A Study of Euphemisms in the Context Of

8/17/2019 A Study of Euphemisms in the Context Of

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A Study of Euphemisms in the Context of

English-speaking Media

Alireza Hojati

Faculty of Foreign anguages! Amin Higher Education "nstitution! #$%$ &ox

'()''-**'((! +istrict A,! nit ,.! Fouladshar! "sfahan! "ran

/el0 1'-.2(-())'-33'* E-mail0 harries$alireza4gmail$com

5ecei6ed0 %cto7er ,3! ,.(, Accepted0 8o6em7er '! ,.(, #u7lished0 +ecem7er 2(! ,.(,

doi0(.$3,1)9ijl$6*i*$,122 50 http099dx$doi$org9(.$3,1)9ijl$6*i*$,122

A7stract

Euphemisms are fre:uently used 7y speakers of different languages to soften the impact of

concepts ;ith the potential to cause offence and social disappro6al$ /oday! the use of

euphemisms has increased 7y the media and ne; and contro6ersial euphemism ha6e also

7een 7orn$ &earing these points in mind! this study ;as carried out ;ith the aim of eliciting

and :ualitati6ely examining a num7er of high-fre:uency euphemisms employed 7y

English-speaking media$ /o this end! three high-profile media ;ere selected and their ne;s

7ulletins ;ere recorded for a three-month-long period$ /he calculation of fre:uencies of


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different euphemisms used 7y the media organizations re6ealed that po6erty- and

military-related euphemism figured prominently in the ne;s 7ulletins! ;hile euphemisms

dealing ;ith economy! disa7ility! death and sex had lo;er fre:uencies of use$ /he :ualitati6e

analysis of data re6ealed insightful points! not least the influence of current and ongoing

affairs on the use of euphemisms and the in6ol6ement of other non-linguistic factors on

media discourse featuring euphemisms$


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($ "ntroduction

($( +efinition of the /erm

/he ;ord =euphemism$ has 7een succinctly defined 7y online Merriam->e7ster +ictionary as

?the su7stitution of an agreea7le or inoffensi6e expression for one that may offend or suggest

something unpleasant@ ,.(,B$ /he examination of the ;ord$s etymology re6eals that it is

originally a reek ;ord ;ith t;o parts! 6iz$ ?eu@! ;hich means ?good@! and ?pheme@! ;hich

means ?speaking@%nline Etymology +ictionary,.(,B B$

($, se of Euphemisms

Euphemisms can 7e found in most of the ;orld$s languages and fulfill certain important

functions in them$ %ne of the most significant functions of euphemisms! according to

#a6lenko,..)B! is ?to protect speakers from undesired emotional arousal@p$,).B$

Commenting on this function! Miller (111B has pointed out that gi6en the existence of

concepts deemed too offensi6e to speak a7out in almost all the ;orld$s languages! there

exists a need for speakers of different languages to find rounda7out! indirect and socially

accepta7le ;ays of referring to such concepts$ According to him! euphemisms can fulfill this

important function 7y sanitizing the language ;hich the speakers use$ Echoing this 6ie;!

Mayfield ,..1B has noted that euphemisms ?sanitize and camouflage actions! things! or


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e6ents that could appear unaccepta7le in light of professed 6alues@ p$,D.B$ Further!

im,.(,B has indicated that euphemisms are commonly used in people$s daily speech and

fulfill t;o functions in it! namely! toning done the nature of potentially offensi6e things

;hich people need to mention and speak a7out! and neutralizing negati6e connotations

associated ;ith offensi6e entities$

/here are many offensi6e and unmentiona7le things ;hich euphemisms refer to$ +eath! ;ar!

intercourse! 7odily functions and disa7ility are some of the concepts to ;hich euphemisms

routinely refer Stock;ell ,..,B! &rind >ilkinson,..'BB$

($2 Euphemisms and +eception

Although the use of euphemisms for making unmentiona7le concepts mentiona7le and less

offensi6e is generally considered a good and accepta7le thing! there are serious o7jections to

the use of such terms 7ecause they can also 7e used for decei6ing people ackall ,..1B!

Soles ,..1BB$ "n this connection! acone ,..2B has commented that ?euphemisms can also

hide seemingly simple and straightfor;ard ;ords 7ehind decepti6e or o6erly complex ones@

p$).B$ Further! a5oc:ue ,..)B! ;ho focused on contro6ersial aspects of some euphemisms!

has noted that euphemisms ;hich deal ;ith political! military and commercial concepts can

7e particularly decepti6e and contro6ersial ,..)B$ Safire,..'B has lent his support to this

6ie; and has added that apart from political! 7usiness and military euphemisms!

en6ironmental issues! ;hich recei6e a lot of attention 7y 7oth conser6ation groups and the


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mass media! ha6e led to the 7irth of many euphemisms! many of ;hich are misleading and

highly de7ata7le,..'B$


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Some examples of contro6ersial and misleading euphemisms include 5ichard 8ixon$s use of

=plausi7le denia7ility$ to refer to =deception$ Ford,..*B B! the use of the ;ord =do;nsizing$

to refer to the act of laying off a su7stantial num7er of a company$s ;orkers or employees

acone ,..2B B! the use of the term =collateral damageG to denote ci6ilian deaths in ;ar

situations Sarioglu ,.((B B! the employment of the term =extraordinary renditionG to refer to

?kidnapping follo;ed 7y torture@ /ri6ers ,.((B B! and the use of the term =enhanced

interrogation$ to refer to torture 8un7erg ,..1B B$

($* Euphemisms! Media and anguage earners

/he English-speaking media! including ne;spapers! magazines and satellite tele6ision and

radio channels! routinely employ a large num7er of euphemisms Mercer,..,B! Coleman

,..DB! McArthur,..3B B$ Further! these media are 7ecoming increasingly a6aila7le to EF9

ES learners and are 7eing increasingly used in different ES9EF settings for educational

purposes Chan! Chin 8agami ,.((B B$ As a result! today$s EF9ES learners ha6e a lot of

exposure to different types of euphemisms! regardless of ;hether the de6ote particular

attention to them or treat them as typical ;ords$ &esides! e6en discerning learners ;ho de6ote

special attention to euphemisms are 6ery likely to ha6e difficulty interpreting and making

sense of them$ "n this regard! 5oe! &urns Smith ,.((B ha6e commented that euphemisms

and figurati6e language pose significant pro7lems for foreign language learners since they

often lack the 7ackground kno;ledge needed for making sense of euphemisms and ;ords


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used figurati6ely in different contexts$

Echoing the 6ie;s of the a7o6e-mentioned authors! Hammond &ransford ,.(,B ha6e

noted that euphemisms can pose pro7lems such as confusion and failure to ade:uately

interpret information not only for language learners! 7ut also for language teachers$ i6en

this! the authors ha6e emphasized the need for preparing today$s language teachers for coping

;ith the many complexities of language-teaching! including those dealing ;ith euphemisms!

in a rapidly changing ;orld ;ith a rapidly changing language landscape ,.(,B$

/he most radical proposal in relation to euphemisms has 7een put for;ard on the ;e7site

http099esl$yourdictionary$com9euphemism-lessons$html$ According to an article entitled

=Euphemism essonsG! ;hich is a6aila7le on the foregoing ;e7site! there is a need to de6elop

language lessons ;hich focus exclusi6ely on English euphemisms and ade:uately introduce

them and important points surrounding them to non-nati6e learners of English$ According to

this article! the design and de6elopment of such lessons can 7e one of the most 7eneficial

;ays of helping English language learners$

&earing all of the a7o6e points in mind! there is a need for the de6otion of more scholarly!

research and pedagogical attention to commonly-used euphemisms in the English-speaking

media$

,$ #urpose of the Study


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/he aim of this study is to identify and examine fre:uently-used euphemisms featuring in

English-speaking media$ &earing in mind the use of numerous euphemisms and euphemistic

expressions 7y the many English-speaking media! the scope of the study is confined to ne;s


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7ulletins of a limited num7er of high-profile English-speaking tele6ision channels during a

fairly short period of time$ Further! the study aims to come up ;ith pedagogical points and

recommendations associated ;ith the findings$

2$ Methodology

2$( Materials

/o collect the data needed for this study! the researcher used materials featuring in a num7er

of 2.-minute ne;s 7ulletins of three internationally influential and reputa7le satellite

tele6ision channels$ /he channels used ;ere &&C >orld 8e;s! Alazeera English and

France ,* English$

2$, #rocedures

/he researcher used a small recording de6ice to record one 2.-minute ne;s 7ulletin from

each of the foregoing ne;s channels e6ery other day for a three-month-long period 7et;een

August (th and 8o6em7er (th! ,.(,$ /he ne;s 7ulletins ;ere selected on a random 7asis at

different times of the day early-morning! mid-morning! mid-day! early afternoon! e6ening!

mid-nightB$ /hroughout the data-collection period! the researcher checked the 6oice :uality of

recorded materials to make sure ;hat ;as 7eing recorded ;as :uite audi7le and suita7le for


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the su7se:uent data-analysis procedures$

2$2 +ata Analysis

"n order to analyze the data collected from the ne;s 7ulletins! the researcher first listened to

each 7ulletin three times in order to identify euphemisms used in it 7y ne; casters!

correspondents! analysts and commentators ;hose ;ords featured in it$ After the

identification of all the euphemisms used! the researcher calculated their fre:uencies and

su7jected the most fre:uent ones to further analysis$

For the :ualitati6e analysis of fre:uently-used euphemisms! the researcher consulted a

num7er of 7ooks and online sources! especially the most recent ones! to explore the meanings!

connotations and possi7le contro6ersies surrounding the fre:uently-employed euphemisms$

*$ 5esults

/he follo;ing ta7les present the study$s results$

/a7le ($*$ Military euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and fre:uencies of their use

+escripti6e Statistics

Euphemism


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Fre:uency of se

Friendly fire

32

Collateral damage9deaths

),

8uclear deterrent

3)

Soft /arget

)'


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/a7le ,$*$ Economy-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their

fre:uencies


Euphemism

Fre:uency of se

&et;een jo7s

*)

+o;nsizing

3'

8egati6e gro;th

)(


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/a7le 2$*$ +isa7ility-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their

fre:uencies


Euphemism

Fre:uency of se

#eople9/hose ;ith limited a7ility

(*

#hysically challenged person9s9people

2(

-impaired person9s9people

,,


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/a7le *$*$ Sex-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their fre:uencies


Euphemism

Fre:uency of se

#ri6ates9#ri6ate parts

(,

"llicitB Affair

23

iaison

(*


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Sleep together9;ith s7

((

F >ord

1

C-;ord

D

Euphemism

Fre:uency of se

#ass a;ay

2,


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Final resting place

,D

/a7le3$*$ +eath-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their fre:uencies


/a7le )$*$ #o6erty-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their fre:uencies


Euphemism

Fre:uency of se

i6e in reduced circumstances

32


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Financially challenged

3D

+isad6antaged

D,


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/a7le D$*$ Summary ta7le ;hich summarizes fre:uencies of use of each category of

Euphemisms


Category of Euphemisms

/otal Fre:uency of se

Military euphemisms

,21

Economy-related euphemisms

()3

+isa7ility-related euphemisms

)D

Sex-related euphemisms


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''

+eath-related euphemisms

31

#o6erty-related euphemisms

(',

3$ +iscussion and Conclusions

At the 7eginning of this section! the aims 7eing pursued 7y this study ought to 7e repeated$

As mentioned pre6iously! the first aim of the current study ;as to identify fre:uently-used

euphemisms employed 7y three high-profile international ne;s channels$ /he second aim

;as to examine the most fre:uently-employed euphemisms :ualitati6ely$ /a7les of the

=5esults$ section help determine ;hich euphemisms ha6e had high fre:uencies of use and

;hich ones can 7e regarded as the most fre:uently-used euphemisms$

As ta7le ($*$ sho;s! although all the four military euphemism had high fre:uencies of use!


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t;o of them! 6iz$ =soft targetG and =collateral damageG ;ere used more fre:uently than

others)' and ), respecti6elyB$

According to figures presented in ta7le ,$*$ =negati6e gro;thG had the highest fre:uency of

use )(B! follo;ed 7y =do;nsizing$! ;hose fre:uency of use ;as 3'B! in the category of

economy-associated euphemisms$

&ased on data presented in ta7le2$*$! euphemisms =physically-challenged person9sG and

I-impaired person9sG had the highest fre:uencies of use in the category of

disa7ility-associated euphemisms!2(B and ,,B respecti6ely$

/a7le *$*$ illustrates that there ;ere apprecia7le numerical differences associated ;ith the

fre:uencies of sex-linked euphemisms$ "n this category! =illicit affairG had the highest

fre:uency of use23B$ %ther euphemisms of this category! ho;e6er! had su7stantially lo;er

fre:uencies of use$ =iaison$! the second most fre:uently-used euphemism of the category!

for instance! had the fre:uency of (*B$

/a7le3$*$! ;hich pro6ides information on death-associated euphemisms! sho;s that 7oth

euphemisms of this category had similar fre:uencies$ Ho;e6er! one of them! 6iz$ =pass a;ay$!

;as used more fre:uently than the other one$

/a7le )$*$! ;hich deals ;ith the category of po6erty-associated euphemisms! indicates that all

the three euphemisms falling into this category had fairly high fre:uencies$ Ho;e6er! one of

them! 6iz$ =disad6antaged$! ;as used more fre:uently than others$ "n fact! the foregoing


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euphemism had the highest fre:uency of use among all the euphemisms of the six categories

discussed a7o6e$

/a7le D$*$! ;hich summarizes other ta7les$ data! re6eals that! o6erall! military euphemisms

and po6erty-linked euphemisms had the first and second highest fre:uencies of use

respecti6ely$ >hat is nota7le is that military euphemisms ;ere used apprecia7ly more

fre:uently than po6erty-related euphemisms! 7ut! one po6erty-linked euphemism had the

highest fre:uency of use among euphemisms of all the six categories in :uestion$

/o :ualitati6ely interpret the data discussed presented a7o6e! a num7er of points ha6e to 7e

taken into account$

/he first point is that all the euphemisms the current study focused on ;ere taken from three

international English-speaking mass media$ All the three media associations in :uestion ;ere

either >estern &&C >orld 8e;s and France ,* EnglishB! or >estern-leaning Alazeera

EnglishB$ /he affiliations and leanings of these media organizations!

;hich ha6e 7een repeatedly accused of media 7iaseffries,.(.B! +ar;ish,.(.B!

#almegiano,.(,BB! ha6e no dou7t affected the discourses used 7y their ne;s-casters!

correspondents! commentators and guests from ;hose ;ords research data ;ere collected$

/he second point is that! as ta7le D$*$ illustrates! a fairly large num7er of euphemisms ;ere

used 7y the three fore-mentioned media organizations$ tele6ision ne;s 7ulletins! ;hich

corro7orates rillo,..3B$s ;ords on the fre:uent employment of euphemisms! 7oth

innocuous and potentially decepti6e ones! 7y the English-speaking media$

/he third point is that! gi6en researcher$s use of ne;s 7ulletins$ materials for data collection!


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all the euphemisms elicited and analyzed ;ere the ones dealing ;ith current affairs!

unfolding de6elopments and ongoing situations and crises associated ;ith the three-month

period during ;hich the data ;ere collected$ /his partly accounts for the use of a large

num7er of military and economy-associated euphemisms$

>ith regard to the category of military euphemisms! most of the high-fre:uency euphemisms

;ere directly related to the ongoing crisis in Syria! some ;ere related to military 6iolence in

parts of Mali and Sudan! and a small num7er ;ere linked to sporadic 6iolence and armed

clashes in #akistan! Afghanistan! i7ya and Egypt$

"n relation to category of economy-related euphemisms! high-fre:uency euphemisms ;ere all

related to the unfolding economic crisis in Europe and the nited States as ;ell as its

repercussions in Asia and emerging countries$

As ;ith the category of po6erty-related euphemisms! the most high-fre:uency euphemism!

6iz$ =disad6antaged$! ;as used many times 7ecause of the deteriorating state of the glo7al

economy and its undesira7le conse:uences! especially unemployment and rising po6erty! in

different countries all across the ;orld$

>hat the discussion of the findings illustrates! and has already 7een highlighted! is that the

time period during ;hich research data ;ere collected and the type of media materials used


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for data-collection purposes ha6e had a significant impact on the study$s findings$ /he time

period for data-collection of this research ;as characterized numerous military and financial

incidents and de6elopments ;hich recei6ed extensi6e media co6erage! and it explains ;hy

euphemisms associated ;ith these issues ;ere used far more fre:uently than euphemisms

relating to other categories$ So! it has to 7e said that if the study$s data collection part had

7een carried out during another time period! the euphemisms$ fre:uencies! and conse:uently

the study$s findings! could ha6e 7een different$ /herefore! there is a need for future research

to pick o6er this topic and use more di6erse media materials during longer periods in order to

enrich this line of research$

/his study is ine6ita7ly linked in 6arious ;ays to some other areas and lines of research not

least +iscourse Analysis and Critical +iscourse Analysis$ So! the findings can 7e examined

from these perspecti6es as ;ell$

>hat needs to 7e highlighted here is that media discourses! ;hich are far from neutral %tt

Mack,..1BB! are influenced 7y a large num7er of factors not least the leanings and

affiliations of different media organizations and their funders8asser! &erlin >ong,.((B$

/herefore! the type of discourse used 7y one media outlet can 7e profoundly influenced 7y

such factors and 7ecome 6ery different from the type of discourse another media association

uses in its co6erage of ne;s$ "n this study! as ;as stated earlier! all the research data ;ere

collected from three media organizations ;ith strong >estern or >estern-leaning affiliations

and stances$ i6en this! and the fact that media discourses are so po;erful these days that can

e6en ideologize the language used in different media Milani,.(.B B! it has to 7e


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ackno;ledged that the study$s findings ha6e 7een deeply influenced 7y the 7iased and

ideologized discourses employed 7y the ne;s sources used$

Jet another point ;hich must 7e mentioned in this part is that some of the euphemisms used

7y different media are contro6ersial and di6isi6e! so much so that there are profound

disagreements as to their use and potential for deception$ A clear example is the fre:uent use

of =humanitarian9armed inter6entionG 7y the >estern media to refer to attempts 7y some

>estern countries to get directly in6ol6ed in other countries$ military crises or ci6il ;ars$

/he term! ;hich might seem :uite innocuous and accepta7le! can har7or a lot of contro6ersial

and unpleasant things 7ehind its 6eneer and! therefore! its use 7y the >estern media! deser6es

scholarly attention and scrutiny from the perspecti6e of Critical +iscourse Analysis$ i6en

the contro6ersiality and se6erely di6isi6e political aspects associated ;ith the foregoing

euphemism! despite its fre:uent use 7y the three media used for data-collection! it ;as

excluded from the study$ /his di6isi6eness also holds true for the military euphemism

=collateral damage9deathsG! ;hich! as this study sho;s! had a high fre:uency of use$ "t has

7een used many times 7y ;arring parties to mildly refer to the allegedly unintentional

infliction of harm to non-com7atants in ;ar situations$ /he nited States! 8A/% and "srael

ha6e all made use of this euphemism many times Schmidl,...BB and! therefore! it has

7ecome a dou7ly contro6ersial euphemism too$ "t is hoped that gi6en the increasing use of

euphemisms! especially contro6ersial ones! 7y different media ;ith different leanings and

affiliations! future research ;ill focus on such terms and expressions and analyze them from!


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among other perspecti6es! Critical +iscourse Analysis and Media +iscourse Analysis points

of 6ie;$

/he final point is that! gi6en the complexities and contro6ersies inextrica7ly linked ;ith

euphemisms! they deser6e more pedagogical attention$ #erhaps the radical notion of

designing courses exclusi6ely dealing ;ith euphemism is not a popular or feasi7le one! 7ut!

gi6en the exposure of many ES9EF learners to media materials and the use of these

materials for language-learning purposes! there is a need for the clarification! explanation and

critical examination of euphemisms ;ith high fre:uencies of use 7y the English-speaking

media in ES9EF classes$

)$ Concluding 5emarks

As this paper re6eals! euphemisms often function as a dou7le-edged s;ord$ Although they

can 7e used for legitimate and justifia7le purposes! they can also 7e used for the utterly

reprehensi7le purpose of deception$ "n our constantly-changing and increasingly

inter-connected ;orld! euphemisms ha6e a special place and! as noted earlier! are ;idely

coined and used 7y different political and military indi6iduals and entities for rather dodgy

reasons$ /he First ulf >ar! the &alkans$ >ar of the (11.s! the "ra: "n6asion of ,..2! the

aza >ar of ,..'-1! and the current ;ar 7et;een "srael and aza militants ha6e all gi6en

rise to the emergence and fre:uent use of euphemisms$ "t seems that ;ith the changing

military! political! economic and en6ironmental landscape of our ;orld! the linguistic


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landscape is also ine6ita7ly changed! and the international media! depending upon their

affiliations and editorial policies! ;ill continue to coin and peddle different euphemisms for

7oth legitimate and illegitimate reasons$

/he current Ara7-"sraeli conflict is perhaps a timely reminder of the use of euphemisms and

the contro6ersial issues inextrica7ly linked ;ith them$ "srael$s use of terms such as =surgical

air strikesG and =taking out terror targetsG! ;hich ;e ha6e heard time and again from the

English-speaking media! are good examples of terms ;hich may 7e seen as euphemisms to

;hich some may o7ject$

Another current international de6elopment presenting us ;ith good examples of euphemisms

is the scandal surrounding the erst;hile +irector of the C"A$ /he use of euphemisms such as

=inappropriate communicationsG and =pri6ate affair$ to refer to his displaying marital

infidelity ser6e as other recent examples of euphemisms$

"n today$s ;orld! the proliferation of media organizations in all parts of the ;orld and their

7iased discourses ha6e ;orked hand in hand to lead to the unremitting 7om7ardment of

glo7al citizens ;ith euphemisms many of ;hich they cannot make sense of ade:uately$ So! it

is necessary for future research to focus attention on the 7iased media discourse and

euphemisms of media entities in the Middle East! Asia and Africa and shed more light on

ho; ne;s consumers are exposed to different euphemisms 7y different media$ As for the area

of language education! gi6en that today$s teenagers and adults are largely sa66y ;ith the

"nternet and digital de6ices and ha6e access to them! it is necessary for curriculum designers


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as ;ell as language educators to raise the a;areness of learners regarding euphemisms$


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#erhaps a general introduction of euphemisms and the purposes they ser6e coupled ;ith

different examples of them can 7e the first effecti6e step in this direction$

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nder %ccupation0 /he Case of #alestine and "srael$ /he nited


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A Study of Euphemisms in the Context Of

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