A Series of Earth Resource Satellites and its PotentialitiesA Series of Earth Resource Satellites...

A Series of Earth Resource Satellites and its Potentialities

Rajat Kumar, Ancy.S 1UG Student, Sathyabama University, Chennai, India, E-.mail: [email protected], 2Assistant Professor, Jeppiaar Institute of Technology,

Chennai, India, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The earth is full of information. Science is one of the tools to explore that information. The science in Remote Sensing has paved way for human to understand and gain knowledge about some of the secrets of nature. Satellite is one such instrument that has reached a long way since its invention. There are many satellites each with its own potentialities sends by the various nations of the world. This paper makes a review of the most eminent satellites and their scope in the field of remote sensing. Keywords : Satellites, resolution, GIS satellites

1 INTRODUCTION

satellite is a secondary object that revolves in a closed orbit around a planet or the sun, but an artificial satellite is used to revolve around the earth for scientific research, earth ap-

plications, or Military Reconnaissance. Satellite images can make weather forecasting conditions much more clear-cut by showing accurately what is happening in any given location. These images can predict heavy showers, snow storms or even light rain or flurries. Satellite images have made weather forecasting much more truthful and functional than it was not so many years ago because of the details and quantity of information obtainable. The Russians launched Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957, as the first satel-lite ever to be in space. There are various satellites; some of them are Communication satellite which is used for audio & data transmission, Earth observation satellites which are used for pho-tographing the earth to observe the earthquake, Weather satellites which are used for observing the changes in cloud formations and weather patterns, and Navigation satellites which are used in global positioning system by pilots, boaters [2].

2 NOAA SATELLITE

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the USA operate the series of NOAA satellites which each carry the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) sensor. These sensors collect global data on a daily basis for a variety of land, ocean, and atmospheric applications. The AVHRR sensor is a five or six channel scanner, sensing the visible, near-infrared, and thermal infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. It provides global on board collection of data over a 2399 km swath. The sensor orbits the earth 14 times each day from an altitude of 833 km .The spectral specification of satellite is given below in the table 1:

3 ADVANCED VERY HIGH RESOLUTION

RADIOMETER (AVHRR)

Advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) sensor col-lects cloud and other data from several satellites orbiting the

earth. It is an instrument package on board a series of National

Oceanic Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) that orbit the poles. The instrument detects radiation on earth and used to image cloud

cover and surface temperatures. AVHRR satellites were launched in 1978 and fly 833km(518 miles) above the earth, circling the pla-net over the poles about every 102 minutes. AVHRR data is one

of the most comprehensive and long term collection over the western and high arctic. Geographic Information Network of

Alaska (GINA) has operated a receiving station since 1993[3]. The AVHRR sensor has a 5 or 6 channel scanner, sensing the visible, near -infrared and thermal infrared portion of Electromagnetic

spectrum. It provides on board collection of data over a 2399km swath. The sensor orbits the earth 14 times each day from an alti-tude of 833km. Geo science Australia direct broadcast AVHRR

data from within our acquisition circle several time every day [4]. The imagery downloaded from the USGS earth explorer comes in

IMG Format. This format is recognized in many visualization packages such as Erdas Imagine, ENVI, ArcGIS. The CLASS sys-tem receives and archives the AVHRR data in its native Binary

Format and it require a bit of software writing to read the data [5]. TABLE 1

SATELLITE SPECIFICATION

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3.1 Instrument Detection The AVHRR instrument consists of an array of small sensors that record the amount of visible and infrared reflected and emitted from earth’s surface. This provides the images of the earth’s sur-face that cannot normally be viewed with the human eye. There are 5 sensors or channels, each designed to record information from a different path of the electromagnetic spectrum. The high-est ground resolution which can be obtained from the AVHRR is 1.1km (0.7 miles). This smallest record is called a pixel. The data of AVHRR have been collected continuously since 1981 [6]. 3.2 AVHRR channels The first AVHRR was a 4-channel radiometer, first carried on TIROS-N (Television IR Observation Satellite) launched on 1978. This was subsequently improved to a 5-channel instrument (AVHRR/2) that was initially carried on NOAA-7(launched june1981). The latest instrument version is AVHRR/3, with 6 channels, first carried on NOAA-5(launched may1998).The AVHRR/3 instrument weighs approximately 72 pounds, meas-ures 11.5 inches*14.4 inches*31.4 inches and consumes 28.5 watts power. The AVHRR channel characteristics are given below in table 2 [7]:

TABLE 2 AVHRR CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS

3.3 Applications

NOAA satellites were generally used to observe the earth’s weather in the form of cloud patterns. An extensive tool used for environmental monitoring through remote sensing is represented by the AVHRR data from the US NOAA satellites. It is most widely used in polar-orbiting Meteorological satellite of the ad-vanced Television Infrared Observation Satellite(TIROS-N).The SST has been also examined for the delineation of the areal extent of a flooded area and proved to be a powerful tool for operational damage assessment [8].

4 TERRA SATELLITE

Terra (formerly EOS AM-1) is the flagship satellite of NASA’s Earth observing systems. Terra is the first EOS platform and pro-vides global data on the state of the atmosphere, land, and oceans, as well as their interactions with solar radiation and with one another. Accurate and precise measurements are needed to unravel complex and interactive relationships between chemical, radiative, and dynamical processes in the atmosphere, ocean, and on land. As a result, in 1991 NASA initiated a comprehensive program to understand the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, land, and cryosphere as a single, complex, interactive system. NASA’s EARTHOBSERVING SYSTEM consists of a series of spaceborne instruments to monitor crucial components of the Earth System, an advanced data handling system, and teams of scientists who will evaluate on-going climate change and predict future changes. Ultimately, EOS will produce scientifically sound rec-ommendations for environmental policy to national and interna-tional bodies to mitigate or prepare for these changes [9]. Every 1 to 2 days, Terra will use the unique from space to ob-serve the Earth’s continents, oceans, and atmosphere with mea-surement accuracy and capability never before flown. Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR), Moderate-Resolution Imag-ing SpectroRadiometer(MODIS) Measurements of pollution in The Troposphere (MOPITT) Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) [9]. 4.1 Ceres The CERES instruments perform measurements of the Earth’s “radiation budget,” the process that maintains a balance between the energy that reaches the Earth from the sun, and the energy that goes from Earth back out to space. The critical com-ponents that affect the Earth’s energy balance are the planet’s surface, atmosphere, aerosols, and clouds. CERES operates in the ultraviolet through thermal infrared in three wide bands between 0.3-100μm,with a window at 8-12μm,it has a low 20-km resolu-tion with a limb to- limb swath width and complete global cover-age every one hour. Understanding the role of clouds and radia-tion in the climate system is one of the highest priorities of the U.S. Global Change Research Program. Due to the highly variable nature of the clouds and the difficulty of measuring them, they are a large source of uncertainty in understanding the climate. Clouds are important to understand too, because on the one hand they have a cooling effect on the Earth by filtering the flow of incoming solar energy, and on the other hand they have a heating effect on the Earth by enhancing the greenhouse effect [10]. 4.2 Misr MISR will measure the variation of surface and cloud properties, and particles in the atmosphere, with cameras pointed in nine simultaneous different viewing directions. MISR will monitor monthly, seasonal, and long-term interaction between sunlight and these components of Earth’s environment [10]. Last-ly, MISR surface products are important for characterizing bidi-rectional reflectance, leaf area index and therefore photosynthetic potential and net primary productivity, as well as for determin-ing land cover classifications, all of which can be used in conjunc-tion with MODIS surface measurements [10].


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4.3 Modis MODIS stands for Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spec-troRadiometer. It is a multispectral cross-track scanning radiome-ter that operates in the visible through the thermal infrared. A multidisciplinary instrument, MODIS was designed to measure high priority atmospheric, oceanic, land surface, and cryospheric features on a global basis every 1-to-2 days, measuring a wider array of parameters than any other Terra instrument. MODIS was thus designed to make a major contribution to understanding the global Earth system as a whole and the interactions among its various processes. It takes heritage from AVHRR, Landsat ThermaticMapper(TM), and the Coastal Zone Colour Scanner (CZCS) [10]. Terra MODIS is one of the few space-borne sensors currently capable of acquiring radiometric data over the range of view angles with 2,230- km-wide viewing swath, MODIS see every point on our world every 1-2 days in 36 discrete spectral bands [9]. 4.4 Aster ASTER stands for Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer. It was provided for Terra by the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry and was built to provide high-resolution images of the land surface, water, ice, and clouds, it is the only high spatial resolution in-strument aboard Terra, and will thus help bridge the gap be-tween field observations and data from the MODIS and MISR instruments. High resolution will be important for change detec-tion, calibration, validation and land surface studies, and will allow for more locally oriented studies [10]. 4.5 Mopitt MOPITT is a cross–track scanner which uses gas correla-tion spectroscopy to measure methane correlation spectroscopy, a cell of the gas to be measured is used as an optical filter in the infrared to measure the signal from the same gas in the atmos-phere [10].

5. LANDSAT

The longest running program for collecting multispec-tral and digital data’s of our earth is done by the Landsat satellites from the space. Since from the day on July 23, 1972 the landsat started operating on its dedicated path and more than 3 million images has been acquired and stored at the National Satellite Land Remote Sensing Data Archive (NSLRSDA) [11]. The landsat has launched 8 satellites successfully till February 11th 2013 commencing with LANDSAT1 in July 1972.The images acquired from landsat satellites are Unique resources for global change research and application in agriculture, cartography (study of maps),geology, forestry, etc [12]. 5.1 Landsat1 Landsat1 is the first step in merging the space & remote sensing technologies into a system. It was built on the weather satellite platform and is used to study our planet’s landmass. It carries two instruments, cameras RBV(Return Beam Vidicon) and MSS(multispectral scanner).The MSS will record the data’s in spectral bands of four types green, red and two IR spectral bands.

MSS captured more than three lakh images till January 1978.The images taken from the Landsat1 gives the repeated coverage of the Earth’s land surfaces. The quality of the images and the im-pact of the resulting information exceeded all expectation. The Landsat1 was terminated on January 6th 1978 [13]. 5.2 Landsat2 Landsat2 was launched on January 22nd 1975 nearly two and half year later the launch of Landsat1. It was operated by NASA. It also carries the sensors as in Landsat1 RBV and MSS. The landsat2 had stopped its operation on February 25th 1982 due to yaw control problem, which will change the direction of the vehicle facing towards the yaw axis of the vehicle. Later, on July 27th 1983 it was decommissioned officially [13]. 5.3 Landsat3 Landsat3 was launched on March 5th 1978. The Respon-sibilities of Landsat3 was shifted from NASA to NOAA but the operational management was not transferred until 1983. NASA is a Research and development agency while NOAA is an agency charged with operating weather satellite. Landsat3 carries the same sensors as its predecessor’s .The RBV uses two RCA cam-eras, which are imaged in one board spectral band instead of us-ing three separate spectral bands as Landsat1 and Landsat2 do. The MSS captures images by using four spectral bands. But the Landsat3 channel failed shortly after the launch. The channel was terminated on March 5th 1983 [13]. 5.4 Landsat4 Landsat4 was different from other Landsat satellites. It was launched on July 16th 1982. It does not carry RBV but carries MSSS with a sensor with improved spectral and spatial resolution .It will provide wider image of the Earth. This new sensor in-strument is called the thematic Mapper (TM). Thematic mapper has 7 spectral bands they are red, green, and blue, near infrared, two bands of mid Infrared and the thermal Infrared portions. Landsat4 has lost its two solar panels and both the transmitters within a year. After this the TDRSS (Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System) became operational in Landsat4. It was termi-nated on 1993 [13]. 5.5 Landsat5 Landsat5 was launched on March 1st 1984 and it works similar as landsat4. Landsat5 has created a Guinness World Record for longest running Earth-observation satellite. The land-sat5 was still functioning but from November 2011 the USGS has stopped capturing the images from Thematic Mapper of Land-sat5 because of its rapidly degrading electronic components [13]. 5.6 Landsat6 Landsat6 was launched on October 5th 1993. It carried ETM (Enhanced Thematic Mapper). The ETM sensor collected data’s as Thematic Mapper does on Landsat4 and Landsat5.The ETM also included eight bands with resolution of 15m. The 8th band in Landsat6 is called as sharpening band or Panchromatic band. It is sensitive to light. The Landsat6 had failed to reach its orbit [13].


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5.7 Landsat7 Landsat7 was launched on April 15th 1999. It has special features as follows: A Panchromatic band of resolution 15m, On board full aperture 5% absolute radiometric calibration, a thermal IR channel of resolution 60m, On board data recorder. Landsat7 is the most exactly calibrated Earth’s observing satellite. The measurement done on this satellite is same as mea-surement taken on the ground. It is the most stable, best characte-rized Earth observation instrument ever placed in orbit. Best quality of data, consistent global archiving scheme and low cost of Landsat7 increased number of Landsat data users. In October 2008, the USGS made all the data’s of Landsat7 as free. The Land-sat7 went flawlessly until May 2003.Major Benefits of the Land-sat7 from other Remote sensing missions are: Mission continuity, Global survey mission, Affordable data, and Absolute calibration [13]. 5.8 Landsat8 Landsat8 was launched on February 11th 2013. The landsat8 becomes the continuity of the 40 year old Landsatl and imaging set. The Landsat8 was renamed as LDCM (Landsat Data Continuity Mission). The LDCM measurements are directly used in NASA Research areas as climate, carbon cycle, ecosystem, wa-ter cycle, biochemistry and in Earth surface or interior. The LDCM has two scientific instruments known as Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensors (TIRS). These sensors will provide the seasonal coverage of global landmass of spatial resolutions 30m, 100m, and 15m. The LDCM is accepted to capture 400 images per day for USGS data archive [13].

6. INSAT

INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multipurpose geostationary Satellites. INSAT was launched by ISRO to fulfil the needs in telecommunication, broadcasting, me-trology and search& rescue operations. It is operated with the Department of space, telecommunication, India metrological De-partment, All India Radio and Doordarshan. For imaging the Earth some of the satellites may use Very High Resolution Radi-ometer (VHRR), CCD cameras for metrological images. Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) was started its operation with the launch of INSAT-1B in 1983 in the month of August (INSAT-1A, the first satellite was launched in April 1982 but could not fulfill the mission).It leads to the rapid development of TV and modern telecommunication facilities to even the remote areas and off-shore islands. The Satellites are monitored and controlled by Master Control Facilities [16]. INSAT has launched 21 satellites, but only 11 are under operation now [16]. Few of them are: 6.1 INSAT2E INSAT2E is the last satellite in INSAT-2 series. Very High Resolu-tion Radiometer (VHRR) is carried in this satellite with imaging capacity in the visible (0.55-0.75 µm), thermal infrared (10.5-12.5µm) and water vapour (5.7-7.1µm) channels and provides 2x2 km, 8x8km and 8*8km ground resolution respectively. In addi-tion INSAT2E has a Charge Coupled Device (CCD) camera pro-viding 1x1 km ground resolution in the visible (0.63-0.69µm),

Near Infrared (0.77-0.86µm) and shortwave Infrared (1.55-1.70µm) bands [16]. 6.2 INSAT-3A INSAT-3A was launched by Ariane in April 2003, which is a mul-tipurpose satellite. It is located at 93.5 degree East Longitude. The payloads of INSAT are: It contains the payloads as in INSAT2E, in addition to it contains a Data Relay Transponder (DRT) having Earth coverage with a 400MHz uplink and 4500MHz downlink for relay of metrological, hydrological and oceanographic data from the land and ocean-based regions which is not attended by other satellites [16]. 6.3 INSAT-3C

INSAT-3C was launched in January 2002 and it is placed at 74 degree East longitude. It has payloads including 24 normal C-band transponders providing an EIRP (equivalent isotropically radiated power) of 37dbw, 6 extended C-band transponders with EIRP of 37dbw, and two S-band transponders to provide BSS services with 42dbw EIRP and MSS payloads. The transponders that are present in INSAT-3C provide coverage of all over India [16]. 6.4 INSAT-3E

INSAT-3E was launched at 2003 in the month of Sep-tember and it is positioned at 55 degree East Longitude. The IN-SAT-3E satellite carries 24 normal C-band and 12 Extended C-band transponders providing an Edge of coverage EIRP of 37dbw and 38dbw over India respectively [16].

6.5 INSAT-4A

INSAT-4A is launched in December 2005 and it is placed at 83 degree East longitude. INSAT-4A is placed along with the satellites INSAT-2E and INSAT-3B [16]. Tata Sky, which is a joint venture of TATA group and STAR, uses images of IN-

SAT-4A for their DTH services.

6.6 INSAT-4B

INSAT-4B was launched in March of 2007. It has the payloads identical to INSAT-4A. It is located with the satellite INSAt-3A at 93.5 degree East Longitude [16]. ISRO has allotted 7 Ku band transponders to Sun Direct and 5 other to Doordar-shan’s DD Direct plus. Then 12 transponders in C-band are used for TV, radio and Telecommunication purposes.

6.7 INSAT-4CR

INSAT-4CR was launched on 2nd of September 2007 by the Satellite GSLV-F04 [17]. This is replaced in place of INSAT-4C satellite which was lost when GSLV-F02 failed. The ISRO has reported that this satellite has reached near a geosynchronous orbit on 8th of September 2007 and it is stabilized in its actual position of 74 degree East longitude by 15th September [18]. The mission lifespan of INSAT-4CR satellite is ten years, but it has reduced to five years because the thrusters need much fuel to


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restore the satellite in its correct position. Later ISRO refused this report as false [19].

7. IRS

7.1 IRS-1A

IRS-1A, remote sensing satellites, was successfully launched into the polar sun-synchronous orbit on March 17, 1988, from the So-viet Cosmodrome atBaikonur.Mission completed during July 1996 after serving for 8 years and 4 months. IRS-1A carried two 'Linear Imaging Self-Scanning System' cameras, LISS-I and LISS-II, with a spatial resolution of 72.5 m and 36 m respectively. The mission of this satellite was Operational Remote Sensing and was launched on 17th march 1988 from Baikonur Cosmodrome Kazakhstan.it weighed approx. 975kg and had on-board power of 600Watts.estimated time of its one revolution was around 22 days (307 orbits).Its communication channels consisted of S-band, X-band and VHF (commanding only).the pay load offered was Three solid state Push Broom Cameras: LISS-1(72.5 metre resolu-tion), LISS-2A and LISS-2B (36.25 metre resolution).The orbit of the irs-1a by it was 904 km Polar Sun Synchronous with an incli-nation of 99.08o.[20] 7.2 IRS-1B

Improved features compared to ISR-1A: gyro referencing for bet-ter orientation sensing, time tagged commanding (IRS-1A) facility for more flexibility in camera operation and line count informa-tion for better data product generation. Over all an improvised version of 1A.Mission completed on December 20, 2003 after serving for 12 years and 4 months. The mission of this satellite was Operational Remote Sensing and was launched on 29th au-gust 1991 from Baikonur Cosmodrome Kazakhstan.it weighed approx. 975kg and had on-board power of 600Watts.estimated time of its one revolution was around 22 days. Its communication channels consisted of S-band, X-band and VHF (commanding only).the pay load offered was three solid state Push Broom Cameras LlSS-1(72.5 meter resolution), LlSS-2A and LlSS-2B (36.25 metre resolution).the orbit of the irs-1b by it was 904 km Polar Sun Synchronous with an inclination of 99.08o. [21]

7.3 IRS-1C

IRS-1C is India's second generation operational Remote Sensing Satellite. The satellite carries Payloads with enhanced capabilities like better spatial resolution additional spectral band, improved repetitively to its previous versions. Mission completed on Sep-tember 21, 2007 after serving for 11 years and 8 months. The mis-sion of this satellite was Operational Remote Sensing and was launched on 28th December 1995 from Baikonur Cosmodrome Kazakhstan.it weighed approx. 1250kg and had on-board power of 809Watts.estimated time of its one revolution was around 24 days. Its communication channels consisted of S-band, X-band ,the pay load offered was Three solid state Push Broom Cameras: PAN (<6 meter solution )LlSS-3(23.6 meter resolution) and WiFS (189 meter resolution) (72.5 meter resolution), LlSS-2A and LlSS-2B (36.25 meter resolution).the orbit of the irs-1c was 817 km Po-lar Sun-synchronous with an inclination of 99.69o. On-board tape recorder with storage capacity of Storage Capacity: 62 G bits. [21]

8. CARTOSAT

8.1 CARTOSAT –1 CARTOSAT – 1 is the first Indian Remote Sensing Satellite capa-ble of providing in-orbit stereo images. The images are used for Cartographic applications meeting the global requirements. Cameras of this satellite have a resolution of 2.5m (can distin-guish a small car also). The Cartosat – 1 provides stereo pairs re-quired for generating Digital Elevation Models, Ortho Image products, and Value added products for various applications of Geographical Information System (GIS). The mission of this satellite was Operational Remote Sensing and was launched on 28th December 1995 from Baikonur Cosmo-drome Kazakhstan.it weighed approx. 1560 kg and had on-board power of 809Watts.estimated time of its one revolution was around 97 minimum .So per day number of orbits was 14 .Its communication channels consisted of S-band, X-band, the pay load offered was PAN FORE, PAN – AFT .The orbit of the Carto-sat – 1 was 618 km Polar Sun-synchronous with an inclination of 99.69o. On-board tape recorder with storage capacity of Storage Capacity: 62 G bits. [21] 8.2 CARTOSAT – 2A

CARTOSAT – 2A is the thirteenth satellite in the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite series (IRS). It is a sophisticated and rugged re-mote sensing satellite that can provide scene specific spot im-agery. This satellite carries a Panchromatic Camera (PAN). The spatial resolution of this camera is better than 1m and swath of 9.6 km. Imageries from this satellite are used for cartographic applications like mapping, urban and rural infrastructure devel-opment and management, as well as application in Land Infor-mation (LIS) and Geographical Information System (GIS). [21]

8.3 CARTOSAT - 2B CARTOSAT - 2B is the seventeenth satellite in the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite series (IRS). CARTOSAT-2B carries a Panchro-matic camera (PAN) similar to those of its predecessors - CAR-TOSAT-2 and 2A. It is capable of imaging a swath (geographical strip) of 9.6 km with a resolution of better than 1 meter. The scene specific spot imagery sent by CARTOSAT-2B's PAN will be use-ful for cartographic and a host of other applications. The highly agile CARTOSAT-2B is steerable up to ± 26o along as well as across track to obtain stereoscopic imagery and achieve a four to five day revisit capability. [21]

9 CONCLUSION

The satellites are one of the greatest achievements of mankind. The space which was an unseen dream for human was brought for easy understanding for human through satellites. With increasingly sophisticated satellite remote sensors, we can measure a wide range of geophysical parameters such as surface temperature, distribution of clouds and aerosol particles, the ab-undance of trace gases in the atmosphere, or the distribution and types of life on land and in the ocean with unprecedented accura-cy and resolution. Hence now satellite has become one of the es-sential unit for the best survival of mankind.


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_resolution

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A Series of Earth Resource Satellites and its PotentialitiesA Series of Earth Resource Satellites...

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