A statement from Icarus himself:A statement from Icarus himself:

First-Person-ParticipantFirst-Person-ParticipantNarrationNarration

““You can’t understand. I was flying—I mean really You can’t understand. I was flying—I mean really flyingflying. I saw the world the way the gods do—I held . I saw the world the way the gods do—I held

Apollo’s gaze with my own mortal eyes. How could I Apollo’s gaze with my own mortal eyes. How could I not fly higher? But then the power of the god proved not fly higher? But then the power of the god proved

too much. The wax melted. I plummeted into the sea. I too much. The wax melted. I plummeted into the sea. I paid for my arrogance with my death.”paid for my arrogance with my death.”

First-Person Participant in First-Person Participant in Short StoriesShort Stories

Narrative voice is presented through the “I” Narrative voice is presented through the “I” pronoun.pronoun.

There is absolutely no critical distance between There is absolutely no critical distance between the character’s experience and his or her the character’s experience and his or her understanding of the event.understanding of the event.

For this reason, we consider this POV highly For this reason, we consider this POV highly suspect—it is the voice of the suspect—it is the voice of the unreliableunreliable narrator, narrator, who is too close physically or emotionally to the who is too close physically or emotionally to the events to be trustworthy.events to be trustworthy.

The Unreliable Narrator’s perceptions may be The Unreliable Narrator’s perceptions may be hampered by:hampered by:

InexperienceInexperience (Cole Sear of (Cole Sear of The Sixth Sense,The Sixth Sense, or the unnamed narrator of “Cathedral,” or or the unnamed narrator of “Cathedral,” or Sammy of “A & P”)Sammy of “A & P”)

YouthYouth (Scout of (Scout of To Kill a MockingbirdTo Kill a Mockingbird or or the unnamed narrator of “Araby”)the unnamed narrator of “Araby”)

Mental incapacityMental incapacity (Forrest Gump of (Forrest Gump of Forrest Forrest GumpGump or Benjy of or Benjy of The Sound and the FuryThe Sound and the Fury))

An Example of Unreliability: An Example of Unreliability: Forrest GumpForrest Gump

““Jenny’s father was a very Jenny’s father was a very loving man. He was always loving man. He was always

hugging and kissing his hugging and kissing his daughters.”daughters.”

Do you remember how that comment Do you remember how that comment made your skin crawl? It was because made your skin crawl? It was because you you perceivedperceived what Forrest could not what Forrest could not

—that Jenny’s father was sexually —that Jenny’s father was sexually abusing his daughters. You had the abusing his daughters. You had the necessary critical distance Forrest necessary critical distance Forrest

lacked. lacked.

Forrest wasn’t Forrest wasn’t lying; he just lying; he just

did not have the did not have the capacity to capacity to

understand what understand what you understood.you understood.

Advantages of First-Person Advantages of First-Person ParticipantParticipant

A sense of the raw immediacy of the events; we are A sense of the raw immediacy of the events; we are completely privy to all the character’s thoughts.completely privy to all the character’s thoughts.

A closeness to the narrating character it is simply not A closeness to the narrating character it is simply not possible to duplicate with any other point-of-view possible to duplicate with any other point-of-view option.option.

A great test of the characterization skills of the A great test of the characterization skills of the author.author.

Most effective when the main character learns from Most effective when the main character learns from his or her own experiencehis or her own experience..

Examples of First-Person Examples of First-Person Participant in Short StoriesParticipant in Short Stories

““ArabyAraby” by James Joyce” by James Joyce ““Everyday Use” by Alice WalkerEveryday Use” by Alice Walker ““First Confession” by Frank O’ConnorFirst Confession” by Frank O’Connor ““CathedralCathedral” by Raymond Carver” by Raymond Carver ““Flying Home” by Ralph EllisonFlying Home” by Ralph Ellison ““Good-bye, Columbus” by Philip RothGood-bye, Columbus” by Philip Roth ““My Man Bovanne” by Toni Cade BambaraMy Man Bovanne” by Toni Cade Bambara

First-Person-Participant First-Person-Participant Narration in NovelsNarration in Novels

First-Person Participants have more credibility as First-Person Participants have more credibility as narrators of novels because of the length of text.narrators of novels because of the length of text.

This option is preferred for a narrator of a This option is preferred for a narrator of a BildungsromanBildungsroman (an apprenticeship novel or novel of (an apprenticeship novel or novel of an education like an education like Great ExpectationsGreat Expectations).).

The change in the character is most discernable.The change in the character is most discernable. Consider the following:Consider the following:

Jane EyreJane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte by Charlotte BronteRebeccaRebecca by Daphne du Maurier by Daphne du MaurierThe Catcher in the RyeThe Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger by J.D. SalingerInvisible ManInvisible Man by Ralph Ellison by Ralph Ellison

Limitations of First-Person Limitations of First-Person ParticipantParticipant

An almost-claustrophobic proximity to one An almost-claustrophobic proximity to one character.character.

An immediacy to events without an interpretive An immediacy to events without an interpretive consciousness to filter them.consciousness to filter them.

No ironic distance for the author—only for the No ironic distance for the author—only for the reader, whom the author must rely on to do the reader, whom the author must rely on to do the interpretive work.interpretive work.

The world view is almost invariably naïve or The world view is almost invariably naïve or isolated—or even insane (consider the novel isolated—or even insane (consider the novel Losing NelsonLosing Nelson).).

A Statement from Daedalus,A Statement from Daedalus,

the Witness:the Witness:

First-Person-ObserverFirst-Person-Observer

NarrationNarration

““I said to him, ‘Icarus, my son! Do not fly too low or I said to him, ‘Icarus, my son! Do not fly too low or the dampness of the waves will weigh down the the dampness of the waves will weigh down the feathers; do not fly too high, for the sun will melt the feathers; do not fly too high, for the sun will melt the wax, and the wax is already so fragile. . .wax, and the wax is already so fragile. . .

But he did not listen. But he did not listen. Intoxicated with joy, he Intoxicated with joy, he spiraled straight into the eye spiraled straight into the eye of the god. Apollo was moved of the god. Apollo was moved to anger. The wax melted. I to anger. The wax melted. I watched as my only child fell watched as my only child fell to his death. I was unable to to his death. I was unable to help him though he cried out, help him though he cried out, ‘Father!’”‘Father!’”

First-Person ObserverFirst-Person Observer Narrative is characterized by the “I” pronoun.Narrative is characterized by the “I” pronoun. The central character is the witness, not the principal actor The central character is the witness, not the principal actor

of the story.of the story. This allows the narrator to attain greater critical distance This allows the narrator to attain greater critical distance

from the events; usually, we are offered a more mature, from the events; usually, we are offered a more mature, thoughtful perspective on thoughtful perspective on whywhy as well as as well as howhow. .

For this reason, we are more inclined to accept the For this reason, we are more inclined to accept the Observer as trustworthy.Observer as trustworthy.

This character therefore provides necessary middle ground This character therefore provides necessary middle ground for the reader—this character ‘stands in’ and interprets for for the reader—this character ‘stands in’ and interprets for us, and we take our emotional cues from him or her.us, and we take our emotional cues from him or her.

Advantages of First-Person Advantages of First-Person ObserverObserver

A consciousness separate from the author’s or the A consciousness separate from the author’s or the principal actor’s to filter the events of the story to principal actor’s to filter the events of the story to whose thoughts we are privy.whose thoughts we are privy.

A credible on-scene witness A credible on-scene witness A trustworthy interpreter who offers the reader a A trustworthy interpreter who offers the reader a

way to view the meaning of the events.way to view the meaning of the events. Most effective when the main character learns Most effective when the main character learns

from some one else’s experience, particularly from some one else’s experience, particularly when that some else ends up dead.when that some else ends up dead.

Some Examples of First-Person Some Examples of First-Person Observer in Short StoriesObserver in Short Stories

Marlowe of “Marlowe of “Heart of DarknessHeart of Darkness” by Joseph Conrad” by Joseph Conrad The narrator of “The narrator of “This Way for the Gas, Ladies and This Way for the Gas, Ladies and

GentlemenGentlemen” by Tadeusz Borowski” by Tadeusz Borowski The Lawyer of “The Lawyer of “Bartleby the ScrivenerBartleby the Scrivener” by Herman ” by Herman

MelvilleMelville The narrator of “The narrator of “Sonny’s BluesSonny’s Blues” by James Baldwin” by James Baldwin The Town of Jefferson, narrator of “The Town of Jefferson, narrator of “A Rose for A Rose for

EmilyEmily.”.”

Some Examples of First-Person Some Examples of First-Person Observer in NovelsObserver in Novels

Nelly Dean of Nelly Dean of Wuthering HeightsWuthering Heights by Emily by Emily BronteBronte

Nick Carraway of Nick Carraway of The Great Gatsby The Great Gatsby by F. Scott by F. Scott FitzgeraldFitzgerald

Jake Barnes of Jake Barnes of The Sun Also Rises The Sun Also Rises by Ernest by Ernest HemingwayHemingway

Louis of Louis of Interview with a Vampire Interview with a Vampire by Anne Riceby Anne Rice Tom Wingo of Tom Wingo of The Prince of Tides The Prince of Tides by Pat Conroyby Pat Conroy

In each of these pieces, the main character In each of these pieces, the main character has survived the cataclysmic events of the has survived the cataclysmic events of the

story and delivers a moral judgment:story and delivers a moral judgment:

““Ah, Bartleby! Ah, Ah, Bartleby! Ah, Humanity!”Humanity!”

Limitations of First-Person Limitations of First-Person ObserverObserver

Not as immediate as the Participant.Not as immediate as the Participant. Is usually reliable.Is usually reliable. However, can be as suspect as the Participant However, can be as suspect as the Participant

(consider the barber in Ring Lardner’s (consider the barber in Ring Lardner’s “Haircut”as an example of unreliability) if he or “Haircut”as an example of unreliability) if he or she does not have the emotional awareness to she does not have the emotional awareness to learn from the event.learn from the event.

If If youyou were Icarus: were Icarus:

Second-Person Second-Person

NarrationNarration

You are master of the rushing wind; each stroke of You are master of the rushing wind; each stroke of your wings raises you higher than you ever dreamed. your wings raises you higher than you ever dreamed. All warnings are ridiculous.You don’t see the worldAll warnings are ridiculous.You don’t see the world

the way a god does; you the way a god does; you areare a god, and there is a god, and there is no longer any place no longer any place forbidden to you. But forbidden to you. But then you feel a slow then you feel a slow trickle down your arms, trickle down your arms, down your back…down your back…burning hot. The wing burning hot. The wing frames tremble; they frames tremble; they loosen. And then the loosen. And then the sickening plunge--sickening plunge--

Second-Person NarrationSecond-Person Narration

Narrative voice is presented through the “you” Narrative voice is presented through the “you” pronoun. pronoun.

This voice conjures some of the immediacy of This voice conjures some of the immediacy of First-Person Participant.First-Person Participant.

No critical distance exists between the No critical distance exists between the character’s experience and his or her character’s experience and his or her understanding of the event.understanding of the event.

The voice is no more reliable than First-Person The voice is no more reliable than First-Person Participant.Participant.

Advantages of Second-Person Advantages of Second-Person NarrationNarration

The same degree of immediacy presented by First-The same degree of immediacy presented by First-Person Participant—you are privy to your own Person Participant—you are privy to your own ‘thoughts’.‘thoughts’.

Useful for short, theme-driven piecesUseful for short, theme-driven pieces Ideal ‘scenario’ for ads and intros. Ideal ‘scenario’ for ads and intros. Most effective for creating empathy in the reader.Most effective for creating empathy in the reader.

Some Examples of Second-Some Examples of Second-Person NarrationPerson Narration

““GirlGirl” by Jamaica Kincaid” by Jamaica Kincaid ““On Being the Target of Discrimination” by Ralph On Being the Target of Discrimination” by Ralph

EllisonEllison ““How to Be A WriterHow to Be A Writer” by Lorrie Moore” by Lorrie Moore ““Haircut” by Ring Lardner (limited to the frame Haircut” by Ring Lardner (limited to the frame

device; you sit in the chair as a barbershop patron)device; you sit in the chair as a barbershop patron) ““The Cask of AmontilladoThe Cask of Amontillado” (limited to the second ” (limited to the second

paragraph; you are Montresor’s confessor. The paragraph; you are Montresor’s confessor. The rest of the story is First-Person Participant)rest of the story is First-Person Participant)