries and Semantic Communications 538The Protocol 540

11.7.4 Stellar Meetings 544

11.8 Summary 547

ixOrganizations as Complex Systems

Chapter 12:Sustaining Communications Structures and Processes

12.1 The Need to Make Social Communities Viable 552

12.2 Joint Alliances 55512.2.1 Approaches to Alliances 55612.2.2 Exploring Joint Alliances Through Viable Systems 558

12.3 Social Communities as Plural Actors in Web Partnerships 56212.3.1 Paradigms and Web Partnerships 56412.3.2 Properties of Web Partnerships 56712.3.3 Evolution in Web Partnerships 568

12.4 Intrinsic Communications 57212.4.1 Forming an SCT 57612.4.2 Assessing current communication practices 57812.4.3 Conducting cascading vision, strategy, and structuring workshops 579

12.5 Structuring Semantic Communications in Social Communities 581

12.5.1 Knowledge Objectivization through Ba 58312.5.2 Knowledge Objectivization through Semantic Communications 586

12.6 Summary 592

Part V: Social BehaviorChapter 13:

The Political Dimension of Organizations

13.1 Introduction 596

13.2 Polity and Politics 598

13.3 The Nature of Politics 600

13.4 Political Temperament, Governance and Power 60413.4.1 Political Temperament 60413.4.2 Types of Governance 60613.4.3 Power 60913.4.4 Power and Leadership 611

A Critical View 616

13.5 Governmentality 61813.5.1 Mediating Hard Temperaments 61913.5.2 Emancipation through Personal Power 620

13.6 Centripetal Politics 622

13.7 Revisiting Political Temperament 626Measuring Political Temperament 628

x Maurice Yolles

13.8 Summary 628

Chapter 14:Ideology and Ethics

14.1 Ideology 63214.1.1 Culture and Ideology 635

The Nature of Culture 636Chinese Culture and Ideology 639

14.2 The Nature of Ideology 646

14.3 Ideology and Bureaucracy 648

14.4 Distinguishing Ideologies 64914.4.1 Radical Conservatism and Managerialism 65014.4.2 Radical Conservatism and Individualism 65214.4.3 The Ideologies of Cooperatives 654

14.5 Conflict through Ideology Resistance 656

14.6 The Nature of Ethics 659

14.7 Local and Global Morality 660

14.8 Corporations and Moral Responsibility 662

14.9 The Social Responsibility of Enterprise Corporations 664

14.10 Ethics and Judgment 667

14.11 Summary 670

Chapter 15:Boundaries, Issues, Agents and Boundary Critique

15.1 Epistemological and Ontological Boundaries 67415.1.1 Ontological Boundaries 67715.1.2 Epistemological Boundaries 679

15.2 Issues, Issue Boundaries, and Boundary Critique 682

15.3 Unitary Supra-systems with Embedded Boundaries 688

15.4 Plural Supra-systems and Common Marginalization 692

15.5 Boundary Critique and the Manifestation of Competition and Conflict 695

15.6 Boundaries with Critique 70415.6.1 Tensions, Disputes and Conflicts 70415.6.2 Conflict Settlement 708

xiOrganizations as Complex Systems

15.6.2 Conflict and Drama Theory 710

15.7 Agent Boundaries 71315.7.1 Boundaries, Autonomy and Change 71315.7.2 Schwarzian Dynamics of Change 71515.7.3 Viable Psychohistory 72215.7.4 Coevolution and Changing Boundaries 72415.7.5 Autopoietic Pathology 730

15.8 Summary 731

Chapter 16:Knowledge Cybernetics and Social Behavior

16.1 Exploring the Metahistory and Endohistory of Social Behavior 734

16.2 The Endofocus: The Endohistory of the Liverpool Docks Dispute 739

16.3 Issue Related Frames or Reference 74216.3.1 MDHC Perspective 74216.3.2 DDW Perspective 745

16.4 Boundary Critique 747

16.5 The Belief System 75216.5.1 Transforming the Bounded Issue Elements 752

16.6 Conditioning the Conflict 755

16.7 The Settlement 755

16.8 Reflecting on the Conflict 757

16.9 Approaching the Metafocus: Reducing Complexity through Conceptual Emergence 758

16.10 The Identification Attribute as a Yin-Yang Dynamic 759

16.11 Formulating a Model for Sociocultural Dynamics 76316.11.1 The Influence of Frieden’s Information Theory EPI 765

16.12 Emerging Balance between Identifier Enantiomers 769

16.13 Extending Cultural Profile 769

16.14 Indicative Evidence for Elaborator and Executor Cultural Orientations 774

16.14.1 Elaborator Attributes of Cultural Orientation Rationality 777Cybernetics 780Ideology and Ethics 781

16.14.2 Executor Attributes of Cultural Orientation 782

xii Maurice Yolles

16.14.3 Relating Cultural Orientation to Political Temperament 78416.14.3 Relating Cultural Orientation to Jung’s Yin-Yang Theory of Personality Type 78516.14.4 Future Research 791

16.15 Conclusions and Reflections 794

Notes 801

References 817

Index 851

�Organizations as Complex Systems

Preface

This book is about social collectives, their behaviors, structures, processes, cultures, their ability to manifest and manage information and knowledge, and their capacity to communicate meaningfully. It

is therefore a book on the theory of social knowledge. Some of the theory is evidenced, while some is postulated and therefore contributes to a research agenda. Overall my approach will hopefully provide a convincing frame of reference through which to examine social communities and their sociality, behavior, properties and attributes of coherence. Its conceptual base sits on that of my earlier cybernetically oriented book on Management Systems, published in 1999. As such it also adopts a cybernetic perspective through its exploration of viable complex systems.

My cybernetic interest lies in viable systems, and my concerns here are with the management of autonomous human activity systems. While following the constructivist approach in systems (sometimes referred to as ‘soft systems’) I will take the system as a metaphor for the phenomenal dimension of the social collective. However, there is more to the social collective than its phenomena, suggesting that this terminology is inadequate. After Koestler in his book The Ghost in the Machine published in 1967, I will use the term holon to represent metaphorically other dimensions that are relevant to the study of social collec-tives. My study of autonomous human activity holons, then, is the place where sociology converges at least with social psychology, organizational theory and business studies. Another concern here is with practice, important to all social communities, because it is through practice (a pseudonym for behavior) that autonomous organizations behave and survive. Connected with this is the way that collectives control their own behaviors, which is ultimately a func-tion of their cognitive processes and their intelligence. I am also substantively interested here with knowledge and knowledge processes, because if autono-mous social collectives are to be seen as intelligent, then they must maintain an awareness of their own knowledge and the use of that knowledge to direct themselves and maintain their viability.

There is an increasing awareness by organizations that they need to develop a capacity to increase their knowledge and to learn, but there is a need to en-hance this in order for people to develop an understanding of the nature of their organization, how it works, and the role of information and knowledge within it. This includes the creation of a sound understanding and practice of knowledge management which is expressed as a central theme in this book, and that ultimately connects with the viable systems theory of the intelligent organization. Beyond this, the book explores the nature of the organization as a social collective through a new schema[1] that we refer to as the knowledge cybernetic metaphor.

This book was supposed to have taken a year to write, but has taken more than three years instead. At least half of the chapters have been published as academic papers in international journals, and it must be said that the referee-

� Maurice Yolles

ing processes associated with these journals have enabled me to improve the conceptualizations developed here. In addition, individual colleagues have enhanced some of the conceptualizations through their comments, and I have attempted to register all such comments relevant to the development of the theory in the body of the work. Some comments have derived from peers with whom I have had a relatively long and fairly close academic relationship. These include Paul Iles whose conversations on matters of knowledge manage-ment (and in particular in relation to the theory of knowledge profiling) have permitted me to enhance theory in this area, and has resulted in a number of joint research papers. Markus Schwaninger has also provided me with some useful feedback in relation to viable systems, as discussed in Chapter 6. Werner Ulrich was particularly helpful in furthering discussions of Critical Systems Heuristics, and its development into boundary critique (including some of its philosophical underpinnings) as explored in Chapter 15. I am grateful to him for his participation in this. It was also helpful of Gerald Midgley to comment with his ideas on boundary critique, also in Chapter 15, and on some philosophical issues in Chapter 2. Søren Brier provided some comment in connection with some aspects of philosophy and semiotics. Denis Adams, a managerial cyber-netician (and close collaborator of Stafford Beer until his sad demise in August 2002) also provided occasional comments that have been useful in relation to my commentaries on Beer’s work that provide an underpinning for a number of the developments here. In addition I wish to thank Raul Espejo for his com-ments that led me to recognise and squarely address pragmatism. I would also like to thank Roy Frieden whose comments not only made me reconsider some conceptualizations on ontology, but who made some significant contributions to my ideas on the theory of cultural profiling developed at the end of the book. There were a number of others who also were kind enough to comment, and I wish to thank their contributions too, not least the publisher’s referees.

8��Organizations as Complex Systems

Subject Index

AAcquired information 5, 36, 100, 102, 131, 134, 158, 174, 179, 180, 188, 192,

193, 225, 508, 547, 686Action learning 509, 511, 512, 515 research directed ~ 25, 519, 528, 540, 541, 547 groups 26, 512, 514-516, 519, 538, 539, 547, 588 methodologies 327, 519 open ~ 26, 519, 528, 548, 550 participants 536, 587 principles of ~ 394, 587 processes 57, 463, 508, 515, 516, 529, 531, 540, 552Adaptive Systems 295, 296Agent boundaries 674, 710, 713, 724, 800Agents of actions 560, 661, 662, 672, 794Antenarrative 771Anticipation, strong ~ 52, 241, 402, 403, 410-412, 427, 428, 481, 590, 639, 642,

730, 731, 803, 807, 810Archetypes 92, 210, 237, 253, 254, 805Assimilation 4, 367, 448, 449Autonomous actors 123, 247, 563, 695, 696, 739, 758 agents 124, 211, 553, 555, 562, 591, 700, 703, 713, 715, 737 organizations 1, 34, 35, 312, 329, 331, 400-402, 410, 491-493, 497, 512, 534,

565, 599, 628, 715 systems 4, 5, 55, 63, 66, 108-111, 190, 292, 293, 477-479, 495, 497, 498, 638,

639, 676, 678, 714, 791Autopoiesis, pathological ~ 413, 602, 730, 731Autopoietic 58-60, 111, 112, 295, 303, 330, 404, 408, 410, 495, 602, 763, 768,

810, 814 organizations 60, 403, 404, 408, 411, 428 systems 19, 49, 50, 59, 60, 109, 110, 113, 474, 479, 489, 526, 811

BBehavior, purposeful ~ 305, 314Belief system 11, 81, 85, 90, 103, 106, 116, 120, 156, 248, 315, 316, 641, 646,

647, 659, 680, 681 cultural ~ 126, 308, 320 normative ~ 114, 116, 259 objectivated ~ 475Bifurcation 717-719, 722Bio-power 619, 620Bound information 100, 119, 127, 131, 134, 142, 146, 158, 160, 168, 169, 174,

180, 181, 188-193, 225, 227Boundaries 27, 28, 47-49, 54, 97-99, 138, 139, 302, 303, 442, 443, 673-683,

8�� Subject Index

685-687, 689-695, 697-699, 701-705, 707-711, 713-715, 727-731 creation of ~ 100, 710 epistemological ~ 104, 674, 679, 680 internal organizational ~ 190Boundary critique 2, 27, 28, 672-675, 677-679, 681-685, 687-689, 691, 693, 695, 697,

707-713, 723-725, 729-732, 757, 758, 794 judgments 660, 679, 683-686, 688, 689, 708, 713, 725Bureaucracy 557, 648, 649, 670, 781

CChaos paradigm 36, 42, 46, 620Codes 39, 112, 168, 182, 183, 355, 480, 483-485, 487, 499, 574, 666, 815Coercion 617, 661, 700Coevolution 477, 669, 715, 724-726, 729, 810Cognitive influences 312, 316, 317, 319-323, 325, 331, 332, 355, 356, 359, 558-560, 567,

695, 699 interests 310, 312, 317, 321, 331, 353, 354, 405, 414, 447, 563, 569, 570, 699,

752, 753 organization 309, 320, 363, 365, 413, 445, 446, 448, 463, 501, 504, 567, 695 purposes 248, 305, 310, 312, 314, 315, 318, 319, 321, 323, 325, 331, 332, 562,

563, 570, 571, 698, 699, 752-754, 757 structures 12, 16, 110, 206, 275, 302, 451Coherent groups 55, 378, 379, 467, 587Collective psyche 236, 252-254, 267, 269Commitment 39, 239, 371, 421, 529-531, 536, 544, 546, 573, 574, 613, 615,

617, 618, 622, 644, 645, 667Commodities 36, 118, 183, 207, 208, 229, 413, 801Communication geometries 26, 518, 519, 538, 552, 553, 587, 589 practices 575, 576, 578, 579 problems 473, 573, 575, 795 processes 10, 23, 25, 69, 94, 96, 169, 194, 346, 355, 412, 455, 482, 486, 500 social ~ 82Communication Structures 507-509, 511-513, 515, 517, 519, 521, 523, 525, 527,

529, 531-533, 535, 537, 539, 541Communications channels of ~ 108, 261, 296, 297, 301, 313, 349, 362, 586 effective ~ 373, 374, 401, 503, 572, 577, 772 modalities of ~ 574 network of ~ 321, 325 open ~ 288, 325, 328, 572 theory of ~ 25, 99, 394, 472, 477, 485, 490Community 3, 4, 25, 26, 34, 55, 56, 74, 93, 116, 243, 456, 457, 510, 590-592,

598, 599, 668, 688, 689, 692Competence 243, 262, 389, 414-417, 421, 422, 424, 439, 441, 454, 458, 464,

586, 619, 622, 811Competition 457, 459, 503, 591, 658, 668, 689-695, 698, 700, 715

8�3Organizations as Complex Systems

Complex world 17, 21, 46, 74, 121-123, 125, 127, 129, 131, 133, 135, 137, 139, 141, 143

Complexification 459, 624, 625, 627, 629, 718, 719, 721Complexity organizational ~ 20, 35, 64, 135, 136, 158 social ~ 5, 34, 666, 783, 784 theory 36, 46, 190, 239, 307, 638, 722Compliance 612, 613, 615, 617, 618, 658, 691Conceptual knowledge 125, 224, 228, 306, 345, 346, 351, 602Conflict cultural ~ 247, 250 processes 679, 697, 698, 700, 703, 708, 709, 725, 731, 751, 757, 758 settlement 708 situations 691, 697, 699, 700, 703, 710, 731, 744, 747, 757, 758, 794 theory 220, 729Conscious reality, levels of ~ 91, 104, 105, 110Consciousness objects of ~ 803, 804 universal ~ 90-92Constraints, structural ~ 348, 402, 405, 406Constructivism 8, 18, 68-70, 79, 80, 82-84, 104, 355, 777, 782, 812 cognitive ~ 79, 80 social ~ 25, 80, 82-84, 440Contagion 357-359, 362, 363, 365, 384, 424Contemporary discourse theory 682, 683Context local ~ 98, 643, 738, 758 social ~ 21, 58, 67, 83, 84, 316, 440, 482, 486, 487, 622, 660, 724, 787 thematic ~ 200, 210, 211Continuous improvement 388, 389, 459-461, 464Control actions 364, 406, 407 processes 42, 44, 45, 135, 137, 166, 205, 319, 332, 359-364, 380, 384, 398,

421, 422, 425, 523, 524 structures 288, 329, 332, 557 variables 393, 396, 397, 399Controllers 247, 248, 296, 655, 709Conventions 84, 483, 485, 704Cooperatives 650, 654-656, 671Core competencies 265, 344, 397-399, 411, 437Critical Systems Heuristics 2, 244, 675, 679, 682, 684, 738, 796, 797Cultural attributes 46, 260, 328, 332, 374, 467, 513, 617, 638, 641, 642, 771, 772, 782,

799 beliefs 304, 632, 635 change 308, 328, 329, 332, 412, 413, 454, 638, 698, 816 differences 555, 697 factors 564, 736 forms 257, 307, 390, 423, 427, 762 knowledge 244, 267, 505, 763

8�� Subject Index

mentalities 600, 601, 760, 761 profile 736, 738, 739, 758, 759, 769, 774, 776, 779, 793-795, 799 state 251, 252, 256, 300Culture ambient ~ 152, 311, 501, 650, 712 corporate ~ 556, 636, 638, 639 dominant ~ 308, 397, 599, 600, 761, 762 macroscopic ~ 636, 638, 650 national ~ 570, 636, 639 normative ~ 250, 251, 311, 582 thematic ~ 516, 528Cybernetic constructivism 67, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85Cybernetics, third ~ 25, 432, 436, 475, 476Cybersemiotics 25, 472, 488-494, 498, 506

DData communications 25, 508, 547Decision Making 235, 237, 239, 241, 243, 245, 247, 249, 251, 253, 255, 257,

259, 261, 263Decision processes 37, 125, 142, 209, 211, 229, 237-239, 434, 485, 525, 561,

609, 659, 694, 739Decision-making 22, 48, 94, 110, 236, 239, 281, 282, 293, 297, 342, 359, 577,

608, 691Democracy 434, 527, 607, 609, 626, 649, 650, 688Discourse 356, 477, 620, 621, 691, 783, 814, 815Distance, social ~ 598, 599Domains, conceptual ~ 98, 303Drama Theory 408, 705, 710-712, 731Drift, tropic ~ 718-720Dynamic structure 514, 515, 519, 547, 550 systems 117, 173, 760, 761Dynamics cultural ~ 758-760, 762 sociocultural ~ 18, 28, 762, 763

EEffectiveness, organizational ~ 38, 288, 456, 524Ego 198, 246-248, 250, 252, 255, 256, 350, 443, 463, 465, 466, 468, 478, 479,

502, 712, 787Elaboration knowledge 276, 278, 280, 282, 317, 318, 359, 362, 363, 374, 424,

632, 633Elaborator 14, 19, 372-377, 382, 385, 386, 466, 467, 586, 736, 737, 739, 759,

769, 771, 774-777, 779, 792 attribute 738, 739, 771, 777, 779, 780, 784, 794, 797, 798Elements, marginalized ~ 689, 691, 693Emancipation 26, 27, 79, 204-206, 309, 311, 313, 316, 320, 364, 365, 596, 597,

620, 622, 644, 683, 684, 687, 688Empowerment 45, 205, 322, 325, 343, 344, 419, 436-438, 546, 589, 591, 617,

8��Organizations as Complex Systems

625Enantiodromers 28, 775Enantiomers 24, 370, 373, 627, 736, 738, 739, 760, 762, 764, 769, 772, 774, 775,

781, 782, 785, 791-794Endohistory 18, 734, 735, 737-739, 797Enterprise corporations 340, 454, 458, 460, 606, 625, 664-667Environment, local ~ 319, 363, 365Epistemological content 6-8, 10, 20, 27, 81, 113, 176, 177, 212, 302, 716, 798,

816Epistemology 5, 21, 51, 63, 66-70, 76, 80, 86, 89, 90, 93, 105, 107, 198, 777, 778,

802Evaluation, reflective ~ 201, 208, 209, 228, 230, 370Execution knowledge 276, 278, 281, 282, 318, 319, 359, 365, 642Expertise 287, 438, 439, 559, 687Experts 52, 53, 279, 280, 555, 615, 687External reality 79, 80, 83, 439, 440Extrinsic control 151, 152, 164 knowledge 24, 456, 462, 468

FFacilitation 16, 125, 214, 248, 251, 259-262, 269, 270, 576, 600, 676, 729, 730 structural ~ 661, 664Facilitators 36, 134, 348, 421, 511, 513-515, 517, 540, 547, 549, 552, 553, 577,

587, 588Feedback 2, 3, 42, 44, 45, 113, 175, 221, 223, 258, 274, 288, 299, 319, 323, 324,

355, 356, 431, 432 control 170, 221, 359-361, 501Fitness 24, 283, 728, 729 landscape 725, 727-729Fluctuations 111, 161, 346, 404, 405, 407, 717, 718, 720Focus groups 348, 349, 563Formal systems 52, 139, 150, 795Formalisms 80-82Fractals 35, 44, 46, 117, 174, 176, 212, 278, 279, 293, 295, 358, 441, 443, 680,

702, 703Freedom, degree of ~ 170, 472, 768Frieden’s information theory 765Fundamental beliefs 17, 647, 648Fundamentalism 373, 644, 739, 759, 772-774, 782-784, 789, 792, 793

GGame theory 152, 591, 592, 662, 663, 711 evolutionary ~ 591Global context 7, 9, 13-15, 19, 23, 310, 351, 365, 633, 643, 734, 738, 795Gödel’s theorem 150Governance principles of ~ 214, 410, 602, 603, 693, 694, 702, 749, 770, 775, 784 systems of ~ 598, 599, 607, 618

8�6 Subject Index

Governments 39, 133, 140, 154, 184, 340, 465, 623, 624, 636, 650, 652, 654, 666, 743, 744, 813-815

Group inquiry processes 510, 518 learning processes 365, 640 paradigm 475, 520, 535Groups cultural ~ 81, 219, 639, 649, 724, 760 design ~ 531-533Groupware 584, 585GSS 349Guanxi 312, 640, 643, 645

HHabermas’s theory 20, 67, 94, 302, 499, 684Hegelian alliance 737, 779, 781, 784, 785, 799Heuristics 39, 40, 192, 239Hidden structure 142, 145, 163, 192, 194Holon 64, 105-107, 112, 116, 210, 250, 252, 298, 300, 302, 451, 455, 479, 492,

720

IIdeate images 248, 258, 697Identifiers 224, 365, 372-377, 382, 385, 386, 465-467, 520, 737, 759, 776, 782,

786, 792, 812Ideological 102, 168, 182, 183, 314, 320, 324, 357, 362, 378, 380, 564, 596, 755,

756, 796, 808 transformation 17, 649Ideology dominant ~ 646, 657, 658, 671 macroscopic ~ 650, 655, 671Imperialism 626, 783, 786, 795Improvement, organizational ~ 207, 430, 435, 531, 532, 545, 640, 798Individualization 619, 621, 622Information creation of ~ 131, 171, 182, 184 drift 719-721 flows 51, 243, 294, 417, 473, 726, 727 management 585 primary ~ 169, 192, 227 systems 102, 112, 118, 119, 184, 186, 201, 412, 439 technology 458, 459, 582, 584 theory 22, 131, 168, 187, 188, 472, 488, 736, 737, 739, 761, 765Infoset 534-536, 540-543, 583Innovation 45-47, 131, 279, 307, 308, 340, 348, 361, 391, 423, 439, 457, 459-

462, 464, 532, 722Inputs 42, 43, 73, 110, 239, 243, 286, 289, 296, 297, 328, 331, 356, 359, 360,

398, 405, 473Inquirism 211-213, 215, 218, 812

8��Organizations as Complex Systems

Inquiry methodological ~ 22, 169, 215 process 40, 78, 134, 173, 174, 210-215, 222, 223, 230, 418, 476, 547, 685, 719,

737, 814Institutions 40, 41, 59, 146, 149, 154, 184, 367, 371, 409, 554, 617, 636, 637,

640, 761, 806Intellectual properties 272, 273, 668Intelligence, collective ~ 22, 243, 244, 283Intelligent decisions 22, 23, 236, 430Intensification 24, 437, 441, 623-626Intentionality 7, 126, 249, 490, 491Interactions cognitive ~ 694, 706 cultural ~ 83, 638Interactive agents 561, 674, 699, 791Interventions 26, 47, 127, 132, 135, 144, 145, 147, 161, 212, 215, 217, 287, 509-

511, 521, 798, 799Intrinsic communications 572-575, 577, 578Issue boundaries 674, 675, 682, 689, 695, 697, 700, 703, 713, 731, 732, 747, 757,

758

JJapanese culture 350Joint alliances 26, 122, 152, 215, 216, 311, 403, 458, 546, 553, 555, 557-564, 575,

623, 638, 700 ventures 151, 152, 308, 316, 405, 555, 557-559, 568, 570, 579, 703, 793, 797,

799Judgments 150, 600, 632, 634, 642, 647, 649, 659, 660, 666, 667, 669, 670, 674,

675, 680, 683, 685, 686, 713, 714 moral ~ 642, 649, 660, 669

KKnowledge accommodation 357, 358, 362, 363, 384 acquisition 12, 63, 79, 83, 149, 354, 365, 368, 384, 416, 436, 439, 448, 449,

451, 501 application 358, 363, 364, 384, 425 creation cycle of ~ 338, 352, 356, 365, 385 local ~ 80, 338, 356, 364, 384, 425 cybernetics 4, 19, 20, 23, 28, 57, 287, 733-735, 737, 739, 741, 743, 745, 747,

749, 799 cycle 346, 347, 353, 357, 359, 361, 364, 372, 375, 385 declarative ~ 206, 275, 276 development 258, 370, 418, 454, 456-458, 460-462, 464, 468, 514, 570, 582 elicitation 414, 416, 417, 422, 424 false ~ 16, 406, 573 gnostic ~ 196, 764

8�8 Subject Index

housekeeping 201, 318, 319, 345, 406, 413, 498, 582 intensification 24, 25, 84, 269, 430, 433-441, 443, 448, 454, 461, 467, 558, 644,

810 intermediaries 586-588, 592 intrinsic ~ 456, 462 management paradigm 283, 342, 343, 385, 438, 485 migrating ~ 11-13, 249, 250, 460, 642, 695 migration cycle 24, 338, 352, 358, 359, 375, 384, 425, 428 problems 389, 474, 582, 584, 585 mismanagement 458, 459, 468 objectivated ~ 114, 306, 389, 392, 397, 423, 476, 520, 535, 540 objectivization 357, 582, 583, 586, 587 organizations 24, 339, 430, 431, 435, 436, 438 orientation 14, 15, 338, 365, 370, 376, 377, 382, 386, 738 processes 1, 19, 24, 28, 57, 83, 89, 94, 100, 123, 155, 176, 282, 283, 356, 358,

359 production of ~ 114, 304, 439, 457, 681 profile 24, 338, 352, 364, 365, 369, 375-377, 463, 466-468, 535, 618, 736, 738,

769, 774 profiling 2, 24, 373, 464, 643, 736, 758 scheme 367, 448 sociality 376, 465, 467 society 340, 342, 591 structures 114, 209, 229, 461 transfer 10, 265, 338, 364, 558, 569, 571 types 207, 278, 281, 313, 315, 316, 352, 353, 361, 370, 371, 373-377, 382,

383, 385, 386, 390, 448, 454, 455, 791

LLeadership 37, 280, 420, 514, 515, 531-533, 545, 573, 576, 608, 609, 611, 613,

617, 639, 750, 752Learning behavior 366, 367, 369, 370, 375, 388, 390, 391 cognitive ~ 83, 84, 438-440, 459, 464 culture 390, 391, 423, 426 domains 78, 369 effective ~ 391, 423, 426 index 370, 374, 375, 383 individual ~ 24, 306, 365, 385, 392, 426, 437, 558, 797 organizations 24, 281, 283, 341, 388-391, 419, 420, 423, 427, 428, 430, 433,

435, 455, 467, 508, 512, 513 styles 24, 338, 364-367, 369, 370, 373, 375, 376, 385, 467Levels of recursion 59, 106, 107, 117, 303Liberation 205, 206, 322, 325, 597, 620Lifeworld processes 12, 195, 322, 355, 407, 447, 509, 514, 517, 538, 553, 684,

685, 688, 700, 703Local knowledge 11, 69, 80, 108, 196, 356, 384, 564, 805

8��Organizations as Complex Systems

lifeworlds 537, 539 sub-contexts 7, 9, 13, 14, 19, 365, 643Logical structure 169, 227, 402, 403, 810Luck 153, 155, 164, 166

MManagement levels of ~ 292, 297, 398-401, 408 normative ~ 397-399 systems 1, 5, 21, 29, 36, 47, 48, 657, 777, 780, 793Managerialism 27, 650, 651, 657, 671Marginalization 28, 250, 434, 562, 675, 679, 688-691, 693, 694, 698, 715, 724,

732, 754-757, 815Meaningful principles 114, 410, 411, 681, 765, 773, 774, 789Memories 4, 247, 249, 251, 259, 281, 316, 450, 788, 789Mental dispositions 247, 249, 259, 279 models 12, 39, 77, 100, 148, 149, 173, 176, 195, 197, 198, 275, 277, 278, 346,

347, 392, 512, 810 states 245, 249, 250, 252, 279Messes 22, 144-147, 163, 164, 166, 169, 238, 510, 540, 541Metahistory 18, 734, 735, 737, 759, 791, 797, 799Meta-knowledge 201, 209, 210, 228, 230, 319, 369Metalanguage 51-53, 554Metamorphosis 54, 391, 461, 527, 718-721, 803Methodologies, plurality of ~ 213, 214, 223, 225, 230Microstructural variety 143, 144, 158, 159, 163Microstructures 143, 156, 192Migrated knowledge 194, 357, 361, 363, 424, 467, 567, 695Mind, collective ~ 245, 254, 255Misunderstandings 56, 202, 204, 253, 350, 378, 380, 403, 447, 476, 505, 565,

584, 585, 619, 712Models, logical ~ 171, 230, 413, 414Modernism 778-780, 805Moral values 12, 35, 659, 660Morality 27, 604, 632, 641, 659-662, 664, 667, 672, 763, 768, 783Mutual understanding 42, 204, 302, 309, 311, 499, 505, 557, 809

NNegentropy 190, 191Network organizations 343, 728New information 156, 157, 208, 229, 367, 448, 449, 461, 478 knowledge 54, 150, 208, 209, 319, 320, 339, 346, 357, 361, 364, 365, 373, 379-

381, 392, 435, 460, 461, 726 creation of ~ 201, 268, 271, 274, 348, 362, 369, 379, 411, 431, 435, 515, 682,

715, 765Normative knowledge 99, 303, 306Noumenal domain 98, 102-104, 125, 126, 173-177, 212, 302-305, 314, 315,

860 Subject Index

408-410, 633, 634, 647, 648, 697-700, 702, 703, 719-721, 763-765, 772-775

Noumenon global ~ 9, 14, 71, 77, 82, 254 relative ~ 8, 9

OObjectification 11, 83, 86, 424, 512, 621, 622, 626, 659, 660, 672Ontological boundaries 13, 674, 675 couple 6, 21, 51, 111, 112, 116, 117, 451, 602, 603, 627, 814 coupling 21, 97, 107-109, 111, 112, 118, 120, 300, 332, 451 domains 13, 14, 21, 104, 107-110, 117, 118, 178, 247, 257, 282, 298, 764, 813 horizons 54, 97, 98, 303, 677, 678, 680, 802, 803, 807 levels 66, 104, 105, 107, 489, 804 migrations 14, 98, 107, 111, 117, 118, 126, 301, 404, 602, 603, 678, 680, 716,

813Operative management 111, 223, 224, 274, 398-400, 408, 410-412, 427, 432,

456, 602, 814, 815Order first ~ 6, 21, 55, 111, 116, 117, 602, 603, 627 induced ~ 123, 374, 402, 410, 411, 695 second ~ 6, 21, 63, 108, 109, 111, 112, 116, 120, 451, 472, 512, 602, 603, 627,

633, 814Organizational actors 35, 128, 281, 282 behavior 48, 130, 288, 343, 376, 427, 428, 612, 665, 810 change 40, 290, 308, 322, 339, 393, 399, 421, 521, 522, 571 culture 23, 34, 40, 47, 114, 119, 329, 524, 529, 569, 574, 582, 638, 650, 714 goals 48, 281, 378 intelligence 4, 22, 23, 236, 244, 269, 282, 283, 392, 415, 516, 680 learning 269, 283, 344, 365, 385, 388-392, 413, 414, 423, 426, 427, 437, 438,

511, 556, 558, 569, 582 theory 1, 20, 36, 47, 57, 84, 93, 99, 251, 268, 523, 562, 592, 811Organizations formal ~ 288, 329, 332 network of ~ 26, 596 pathological ~ 406, 413, 572 strategic ~ 38, 433, 435, 436 viability of ~ 24, 320, 323, 332 viable ~ 159, 165, 292, 295, 296, 317, 329, 622Orientation, organic ~ 433, 436

PParadigm incommensurability 19, 28, 54, 213, 361, 493, 565, 781, 783, 793, 795-799 shifts 306-308, 328, 339, 340, 523, 565, 568, 796Paradigmatic metamorphoses 322, 333Paradigms

86�Organizations as Complex Systems

new ~ 53-55, 81, 82, 151, 196, 287, 306, 308, 343, 538, 563, 565-568, 588, 638 organizational ~ 269, 272, 399, 457 plurality of ~ 164, 219, 221, 237, 779, 795, 797 semiotic ~ 488, 489Partnerships 339, 340, 555, 559, 562, 564, 567, 592, 623, 665Pathologies, organizational ~ 23, 24, 283, 287, 313, 327, 408, 413Patterning 41, 198, 245, 323, 333, 644, 734, 759, 771-773, 776, 777, 781-783,

788Patterns, organizational ~ 194, 275, 777Personality 10, 310, 368, 377, 415, 417, 463, 467, 505, 524, 657, 658, 785, 787,

791, 811 type 463, 785, 787, 789, 791Perspectives organizational learning ~ 425, 556 systemic ~ 22, 416, 418Phase process 356, 359Phenomenal events 9, 106, 114, 168, 172, 328, 648, 721 information 22, 100, 102, 118, 119, 168, 169 objects 270, 450, 468, 695, 715 reality 9, 80, 81, 89, 92, 98, 99, 101, 102, 106, 120, 125, 148, 177, 178, 180,

188, 212, 404, 405 structures 98, 119, 177, 246, 303, 590, 718, 719, 721, 724, 776, 795 system 109, 172, 175, 718, 720, 722, 772 world 125, 169, 173, 446, 634, 764Phenomenology 6, 7, 21, 86, 88, 102, 126, 303, 803, 804Planetary groups 547, 549Planets 484, 544, 545, 588Planning 46, 48, 242, 243, 277, 278, 281, 282, 299, 309, 314, 344, 362, 383, 394,

395, 403, 530-533, 543, 544Plural actors 49, 236, 243-256, 258, 264, 267-269, 562Political centripetality 597, 624, 627, 629, 783, 784 ideologies 58, 600, 601, 634, 650 management 26, 596, 599, 603, 622, 626, 627, 629, 784, 786 structures 239, 432, 434, 600, 608Politics, centripetal ~ 340, 383, 564, 622, 623, 625, 626, 666Polity 123, 292, 301, 305, 321, 323, 331, 362, 363, 372, 402, 410, 411, 598, 599,

602, 603, 633, 694, 695Positivism 8, 40, 68-76, 79, 119, 261, 345, 385, 650, 777, 778, 782, 814Postmodernism 18, 778-780Postmodernists 778, 779Postpositivism 68, 69, 74-76, 79Postpositivists 74, 75, 80, 432Power distribution of ~ 218, 305, 332, 397, 433, 502, 509, 600, 627, 629, 657, 688 holders 599, 602, 611 legitimate ~ 610, 615 nodes 432, 434 political ~ 154, 436, 522, 524, 600, 601, 607

86� Subject Index

relations 43, 77, 619, 621, 634, 635, 656 relationships 27, 239, 290, 388, 523, 732, 757, 809 source of ~ 155, 165, 613, 658, 672, 687 structures 309, 313, 378, 380, 433, 596, 620 informal ~ 288, 329, 332Pragmatics 15, 482, 483, 485-487, 489-493, 497, 782Pragmatism 2, 373, 644, 645, 739, 759, 772-774, 783, 788, 792, 793Primary knowledge 169, 194, 196, 227, 236, 442, 455, 456, 459, 460, 464, 468,

509, 517, 538, 539, 577, 578, 586, 587Principles network of ~ 602, 603, 627 scientific ~ 62Problem surfacing 224, 518, 520Problems, messy ~ 147, 163, 164, 222Profit 4, 45, 55, 140, 341, 396-398, 645, 653, 655, 665-667, 751, 801, 813Propositions, primary ~ 267, 325, 326, 681, 802Psychohistory 4, 722-724Psychology, social ~ 1, 114, 524, 529Purposeful action 127, 314, 535, 647Purposefulness 101, 125, 126, 305, 314, 351, 535, 767

QQualitative data 176, 179-181, 184, 186, 225, 226Quantitative data 180-182, 184, 193, 225, 688

RRadical autonomy 49, 63, 111, 112, 404, 405, 713, 714Rationality, bounded ~ 39, 131, 133Rationalization 446, 447, 647, 648Realism 69-71, 85, 89, 90, 92, 99, 106, 183, 777 critical ~ 71, 74, 79, 80 social ~ 99, 199Realists 69, 70, 74, 199, 804Reality, social ~ 75, 76, 779, 795Reference, conceptual frame of ~ 17, 20, 758Regeneration 113, 114, 214, 407, 409, 411, 603, 633, 669, 670, 681, 682, 694,

706, 726, 730, 765, 773Relativism 69-71, 85, 89, 90, 92Repositories 55, 100, 102, 119, 182, 192, 193, 436, 582, 586Requisite variety 15, 16, 294-296, 327, 330, 331, 347, 502, 715Research, qualitative ~ 119, 184, 186Responsibility, social ~ 27, 341, 398, 664, 665, 667, 668

SScale 45, 376, 382, 467, 484, 578, 723, 735, 737Schema 1, 275-278, 280, 362, 669, 801SECI model 345, 347, 348, 350, 351Second order cybernetics 474-476, 488-490, 498, 506

863Organizations as Complex Systems

Secondary data 169, 182, 184, 186, 192, 194, 226, 231 knowledge 169, 194, 196, 227, 236, 442, 454, 458-460, 464, 468, 538, 539, 550Selection 113, 128, 193, 199, 213, 215, 217, 224, 238, 278, 296, 476, 478-480,

649, 724Self-creation 49, 58, 108, 408-410, 603, 719, 721, 809Self-knowledge 79, 201, 204, 205, 596Self-moderation 405-407Self-organization 15, 16, 44, 52, 58, 66, 103, 117, 119, 403, 404, 409, 410, 527,

716-719, 724, 725, 807, 809, 810Self-production 49, 58, 60, 103, 108, 112-114, 119, 221, 300, 358, 359, 408-410,

602, 603, 719, 721, 809, 810Self-reference 58, 103, 109, 406, 410, 719, 721, 810Semantic communication geometries 529, 531, 587 processes 88, 446, 515, 519, 548, 550, 589, 592, 731 communications processes 612, 802 structured ~ 25, 508, 540, 592 content 79, 356, 675, 802 entanglement 26, 509, 537, 538, 545, 552, 553, 589Semiosis 482, 489, 491Semiotics 2, 25, 182, 316, 472, 474, 482-485, 488-491, 782Sensate 312, 371-373, 382, 383, 385, 467, 531, 586, 601, 605, 723, 737, 759,

760, 764, 767, 768, 792, 793Shared understandings 125, 128, 241, 242, 529, 530, 535, 546, 547, 806Signification 490, 491Signifiers 483, 485, 806, 811Signs 15, 80, 108, 180-182, 193, 225, 226, 466, 475, 479-483, 489, 490, 492,

499, 811Situations complex problem ~ 21, 122, 550 complexity of ~ 146, 164 conflictual ~ 736 messy ~ 166, 241, 242 simple ~ 134-136, 162, 281, 282, 444, 591 simplex ~ 139, 140 structured ~ 127, 129Social centrifugality 624, 625 collectives 1, 3-6, 8-10, 12, 15, 17-19, 26, 27, 66, 67, 432, 433, 457, 581, 582,

589, 596, 597, 628, 629, 781 communications 10, 16, 25, 79, 82, 85, 96, 432, 472, 473, 480, 481, 490, 491,

498, 609 communities 26, 27, 33-37, 49-51, 55-59, 63, 64, 267-269, 552-554, 587-592,

598-600, 602-611, 624-629, 649, 650, 659-661, 689-691, 725-727 autonomous ~ 22, 34, 326, 596, 599, 602, 603, 628, 638, 639, 728 environment 155, 199, 205, 246, 309, 379, 389, 423, 500, 505, 622, 772, 784,

814

86� Subject Index

groups 60, 69, 78, 89, 96, 101, 205, 304, 350, 352, 353, 356, 359, 361, 365, 504, 505

coherent ~ 351, 352, 467, 600, 633 interactions 78-80, 83, 84, 86, 245, 260, 262, 271, 327, 439, 440, 454, 491, 505,

591, 621, 791 knowledge 1, 20, 78, 183, 195, 249, 350, 352, 389, 423 meaning 74, 154, 319, 363, 365 organization 38, 99, 389, 391, 409, 423, 434, 621, 655, 735 orientation 309, 310, 738, 777, 779, 780 power 75, 153, 154, 637, 644, 763 reflection 96, 97, 195, 509, 511 situations 35, 157, 177, 189, 305, 331, 475, 711, 735, 736 structures 3, 9, 16, 22, 104, 106, 129, 156, 205, 245, 246, 317-319, 331, 332,

391, 392, 426, 427, 454 systems, complex ~ 3, 20, 34, 58, 64, 67, 795 viable systems 5, 14, 19-21, 54, 62, 67, 113, 287, 301, 628, 734, 760Sociality types 463, 465, 467Sorokin’s theory 760, 761, 765Speech acts 93, 94, 504, 803Stellar meetings 528, 544, 545, 547, 548Strategic management 38, 47, 111, 112, 224, 339, 342, 398, 399, 408, 410-412, 427, 428,

438, 602, 749, 814 models 217, 269Structural form 266, 294, 295, 485 relationships 143, 163, 195, 207, 364, 385, 537, 639, 716 variety 141, 143, 144, 188, 191, 192, 227 violence 17, 26, 205, 206, 320, 348, 596, 610, 613, 615, 616, 620, 629, 664,

707, 709, 812Structures corporate ~ 556, 662, 664 dissipative ~ 66, 524, 716, 722 narrative ~ 373, 374, 644, 759, 772 operational ~ 509, 599 organizational ~ 37, 44, 145, 273, 381, 391, 402, 417, 428, 436, 572, 719Subordinates 78, 514, 564, 599, 612-618, 620, 629Substructure 56, 127-129, 160, 165, 192, 228, 229, 304, 354, 358, 362, 363, 400,

401, 418, 419, 425-427, 679, 710Sub-themes 544, 545, 547, 548, 588Superego 246-248, 250, 252, 256Superstructure 56, 127-129, 160, 165, 192, 208, 228, 229, 304, 354, 358, 363,

425, 572, 610, 710Suprasystem 50, 117, 118, 138, 139, 265, 356, 357, 361, 362, 424, 444, 500, 560,

561, 726, 730, 742, 744, 757, 758Supra-system 689, 691-695, 697-699, 707, 708, 710, 725, 727, 728, 730, 732Sustainable competitive advantages 459-464SVS 5, 14, 21, 26, 27, 54, 67, 113, 168, 250, 286-288, 333, 736, 760, 761, 764,

765, 799 model 18, 19, 21-23, 27, 67, 113, 246, 247, 268, 294, 356, 358, 370, 375, 491,

86�Organizations as Complex Systems

601, 602, 737, 738Symptoms 132, 133, 142, 145, 161, 163, 165, 166, 276, 508, 572Syntactics 182, 482, 483, 485, 489, 491, 492, 497Syntegration 85, 349, 394, 420, 528, 532, 534-536, 539-541, 544, 550, 583, 588,

592 process 534, 535, 543System emergence 138, 139 regulation 398Systematic luck 21, 122, 152, 153, 156, 157, 164-166, 633, 656 theory of ~ 21, 122Systemic 7, 13, 14, 203, 309, 314, 332, 401, 424, 505, 512, 521, 597, 646, 815 control 396, 400, 426Systems analyst 100, 118 behavioral ~ 492, 764, 773 change 190, 528-533, 536, 550 coherent ~ 67, 295, 296, 450, 676, 713 dissipative ~ 40, 448 living ~ 58, 401, 489, 721 logical ~ 52, 53 non-living ~ 401, 402 open ~ 41, 42, 287, 530 operational ~ 54, 99, 292, 436 psychic ~ 254, 477, 479, 694 self-producing ~ 49, 50 simple ~ 34 soft ~ 1, 86, 203, 780, 811 thinking 23, 28, 203, 332, 415, 419, 682, 684

TTacit knowledge 4, 5, 116, 194-197, 200, 227, 315, 345-347, 349, 350, 354, 355,

397, 416, 425, 450, 454, 455, 458-461Tactical decision knowledge 280 situations 280Teams 186, 277, 279-281, 376, 380, 394, 400, 420, 464, 467, 532, 537-543, 545,

546, 552, 553, 608Tensions 119, 133, 148, 250, 343, 562, 600, 608, 618, 621, 622, 704, 717-720,

748, 751Thematic knowledge 10, 11, 441, 737, 811 structures 516Theory creation 61 critical ~ 68, 69, 75-80, 119, 158, 172, 179, 197, 261, 385, 512, 617, 622, 646,

650, 809-811 of knowledge profiling 2, 24 quantum ~ 189, 307, 724Totalitarianism, cultural ~ 647-649, 671, 781

866 Subject Index

Transverse relationships 104, 105, 211, 302, 691, 692Turbulence, cognitive ~ 445, 446, 747

UUnconscious, collective ~ 92, 253, 254, 642Understanding, practical ~ 200, 321, 323, 324, 493Unitary actors 243, 246-250, 252, 253, 267, 268, 564 context 13, 14, 103 situations 218, 220

VValidity claim 96, 98, 102, 120Value potentials 397-399 systems 618, 641, 642, 647, 659, 672, 699, 711, 764Values, stakeholder ~ 397, 398Viability, organizational ~ 24, 64, 320, 397, 572Viable system model 23, 54, 61, 286, 293, 298, 393, 395, 397, 398, 408, 412, 426,

519, 629Viable Systems Model 23, 51, 84, 296, 393, 400Viewholders 149, 150, 318, 319, 413, 414, 424, 442, 445, 810Virtual images 102, 104, 125, 222, 252, 259, 261, 262, 270, 271, 273, 302-304, 406,

441, 451, 647, 648, 731 paradigms 98, 126, 151, 164, 213-215, 303, 307, 406, 422, 423, 474, 493, 499,

500, 521, 566-569, 804 system 102, 109, 110, 123, 211, 287, 294, 302, 304, 405, 703, 725, 726, 730,

731, 738, 739, 771, 789

WWeb partnerships 562-565, 567-571, 575, 583, 589, 592, 596, 598, 628, 666Wisdom 108, 201, 209, 210, 244, 305, 318, 319, 674Workforce 341, 414, 416, 419, 434, 573, 621, 638, 742, 744, 755, 756World, external ~ 69, 83, 87, 93, 148, 762, 788, 789, 804Worldview incommensurability 185, 445, 582Worldviews, formalized ~ 149-151, 211