A Qualitative Analysis of Adult Learners
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Transcript of A Qualitative Analysis of Adult Learners
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A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF ADULT LEARNERS
by
BRIAN J. KEINTZ
A dissertation submitted to the Department of Adult Learning and Technology and
The Graduate School of The University of Wyoming in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
in
EDUCATION
Laramie, Wyoming
May, 2004
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents 1
Appendix 4
List of Tables 5
Acknowledgements 6
Chapter I: Introduction 7
Purpose of the Study 7
Background of the Problem 7
Defining the Problem 17
The Inquiring Mind 18
The Research Question 19
Definitions 20
Limitations of the Study 22
Significance of the Study 24
Chapter II: Literature Review 29
Who are Active Adult Learners? 29
Motivation and Learning 36
Barriers 37
Relational Models of Development 39
Participation Models and Theories 41
Self Directed Learning 45
Moral and Intellectual Development 49
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Reflective Judgment and Adults 50
Chapter III: Methodology 65
Considerations in Participant Selection 67
Survey and Instrumentation 68
Data Collection Process 72
Data Organization 79
Data Analysis 79
RJI Analysis 81
Coding System
82
Chapter IV: Results 85
Participants 85
Family Members 96
Themes 99
Family Support Results 103
Reflective Judgment Results 107
Chapter V: Conclusions 119
Defining Active Adult Learners 119
Suggested Criteria of an Active Adult Learner
120
Conclusions Related to Motivation 123
Tools for Identifying Active Adult Learners 124
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Lessons about Learning Environments
125
Researcher Reflexivity
126
Implications for the Research Community 127
Appendix
Appendix A: Learner Questionnaire 148
Appendix B: Reflective Judgment Inventory Dilemmas 152
Appendix C: Consent Form 153
Appendix D: Semi Structured Question List
154
Appendix E: Reflective Judgment Inventory Questions 156
Appendix F: Transcript Master 157
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List of Tables
Table 1 Reflective Judgment Model 52
Table 2 Average Reflective Judgment Scores by Education Level 55
Table 3 Reflective Judgment Scores by Age 59
Table 4 Selection Criteria for Participants 75
Table 5 Initial Categories of Data 80
Table 6 Descriptive Characteristics of Participants 85
Table 7 Participant Learning Activites
87
Table 8 Parental Messaging and Active Adult Learners 103
Table 9 Reflective Judgment Scores 109
Table 10 Active Learner Criteria 120
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank many individuals who have worked with me to make this studypossible. In the years it took to complete the study, several faculty and staff havebeen a part of my committee. First, Dr. Burt Sisco deserves recognition as he wasmy first advisor and continued to serve on my committee after leaving the Universityof Wyoming. Also, Dr. Donna Whitson, and Dr. John Cochenour, served as myofficial advisors during periods of this study. Others who served on my committeeand offered assistance include Dr. James C. Hurst, Dr. Brenda Freeman, Dr. MichaelDay, Dr. Suzanne Young, and Dr. Guy Westhoff. Several individuals offeredsupport and encouragement during my time at the University of Arizona. Dr. DanAdams, Bill Shiba, and my staff at the Arizona Student Unions were supportive andencouraging of my efforts to finish while I was also working a full time job. My goodfriends, Charlie and Karen Francis offered lodging, friendship, and encouragementduring several trips to Laramie to complete several of the final steps. JeanetteSkinner, with the Adult Learning and Technology Department at the University ofWyoming was invaluable in getting the signatures, copies, and program of studyprocessed as I was not on campus at the time.
My family has been very important in this endeavor. My parents, Cornelius andDorothy Keintz have championed my educational goals and my grandparents, Johnand Suzie Keintz, provide some of the funding for the study. The person who hasdone the most to encouragement, motivate, and assist me is my wife, Connie. Shewas my inspiration for this study as she struggled to identify her own path oflearning. Also, my sons, Alexander and Cameron, deserve thanks for beingunderstanding and supportive when I was studying or writing.
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Chapter I
Introduction
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the attitudes, motivations, preferred
resources, desired settings, and reflective thinking of active adult learners. Active adult
learners can be found in every educational setting. Some adults possess a drive to learn
and the ability to put knowledge to use in their lives. They seek to improve their careers,
families, communities, and/or themselves through the process of learning. Active learning
is a common quality of adult learners, but not every adult has the same drive, capacity,
opportunity, or condition for learning. This examination of adult learners provides
guidance for adult educators in understanding what opportunities, goals, and motivational
factors affected these adult learners. This study may assist adult educators in better
understanding the adults with whom they interact.
Background of the Problem
Adults are very busy people. Some of their activities include joining clubs,
participating in politics, traveling, raising families, serving their community, maintaining a
career or job, attending church, and seeking as much time as possible for relaxation, sleep,
and leisure. It seems improbable, when examining the life of one adult, that time could be
found for learning activities. However, there are millions of adult learners who will make
time for learning. (Belanger & Valdivielso, 1997; Courtney, 1991) In fact, it would seem
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that many adults who are successful in their personal lives, careers, and community have
done so as a result of being oriented toward learning throughout their adult lives. (Houle,
1992).
Understanding adult learning is challenging and complex. Participation, self-
directed learning, and reflective judgment are three literature areas in adult education.
These literature areas provide a basis for framing this study.
Participation in Adult Education (PAE)
Participation studies have dominated the literature but have netted few
explanations for why some adults are active learners and others are not. There have been
a number of well-documented studies (Belanger & Valdivielso, 1997; Charnley, 1974;
Courtney, 1991; Gray & Munroe, 1929; Newman, 1979; Williams & Heath, 1936) to
determine which factors, motivations, or goals predict the activity and involvement of an
adult learner. Several researchers and writers have developed models of participation
(Miller, 1967; Boshier, 1973; Ruberson, 1977; Cross, 1981; Darkenwald & Merriam,
1982; Crookson, 1987). These models consider a multitude of factors related to the
experiences of adults in learning situations including class, gender, race, socioeconomic
status, psychological conditions, socialization, life transitions, goals, and learning press.
Where this approach to theory development falls short is that it seeks to simplify what is
complex and attempts to generalize simple constructs to an entire population. The
results of studying these physiological, psychological, societal, or socioeconomic factors,
which define active adult learners, cannot be easily explained.
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Suttle (1982) observed that practice is concerned with describing what exists and
how to manipulate it. Theory attempts to explain why a phenomenon exists. The
question of "why" adults participate has generated a number of theories that have served
to explain some of the participation phenomenon. Cross (1981) provided a very
comprehensive analysis of theory and research on who participates in adult learning; why
they participate; what they learn; and how they learn. Cross concluded there are no
satisfactory theories that explain why adults are motivated to learn or how participation
can be improved. Cross stated, "If adult educators wish to understand why some adults
fail to participate in learning opportunities, they need to begin at the beginning of the
COR (Chain of Response) Model - with an understanding of attitudes toward self and
education." (p. 130). These comments are congruent with the purpose of this study.
Understanding active adult learners begins with asking questions that address how they
perceive learning, what educational opportunities they select, and how education affects
their attitude toward themselves and others.
Self Directed Learning
Learning in a formal setting, where there can be structure and control, is often
treated as the dominant mode for facilitating learning. Adult education, historically, has
addressed learning needs regardless of the setting and at times of crisis. The study of
learning outside a formal setting has also generated substantial attention in the literature.
Since the ground breaking work on self directed learning by Alan Tough (1967, 1978,
1979), Cyril Houle (1984), and Malcolm Knowles (1975, 1980), the movement to
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embrace what adult educators have always believed to be true has taken place. The
notion that adults are self directed, goal oriented, and want responsibility for their own
learning has become a foundation of the field. Tough's original research (1967) was
motivated by the desire to disprove the contention of Coolie Verner (1964) that self-
directed learning should not be considered adult education. (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991)
Tough (1967) argued that all adults are motivated to learn through the interpersonal desire
to gain and retain certain knowledge and skill. Tough's (1967) optimistic view was
welcomed, but not completely supported in the sense that it does not explain the
motivational differences that have always existed among adults. Are there differences
among adult learners? Is the self-directed nature of adult learners absolute and universal?
The lack of definition of adult learner participation is not the case in the study of
self directed learning, which has been systematically studies and defined for the past three
decades. Tough (1979) proposed a popular operational definition of self directed learning.
He defined a learning project as "a series of related episodes, adding up to at least seven
hours. In each episode, more than half of the person's total motivation is to gain and
retain certain fairly clear knowledge and skills, or to produce some other lasting change in
himself" (p. 7). This definition motivated a number of dissertations and research studies.
(Bejot, 1981; Brookfield, 1984; Caffarella & Caffarella, 1986; Geisler, 1984; Kratz, 1978)
They differed in the quantity of self directed learning that occurs in the adult population
and in the number of hours which constitute a learning episode, but they did agree that
self directed learning is a form of study for the adult education field.
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Criticism of self directed learning research routinely appears in the literature.
Brookfield (1988) describes self-directed learning as a "danger to the field" of adult
education because of ambiguities and contradictions in the literature (p. 12). The use of
middle-class, educationally advantaged, females as the primary population for studies has
also been criticized (McDune, 1988). Merriam and Caffarella (1991) challenged
researchers of self directed learning to include subjects with lower levels of formal
education and different ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds. The recognition of this
weakness in the research of self directed learning resulted in a number of new studies in
the past decade that take the social context into consideration (Brookfield, 1985). The
adult learners in this study are neither educationally nor economically advantaged, in
recognition of this challenge. Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) developed the Personal
Responsibility Orientation (PRO) model which utilizes self directed learning as the
umbrella concept. PRO emphasizes the process of teaching and learning while giving
consideration to learner characteristics and the social context where learning takes place.
Self directed learning is one of the few concepts in adult education that has
undergone systematic development over the past three decades (Merriam & Brockett,
1997). The research can be divided into three different categories, including 1) learning
projects research which are descriptive surveys of Tough's methodology for self
directedness; 2) quantitative measures of self direction, or the development of instruments
of measure adult self directed learning; 3) and qualitative studies involving observations
and interviews of adult learners in the interest of creating models and categories (Brockett
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& Hiemstra, 1991). This study will contribute to the literature in the third category - a
qualitative study that examines active adult learner from many perspectives.
Epistemic Assumptions in Learning
The epistemic assumptions of adults affect the choices adults make about learning
activities as well as their ability to make sense of a learning activity once they have begun.
These epistemic assumptions could be held in the socioeconomic context of the learner, in
the psychological support for learning that is role modeled or applied, or in the view of
one's learning abilities which related to self-esteem. All of these assumptions and factors
may play a role in the learning opportunities recognized, created, or facilitated by adults.
In effect, the level of learning activity is either increased or decreased by the learners
recognition that an opportunity exists for them and that they have the abilities to succeed
in this activity.
Epistemic assumptions have the same affect as paradigms, which have moved
from the realm of the scientific community to broader application in society. Thomas
Kuhn introduced the idea of paradigms in 1962. His dissertation, on the history of
science, discussed cases when the scientific community withheld truth and misled the
research community due in part to subtle scientific paradigms that maintain the balance of
power. Kuhn provides several examples of how phenomenal scientific discoveries
throughout the history of science have been resisted, covered-up, or ignored because they
altered well entrenched assumptions or unseated ideas of more powerful and well-known
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researchers. These very paradigmatic ideas govern the daily routines of all human beings
and the decisions made both individually or collectively (Kuhn, 1962).
Individual decision-making can have a cumulative effect on society. Consider the
staggering number of American citizens who choose not to vote in elections. The decision
to not vote impacts the direction of an entire community or nation. Many difficult ethical
decisions may never achieved consensus in American society. Abortion, capital
punishment, national security, and even the legal or illegal uses of drugs and alcohol are all
individual and societal issues requiring complex thinking skills. John Gardner (1990)
argues that society is in a state of perpetual rebuilding. "Each generation must rediscover
the living elements in its own tradition and adapt them to present reality. To assist in
that rediscovery is one of the tasks of leadership." (p. 13-14) Gardner’s (1990) words
speak to the need for individual leadership and collective dialogue in advancing society,
but leadership and dialogue are the result of competent decision-making skills.
Adult educators have responsibility for recognizing the assumptions made by
adult learners about themselves; their learning environment; and the opportunities that
exist for them to understand and facilitate a productive and enjoyable life. The
understanding of these assumptions may provide insight into those factors which
motivate an adult to learn. Many educational and sociological theorists (Brookfield, 1987,
1995; Gramsci, 1985; Habermas, 1984, 1987; Mezirow, 1990, 1991) argue that
"paradigmatic assumptions" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 2) perpetuate the idea that society is
good and right limiting the decisions for individuals. This tendency to make decisions to
legitimize societal paradigms is what Gramsci (1985) first called hegemonic. In Gramsci's
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view, hegemonic assumptions explicitly advance the community, the institution, or
society in general, while implicitly valuing prejudiced, racist, or sexist ideals that restrict
those who are less powerful. Gramsci (1985), and other critical theorists (Habermas,
1984, 1987; Mezirow, 1990, 1991), propose theories and educational programs that
promote critical reflection by learners or the learners ability to challenge the hegemonic
assumptions which limit opportunities, and affect motivation. King and Kitchener
(1994), whose work is utilized in this study, support education as a means for learners to
address assumption about what is the truth. The very nature of the cognitive
development of adolescents makes them subject to the directive of authority figures.
Adults, however, are capable of recognizing epistemic assumptions and engaging in
reflective thinking.
Reflective Thinking vs. Critical Thinking
Multiple studies have been conducted to examine how formal education affects the
development of critical thinking in learners and how various educational designs can
enhance these skills (Dressel & Mayhew, 1954; Lehmann, 1963, 1968; Mentkowski &
Strait, 1983; Pascarella, 1989; Steele, 1986). Critical thinking is involved in solving
problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions. It is
described as purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed. Often critical thinking is associated
with a process of inquiry that includes identifying issues, recognizing relationships,
making inferences, deducing conclusions, and evaluating these conclusions (Furedy &
Furedy, 1985; Halpern, 1989).
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Critical thinking can be traced to the theories of formal operations popularized by
Piaget (1952, 1966, 1972). It is appropriate as an educational outcome when the focus is
the evaluation of a learners' inductive and deductive logic or the process of postulating
possible solutions and eliminating those which are not the correct answer. However,
inductive and deductive reasoning are related to problems where the correct answer is
available and the challenge is arriving at that right answer, much like in a mathematical
equation. The types of problems faced routinely by all human beings are not well
structured problems with correct answers to be discovered. The type of thinking that is
applied to complex problems, where the right answer is not at hand, requires reflective
thinking (Wood, 1983, King & Kitchener, 1994).
Reflective thinking must be equally valued as an educational outcome because it
addresses the epistematic assumptions which force us to see things in a certain way and
because reflective thinking is a necessity for dealing with complex, ill-structured
problems. It is very important that educational experiences assist learners in seeing their
environment in new ways as they replace previous assumptions with new assumptions.
Learners who employ critical thinking skills in addressing complex problems may be
frustrated, or worse may assume answers to ill-structured problems are correct, and
effectively ignoring other more appropriate approaches. More important is the
recognition that reflective thinking is an extremely powerful measure of learning. The
Reflective Judgment Inventory (King & Kitchener, 1994) is a measure of the reflective
thinking abilities of learners, as it related to the linear scale of the Reflective Judgment
Model. This instrument and model will provide a measurement of the problem solving
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ability of adult learners in this study giving us another view of their educational
orientation.
Defining Active Adult Learners
The purpose of this study is to examine the attitudes, motivations, preferred
resources, desired settings, and reflective thinking of active adult learners. Houle (1992)
describes active adult learners as adults who are successful in their personal lives, careers,
and community as a result of being oriented toward learning throughout their adult lives.
This definition is used in the literature, but it is very broad as criteria for identification of
adult learners for this study. Therefore, an operational definition of active adult learners
will be used in this study. This operational definition is as follows: Active adult learner -
An adult, 35 to 55 years of age; who is an active participant in formal, non-formal, and
informal learning activities; can articulate the value of learning in his/her life; and is capable
of defining his/her learning goals. Throughout this study, the use of the term active adult
learner is defined by the operational definition. If a reference is to the definition offered
by Houle (1992), it will be cited as such.
Defining the Problem
The literature on participation has a great deal to offer toward the understanding
of factors that affect adult attitudes and motivation. A number of possible motivational
factors are presented in which to explore with adult learners through interviews and
individual assessment. However, there are currently no models that are reasonably
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predictive of who will participate in adult education, and thus may provide a foundation
for predicting active adult learners.
According to Cross (1981), countless surveys of adults have asked the same
question in one form or another - what are your reasons for seeking learning opportunities
and what barriers do you experience? The problem with surveys is that they
underestimate the amount of "dispositional barrier" involved in a survey. In other words,
it is more likely that an adult will identify cost as the problem because they cannot or will
not admit to their own disinterest in adult education (p. 108). This limitation is a
consideration in this study as well because there is no way to completely control for this
condition.
The breadth and depth of the literature on self directed learning is valuable in
understanding how adults are self-motivated. The research on self-esteem, social context,
and models for applying self directed learning will support this study. Unfortunately,
self directed learning does not explain lack of motivation by some learners. A great deal
of research has been dedicated to the study of the quantity and types of self directed
learning. The development of guides and strategies for facilitating self directed learning in
a number of settings has been a productive venture for adult educators. However, the
question remains: what makes an active adult learner? This study will not answer this
question because it is not generalizable to any other group. This study will tell a story
about the adult learners selected which may help others to understand adult learning from
the perspective of the learner.
The Inquiring Mind
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The initial examination of the literature for this study focused on three areas
described previously – participation, self-directed learning, and reflective judgment. This
extensive literature review led to a thorough examination of Cyril Houle’s 1961 study
resulting in his book, The Inquiring Mind. Houle (1961) modeled a simple but powerful
approach to understanding adult learners. He talked to them. The effort to conduct the
study was substantial requiring many hours of traveling, interviewing, organizing data,
and analyzing. However, the idea of focusing on individual experience, rather than
institutional or organizational intervention, is inspirational and courageous, and provided
an effective model for the design of this study.
Houle (1961) was the first adult educator to try this approach knowing well that
his work would be criticized. It was not generalizable to the general population, or rich
with recommendation for changes to institutions, nor did he attempt present complex
models for participation or adult development. Houle (1961) inspired many (Sheffield,
1964; Burgess, 1971; Boshier, 1971) to investigate his findings further in an attempt to
broaden the application. However, as is the case with any qualitative study, the
discussion tells the story of this relatively small convenience sample so that others may
have a context to make sense of their own experiences.
The Research Question
The study of specific adult learner cases conducted with qualitative methodology
means that outcomes are determined once data has been collected and assessed. This does
not restrict the researcher from outlining general a priori questions that are to be
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answered. The development of this study resulted in many questions, and may generate
many new questions. However, the primary research questions of this study are as
follows:
What are the common factors in the lives of adult learners in this study which
enhance motivation and opportunity for learning?
There are many other aspects of the lives of these adult learners that will be
examined. Their backgrounds, learning preferences, family experiences, and decision-
making will be probed. Their ability to think reflectively about complex problems, and to
formulate and defend their positions will be challenged. All of these inquires will provide
insight into the adult learners in this study, and thus will generate data to be evaluated.
This data will provide grounded theory and questions for further discussion and research.
Definitions
• Active adult learner - An adult, 35 to 55 years of age, who is an active participant
in formal, non-formal, and informal learning activities, can articulate the value of
learning in his/her life; and is capable of defining his/her learning goals.
• Critical thinking - thinking that is involved in solving problems, formulating
inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions. It is described as
purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed. Often Critical thinking is associated with
a process of inquiry that includes identifying issues, recognizing relationships,
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making inferences, deducing conclusions, and evaluating these conclusions (Furedy
& Furedy, 1985; Halpern, 1989).
• Epistemic - "of or related to knowledge. Knowing." (Mish, 1996)
• Epistemic assumptions - assumptions about what knowledge is and how it can be
known (King & Kitchener, 1994).
• Epistemic cognition - "the process an individual invokes to monitor the epistemic
nature of problems and the truth value of alternative solutions." (Kitchener, 1983,
p. 225)
• Formal education - education where a facilitator or instructor designs and directs
an educational experience in a systematic and planned program that awards
learners with formal recognition of educational achievement such as a credit,
certificate, diploma, license, or a degree.
• Ill-structure problem - problems that cannot be described with a high degree of
completeness nor solved with a high degree of certainty. (Churchman, 1971).
• Informal education - education that is devoid of organizational or institutional
involvement where the learner interacts with human and nonhuman resources in a
deliberate or fortuitous manner in fulfillment of personal, self-directed learning
goals.
• Non-formal education - education that is organized outside the established formal
educational system that does not offer credit, diplomas, license, or a degree for
completion of courses or a program of study. The learning experience may be
structured or unstructured and participation is voluntary.
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• Non-student adults - adults who were not enrolled in formal education (King &
Kitchener, 1994).
• Reflective judgment - the process of making decisions about ill-structured
problems through the examination and evaluation of relevant information, opinion,
available explanations, in construction of a plausible solution, while acknowledging
that the solution itself is open to further evaluation and scrutiny and consideration
of individual epistemic assumptions (King & Kitchener, 1994).
• Socioeconomic status - the status of an individual obtained within a community or
society based on a combination of social and economic factors.
• Well-structured problems - problems with a single correct answer that is
ultimately available. (Churchman, 1971).
Limitations of the Study
There are several limitation of this study. The literature on participation and self
directed learning is used as the framework for this study. Adult learner participation has
been studied extensively and there has been a great deal learned from this research. It is
widely believed that the increasing sophistication of research methodology and data
analysis techniques will lead to greater understanding in the future. (Merriam & Caffarella,
1999) In spite of this optimism, current and past research reflects that participation still
has a lot of unresolved questions - primarily in understanding the interaction of a
multitude of variables that may have an impact on learner choices. The complexity of
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accounting for all the possible variables that affect participation is a limitation. This
problem has affected most studies of participation and will likely affect this study.
This study has reference the work of Cyril Houle (1961, 1992) and his
examinations of what he calls active adult learners. He defines active adult learners as
adults who are successful in their personal lives, careers, and community as a result of
being oriented toward learning throughout their adult lives. (Houle, 1992) This study is
limited by Houle’s (1992) definition because what is commonly considered successful in
adult’s lives, careers, and community cannot be clearly outlined. Therefore, the definition
for this study has been operationalized in order for effective selection of participants.
This fact means that the definition by Houle (1992) that is used in the literature will not
directly guide this study.
This study focuses on a small group of adult learners who are associated in some
manner with a large southwestern university. They are employees, family members of
employees, part-time students, or involved in extended learning of some kind through the
institution. This choice of population allows for efficient screening and will add to the
convenience of participants. The limitation is that this association with an educational
institution, no matter how subtle, has likely added opportunities that may not be
available to the average adult learner.
The data collected is qualitative. Obvious emerging themes and categories will be
evaluated and comprehensively reported. There is a narrowing, focusing and summarizing
of results that has happened throughout Chapters IV and V. This leaves some data
underutilized.
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Finally, a significant limitation is imposed by the qualitative paradigm. The
quantitative researcher prefers data, which is a sample of a broader population. This may
be the expectation of some individuals reading and reviewing this research, but it is not the
design of this study. This study tells the story of five active adult learners selected as
participants. Their responses to questions and an analysis of their performance on the
Reflective Judgment Inventory is reported. Categories of their responses have been
developed and reported. These reports have resulted in the development of "grounded
theory", which may define or explain the actions of active adult learners in other select
settings, but realistically, these theories can not be expected to apply to all active adult
learners. It is up to the reader to draw their own conclusions on how it relates to their
situation or the population as a whole. Is this a limitation? The answer to this question
may be up to the reader. It is expected that this will be seen as a limitation to a large
contingency of the research community that expects research to be widely generalizable.
This seems to be the case with much of the research conducted on participation since the
goal is to discover a method or model for predicting participation, and this area of inquiry
has utilized survey research extensively.
Significance of the Study
Significance, as it is understood from a statistical perspective, does not apply to
this study. This study is significant in that is contributes to adult educators a view of a
small group of adult learners selected for this study. The methodology is unique and
modeled after a widely examined study by Cyril Houle (1961). The study of these
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frequent consumers of education is important for adult education because, as organizers
and facilitators of educational resources, adult educators are interested in those who
respond to their product. This benefit - better understanding of frequent learners -
appeals to a large segment of adult educators who are pragmatic. They are most
interested in knowing how research can help them improve upon what they are doing as
educators. Information gained from this study will appeal to this "consumer oriented"
element of the profession (Cross, 1981, p. 110).
The attempt to identify grounded theory for active adult learners addresses the
need for "small scale, experimental studies" and "psychological treatments of
participation in adult education", as called for by Courtney (1991, p. 12). This study
looks at a specific group of active adult learners and develops grounded theory about the
preferences, challenges, and needs of that small group of learners. Telling the story of this
group of learners may help others to research or define other groups of learners with
whom they participate or serve. Considering the pragmatic orientation of the adult
education field, there are practical recommendations that will enhance the educational
facilitation. As discussed in the previous sections, active adult learners are the population
primarily served by adult education. There is value in better understanding this
population.
Finally, the evaluation of reflective judgment of adult learners has not been done as
part of a qualitative study. The reflective judgment inventory (RJI), used in this study,
has been a part of six quantitative studies involving adult learners who are not enrolled in
formal education (Glatfelter, 1982; Glenn, 1992; Josephson, 1988; Kelton & Griffith,
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1986; King, 1986; Lawson, 1980). These six studies did not utilize non-student adults as
the primary population but collected data from these subjects as a method of comparing
performance of formally enrolled adult college students. One would expect active adult
learners to effectively resolve ill-structured problems. However, this is not a relationship
that has been explored, and this study is significant in that it attends to filling this gap in
the literature.
Overview of the Chapters
This paper is organized into five chapters in the traditional structure. These
chapters include the Introduction, Review of Literature, Methodology, Results, and
Conclusions. The chapter that follows, Review of Literature, moves from general related
literature to the more specific. The chapter begins with analysis of the literature on
participation in adult education (PAE) and self directed learning. Also, the review of
literature looks at research on barriers to adult learning.
The third chapter, Methodology, is organized in a qualitative research format. It
defines the intended participants, reviews the instrumentation, overviews interview
process and structure, and provides a detailed description of the data collection
procedures. This study uses different types of data collected from a learner
questionnaire, the Reflective Judgment Inventory, field notes of the researcher, transcripts
of interviews, and interviews with family members. The data analysis process is also
discussed in detail along with the manner in which data was organized.
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The chapters of Results and Conclusions open with a report on exactly how data
was collected and what are the descriptive characteristics of the adult learners in the
study. An overview of the participants and the descriptive information of their
backgrounds as learners are included. Results from the extensive data collection taken
from participants, their families, and their personal histories are organized and reported
here. The use of a number of examples from transcripts will be used to tell the story of
these exceptional learners and to profile what makes them unique. Conclusions are
outlined in the final chapter from the perspective of the researcher. Questions for
additional research are identified and explained as well as final thoughts.
This paper is wrapped up with an extensive reference list. This study required
looking at the literature of several areas including development psychology, adult
development theory, self-directed learning, critical theory, reflective practice, teacher
education, as well as the international and historical foundations of adult education in
order to define educational type. The use of headings and a table of content will help the
reader to scan for the literature that is of greatest interest to them.
Summary
This study is designed to examine adult learners utilizing a qualitative case-study
format. Active adult learners are defined as adults who are successful in their personal
lives, careers, and community as a result of being oriented toward learning throughout
their adult lives. (Houle, 1992) An operational definition is offered for the purpose of
this study. An active adult learner is operationally defined as 35 to 55 years of age; is an
28
active participant in formal, non-formal, and informal learning activities; can articulate the
value of learning in his/her life; and is capable of defining his/her learning goals. This
study focuses on the following question: What are the common factors in the lives of
adult learners in this study which enhance motivation and opportunity for learning?
A study conducted by Cyril Houle, in 1961, examined 22 adult learners in the
Chicago area. Houle’s (1961) study, reported in his book, The Inquiring Mind, provides
a model for the implementation of this study. This study utilizes the literature of adult
education related to participation and self-directed learning as a primary source, along
with reflective judgment literature. The literature on participation has not resulted in
reliable models which are predictive of who will participate in adult education
opportunities. The literature on self-directed learning does present a great deal of
information that is helpful in this study, since motivation, self-esteem, and barriers are
very much a part of the body of knowledge. Self-directed learning instruments have been
developed which measure the degree in which an adult is a self-directed learner. A
limitation is that self-directed learning has been defined in a number of ways and many
studies fail to examine the self directed learner within the social context. Insights into the
reflective judgment of active adult learners are a contribution of this study. The reflective
judgment model (King & Kitchener, 1994) has not been utilized extensively as an
indicator of adult learning activity.
There are limitations associated with this study. First, the lack of identifiable
factors that suggest who will participate in adult education means some arguments and
conclusions of this study may not have solid support in the participation literature.
29
Literature on self directed learning and reflective judgment have also been utilized.
Second, adult learners in the study may have been inclined to respond in a manner that
presents them in a favorable light, thus self reporting a result that is not accurate. Finally,
this study is limited by qualitative principles in that it cannot be generalized to the general
adult population. This limitation was understood in advance. It may, however, be
treated critically by pragmatic adult educators who are accustomed to results that can be
generalized to a larger group.
The significance of this study is that it examines adult learning through
observations and interviews of active adult learners themselves. It utilizes an analysis of
reflective judgment to examine the relationship between adult learning activity and
reflective thinking.
30
Literature Review
This study is about active adult learners or learners who have a passion for
learning demonstrated by active engagement in multiple learning activities. Adult learning
is a continuous and personal process. The learning of adolescences is stimulated in a
formal learning environment - in elementary, middle, or high school - where attendance is
required and performance expected. Adult learning, on the other hand, is less structured
and more dynamic. There is an incredible amount of freedom and choice involved with
this educational enterprise, (Courntney, 1991) although "what one wants to learn, what is
offered, and the ways in which one learns are determined to a large extent by the nature of
the society at any particular point in time." (Merriam & Carrarella, 1991, p. 5). This
study is concerned with the needs and motives of active adult learners and the conditions
or factors - both environmental and psychological - that lead them to become engaged in
learning activities in such an intensive manner.
Who is the Active Adult Learner?
The active adult learner has been studied and classified often in the literature. A
number of studies have been conducted from surveys of active adult learners, in the hope
of discovering a connection between descriptive variables and active participation in adult
learning activities. These studies have provided information on adult learning activities in
31
the United States, the characteristics of active adult learners, and the influence of previous
education on learning.
Participation Surveys - Participation surveys represent the response of early
researchers who wanted to know how many adults are involved in educational activities
and the characteristics of these learners. Morse Cartwright (1924), who was an officer of
the Carnegie Corporation, first published a study of adult learner participation. He
estimated that there were 15 million adult learners, or 18 percent of the adult population
at the time. Adult learners in this study were those over 14 years of age. Since
Cartwright's first attempt at estimating adult learning activities, there has been a
refinement of the questions asked, and an increase in the sophistication of research
techniques for data collection and estimation.
Cartwright, in a 1935 study, redefined adult learners and their learning activities
from his earlier work. This study included thirty different categories of learning sites
which were not previously considered. Some of these sites included extension, radio and
television, clubs, libraries, religious programs, business activities, labor unions, the armed
forces, lyceums, recreation, and immigrant education. The broadening of the definition of
what is an adult learner by Cartwright was the first of many definitions presented in the
literature. This variability exists because adult education has evolved and changed over
time responding to the educational needs of society. The manner in which adult learners
were viewed changed rapidly along with the view of what constitutes a learning activity
(Merriam & Caffarella, 1999).
32
Several surveys were conducted in the 1950's (Essert, 1950; Knowles, 1955) to
answer the question of how active are adult learners in the United States. Essert (1950)
estimated 20% of adults were active learners in 1924. Knowles estimated this rate to be
33% in 1955; and predicted that by 1975, 50% of the adult population of the United
States would be active adult learners. These figures may be compelling, but they are often
criticized because the research methodology was not systematic. (Courtney, 1991)
Johnstone and Rivera (1965) conducted what is considered the first systematic,
national survey of active adult learners in the United States. Their study, based on a
survey carried out by the National Opinion Research Center in Chicago, was also
significant in the fact that it was the first study to go outside the institution looking at
learning from a holistic perspective. Their estimates included activities of churches and
synagogues, the military, community and volunteer organizations, museums, radio and
television programs, on-the-job training, and independent study. Johnstone and Rivera
(1965) estimated 20% of the adult population to be active adult learners.
More studies of active adult learners (Aslanian & Brickell, 1980; Carp, Peterson,
& Roelfs, 1974) vary widely on their estimates of learning activities. These estimates
range from 31% to 50%. It would be impossible to ascertain with any degree of
confidence that this increase of activity from the Johnstone and Rivera (1965) study has
any statistical significance because of variability of definition. The differences in these
estimates does indicate that a count of active adult learners is highly dependent on how
the survey is conducted, and is related to the definition of adult learning to be utilized.
33
The definition directs the determination of what activities are considered adult learning
activities.
Courtney (1991) reviewed a number of studies of active adult learners. He chose
to highlighting a study by Moses (1971) who defined active adult learning as "the total
number of people developing their capacities through systematic education" whether their
choice of educational methodology was formal or non-formal. Moses (1971) did not
include informal learning (self directed learning) since this type of learning was very
difficult to identify consistently. Based on the work of Moses (1971) who estimated the
number of active adult learners to be 44 million in the United States; Courtney (1991)
extrapolated that there would be 88 million active adult learners in the United States in
1991.
Annual surveys of participation rates by active adult learners (Kim, Collins,
Stowe, & Chandler, 1995; Kopka & Peng, 1993; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999) show that
rates of involvement in learning activities have been steadily growing since 1969. These
surveys report that in 1969 participation was 10%; 14% in 1984; 32% in 1991; and 40%
in 1995. Kopka and Peng (1993) attribute the increase to the extraordinary growth in the
use of technology and to the increasing frequency of job changes. Kim, Collins, Stowe,
and Chandler (1995) argue that a portion of the increase is due to better research design
and more accurate statistical methods. Again, these studies differ somewhat in their
definition of an educational activity, which also brings smaller differences into question.
However, in spite of these various limitations, the growth in the number of active adult
learners is consistent and significant.
34
The first survey of adult learning activities across several nations was conducted
by Belanger and Valdivielso ( 1997). This comprehensive survey examine participation
activities, motivation, barriers, and learning context of adult learners from Canada, The
Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, The United States, Switzerland, and the Canary Islands.
The most important finding of this comprehensive study is that the amount of knowledge
required for meeting economic needs of employers and employees has increased
tremendously. Adult learning is moving further from the fringe of society to being central
in the education of adults for business and industry. This very comprehensive study
suggests that the discussion of adults whom are active learners is not relevant because
there are so many economic factors driving all adult’s motivation to learn. (Belanger &
Valdivielso, 1997)
Active Adult Learner Characteristics - Active adult learners are a complex and
diverse group of people. There have been a number of attempts at describing this
population according to some common qualities, and using these qualities as a predictor of
who will be active learners. Lorimer (1931) sampled 1166 adult learners in Brooklyn,
New York. His primary question was to determine if the adult motivation toward
learning was caused by a disability or barrier that did not allow them to complete their
formal education as adolescents. He was surprised to find that this assumption was false.
His results documented that 75% of those not completing high school did not enroll in
adult education; while 45% of those completing high school did not participate in adult
education. Lorimer (1931) put together, for the first time, a relationship that we take for
35
granted today. Adults who are active learners seek education along with pursuing other
interests.
Lorimer (1931) observed what he called a "general participation syndrome" which
is the responsibility active adult learners share for making contributions to their
community (p. 50). Several studies conducted later (Kaplan, 1945; McGrath, 1938)
confirmed the connection between previous education and active adult learning with an
emphasis on the fact that those who have excelled professionally as a result of their
education, would most likely look to education as a means for changing or advancing their
careers.
National surveys (Arbeiter, 1977; Cross, 1978, 1979) have historically been
helpful in identifying the characteristics of active adult learners. These early surveys
found that active adult learners tend to be young, female, and looking for career
advancements. More recent surveys (Kim, et al, 1995; Kopka & Peng, 1993) point to
shifts in these early characteristics. Men have equaled women with regard to the level of
participation. These surveys also point out the observation that adult learners with
children under 6 years of age are much more likely to drop out than their child-less
classmates.
Age seems to be a factor in educational activity (Digest of Educational
statistics, 1985 & 1986). The most active group of adult learners is 25-34 years of age
and are equally balanced between men and women. This group of people is engaged in
careers objectives utilizing learning opportunities as a means for advancement.
"Organized adult learning is still very much a young person's game", noted Courtney
36
(1991, p. 35). He found that over half of all participants in organized adult education
were 35 years of age or younger.
Anderson and Darkenwald (1979) attempted to analyze the relationship between
eleven variables using the 1975 NCES survey data in an attempt to identify a combination
that is predictive of participation in adult learning activities. They found that age, sex,
race, income, and education correlate with participation, but are not predictive of an active
adult learner. Dimmock (1985) utilized a more focused approach with analyzing a
national sample of adult learners. She found age, education, and an interest in science and
technology were predictive of an adult choosing certain science-related learning activities.
Among the conclusions drawn from Dimmock's study is the realization that how a
learning activity is defined has a lot to do with the connection of certain variables to
participation in that activity.
The characteristics of the active adult learner have not changed much since
Johnstone and Rivera (1965) conducted their landmark study. The typical active adult
learner is better educated (formally), younger, has a higher level of income, Caucasian, and
likely to be employed full-time. This information must be viewed cautiously since it is a
compilation of many different studies and hides, through generalization, very rich and
substantive variations that are important. (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). For example,
adult learners in literacy programs and those taking music lessons may be very different.
Previous Education - The most significant factor in the history of the study of
participation is the relationship between previous education and continued adult learning.
37
This relationship, identified in early studies (Kaplan, 1945; Lorimer, 1931; McGrath,
1938) has been traced consistently in those studies that follow. Adults who have not
completed a high school degree are much less likely to seek continuing education. Cervero
and Kirkpatrick (1989) challenged the often-cited relationship between previous
education and adult continuing education speculating that there were other intermediary
variables that explained education activity. Their study of 18,000 high school seniors
resulted in the determination that the father's educational level combined with the
student’s attitude toward education, type of high school, and the student’s class ranking
were predictive of adult educational activity at 32 years of age.
Kopka & Peng (1993) confirmed the correlation between active adult learners and
previous formal education reporting participation rates as low as 16% with high school
graduates ranging as high as 58% for those who graduated with an undergraduate degree.
In other word, the higher the level of formal degree attainment, the greater the
participation rate in adult learning activities.
Motivation and Learning
The theory that there are types or categories of learners has been around since the
early 1960's. This line of research is based on the assumption that there are certain innate
qualities that distinguish the active learner from the inactive learner. These characteristics,
which are defined mostly by a certain proactive attitude about learning, may be the result
of social context, family support structure, or an inherent desire for understanding.
Cyril Houle (1961) conducted the first substantive study of this kind. Houle
selected a sample of 22 adult learners who he subjected to a barrage of learning activities.
38
He used interviews as a means to explore the deep-seeded attitudes they had about
learning, and the origins of their perspective. Houle (1961) introduced typologies that
categorize adult learners into three groups. These include 1) goal oriented learners who
utilize education as a means to achieve their goals; 2) activity oriented learners who
participate in learning experiences for the activity itself or the social interaction they gain
from the activity; 3) and the learning oriented learner who seeks knowledge for their own
sake. Houle did not see these categories as pure types in any learner, but active learners
did have a dominant typology. Houle (1961) seemed to favor the goal-oriented learner in
his writings. "The need or interest appeared and they satisfied it by taking a course,
joining a group, reading a book, or going on a trip." (p. 18).
Houle (1961) made note of the direct influences that family and specifically
spouses had on the learning of those adults in his study. More than half of the adults he
studied were married. Houle’s (1996) discussed the relationships between the spouses of
his subjects in a positive light. Those adult learners who were sharing a continuing
education experience with their spouse gain momentum and support from their partner
going through the same learning process. When a spouse did not share the continuing
education experience, the non-participant was supportive, or at least did not object. The
discussion of a learner’s childhood, or of the learner’s interaction with adolescent or adult
children was not a part of Houle’s summary.
Several attempts were made by researchers to evaluate and enhance Houle's (1961)
typology (Boshier, 1971; Burgess, 1971; Sheffield, 1964). Boshier developed the
Education Participation Scale (EPS), based on the Houle typology, which was used by
39
Morstain and Smart (1974) for their study of 611 adults in evening coursed at a college in
New Jersey. They extended the Houle typology to include social awareness, external
expectations, social welfare, professional advancement, escape/simulation, and cognitive
interests as the primary motivational types.
Boshier and Collins (1985) did the most extensive test of the Houle typologies
using data from learners in Africa, Asia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States.
Cluster analysis of data on learning interest areas resulted in a three-cluster solution that
included items of cognitive interest, social interest, and professional interest. Boshier and
Collins (1985) identified significant agreements with Houle's (1961) typology of the
learner, activity, and goal orientations.
There have been several criticisms of typology research (Courtney, 1991; Long,
1983). These criticisms are centered along the practical application of typologies and the
generalizations they represent of a very complex population. Courtney (1991) noted,
"even if dominant orientations emerged, it is not certain what implications this piece of
knowledge might have for the conduct of a class." (p. 150) The knowledge that a learner is
of one orientation or another does not change how business is conducted by adult
educators. The development of variable levels of structure for learning should be a basic
practice for adult educators today. While typologies present a general tool for gathering
descriptive information, it does not allow for enhanced application.
Barriers to Learning
40
Barrier research has been another avenue for inquiry in the literature, inspired by
Houle (1961). The literature base is related to this study because barriers to learning
affect all learners, however, active adult learners may have the physical or psychological
resources to overcome these barriers. Basically, barrier research attempts to approach the
question from the standpoint of identifying the reasons adults do not participate. In fact,
the question has been refined to identify the reason those adults who can benefit the most
from education choose not to participate the most. This question has been one of the
field's critical questions.
Lack of time and lack of money are often cited as the reasons adults to do not
participate (Carp, Peterson & Roelfs, 1974; Cross, 1981; Scanlan & Darkenwald, 1984).
While these seem to be legitimate reasons for not participating, they are also the most
socially acceptable. (Merrium & Caffarella, 1999) It makes sense that an adult, lacking
the motivation for less socially accepted reasons, would cite time and money as a
rationale for not participating when in reality, the reason may be a simple lack of desire or
motivation.
Johnstone and Rivera (1965) found in their national survey of adult learners that
43% found cost to be a deterrent, while 39% felt they did not have time. These figures
rose to 53% and 46% respectively by the 1972 Commission for Nontraditional Study.
(Carp, Peterson, and Roelfs, 1972). Cross, using this same data, identified three major
barrier categories: 1) situational barriers, involving common factor of life circumstances
with the most common of these being time, money, home, or job responsibilities; 2)
institutional barriers, or institutional practices, procedures, and policies that place a
41
burden on the learner (i.e. residence requirements, course scheduling, etc.); 3) dispositional
barriers, or the personal attitudes and perceptions of oneself as a learner. (Cross, 1981, p.
98)
Valentine and Darkenwald (1990) developed a profile of non-active adult learners.
They summarized the primary deterrents to adult learning activity as lack of confidence,
educational cost, lack of interest in courses available or organized education in general;
lack of confidence; and personal problems. These conclusions were the result of analysis
of data gathered from the Deterrents to Participation Scale (DPS), which was developed
by Darkenwald and Valentine (1985, 1986) as a means to measure those factors, which
can limit adult education.
Relational Models of Development
The influence of relationships and learning is a factor that has been discussed in
the literature of adult development. More specifically, research has explored the synergy
of people experiencing a similar learning activity in an authentic and mutually beneficial
manner. (Jordan, 1997) Stereotypically, Western women have been described as more
oriented to relationships, but the importance of connectedness has also been linked to the
development of women of color and men. (Jones, 1995; Levinson and Levinson, 1996;
Merriam and Caffarella, 1999; Turner, 1997)
Knowledge of the relationships and connectedness has influenced theory on the
design of learning environments. (Belenky Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule, 1986;
Caffarella, 1992, 1996; Maher and Tetreault, 1994) Caffarella (1996) promotes the
42
development of learning strategies that incorporates the sharing of ideas and feelings of
adults with one another. Further, Caffarella (1996) recommends using collaborative
interactions as a means for planning learning experiences, supporting an climate where
learner and instructors are supportive of one another, using communication styles that are
cooperative, and recognizing the power of feelings in fostering relationships with others in
the classroom.
Recent research has suggested developmental differences between men and women
that influence selection of potential adults in this study. According to Belenky, Clinchy,
Goldberger, and Tarule (1986), women’s perspectives of knowing differ from men as
described in their five stage model. These stages including, 1) silence – women perceive
themselves as voiceless/mindless and subject to the whims of authorities; 2) received
knowledge – women see themselves as capable of receiving knowledge from others but
not capable of creating their own knowledge; 3) subjective knowledge – perspectives of
truth/knowledge are personal, private, and subjectively known or intuited; 4) procedural
knowledge – women are invested in learning and applying objective procedures for
obtaining and communicating knowledge; and 5.) constructed knowledge – women view all
knowledge as contextual, themselves as creators of knowledge, and value all means for
knowing. (p. 15) While their theory has been criticized and celebrated (Goldberger,
Tarule, Clinchy, and Belenchy, 1996), the contribution of this relatively new theory is
suggests that differences in the way men and women learn and experience educational
opportunities are worthy of evaluation.
43
Participation Models and Theory
Participation models and theories have been developed with the intention of
attempting to predict whether an adult learner will participate in adult education. These
models have incorporated a multitude of factors that include personal qualities, family
structure, socioeconomic status, and availability of resources.
Early models (Boshier, 1973; Miller, 1967; Rubenson, 1977) were linear
representation of the interactions between internal psychological factors and external
environmental variables as interpreted by the learner. Boshier (1973), who developed his
model based on the study of adults in non-credit courses in New Zealand, determined that
adults who dropped out of adult education experiences did so largely as a function of their
own self-esteem, and their interactions with the facilitator, or other participants. Boshier
(1973) also determined that non-participants simply could not come to terms with what
they saw as incongruence with the institution, facilitator, the educational environment,
etc. and therefore did not enroll. Self-esteem, as a factor in whether an adult learner is
active or not, presents an interesting factor to explore in this study.
Cross (1981) presented the common themes of participation models including
Miller (1967), Boshier (1973), and Rubenson (1977). These themes are summarized as
follows:
1. Participation is a function of the interaction of the person and environment.
2. The perception by the adult learner of positive and negative forces in the educational
environment have an influence on the decision to participate.
3. Adult learners are thought to have control over their educational destiny.
44
4. Self-esteem is directly related to choices of education and the success one experiences.
5. Group identity has a powerful influence on participation. Identifying peer groups is a
successful strategy for recruitment and retention of adult learners.
6. The sense of congruence between the learner and the learning situation or the outcomes
of the learning situation is a common theme.
7. The notion that basic needs must be met before higher order needs for achievement or
self-actualization is maintained.
8. The expectation of reward is a motivating factor for adult learners.
The early models were descriptive of the learning activities of adult learners, but
they were linear and static in orientation. Cross (1981) attempted to move toward a more
fluid and interactive model with her Chain-of-Response (COR) Model. The COR Model
describes participation as a stream of action that moves from the individual learners
attitudes and perceptions (self evaluation, attitudes toward education, life transitions) and
moves toward environmental factors (availability of information, barriers, family
support). The proper combination of these factors results in participation, which
changes attitudes about education and self-perception. The net result is a sense of
momentum that the learner develops for learning activities. According to Merrium &
Caffarella (1999), the COR Model "seems capable of explaining self directed learning".
(p. 243)
Darkenwald & Merriam (1982) expanded upon the idea that predicting educational
participation must be considered in the context of social-economic status (SES). Their
Psychosocial Interaction Model begins with evaluation of the learners family and personal
45
characteristics (sex, IQ). The level of preparatory education is also evaluated along with
SES and learning press, which is defined as the extent, that the learner's environment
encourages learning.
The Interdisciplinary, Sequential Specificity, Time Allocation, Life Span
(ISSTAL) Model (Crookson, 1987) draws heavily on the theory that social participation
is part of a life long pattern and is influenced by the family cohort. In other words,
participation in adult education results from a pattern of social participation, and not an
individual and independent behavior as assumed in previous works. The ISSTAL Model
utilizes data on learner family structure and evaluates the learner's current level of
participation assuming that the current level of a thirty-year-old adult learner is predictive
of how active a learner will be at forty and fifty. Crookson (1987) has developed a
continuum of variables polarizing general, transsituational variables (climate, topography,
culture, and social structure) to more individual variables (attitudes, expectations, retained
learning). Crookson (1987) borrows from Cross (1981) in terms of the information
variable but has increased the complexity to include awareness of educational
opportunities, beliefs about the value of participation, and plans - "cognitions about
decisions to respond" (p. 138).
Crookson (1987) presented the concept of "attitudinal dispositions" which
include general and specific attitudes of interest in learning (p. 73). These dispositions are
closely tied to Houle's (1961) typology and reflect the individual’s motivation to pursue
learning. Among attitudinal dispositions are also retained information, which reflects the
46
learner’s knowledge of available resources, and situational variables, which are those
learning opportunities the learner find in their immediate surroundings.
Crookson tested his own model in a study of male heads-of-households (1987).
His found only three of the forty-eight variables in his model were significant, or
predictive of participation. In his conclusions, Crookson reflected that the difficulties in
studying this model may be related the many variables being confounded statistically.
More careful examination of a small number of variables may result in greater agreement.
Participation models do not provide a clear method for predicting participation in
adult education. They are, however, valuable contributions to the literature and are
beneficial to this study. These models individually and combined represent a multitude of
variables which can be explored through the interviews with the learners in this study.
Houle (1961) presented the learner typologies as a means to predict the motivation and
involvement of adult learners. These models represent a similar pursuit by examining
which patterns of variables predict a learner who is ready to learn. In this study, that
learner is described as the active adult learner.
Self-Directed Learning
"Every man who rises above the common level has received two educations: the
first from his teachers; the second, more personal and important, from himself." (Gibbon,
1907, p. 65) Edward Gibbon, renowned writer and historian, recognized the value of self
directed learning in his time. However, he also made an important distinction between
47
education by the teacher; and education by the learner. Education by the learner is
important in this study because active adult learners are self-directed.
Self directed learning is an often-used term in Adult Education. A content analysis
of self directed learning literature identified 247 different terms were uses in describing
self directed learning or self directed learners (Heimstra, 1996). Candy (1991) identifies
many of the visions conjured up by self directed learning, including learning as a solitary
activity in a library, someone's own home, or office. There are also definitions that
include students in a formal course of study working independently on learning projects
with the objective of presenting evidence of their learning. (Heimstra & Sisco,1990) For
many, the process of self directed learning can take place through the use of a television,
radio, reading materials, or a computer. Self directed learning is considered by some to be
"an expression of or the route to realize and attain the inner-most personhood of the
learner, while others do not attribute to it such importance, and use the term to refer
simply to independent academic or intellectual pursuits." (Courtney, 1991, p. 6)
The foundations of self directed learning are well documented (Hiemstra, 1994).
A large portion of the literature can be traced to the work of Allen Tough (1979), who
was influenced by the "learning oriented" participants in Houle's, The Inquiring Mind.
Tough found that over two-thirds (68%) of all learning activities were planned,
implemented, and evaluated by the learners themselves. Knowles (1975) also had a hand
in popularizing self-directed learning by providing foundational definitions and
introducing the term androgogy as an instructional process. Guglielmino (1977)
48
introduced the Self Directed Learning Scale, and subsequently developed an instrument to
measure self-directed learning readiness.
Candy (1991) provides an excellent means for defining self directed learning as
either a process or an outcome. The process of self directed learning includes simply self
direction as a means for organizing instruction. Self directed learning as an outcome means
the learner has moved from requiring instruction to being self directed or independently
pursuing knowledge. Self direction is further subdivided into two domains, including 1)
learner controlled, where the learner takes primary responsibility for the learning while
the teacher maintains a very small degree of control; and 2) autodidaxy, where there is no
teacher present and the learner may not even be aware of the fact that he or she is
learning. The active adult learners in this study are self-directed. The predominant
approach to learning may vary depending upon learning style and preference, but the
active adult learner is capable of taking advantage of multiple learning activities organized
in many or all of the ways as described previously by Candy (1991).
The process of self directed learning, or the systematic process of designing
activities, as outlined by Knowles (1975), includes the learner taking a lead in diagnosing
their individual needs, formulating goals, accumulating required learning materials,
participating in the learning activity, and evaluating outcomes of their learning. This
classic process of organizing instruction has been used as a basis for the work of many in
designing self directed learning experiences (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Brookfield, 1985;
Hiemstra, 1996; Hiemstra & Sisco, 1990; Kasworm, 1983).
49
Self directed learning is a popular topic in the literature whether it is supported or
criticized. Two predominant criticisms are that it ignores both the internal factors of the
learner (Kasworm, 1983) and the social context in which the learning takes place
(Brookfield, 1985, 1988).
Criticism, and the need to better understand self directed learner has led to
literature that is "outcome oriented", as described by Candy (1991, p. 7). Outcome
oriented literature attempts to answer the question of what characteristics or factors
describe the self directed learner. Who are these learners? What personal characteristics
do they have in common? How do they differ from other learners? How has their
educational background influenced them?
Current outcome oriented research deals with the idea that self directed learning
varies along a continuum. Hiemstra & Burns (1997) conducted a study of adult learner
preferences in a work setting. Their research resulted in a linear model where learners
indicated preferences for either learning independently or learning through the direction of
others. These finding were congruent with Kerka (1994) who reported similar findings.
She noted "it is apparent a continuum exists. Adults have varying degrees of willingness
or ability to assume personal responsibility for learning. Elements of this continuum may
include the degree of choice over goals, objectives, type of participation, content,
methods, and assessment." (p. 1)
Two concepts - readiness and autonomy - have been studied the most in the
literature. Readiness is a concept developed initially by Guglielmino (1977) implies that
the self directed learner has an internal stated of psychological readiness for learning. The
50
readiness concept is defined by the learner possessing eight factors including openness to
learning, self-concept as an effective learner, initiative and independence in learning,
informed acceptance of responsibility, love of learning, creativity, future orientation, and
the ability to use basic study and problem-solving skills. Guglielmino (1977) developed
the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale as an instrument to measure readiness of
learners. There have been numerous studies using this instrument that have successfully
argued that readiness is an indicator of a self directed learner (Caffarella and Caffarella,
1986; Guglielmino and Guglielmino, 1988; Guglielmino, Guglielmino & Sarojni Choy,
2001). There have been revisions of the instrument, in the face of criticism of the
instruments reliability and validity (Brockett, 1985; Field, 1989, 1991). In spite of these
concerns, readiness remains one common factor that is used to identify the self-directed
learner.
Autonomy is much less defined as a descriptive quality of the self directed learner
because it remains primarily conceptual. Autonomy is defined as independence and the
will to learn. These qualities of a learner must be combined with an understanding of the
learning process, knowledge of what is considered competence in the subject matter, and
an ability to make critical judgments (Chene, 1983). Desire, capacity, and readiness are
considerations, along with the situational context, in whether a learner is autonomous
(Pratt, 1988).
Brocket and Hiemstra (1991) developed the Personal Responsibility Orientation
(PRO) Model, redefining self direction into two related dimensions. These dimensions
include "self directed learning", which emphasizes the classic teaching and learning
51
process; and "learner self direction" which focuses on characteristics internal to the
individual which predisposes that person toward taking primary responsibility for their
learning. (p. 29) The PRO Model recognizes the social context in which learning takes
place.
Moral and Intellectual Development
William Perry developed the Theory of Moral and Intellectual Development with
nine positions broken down into three definitive parts. This theory is important to this
study because it provides the basis for many adult learning theories from which this
study will draw. Perry (1970) observed a condition called dualism in freshman students
he interviewed at Harvard University. A student who is dualistic assumes there is only
one right answer to complex, ethical problems and that an authority figure, their
professor, could teach them the right answer. Dualism is identified in positions 1-3 of
Perry's Schema. Upper class students were found to develop a different view of the
world called relativism, found in positions 4-6 of Perry's Schema. Relativism is
characterized by the idea that all knowledge bases are contextual and subjective therefore
all answers to complex problems could be justified by individual needs. Perry (1970) also
found that students often achieved a level of development where they became committed
to a certain set of beliefs or contexts which allow them to present and argue a position on
difficult, ill-structured problems, giving plenty of justification for their position. This
manner of thinking is termed, "multiplistic" or the ability to choose for your self, based
on individual and community beliefs. The learner at this stage, identified as positions 7-9
52
in Perry's schema, has established their own ideas about the values, behaviors, and other
people and have a sense of their responsibilities in a pluralistic world.
Perry was a critical colleague of Kohlberg (1976) who borrowed some ideas from
Perry in developing his own theory of adult morality. A major criticism of Perry and
Kohlberg is that their seminal research was conducted on young males only. This
limitation provided a degree of challenge to others to determine the existence of their very
patterns of thought in other groups of people. Perry was a major influence on the
research of Gilligan (1982), who studied moral reasoning in young women; and Sinnott
(1981, 1994), who built upon Perry's themes to develop theories related to adults.
Perry's schema has been commonly applied to traditional college students; however,
Sinnott (1981, 1994) studied adults ranging in age from 26-89 years. She tested them on a
number of characteristics and skills including the degree in which their cognitive functions
draw from formal and post-formal operations. Sinnott (1994) found that adults are much
more likely to utilize post-formal thinking (or reflective thinking) to address real life
problems.
Reflective Judgment and Adults
The Reflective Judgment Model (Kitchener and King, 1994) borrows from the
work of Perry (1970). The model addresses the issues of epistemology and justification.
In other words, how a person thinks about a complex problem and how they justify their
perspective were not novel concepts at the time the Reflective Judgment Model was
53
developed. These concepts of epistemology and justification were originated by Perry
(1970) and used as a backdrop for developing the model.
There are seven stages, broken down into three categories within the Reflective
Judgment Model. There is a linear relationship between these stages as epistemology and
justification criteria become more challenging to the learner. The categories, defined as
pre-reflective, quasi-reflective, and reflective characterize the degree of post-formal
thinking displayed by the learner. More specifically, these categories can be used to
understand the moral reasoning used by a respondent to the Reflective Judgment
Interview. Pre-reflective thinking (Stages 1, 2, and 3) involves reasoning that does not
acknowledge or even perceive that knowledge is uncertain. Therefore, there is a no
understanding that some problems exist that do not have an absolutely correct answer.
Quasi-reflective thinking (Stages 4 and 5) involves reasoning by a individual that there is
uncertainty associated with knowledge claims. They may draw from evidence that is
known on a particular topic, but will have difficulty drawing a conclusion or justifying a
conclusion if one is drawn. Finally, reflective thinking (Stages 6 and 7), is the reasoning
associated with the understanding that knowledge is not absolute and is often constructed
through claims of knowledge within a certain context. This reasoning also acknowledges
that conclusions depend on sound justification and can always be subject to reevaluation.
See Table 1 for more detailed descriptions of each stage of the reflective judgment model.
(King & Kitchener, 1994)
54
Table 1
Summary of Reflective Judgment Stages_____________________________________________________________________
Pre-Reflective Thinking - Stages 1, 2, and 3Stage 1 - Knowledge is assumed to exist absolutely and concretely. Abstractionsare not understood. Knowledge limited to and justified by what is observeddirectly.
Stage 2 - Knowledge is assumed to be certain, but not immediately available.Knowledge is obtained through direct observations or through an authority figure.Beliefs are either unexamined, or confirmed by an authority figure.
Stage 3 - Knowledge is absolutely certain, or temporarily uncertain. Personalbeliefs replace temporary uncertainty, until an authority figure provides the truthwith absolute certainty, providing a means for justification.
Quasi-Reflective Thinking - Stages 4 and 5Stage 4 - Knowledge is uncertain and there is always an element of ambiguity inknowledge. Knowledge claims are idiosyncratic to the individual since situationalvariables always skew the correct answer. Beliefs are justified by giving biasedand questionable reasons.
Stage 5 - Knowledge is contextual and subjective as it is a product of someone'sperceptions and judgment. Interpretation defines what is known and reported.Beliefs are justified within a certain reference context and are treated as contextspecific interpretations.
Reflective Thinking - Stages 6 and 7Stage 6 - Knowledge is constructed into individual conclusions of ill-structuredproblems. Interpretations based on evaluations of contextual evidence and theopinions of others in authority can be known. Beliefs are justified with evidencefrom a variety of sources.
Stage 7 - Knowledge is the outcome of a process of reasonable inquiry. Theevaluation of solutions is done with understanding of ill-structured problems interms of what is most reasonable or probable according to current evidence. Newevidence, perspectives, or tools lead to reevaluation of one's beliefs, perspective,or actions.
______________________________________________________________________Kitchener & King, 1994
55
A primary different between Perry's Schema of Moral and Intellectual
Development and the Reflective Judgment Model is the relationship between
epistemology and judgment becomes more unclear as Perry's Schema progresses to higher
developmental levels. Perry utilizes metaphors of existential responsibility and identity
development in the later levels. The Reflective Judgment Model is clear in articulating the
relationship between judgment and epistemology at all levels of the model (Kitchener &
King, 1994).
Another characteristic that distinguishes the Reflective Judgment Model from
Perry's Schema (1970) is the belief that a judgment on authority-based epistemology is
primarily a view held by children and early adolescents and not young adults. Young
adults may carry some of these views from childhood to adulthood, but they are not a
predominant view for people in their late teens and early twenties (Kitchener and King,
1994).
Reflective Judgment Literature
Reflective judgment is analyzed using the Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI),
which will be discussed extensively in the next chapter. The use of this interview
protocol, involving subjects responding to ill-structured problems through a series of
semi-structured questions, is the only instrument used by researchers, with a few
exceptions. The Reflective Thinking Appraisal and the Reasoning About Current Issues
(RCI) test are being developed as more efficient paper and pencil instruments.
56
Unfortunately these instruments have been used only sparingly and are still going through
the process of validity testing.
The Reflective Judgment Model has been used in studying a variety of
populations; however it has been applied in a limited number of studies to adult
populations, which are outside what is considered traditional-aged, formally educated
learners. Kitchener and King (1994) reviewed research in response to the question, "Does
reflective judgment develop between late adolescence and middle adulthood?" (p. 179)
To answer this question, a review of longitudinal data from 241 individuals in nine studies
(Brabeck & Wood, 1990; Polkosnik & Winston, 1989; Sakalys, 1984; Schmidt, 1985; Van
Tine, 1990; Welfel & Davison, 1986) was conducted including the results of a ten-year
longitudinal study (King and others, 1983; King, Kitchener, Wood, & Davidson, 1989) to
examine the epistemic patterns of development over time. These studies represented 12
different samplings at intervals from three months to four years.
The results of these longitudinal studies led Kitchener and King (1994) to
conclude that they offer "additional evidence that development in reflective judgment
occurs slowly and steadily over time and that the increases in scores are not an artifact of
selective participation or practice." (p. 159). The results also suggest that the growth of
reflective judgment is slow and steady rather than sporadic or situational. Again, subjects
in these studies of reflective judgment were in the early stages of adulthood. The age
range of subjects was 14-30 years of age. They were all enrolled in formal education at
the time of testing. These educational environments included high school, college
undergraduate degree programs, and advanced doctoral degree programs.
57
Cross-Sectional Studies
Results by class-standing. Cross-sectional studies of reflective judgment
represent a larger overall sample size and range of subject ages. There have been over
twenty-five cross-sectional studies involving more than fifteen hundred subjects ranging
in age from early teens to over 60 years of age. A collective review of these results
provides a view of RJI scores by educational level. While caution is suggested in making
broad generalizations due to the variability of methods and numbers of subjects in each
study, King & Kitchener (1994) conclude that there is a steady increase in scores from
high school to graduate school. They analyzed the RJI results of multiple studies and
reported the mean scores by level of education reported in Table 2. The scores in Table 2
refer to the average score of students in each group.
Ranges of RJI scores have not been presented for adult learners, however Glenn
(1992) studied 20 adults over 60 years of age with one group having doctorates and the
other group having high school or bachelors degrees. This study established a range of
responses for highly educated adults to be 3.22-6.56 for men and 3.67-6.11 for women.
The group of adults with lesser formal education ranged from 2.33-5.78 for men and 2.56-
5.11 for women.
Table 2
Reflective Judgment Inventory Scores by Formal Education Level______________________________________________________________________
Educational Level Mean RJI Scorehigh school students 3.2
58
college students 3.8graduate students 4.8
______________________________________________________________________King and Kitchener, 1994
Studies of non-traditional students. King and Kitchener (1994) repeatedly
note that age alone is not an accurate predictor of reflective judgment since it is often
confounded with other factors. This statement must be understood in an examination of
research of non-traditional aged students. There have been five studies (Glatfelter, 1982;
King, J. W., 1986; Schmidt, 1985; Shoff, 1979; Strange and King, 1981) examining
reflective judgment in non-traditional student, or students enrolled in undergraduate higher
education that are over 25 years of age. These studies involve a total of 137 adult
learners. Scores on the RJI varied for these combined samples. For example, a scored of
3.8 was earned by a group of college freshman whose average age was 23 years (Shoff,
1979), while the score for a group of college seniors was 4.4 with an average age of 26
years of age (Strange & King, 1981). These results show no significant different between
the reflective judgment of traditional aged college students and non-traditional aged college
students, however the difference in age of the students in these studies and traditional
aged college students was not that great. The age range of subjects in these studies is 23 -
37 years of age. All of the students in these studies were enrolled in formal education.
The conclusions drawn from the study of reflective judgment in adult learners
enrolled in formal education is that age may only be related to readiness for learning or
maturity, but it does not predict reflective judgment since these adult learners did not
score higher than younger counterparts. King and Kitchener (1994) infer that these
59
results provide further support for their theory that reflective judgment is enhanced by
college education.
Studies of non-student adults. Several studies have involved adult learners who
are not enrolled in formal education. (Glatfelter, 1982; Glenn, 1992; Josephson, 1988;
Kelton & Griffith, 1986; Kajanne, A., 2003; King, J. W., 1986; Lawson, 1980; Pirttila-
Backman, 1993; Pirttila-Backman and Kajanne, 2001) These studies did not, for the
most part, use non-student adults as the primary population but collected data from
adults as a method of comparing performance of formally enrolled college students.
Pirttila-Backman (1993) and Pirttila-Backman & Kajanne (2001) were the
exception as these two studies examined the same group of non-student adults as their
only subjects. These studies examined the structure and content in thinking by these
adults specifically evaluating one of the Kitchener and King dilemmas. The comparison
of scores of these studies showed that adults performed better on the dilemmas in the
second study, supporting the claim that age has a strong relationship to the development
of reflective judgment. Kajanne (2003) investigated this same relationship between form
and content of thinking in non-student adults. This study found in a content analysis of
adult responses a relationship between the developmental stage of the Reflective
Judgment Model and the content of the justification. Specifically, adults at higher stages
chose moderate positions and were able to express broad arguments on the subject of the
dilemma. Those adults at lower stages had clear-cut opinions that centered on their own
experiences and what they have seen.
60
King (1986) was the only study to describe methods of selection that matched the
non-student adults scholastically with their graduate school enrolled counterparts. The
primary purpose of this study was to compare graduate enrolled men and women to non-
student adults who were not enrolled in graduate school. The subjects were further
delineated between younger and older adult students within these groups. The average
age of graduate students was 30.3 years for older graduate students and 23.9 years for
younger graduate students. Non-students in this study averaged 30.0 years of age for the
older non-student group and 25.1 years of age for the younger non-student group. This
study found that students enrolled in graduate school scored significantly higher than the
non-students group; older adults scored higher than younger adults; and men scored higher
than women as the groups were evenly distributed by gender.
Glenn studied 40 subjects who were all over 65 years of age. These subjects were
selected based on academic background. Half of the subjects were retired professors with
PhD's, and the other half were adults whom had completed formal education ranging from
an eighth grade level to a high school degree. The group of retired professors scored
significantly higher on the RJI that the non-student group providing greater evidence for
King and Kitchener's theory that formal education has a positive effect on reflective
judgment.
Lawson (1980) conducted a study involving 80 subjects comparing the reflective
judgment of graduate students and non-student adults. Lawson (1980) also divided these
primary groups into sub-groups delineated by age with older subjects in one group and
younger subjects in another group. The subjects in the study were all graduate students
61
in liberal arts majors including: American Studies, Science, Sociology, and Speech
Communications. Non-students in the study were all college graduates who had not
enrolled in a graduate program during or just prior to the study. The age breakdown by
group in this study is shown in Table 3.
Lawson (1980) controlled for verbal ability by administering the Concept
Mastery Test (CMT) and ran an analysis of variance to consider the effects of selection,
age, and gender. All the main effects were significant with graduate students scoring
higher than non-student adults, the older group scoring higher than younger group, and
men scoring higher than women. The most interesting result of Lawson (1980) was that
"there were no significant interaction effects which would have suggested that education
was a primary factor accounting for development of reflective judgment." (p. 82) These
findings were reported from an analysis of variance where verbal ability was controlled.
Lawson (1980) goes on to suggest that earlier works (King, 1977; Kitchener, 1977)
reporting higher reflective judgment scores for graduate students may have been due to
selection and age, and not educational effects.
Table 3
Age Breakdown by Group - Lawson (1980)______________________________________________________________________
Group Graduate Student Groups Non-Student Adult Groups
62
Range Mean Range Mean
Older Group 25-45 years 30.3 years 26-34 years 30.0 years
Younger Group 21-29 years 23.9 years 22-30 years 25.1 years______________________________________________________________________ King & Kitchener, 1994
Summary
The desire to identify active adult learners has been address through surveys of
adult learners. Early participation studies provided counts of the number of adult learners
in the United States (Essert, 1950; Knowles, 1955). In 1965, Johnstone & Rivera
contributed the most comprehensive and sophisticated adult learner study of that time.
This study looked at learning from a holistic perspective and provided definition as to the
characteristics of active learners and the locations in which learning is taking place. Since
Johnstone & Rivera (1965), surveys have been conducted on a more consistence basis
showing that participation in adult learning in the United States is gradually growing.
(Aslanian & Brickell, 1980; Carp, Peterson, & Roelfs, 1974; Courtney, 1991)
National surveys (Arbeiter, 1977; Cross, 1978, 1979) have found that the
characteristics as active adult learners tend to include young, females who are looking for
career advancement. More recent surveys (Belanger and Valdivielso, 1997; Kim, et al,
1995; Kopka & Peng, 1993) point to shifts from these early characteristics with men
being equal to women in the level of participation. These same studies point to the
tendency for learners with children under the age of six were found to be more likely to
drop out than those without children.
63
The most active group of adult learners is 25-34 years of age and is equally
balanced between men and women. This group of people is engaged in careers objectives
utilizing learning opportunities as a means for advancement. (Courtney, 1991) He found
that over half of all participants in organized adult education were 35 years of age or
younger.
Anderson and Darkenwald (1979) found that age, sex, race, income, and education
correlate with participation, but are not predictive of an active adult learner. The typical
active adult learner is better educated (formally), younger, has a higher level of income,
Caucasian, and likely to be employed full-time. This information must be view
cautiously since it is a compilation of many different studies and hides through the
generalization, very rich and substantive variations that are important. (Merriam &
Caffarella, 1999).
The most significant factor in the history of the study of participation is the
positive correlation between previous education and continued adult learning. (Kaplan,
1945; Kopka & Peng, 1993; Lorimer, 1931; McGrath, 1938) In essence, these studies
suggest the higher the level of formal degree attainment, the greater the participation rate
in adult learning activities.
Participation models and theories have been developed with the intention of
attempting to predict whether an adult learner will participate in adult education. These
models have incorporated a multitude of factors that include personal qualities, family
structure, socioeconomic status, and availability of resources. (Boshier, 1973; Crookson,
1987; Cross, 1981; Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982; Miller, 1967; Rubenson, 1977) The
64
theoretical framework provided by participation models is helpful in understanding the
complex factors that influence adult learning, but do not provide a clear method for
predicting participation in adult education.
The term, self directed learning is used often in adult education literature. A
content analysis of self directed learning literature identified 247 different terms were uses
in describing self directed learning or self directed learners (Heimstra, 1996). Candy
(1991) identifies many of the visions conjured up by self directed learning, including
learning as a solitary activity in a library, someone's own home, or office. There are also
definitions that include students in a formal course of study working independently on
learning projects with the objective of presenting evidence of their learning (Heimstra &
Sisco,1990). For many, the process of self directed learning can take place through the
use of a television, radio, reading materials, or a computer.
Allen Tough (1979) was influenced by the "learning oriented" participants in
Houle's (1961) The Inquiring Mind. Tough found that over two-thirds (68%) of all
learning activities were planned, implemented, and evaluated by the learners themselves.
Knowles (1975) also had a hand in popularizing self-directed learning by providing
foundational definitions and introducing the term androgogy as an instructional process.
Guglielmino (1977) introduced the Self Directed Learning Scale, and subsequently
developed an instrument to measure self-directed learning readiness.
Candy (1991) describes self directed learning as the learner moving from requiring
instruction to being self directed or independently pursuing knowledge. Self direction is
further subdivided into two domains, including 1) learner controlled, where the learner
65
takes primary responsibility for the learning while the teacher maintains a very small
degree of control; and 2) autodidaxy, where there is no teacher present and the learner
may not even be aware of the fact that he or she is learning.
Self directed learning has been applied in classroom setting where the learner
taking a lead in diagnosing their individual needs, formulating goals, accumulating required
learning materials, participating in the learning activity, and evaluating outcomes of their
learning. (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Brookfield, 1985; Hiemstra & Sisco, 1990;
Kasworm, 1983).
Self directed learning is a popular topic in the literature whether it is supported or
criticized. Two predominant criticisms are that it ignores both the internal factors of the
learner (Kasworm, 1983) and the social context in which the learning takes place
(Brookfield, 1985, 1988). These criticisms and the need to better understand self directed
learner has led to literature that is "outcome oriented", as described by Candy (1991, p.
7). Current outcome oriented research deals with the idea that self directed learning varies
along a continuum. Studies have been conducted on adult learner preferences in a work
setting. (Hiemstra & Burns, 1997; Kerka ,1994) This research resulted in a linear model
where learners indicated preferences for either learning independently or learning through
the direction of others. These models show that adults vary in the degree of willingness
or ability to assume personal responsibility for learning.
Readiness in self directed learning is a concept developed initially by Guglielmino
(1977) that implies the self directed learner has an internal stated of psychological
readiness for learning. The readiness concept is defined by the learner possessing eight
66
factors including openness to learning, self-concept as an effective learner, initiative and
independence in learning, informed acceptance of responsibility, love of learning,
creativity, future orientation, and the ability to use basic study and problem-solving
skills.
Autonomy in self directed learning is much less clear as a descriptive quality of
the self directed learner because it remains primarily conceptual. Autonomy is defined as
independence and the will to learn. These qualities of a learner must be combined with an
understanding of the learning process, knowledge of what is considered competence in the
subject matter, and an ability to make critical judgments (Chene, 1983). Desire, capacity,
and readiness are considerations, along with the situational context, in whether a learner is
autonomous. (Pratt, 1988)
67
Chapter III
Methodology
A multi-case design was employed in this study, meaning more than one
participant was studied in more than one setting (Bogden & Biklen, 1998). A learner
questionnaire was developed for this study solely for the purpose of identification of the
five participants in the study. The Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI) was used in a
descriptive manner and not as a means to compare the reflective judgment of participants
to one another or to other adult learners. This approach agrees with the values of
qualitative research.
What is qualitative research? According to Bogdan & Biklen (1998), qualitative
research describes a group of techniques that share common qualities. Qualitative
research is considered naturalistic (researcher observes the subject in its natural setting);
derived from descriptive data; concerned with the process and outcomes; inductive,
meaning abstractions are developed during or after data collection; and focused on the
meaning a person makes of their experiences. The question of whether findings from a
particular group can be generalized beyond the specific research subjects and the setting
involved, is often a concern with qualitative research. It is a concern in this study,
because this study will not generalize the findings to any other group of adult learners.
This study is a careful documentation of the experiences of a small group of adult
learners, in the tradition of Cyril Houle’s, The Inquiring Mind (1961). It will provide
insight into the lives of five adults who are active in their learning activities. The job of
68
generalizing is up to the reader as they consider how this documentation helps explain
their own experiences or those of other adult learners with whom they are familiar.
Considerations in participant selection
Adult learners are very diverse. It was challenging to select adult learners for this
study since educational experiences, motivations, and personal philosophies vary so
dramatically. Following approval of the research plan by the Institutional Review Board,
a screening process was implemented using a descriptive questionnaire or learner
questionnaire with the goal of identifying five participants. The purpose of this
questionnaire was only to identify potential participants, and not for measuring
involvement or learning of adults. This questionnaire asks adult learners a series of
questions as a survey of their educational background and experience. Those invited to
participate in the study were selected from the group completing the questionnaire.
While the collective qualities of adult learners for this study are not intended to be
representative of any particular group (as in quantitative methodology), the following
qualities were considered in the selection of participants.
Educational type. In order to evaluate the full scope of learning types,
participants were expected to be active formal, non-formal, and informal learners. There
is speculation about the factors which lead to the choices an adult learner makes. If the
type of education (formal, non-formal, and informal) an adult learner has received has any
bearing on their choices in life, decision-making skills, and there ability to be reflective;
then more than one learning type must be represented in the study.
69
As a review, Chapter One offered the definition of formal education as an
"educational experience where a facilitator or instructor designs and directs an educational
experience in a systematic and planned program that awards learners with formal
recognition of educational achievement such as a credit, certificate, diploma, license, or a
degree." (p. 10). Non-formal learning is defined as "education that is organized outside
the established formal educational system that does not offer credit, diplomas, license, or
a degree for completion of courses or a program of study. The learning experience may be
structured or unstructured and participation is voluntary." (p. 10). The third type of
learning, informal, is what is often referred to as "self-directed" (Knowles, 1975) and
defined as "devoid of organizational or institutional involvement". (p. 10) Informal
learning is evaluated in all adult learners participating in the study, but it is assumed that
active formal and non-formal learners are also active informal learners agreeing with
Knowles (1975, 1980) that adults are self-directed (informal) learners by nature. In
principle, it is reasonable to project that an active learner of any type is an active informal
learner.
Balanced numbers of men and women. The number of men and women is
only a consideration from the standpoint that men and women have been studied with
regard to participation and that perspectives from both genders may result in some
differences. However, gender difference is not a research focus in this study.
Participant Age. Research suggests that adult learners are most active between
the ages of 25-34 years of age. Additionally, learning activities peak at approximately 35
years of age. (Courtney, 1991) Houle (1961) selected adults for his qualitative study
70
who ranged between 30 and 65 years of age, with the largest number of adults selected
being between 35 and 55 years of age at the time of the study. (p. 84) The design of this
study was done with consideration of Houle’s (1961) methodology. It was critical in this
study to examine learners at an age older than the peak age of 35 years, but younger than
age 55 so they could reflect with some degree of accuracy on the learning experiences in
their lives. For this reason, adult learners were screened for age with participants being
selected who are between 38 and 51 years of age.
Survey and Instrumentation
A learner questionnaire and the Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI) were used in
this study. The learner questionnaire was completed by all potential participants in a
screening process with the five selected adult learners responding to the protocol of the
RJI.
The Learner Questionnaire. The learner questionnaire required the participant
to provide personal and occupational information including contact information; age in
years; primary, secondary, and previous occupation; and information on occupational
requirements for certification or licenser. A copy of the learner questionnaire can be
found in Appendix A. The purpose of the learner questionnaire was to identify potential
participants. Adults provided information on this form related to their past and present
educational experiences as adult learners. Adults who completed the survey identified
numerous learning activities in which they have been, or are currently engaged. The
researcher used this descriptive information as a starting point for selecting potential adult
71
for the study, and it was not intended to be predictive of adult learner characteristics or
actions.
The learner questionnaire was organized by education types including formal,
informal, and non-formal learner experiences. Formal education was reported in the
learning questionnaire by asking potential participants to list the number of years of
formal education and degrees sought or completed. Non-formal and informal education
was reported in the form of a check-list. The survey bias, over demanding recall, is
assumed in the learner questionnaire due to the fact that an active learner can have
numerous learning experiences in any given period of time. Recalling these experiences
may be too challenging leading to inaccurate reporting. (Alreck & Settle, 1995) Over
demanding recall bias cannot be eliminated due to the quantity of information requested,
however accommodations were instituted within the learner questionnaire. These
accommodations include providing choices of educational experiences, definitions of
educational type to help potential participants categorize information, and space for
potential participants to add additional experiences not listed as choices on the
questionnaire. Additionally, the age range for participants (35-55 years of age) increased
the chances that learning activities were recent enough in the past to be recalled.
The design of the learner questionnaire was evaluated and improved through a
number of methods. The questionnaire was reviewed by two survey design experts and
their comments were incorporated into the design. Also, the survey was piloted by 15
adult learners not involved with the study. These learners were asked to complete the
learner questionnaire and were interviewed to collect their impressions of the questions.
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The questions were refined based on responses of adult learners to the survey. A
majority of the revisions suggested by pilot subjects included the addition of new options
of learning opportunities or the places where learning opportunities could take place.
Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI). The Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI)
was used in this study for the purpose of providing an objective assessment of adult
learner reflective problem solving abilities. A copy of the RJI dilemmas is available in
Appendix B. Since RJI scores are directly related to a description of the adult learner's
process of reasoning and epistemic assumptions as defined in the Reflective Judgment
Model, the assessment has value as a descriptive tool. Additionally, the research on
Reflective Judgment, outlined in Chapter II, has not focused on the reflective judgment of
adults. The construct that is being measured by the RJI is the ability of an individual to
consider multiple perspectives and evaluate the value of each perspective on a complex
issue. This is a skill not solely reserved for traditional college-aged undergraduate and
graduate students. This is a life-long skill that is developed through all manners of
educational and life experience at any point in a person’s life.
The RJI is administered through an interview process. The interview consists of
four dilemmas with each presenting two conflicting points of view that are supported by
experts in an identified field. The topics of the dilemmas used in this study include: 1)
The Origins of the Egyptian Pyramids; 2) The Objectivity of New Reporting; 3) Creation
vs. Evolution; and 4) the Cause of Alcoholism.
The typical Reflective Judgment Interview begins with the subject being presented
with the reflective judgment dilemmas in random order with all responses tape recorded
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for analysis and rating. A standard statement of instructions for the RJI is read out loud
by the researcher while the subject follows along on a written copy. When the researcher
completes reading the dilemma, standard questions are asked of the subject. Depending
on the response by the subject, additional probe questions are asked. The focus of these
probes is to attempt to engage the subject in a manner that their fundamental beliefs and
approaches to complex problems are revealed. The subject is asked if they have any
questions after all dilemmas are presented and discussed.
The rating process for the RJI involves two raters working with three dilemmas
for each subject. Each of the raters conducts an independent, blind review of the
transcripts and assigns a rating which corresponds to the scale of the Reflective Judgment
Model. The composite score for a particular transcript is assigned based on the average
responses of the subject to the specific questions of the interview. The scores of the
raters are compared to assess inter rater reliability. King and Kitchener (1994) have
defined the criteria for agreement between raters as being three points or less between the
sums of the total ratings of the two judges for each subject. Scores for reflective judgment
dilemmas are reported by three numbers. A subject could be rated 4-4-5 by one rater, and
4-5-4 by another rater. These three numbers would be each of the raters score for the
same three dilemmas by a interviewee. The two raters on this dilemma would be
considered in agreement since there is a difference of two points between the scores. The
three point standard was established because a difference of more than three points would
represent a stage difference between ratings which constitutes a lack of agreement. When
there is a disagreement between rater scores, the dilemma is rated again by both raters and
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if the differences persist, the raters are brought together to discuss the transcript and
come to consensus. An overall score is arrived at through averaging the scores of the two
raters across the three dilemmas.
The reliability of the RJI has been measure by a number of methods including inter
rater, test-retest, and internal consistency. King and Kitchener (1994) evaluated inter
rater reliability by reviewing 32 different studies using the RJI involving a total of 2090
subjects. As a standard procedure for rating RJI responses, the transcripts of one
dilemma are rated initially by a team of two raters. A comparison of the initial scores
assigned by the two raters was compared and the coefficients were calculated using the
Pearson product-moment correlation. This procedure provides a conservative index of the
reliability of the instrument. The results of their review showed inter rater coefficients
that ranged from .34 to .97 with an overall coefficient of .78 (p. 110).
Inter rater agreement was also assessed on 29 of the same studies cited above
(1886 subjects). Inter rater agreement is a more stringent measure since it is a calculation
of how often the two initial raters agree within the standard of one stage on the Reflective
Judgment Model. The range of agreement in these studies was 53% to 100%. The
median agreement level was 77%. According to King and Kitchener (1994), "almost 40%
of the studies reported an agreement level of at least 87 percent, and one-quarter reported
an agreement level of at least 90 percent." (p. 111)
Data Collection Process
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Data collection was organized around five steps including, 1) identification of
target audiences, 2) promotion of the study, 3) completion of the learner questionnaires,
4) selection of active learners for the study, and 5) interviews. These five steps were
followed as each participant moved through the process of providing data
Promotion of the study began with the identification of target audience’s in the
community of Tucson, AZ, where this data collection would take place. There were
several audiences that would be likely to have adult learners who fit the parameters of the
study. These parameters that were considered in the selection process included that
participants must be 35 to 55 years of age, may not have been formally educated at
beyond a college bachelors degree, must have active involvement in a diverse number of
learning activities, must represent cultural and gender diversity, and must live in the
Tucson community because interviews would not be conducted over the telephone or
computer.
Several target groups were approached. First, a presentation on the study was
made to the staff and faculty of Extended University at the University of Arizona. This
department provides credit bearing and non-credit enrichment courses for diverse
populations of adult learners in the Tucson area. Second, several meetings were held with
staff and instructors at Pima County Community College. This community college in
Tucson provides adult education programs, which include associates degrees, certification
programs, General Education Degrees (GED), and English as a Second Language (ESL)
programs for adults that may qualify for this study. Finally, colleagues in the Division of
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Campus Life were asked to assist in identifying potential subjects with whom they were
acquainted through work or person relationships.
Sixteen learner questionnaires were completed by potential participants as a result
of the promotion and networking effort. These sixteen were simply those who were
willing to be considered for the study from over 100 potential adults contacted. There
was no screening or selection process that identified these sixteen, except for the targeted
promotion outlined above. If there was missing or unclear information submitted in the
learner questionnaire, the potential participant was contacted by telephone or emailed to
ask for clarification.
Selection and screening of potential participants for the study involved reviewing
the learner questionnaire and the operational definition of an active adult learner. Criteria
were identified for selecting adult learners for this study. The criteria used to screen
participants are outlined in Table 4. As explained at the beginning of this chapter, age,
educational type, amount of formal education, and gender were all initial considerations.
Additional criteria included communication skills and the ability of the learner to
effectively recall learning experiences. While these criteria were followed closely in
choosing the final group, potential participants were not eliminated from the group before
the initial screening interview even if they did not meet one or more of these criteria. For
example, adults who indicated they were over 55 years of age on the learner questionnaire
were given a screening interview even though they were likely to be screened out.
A series of questions were developed for the screening interview to assure those
adult learners were select who best fit the criteria. Interviews were conducted over the
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telephone. Questions were not standardized or weighted, but were developed to address
the selection criteria. The following list includes some of the questions used in the
interviews of potential participants.
1. Please describe a recent learning experience that has had an impact on your
learning.
2. How do you select or identify a learning activity?
3. What are your personal goals with regard to education or learning?
4. In what settings do you do your best thinking?
5. Tell me about one of the community organizations in which you are involved.
What do you gain from your involvement in this group?
These interviews were not tape-recorded however written notes were taken during
each interview. The researcher sorted potential participant’s questionnaires into two
groups as they were interviewed. One group was those eliminate immediately following
the interview, and one group was those who would be considered finalists. Upon
completion of all screening interviews, there were five finalists, all of whom were selected
for the study. The five adults included - three women and two men
Table 4
Selection Criteria for Participants______________________________________________________________________Criteria Parameter Description______________________________________________________________________Age 35-55 years Adults within this range are likely to have
experienced the most active learning period.
Type Formal, Non-formal, Informal All types identified.
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Degrees Bachelors Degree Bachelors degree or less formal education.
Gender Male & Females Males/females have different opportunities.
Communication Open/Clear Adults communicate learning goalsand the value of learning.
Time # hours/days spent Active learners spend more time learning.
Quantity # different activities Active learners involved in many activities.______________________________________________________________________
Eleven of the sixteen adult learners completing learner questionnaires were not
selected for the study. The most common reasons for not choosing these adults included
1) the adult did not disclose in the learning questionnaire or interview a high quantity or
variety of learning activities compared to those selected; 2) the adult could not clearly
communicate or fluidly reflect on their goals or experiences as a learner; and/or 3) the adult
fell too far outside the age or education parameter as compared to those adult selected for
the study.
There are many approaches to structuring the interviews. Rubin and Rubin
(1995) describe question structure as a continuum in qualitative research. In the
structured interview, at one end of the continuum, the researcher controls the content of
the discussion through a predetermined set of questions not allowing the participant to
wonder too far from the focus of the conversation. The other end of the continuum is the
unstructured interview, which is a very open-ended conversation between the researcher
and the participant. The participant is encouraged to talk about whatever is of interest,
and the researcher probes more deeply into topics that relate to the research area as they
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arise. The degree of structure to apply may vary depending on the relationship of the
researcher and participant, the research goal, and the time allotted. The protocol for the
RJI is an example of a semi-structured interview that falls more closely on the structured
side of the continuum described by Rubin and Rubin (1995).
The question structure for this study is best described as semi structured. A
standard set of questions was used to guide the researcher through the process of data
collection allowing for the comparison of data from one participant to another. However,
probes were not standardized and the standard questions were adjusted as the situation
required. The rationale for this approach is that there was a finite amount of time for
interviews. Entering interviews with a set of intended questions provided a measure of
how the interviews were progressing while assuring that participants address all required
areas of inquiry. However, the ability to adjust questioning as needed was valuable for
exploring other elements of the learner’s experience.
Data collection was conducted in several ways. The sources of data included the
learner questionnaire, transcripts of interviews with participants, transcripts from
interviews with family members, field notes on observations by the researcher, and data
from analysis of the RJI.
The initial interviews were conducted at the adult learner’s home, the researcher’s
office, or at a neutral site. Interviews lasted an hour or less with most of the adult
learners completing all the interviews in three or four sessions. Adult learners selected
their pseudonym and completed the consent form at the initial interview. A copy of the
consent form is available in Appendix C. Sessions were tape recorded as the researcher
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took field notes and asked questions. Questions were semi structured following a planned
question list. Appendix D contains a list of the questions. Follow-up and prompting
questions were asked as appropriate to explore a point or to keep the adult learner on the
topic.
One interview session involved adult learners responding to complex ethical
dilemmas as part of the Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI). This line of questioning
allowed the researcher to assess how adult learners process and problem solve, which is
an outcome of learning. The questioning protocol for the RJI is available in Appendix E.
Family members were often identified as significant in the lives of participants in
the study. Spouses, siblings, parents, friends, and colleagues were among those identified
by participants. However, exploring these relationships was not the primary reason the
researcher included interviews with family members. It was unexpected that questioning
the participants about their relationships with family would lead to the rich data on
families described in the findings and conclusions of this study. Interviews were
primarily used to gain another perspective on the experiences of the participant in the
study. For example, one participant (Richard, 11/18/01, p.102) discussed in detail how
his spouse supports and also becomes involved in his learning activities. Upon
completion of this interview, the researcher asked participant if he felt his spouse would
participate in an interview. The participant confirmed that she would, and assisted in
setting up an interview for her.
There was no screening process for selecting family members to interview. The
only criteria were that they were identified as being influential to the participant, the
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participant agreed to allow them to be interviewed, and the family members agreed to the
interview. All of the five participants identified a potential family member to be
interviewed, but only three were interviewed. The reason two family members were not
interviewed was because the family member either was unwilling or unavailable to be
interviewed. These interviews with family members lasted no more than one hour. The
questions used were unstructured and customized based on issues, themes, or questions
initiated by the participant. The focus of the questions was on the original participant,
and not the family member being interviewed. Interviews with family members were tape
recorded and the data was used to confirm, dispute, or contribute to findings in the study.
The researcher maintained written field notes during all interviews. These notes
were recorded on a separate pad of paper and in the transcripts of the interviews. After
each interview, the researcher would reflect on what was said and add additional
comments to the notes from the interview which would be inserted into the transcripts.
Field notes were used for the researcher to record feelings, observations, and thoughts that
are relevant to the adult learner’s experience, as well as the researcher.
Data Organization
The researcher employed a transcription technician who assisted in transferring
tape recorded data to computerized transcripts. The researcher did some transcription
work in order to become more familiar with the data and to speed up the transcription
process. The researcher also added observer comments (or “OC”) to the transcripts.
Observer comments were developed from some of the field notes written during the
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interviews or directly following the interviews. Formatting and titling of the data was
conducted during this time. Transcripts were single spaced and given a one inch margin to
allow for each separation when organized by category. The total number of transcript
pages was 152. This does not include approximately 200 hundred pages of field notes
and the three-page learner questionnaire completed by each adult learner who volunteered
to apply for the study. Appendix F contains transcripts from all interviews with the five
primary participants of this study. These transcripts are commonly cited throughout this
paper.
Data Analysis
The first steps were to organize the data into a three-ring binder grouping it
according to each participant. A copy was made of the data from each adult learner with
each being assigned a different color of paper. The researcher read the raw data several
time from start to finish making notes about how to organize and group it. After reading
the data three times, the researcher identified eighteen initial categories for the data. Table
5 lists these initial categories. Each cluster of data was assigned a category identified by
the
Table 5
Initial Categories of Data________________________________________________
1. Attitudes2. Motivation3. Self-esteem4. Resources5. Settings and Types of Learning
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6. Environment7. Perceptions of Learning8. Critical and Reflective Thinking9. Family Influence10. Success Factors11. Barriers12. Socioeconomic Influences13. Activities or Topic Preferred14. Learner Background15. Problem Solving16. Influence of Others (non family)17. Male and Female Differences18. Observer Comments
______________________________________________________________________
number of that category. These initial categories were done as a first step so that data
could be groups into more manageable groups.
Clusters of data were reviewed once more by the researcher to assure they were
properly assigned or to look for further ways in which to break them down. After this
final review, the clusters were cut apart with a scissors, and grouped according to their
assigned category. This process was not done with data for from the Reflective Judgment
Inventory (RJI).
A three-ring binder, with self adhesive pages covered by acrylic sheets (for photo
albums), was used for reorganizing the data. These photo album pages would allow for
easy affixing of data onto pages and moving of data later in the process. Adhesive flags
were placed in each section for easy identification of the data by the number that was
assigned to the category. The flags can also easily be removed and replaced as categories
are combined.
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Next, another review of the data was conducted by the researcher, with each
category of data being reviewed for similarities or differences. Resorting of the initial
categories revealed some of the themes to be discussed as the results of this study became
clearer. The six themes that are discussed in the findings of this study were identified.
The researcher kept notes during this process of analysis recording thoughts and
ideas that could be incorporated into the study. Additionally, all of the observer
comments (OC) during the interview process were assigned to category 18 and combined
in the binder. These comments, coupled with notes made during the analysis process,
were sorted separately according to the themes and issues identified in the data. These
notes and observer comments were used for the narrative of the findings and in the
conclusions found in the next chapter.
Analysis of the RJI
Reflective Judgment Inventory transcripts were evaluated using two, neutral raters
who were trained by the researcher to evaluate RJI transcripts. The training involved
reading about the model and rating process, discussing the meaning of each of the stages,
learning the meaning structure identified with each stage, and practicing the rating process
on sample transcripts. Transcripts from the participants of this study were provided to
the raters. The names of the adult learners were removed, a transcript number was
assigned, and the order of the transcripts was randomized so the raters never reviewed
transcripts from the same participant consecutively. Raters rated each of the seven
questions asked in the RJI, assigning it a score based on the criteria of the Reflective
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Judgment Model. Each transcript was given a three-digit score, based on the scores of
individual questions. The three-digit scores of each of the two raters was compared and
they were considered in agreement if there was three points or less separating the scores
as stipulated by rater conditions of the RJI. (Kitchener & King, 1994) Inter-rater
reliability was 73%. The raters reevaluated those dilemmas in which more than three
points separated their individual scores. The second pass by the raters resulted in
agreement on the remaining dilemmas. Since there was agreement after the second pass,
no additional dilemmas needed to be rated. The results of the RJI are reported in the next
chapter.
Coding system
The coding of data is very important in a qualitative study because is provides a
means by which information is organized, filed, and analyzed (Bogden and Biklen, 1995).
The data in this study was coded with the following information: participant, date
collected category it was taken from, and the page number in the transcript file. The
coding used for each of these pieces of data will be reported as follows:
1. participant name - a pseudonym of all adult learners or any others associated with
the adult learners will be used throughout the study. The pseudonym was
selected by the adult learner.
2. source - INT=interview; RJ=reflective journal; OC=observer or researcher
comments; LQ = learner questionnaire
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3. date - The date the information was collected is identified in a MM/DD/YY
format. For example, March 15, 2000 would be recorded as "03/15/00".
4. primary category - Categories are identified by a number. Categories have been
assigned a number between 1 and 17. These were the categories were data was
initially assigned. The category is preceded in the citation by “CAT:”
5. page number – This references the page, in the original transcript file (Appendix
F), where the statement was taken from, if it is cited verbatim.
An example of a citation in text using this system of coding would look like this.
"I am required to attend at least 15 hours of in-service for certification each year. I
usually have no problems getting the hours required." (Hattie, INT 12/23/02, CAT 4, p.
129)
Summary
This study employed a multi-case qualitative design. Adult learners were selected
through a screening process. Adult learners enrolled in formal and non-formal courses
were asked to complete a learner questionnaire. Student services personnel were also
asked to identify individuals they know to fit the characteristics desired in this study.
The learner questionnaire was used for the identification of potential participants. These
individuals were evaluated through interviews, observation, and their scores on the
Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI). Participants were asked to identify family
members whom could speak to their learning activities. Three of these family members
were interviewed as part of this study as a means of providing a more in-depth look at the
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participants and to confirm some of the reflections of the participants. The steps of
analysis included data coding, the separation of sections of data from transcripts, the
grouping of data into common categories, and further separation of data into more detailed
themes and observations. This process supports existing literature; and new grounded
theory.
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Chapter IV
Results
Participants
Five adult learners were selected to participate in the study – three women and
two men. These five adults were selected because they possessed the qualities and
experiences that fit the operational definition written for this study. See the section in
Chapter III entitled; Selection and screening of potential participants, for a more detailed
discussion of the selection criteria. Table 6 contains an overview of the selected
participants along with their occupations and degrees. Participants received some formal
education; however all of those who achieve bachelor’s degrees did so later in life.
Table 6
Descriptive Characteristics of Participants
Name Age Ethnicity Occupation Highest Degree
Gail 42 White/American MedicalAssistant
AssociatesDegree
Guy 51 White American ConcessionsSupervisor
BachelorsDegree
Polo 38 HispanicAmerican
AdministrativeAssociate
BachelorsDegree
Richard 46 White American Engineer BachelorsDegree
Rose 48 HispanicAmerican
AdministrativeAssistant
Associates
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American Assistant Degree
A content analysis of descriptive data provided this view of active learners in the
study. They have previously held, and currently hold a variety of jobs including office
support technician, engineer, administrative assistant, bookkeeper, registered medical
assistant, hotel and catering sales agent, concessions supervisor, car dealership
accountant, plumber, restaurant manager/owner, cook, construction supervisor, and legal
assistant. This list of occupations demonstrates the variety of different work that
participants, in this study, have completed. Occupation is a very important factor in the
motivation of some learners. Adult learners were asked in their learner questionnaire
whether they were required to obtain continuing education for their profession. Two of
the five identified that some forms of continuing education were required.
Continuing education requirements, however, seem to be only minimal motivation
for the participant in this study. The drive toward learning seems to be inherent.
Richard, for example, indicated that he had a continuing education requirement for his
occupation. His spouse, Marie, explains that this drive goes beyond the minimal
requirement. “Part of it is work. Part of it is that he is a very curious person. I think
that is part of the reason why he chose the profession he is in. He has a real interest in
knowing how things work and why they work. I think he is very detail-oriented on what
he is interested in. If he is interested in something, he wants to know all about it.”, stated
Marie. (Marie, int. 12/8/01, cat. 14, p. 123)
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The participants in this study identified many learning activities in which they
have participated. These settings are outlined in Table 7. Participants tend to be very
active in many different activities, whether they are formal, non-formal, or informal.
Table 7
Participant Learning Activities______________________________________________________________________
Informal Learning Activities Non-Formal Learning Activities
Discussions Software and Computer ClassesReading Books and Newspapers Music ActivitiesTravel Safety WorkshopsRecreation and Fitness Ethics WorkshopsComputer Research Security WorkshopsWatching Television Non-Credit Enrichment ClassesCollecting Genealogy WorkshopsPhotography Lab Certification ClassesPersonal Correspondence Occupational WorkshopsHome Repair Team ProjectsOutdoor RecreationCaring for AnimalsTouring Local AttractionsListening to the RadioMechanical ActivitiesLandscaping and GardeningWood and Metal WorkArt ActivitiesMoviesCaring for ChildrenCommunity Service ActivitiesCancer Survival Education______________________________________________________________________
Table 7 is only inclusive of those activities in which participants were involved in at the
time of this study. It is not necessarily reflective of their learning throughout their lives.
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Participant Profiles
Gail – Gail is an energetic mother of two with a passion for helping people. She
has pursued a number of occupations including hotel sales manager, concessionaire,
medical assistant, and retail sales. Gail did complete a two-year program at a medical
institute obtaining a technical degree as a medical assistant. However, Gail’s story is like
all of the participants in this study in that her formal education was obtained through
overcoming unique challenges.
Gail’s parents immigrated to the Southwestern United States from Canada. Her
father had asthma and relocated to a place where he could live more comfortably. While
her father was enrolled at a university in the United States, his sister was diagnosed with
Polio. He was forced to quit school and find a job in order to pay living and medical
expenses for his sister. He eventually went to work at a Standard Oil Service Station, and
over time became an owner, with his partner, of three different service stations. Gail’s
mother was also from Canada. Her mother and father were married prior to moving to the
United States. Her mother never went to college. She got a job working at a bank, and
eventually took on bookkeeping for the family service station business.
Gail’s parents were strong advocates of education. They emphasized it
constantly for Gail and her sister who is three years older. According to Gail,
“They both instilled in me that I always had to put my 100% intoeverything. School literally didn’t come easy to me. It was very hard forme. Mom always would make time to help me. I think that put a bigemphasis on me, because she would always say, ‘You know, it is hard butyou just keep pushing and you’ll get it.’ She would show me differentways to look at things.” (Gail, int. 7/11/03, cat. 2, p. 8)
92
Gail chose to get married after high school and pursue a business degree while her sister
went on to higher education, eventually receiving a doctorate.
Gail’s marriage to her first husband failed. Her daughter was an infant at the time.
Searching for support, she sought out her parents who welcomed her back home, helped
care for her baby, allowing her to return to school and complete her two-year degree as a
medical assistant. This was a very difficult time for Gail challenging her to use the work
ethic and organizational skills she learned from her family.
Gail worked as a medical assistant for many years allowing her to practice her
helping skills with patients and doctors. She was remarried to a man named Paul, and
they have an infant son. Gail has been staying home with the child for the last few years,
but is considering returning to the medical field or even back to school. Paul, who is a
very supportive spouse, has plans of his own. He stated, “We are kind of tossing
around now that I can qualify to retire soon from the state (where he is employed) in five
years. I was throwing around the idea of me staying home with the kiddos and working
part time and stuff around the house. She would go back for her education or go back to
the medical field or whatever she chooses to do.” (Paul, int. 10/22/02, cat. 9, p. 27)
Guy – An internal drive to accomplish career and educational goals is how one
could describe the source of Guy’s energy for learning. Circumstance and other people in
Guy’s life have influenced, positively and negatively, the path he has chosen. Guy
describes this influence as “perhaps the path of least resistance”. (Guy, int. 10/3/02, cat
14, p. 34)
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Guy grew up in California in a working class family. His father was a plumbing
contractor in Southern California. His parent divorced as he finished high school so he
went to work in grocery store and a restaurant while going to a junior college. Guy spent
much of his adolescent and young adult life working with his father in the plumbing
business. “He had always been grooming me to take over the plumbing business. That’s
what he wanted me to do. That’s why I decided to move on to other directions. At that
time, I wanted to be anything except a plumber.”, noted Guy. (Guy, int. 10/3/02, cat. 14,
p. 41)
Guy’s uncle took him under his wing encouraging him to move to Tucson, AZ, in
order to help him run his pizza franchise business. Marriage kept him from finishing a
two-year degree at a local community college. Guy became a manager at restaurants
owned by his uncle and was very successful. He, and his wife, had a dream of opening
their own restaurant. They realized their dream through hard work, saving their money,
and working at extra jobs opening up a pizza restaurant in 1978. For four years, Guy and
his wife ran their restaurant, but the stress and strains of trying to operate a major
business contributed to their divorce. They had a daughter at the time.
The trauma of going through a divorce and selling his restaurant led Guy to a life
change. He spent time getting his life back together, and was able to get a job in the dining
services department at the University of Arizona. He has worked there since 1989. His
explains here his motivation behind this change of location:
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“One of the motivating reasons for me to come to the University was the fee
waiver. It was not for me, but for my daughter was with the gifted program at
school. I thought this was a great opportunity for me to pay her way through
college. So, I believe that within six months I had signed up non-degree. I started
taking courses just for something to do. I think my first course was a psych class.
Psych 101 or 100 or whatever. It was a general survey class of psychology. It
got me excited. I started taking when I could the six credit limit – the max allowed
under the fee waiver – just for my own knowledge. It was a year into that when I
actually decided to set a goal. I did start out with that.” (Guy, int. 10/3/02, cat. 2,
p. 33)
The rest of Guy’s story is that he finished his degree eleven years later receiving a BS/BA
in Human Resource Management, working his way through the courses at a pace of three-
to-six credits per semester.
Guy is an active learner beyond his drive for formal education. He has an interest
in a number of athletic activities including running, volleyball, softball, and the Senior
Olympics. He is also a member of a sailing club and takes as many opportunities as
possible to get on the water. Guy is, however, like many adult learners in that his
learning is related to his career. He continues to learn about technology, real estate, and
various construction trades which will help him pursue his next career in renovating and
restoring houses.
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Polo – This energetic, woman, of Mexican heritage, is part of a large family of
active learners. When she talks about her parents, grandparents, and her two brothers and
sister, she glows with pride at the tradition of learning and the accomplishments they
have enjoyed.
“My younger brother has continued his education since he was in high
school, so we have that connection where we can bounce ideas off of each
other. Even though he is my younger brother, he’s always been my
mentor. He has taken a real interest in my education. He places me up on
a pedestal and encourages me constantly, so he’s been a big part of it. (her
continued education)”, noted Polo. (Polo, int. 10/23/01, cat. 14, p. 70)
Polo has faced challenges, as all the other participants in this study. She was a
single parent with three children. She made a choice of being involved in her children’s
activities and schools while she was attempting to finish a degree at a local community
college. It took her eight years to complete her degree, but her persistence paid off. She
was offered opportunities to continue her education at several four-year institutions, but
she chose to attend a business school that is geared toward adult learners.
Polo’s family values education because formal education opportunities have not
been available to them. Polo’s mother completed her high school degree, but her father
had to quit high school to support his family. He worked in the cotton fields to earn a
living. Her mother and father placed a very high value on education for their children
because they did not have the same opportunities. Polo said, “His (her father’s) yearning
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for education, which was not an option for him, was passed down to his children. He
couldn’t emphasize enough what an opportunity it was to be educated.” (Polo, int.
11/7/01, cat. 9, p. 78)
There is a connection that ties all of Polo’s stories together, and that tie is family.
Her brothers and sister are all active adult learners, and they all support one another in
their learning. Her parents are actively involved in providing emotional and financial
support for their grandchildren’s education. Polo is proud of her accomplishments
because she has done it her way. She has continued to be involved with her children,
pursued her career as an administrative associate, maintained her relationship with her
husband of five years, and continued to learn for her own benefit.
Richard - Richard grew up in San Diego, California, where he was the oldest of
five children in his family. Twelve years separate Richard and his next oldest sibling.
His father was a self-educated engineer and his mother was a teacher. His life as a child
was average, until his father died while Richard was young. He had to quit school and
support his family. Richard’s responsibilities at home made it difficult for him to pursue
his educational goals.
Richard’s mother was always an advocate of education, but, as Richard’s wife,
Marie, explains, she “talked the talk, you know, about education being important, but I
don’t know that they really helped him pursue it.” (Marie, int.12/8/01, cat. 14, p.129).
When Richard was 18 years old, his youngest sibling was still in grade school. They did
not have the resources to support a college education for Richard.
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Richard went to a community college, completing an Associates of Arts Degree in
Business, and went on to California State Northridge. Richard ended up dropping out of
school. He worked for a while taking classes at a community college for electronics
finally completing an Associates of Science Degree in Electronics. Richard could have
stopped pursuing education, but his drive to learn and achieve was too strong. He
continued to work and take classes in business, but his dream was to be an engineer like
his father. His wife convinced him to change his major and to work toward his
engineering degree at California State Northridge. Richard achieved his dream, after ten
years, of receiving an engineering degree, through his own efforts and the support of his
family and his employer.
Richard is unique for several reasons. He overcame three major challenges that
could have been insurmountable for the average adult learners. First, he was married and
eventually had two children while working on his education. Second, he battled disease
for most of his adult life including lupus, a disease that weakens the immune system, and
melanoma. Third, Richard worked the night shift as an engineer at a missile manufacturing
facility. His evening schedule allowed him lots of quiet time during the day to reflect and
learn, and also allowed him to attend to his medical condition which included trips to the
hospital for radiation treatments and chemotherapy. Richard had many surgeries and
treatments between 1996 and 2003, but he continued to keep a positive attitude. The
melanoma produced many tumors which were removed surgically or treated. Through all
these challenges, Richard maintained a positive attitude. “These problems have changed
my outlook on life. I could be depressed and just give in, but I have become active in
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fighting this disease. I have given talks to groups and have talked to other patients who
have cancer. I always tell people it’s alright to be scared, but if you keep a positive
attitude, you’re gonna win. Attitude has a whole lot to do with health.”, Richard said.
(Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat 14, p. 104)
Richard died on April 15, 2003 from a brain tumor. He was survived by his wife,
Marie, and two young boys. His life was prolonged by his positive attitude and his drive
to continue learning in spite of overwhelming adversity. Richard provided inspiration for
many as he fought cancer, continued working until his last months, and died in his home
with his family nearby.
Rose – A comparison of Rose to other participants in this study would result in a
number of similarities. The connection to family, the orientation toward learning that was
present in her household as a child, and a drive to learn that is innate. The primary
difference would be that Rose comes from a family where the parents were products of
higher education. Her father has a Ph.D. in Plant Pathology, while her mother has a
Bachelors Degree in Biology. Among her five brothers and sisters, there is a lawyer, a
carpenter, an artist, a customer service specialist, and one who is finishing his degree.
Rose is interesting because of the many self-directed learning activities in which
she participates. Her primary interest is genealogy. This hobby has become a passion.
She began investigating family stories hoping to create a written history of her family for
her son to have. He grandparents were getting older and she feared losing a vital
connection that had been communicated through them. Rose reflected that “if you listen
to something then repeat it, it could be changed, just by the different ways people talk.
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So that’s what got me started. What I get out of it now is it’s like being a private
investigator. You can spend ten minutes or two hours on it and can find something new
and exciting.” (Rose, int. 12/11/01, cat. 14, p. 133)
Rose’s family has stayed together through many difficulties. She grew up with
her mother, spending some time with her father only in the summer, since her parents
divorced when she was eight years old. Her mother was the consistent influence on her,
although she had stepfathers whom she also came to know.
Rose is a single parent, with a teen-aged boy she supports. She is also a student,
taking classes more for personal enrichment than for the continuation of a degree. Her
career as an administrative assistant at a university department allows her to be emerged
in an educational setting which gives her many opportunities, but she does not see herself
finishing a degree. Her only disappointment is that she feels she is not living up to her
mother’s expectations, since it was common that members of her mother’s family
pursued degrees. “For those of us who did not go on and get a bachelors degree it was
very hard for my mother to take. So for me it was very hard to come to terms with it
myself”, noted Rose. (Rose, int. 12/11/01, cat. 9, p. 135)
Family Members
Some family members were interviewed in this study primarily to gain another
perspective on the experiences of the participants in the study. As explained in Chapter
III, these family members were not screened or selected formally through an application
process. They were identified by the participants as being significant others whom
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would be able to discuss the participant accurately and honestly. There were three family
members interviewed. Family members from two the five participants were not
interviewed because these individuals were either unavailable or were unable to participate
in an interview. The three individuals interviewed include Amber, Marie, Paul, and
Amber. Profiles of these family members and descriptions of how they influenced the
participants in this study are contained in the next two pages. While these profiles do
describe why they are influential to the participants, their primary contribution to this
study is the data they add to the study. Amber, Marie, and Paul are cited multiple times
throughout the results and conclusions lending greater credibility to themes that have been
developed. They assist in telling the story of the adults offering insights from another
perspective.
Amber – Guy enjoys a close relationship with his daughter, Amber, long after she
became an adult. At an early crossroad in his life, Guy took up running competitively
after he became burned-out from managing his restaurant and was getting through a
divorce. His relationship with Amber continued as they became running partners and
training for races. Guy was very involved in Amber’s education as she excelled in high
school through the gifted and talented program.
Amber has always been an ambitious learner graduating first in her high school
class and going on to college. Guy was right there every step of the way providing
encouragement and support for his daughter athletically, academically, and personally.
After Guy decided to go back to college, he relied on Amber for support and inspiration.
Through the eleven years that Guy went to school and worked full-time, Amber was the
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person who kept him focused on his goal of a college degree. She was impressed with his
accomplishments. “After watching him go through school, and watching him pull A’s the
whole way, and working 40-80 hours per week. Going to school part time and doing all
of the extra curricular activities of being active in all different types of sports, it really
inspired me because he is just so exceptional.”, Amber recalled. (Amber, int. 4/10/03, cat.
14, pp. 65-66)
Paul – Gail and Paul had known each other for 20 years before they started
dating. They had both been recently divorced at the time and were looking for
companionship. Paul and Gail have been married for over five years and have one child
together, along with each having a child from their previous marriages.
Their children keep them focus on their learning. Gail has been working in their
home for the past few years working part time jobs to make ends meet. Paul has been
employed full time managing food and concession businesses. Paul is considering retiring
from his current career to stay home full-time with the adolescent son, allowing Gail to go
back to work and school. Their common desire to stay close to their children drives their
financial and educational decisions. Paul understands Gail’s drive to go back to her career
as a certified medical assistant, and that her success depends on him taking on the full-
time responsibility with the children.
Marie – Richard met Marie during his second attempt to go to college. Marie was
taking classes to be certified as a legal assistant, which is the profession in which she
continues to be employed. She influenced Richard immediately convincing him that the
business degree he was pursuing would be less valuable to him than an engineering degree.
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She had come from a family that was very supportive of education and her father was an
engineer as Richard was striving to be. Marie’s family and the influence they had on her
learning motivated her to support Richard as he struggled to complete his degree later in
life. Further, Marie’s parents provided support for Richard which he had missed as his
father died when he was very young.
Marie describes herself as direct in handling and communicating with people.
These skills helped her to give Richard good feedback and work effectively as his
partners. She identified problem-solving skills as one of Richard’s strength, while she is
more philosophical. They pursued different educational paths, but would share with each
other the knowledge they gained from their learning activities. Richard and Marie do not
necessarily always share the same interests, but they worked together very effectively as
a family. (Marie, int.12/8/01, cat. 14, pp. 127-129)
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Themes
The sixteen data categories were used to generate the descriptive section of this
chapter and the adult learner profiles. The data was then resorted in an effort to identify
themes related to the primary research question: What are the common factors in the lives
of adult learners in this study, which enhance motivation and opportunity for learning?
Themes are focused groupings of data, which better describe the finding of this study.
The following themes were identified:
1. Active adult learners can be identified through their learning accomplishments.
2. Learning accomplishments were achieved in spite of barriers.
3. Participants in this study are motivated through the support of a positive
family environment and individual family members.
4. Positive self-esteem is a characteristic of participants in this study.
5. Active learners in this study displayed quasi-reflective thinking.
6. Active learning environments, identified in this study, provided access to other
adult learners, encouraged problem solving, and supported learner self-esteem.
These six themes are to be overviewed in this chapter. A perspective on the how these
themes provide a new view of active adult learning will be presented in the final chapter.
Theme 1: Active adult learners may be identified through learning
accomplishments. Adult learners for this study were identified by the number of
learning activities in which they were active or were accomplished. In Chapter One,
active adult learners were defined as adults who are successful in their personal lives,
careers, and community as a result of being oriented toward learning throughout their
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adult lives. (Houle, 1992) Determining that an adult is “oriented toward learning
throughout their adult lives” is difficult, and beyond the scope of this study, however
learning accomplishment of the five learners in this study seemed to be tied to making a
change in the adult’s life. More sophisticated tools may be developed in the future which
would examine the amount of time an adult spends on learning tasks, and the difficulty or
challenge of those activities. Again, the development of such an instrument is beyond the
scope of this study, however the learners in this study were constantly looking for new
learning challenges that advanced their understanding of their favorite learning topics.
This finding may inspire other researchers to pursue to methods of predicting active
learners.
Theme 2: Learning accomplishments were achieved in spite of barriers.
This theme was repeated throughout the lives of all of the participants in this study.
Each of the adults had overwhelming obstacles that stood in the way of learning goals.
Adults can be held back by the responsibilities they assume early in life, and the
consequences of the choices they have made. Polo and Richard are examples of active
adult learners facing these barriers. Polo was a teen-aged mother which was a significant
barrier to her pursuing any advanced degree when completing high school. She survived a
divorce, and the challenge of getting her career started. Polo was remarried seven years
ago. She and her husband have been responsible for raising five children. Polo succeeded
in achieving her learning goals. She found a way to return to school and complete her
bachelor’s degree
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Richard’s father died when he was an adolescent, forcing him to work odd jobs to
help support his family. Richard’s mother was supportive of him continuing his
education in spite of the fact that they could not financially support his college education.
Richard settled for getting an associates degree in business, but still dreamed of getting a
bachelor’s degree. He was highly motivated, but would have to find the direction and
financial resources on his own. He eventually complete his bachelors degree after ten
years of going to school and working. (Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat. 9, p. 101)
A content analysis of barriers identified by adult learners in this study include
marriage, children, time, health, family commitments, work commitments, unsupportive
supervisors, unsupportive spouses, lack of technology resources, and lack of financial
resources. Adult learners in this study were not asked in the learner questionnaire to
specifically identify all the barriers they had experienced in their lives, so this list is not
all inclusive. Nor were they asked to identify all barriers in the interview. They were
asked what barriers had the greatest impact on their lives, and they identified others
through their stories and experiences that were included in this list. Additionally, it is
anticipated that self confidence may be an unidentified limiting factor as it is easier to
identify more tangible issues.
Richard’s story is especially compelling because the health issues he has faced
have been a significant barrier, even though he never specifically identified health as a
limiting factor. “Many years ago I was diagnosed with lupus which I have been fighting
for some time now. About five years ago, I contracted melanoma cancer. I have been
taking treatments on a regular basis for cancer over the past year, and have had to be
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treated off and on for cancer over the past five years.” (Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat. 14, p.
104) Battling two major diseases fueled Richard’s desire to live each day to the fullest,
and learn as much as he could for his benefit and for the benefit of his family.
Participants in this study faced the same challenges that any adult faces in life, but their
learning either stems from these barriers, or is enhanced from overcoming these barriers.
Richard, without the challenge of facing disease each day, may not have made the same
learning choices. His desire to have a positive influence on others and make the most of
his life made him an exceptional example of an active adult learner.
Theme 3: Participants in this study are motivated through the support of a
positive family environment and individual family members. It is certainly no secret
that lack of support from family is a major barrier to adult learning. It is interesting to
learn from this study the various kinds of support that is received. There are three major
types of support provided adults in this study. They include 1) parental messaging; 2)
immediate family; and 3) extended family support.
Parental messaging is defined as the communication of positive messages, both
overt and covert, provided by the parents or guardians who influence adults when they
are adolescents. Typical parental messaging could include words of encouragement, role-
modeling, rules within the home, and tutoring by parent figures. Parent messaging existed
in the families of all the participants in this study. The types of parent messaging
identified in this study are listed in Table 8. Guy provides a good example of the parental
messaging he received from his mother. He remembers, “My mother was actually
academically pretty good and pretty gifted. She is the one that actually taught me how to
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write. She was my big supporter in education….She checked the homework and she
would get involved in school especially in the early years by volunteering. Just, mostly
verbal support, in that ‘we want you to do what we were not able to do’, they would
say.” (Guy, int. 10/3/02, cat. 9, p. 36)
Immediate family support is words and behaviors that come from the
participant’s immediate family, or those family members that are spouses, children,
partners, or other significant people who are within their living unit. Supportive
immediate family within the living unit is the factor that makes learning opportunities
available and helps participants consider acting upon these opportunities.
The obvious way immediate family support is demonstrated is when the
participant pursues a formal degree later in life. This was the case with four of the five
adult learners in this study. Marie, Richard’s spouse, was asked if she would support
Table 8
Parental Messaging and Active Adult Learners_____________________________________________________________________
Type of Parental Messaging Source
Covet learning opportunities Polo, int. 11/7/01, cat. 9, p. 78Educational expectations Rose, int. 12/11/01, cat. 9, p. 135Emphasizing work ethic Gail, int. 10/22/02, cat. 9, p. 6Family service learning activities Polo, int. 11/7/01, cat. 9, p. 91Involvement with schools Guy, int. 10/3/02, cat. 9, p. 41Keeping a close family environment Polo, int. 11/12/01, cat. 9, p. 94Orienting to educational opportunities Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat. 9, p. 102Reading in the home Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat. 9, p. 125Role modeling Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat. 9, p. 104Rewarding learning accomplishments Rose, int. 12/11/01, cat. 9, p. 135Support of siblings Gail, int. 7/11/02, cat. 9, p. 9Teaching learning skills Guy, int. 10/3/02, cat. 9, p. 41
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Tutoring by parents/guardian Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat. 9, p. 102Verbal encouragement for learning Rose, int. 12/11/01, cat. 9, p. 135Verbal praise for learning Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat. 9, p. 102Volunteering Guy, int. 10/3/02, cat. 9, p. 41
______________________________________________________________________
Richard going back to school again, considering it took ten years for him to obtain his
bachelor’s degree. Marie said,
I would, and I have encouraged him to do that. I know that in the
profession he has chosen, there is a ceiling if all you have is a bachelors. It
took him a long time to get his bachelors. He had to do it on his own. My
parents paid for my education. He was trying to work a job and trying to
get his education. I would love him to go back to school. I don’t know
how he would fit that in, but where there is a will, there’s a way. Maybe
taking just one class per semester. Even if it takes you ten years, you get
the diploma. (Marie, int. 12/8/01, cat. 9, p. 130)
Richard’s primary support was his spouse. The same is true for Gail, whose
husband, Paul, was interviewed in this study. Gail’s parents were also part of her
immediate family support. Gail was married at a young age and soon had a child. Shortly
after the baby was born, she and her husband separated and divorced. Gail had the
responsibility of supporting herself and her child, which she did by working for hotels
and resorts at the time. When her first marriage began to fail, her parents provided
daycare for the child so she could work. Eventually Gail moved back home to live with
them. “She had a second chance. That’s pretty much what you have to do. Especially
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when you are a young parent, a single parent, you have to try to get another career
started.”, said Paul, Gail’s current spouse. (Paul, int. 10/22/02, cat. 9, p. 32) Gail
completed a two-year degree to become a Certified Medical Technician thanks to the
immediate family support she received.
Extended family support comes from those people in an adult’s life who
influence their learning, whom are not part of their family unit. They may be siblings,
parents, friends, or colleagues. Polo gives us the best proof of the power of extended
family support.
Polo searched for the right educational institution that would cater to her need to
work and raise a family with her husband. She found a university that serves working
adults with evening classes, web-based curriculum for distance education, and adult
oriented teachers.
Polo talked extensively about how her family has supported her learning. She is
especially close to her younger brother. Polo explained, “My younger brother has
continued his education since he was in high school, so we have that connection where we
can bounce ideas off of each other. Even though he is my younger brother, he’s always
been my mentor. He has taken a real interest in my education. He puts me on a pedestal
and encourages me constantly, so he’s been a big part of it.” (Polo, int. 10/23/01, cat. 14,
p. 70) Polo completed her bachelor’s degree after five years of working and going to
school.
Support for learning is not simply made available in the form of formal learning
opportunities, like going to college. Most of the active learning done by adults in this
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study was non-formal and informal (self-directed). These opportunities are initiated by
the motivations and interests of the learner, but are often influenced by others in the
learner’s environment. Guy, for example, was destined to become a partner in his father’s
plumbing business. As a young man, his father took him on jobs and encouraged him to
pursue an apprenticeship in plumbing. Guy could have easily slipped into this path, but
chose instead to leave California, where he had lived most of his life.
Guy moved to Arizona to work with his uncle in the restaurant business. Guy
found his passion was in restaurant management. He learned from his uncle how to
design, construct and manage a new restaurant through working with him on his chain of
businesses. His uncle was a significant influence on him as he pursued his dream of
building and opening his own restaurant. Guy already had a great deal of knowledge to
share about the construction and project management aspects of the business, and his
uncle helped him become more business minded, effective in managing the books, and
capable of handling personnel decisions. These were all lessons learned outside the
classroom through drive, passion, and hard work. (Guy, int. 10/3/02, cat. 14, p. 35)
Theme 4: Positive self-esteem is a characteristic of participants in this
study. Self-esteem is not a difficult concept to understand. It quite simply is
“confidence and satisfaction in oneself.” (Merriam-Webster, 1996) The expression of
confidence and satisfaction is evident in these participants. Their confidence stems from
their personal and academic accomplishment in the face of challenging barriers and
complications.
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Guy’s experience in the restaurant business is a great example of gaining
confidence through learning. He was assigned the project management duties of
renovating a steak restaurant building into a pizza parlor. Guy was challenged by this
job, but being around construction his whole life gave him confidence. “That was really a
great experience for me. It gave me the confidence and the knowledge that I needed to
open my own restaurant two years later.” (Guy, int. 10/3/03, cat. 14, p. 29)
Another participant that exudes confidence is Polo. She has worked through
personal challenges her whole life building confidence in herself and her abilities. She used
this confidence to return to school and finish her bachelor’s degree after almost fifteen
years of raising her family, dealing with a divorce, and starting her career. (Polo, int.
11/7/01, cat. 14, pp. 67-70)
For the participant, the satisfaction of learning generates interest in the next
learning project as in any cause-and-effect cycle. Rose takes classes in anthropology and
studies genealogy in her spare time. She talks about her passion for learning as a stream
that rushes to the lowest point. “I’m studying it because it’s something I’m interested in.
I love to read ethnographies. I love hearing about different cultures and, instead of just
having made war, how they lived in their homes, and what they did with their families…I
look back at the different jobs I have had. I took care of children. I ran daycare centers. I
was more involved in people’s families and maybe that’s why I’m interested in
genealogy.” Rose believes that she needs to continue learning throughout her life in order
to become a complete person. (Rose, int. 12/11/01, cat. 2, p. 140)
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Theme 5: Active learners in this study displayed quasi-reflective thinking.
This seems obvious because we would assume anyone is capable of reflective thinking.
Reflective thinking, we recall from Chapter I, is the type of thinking that is applied to
complex problems, where the right answer is not at hand. Further, it is often cited as the
outcome of formal, higher education. Formal, higher education trains one to question the
difficult problems faced in life and to find potential solutions. Being a critical consumer
of information available in life is a skill that is coveted. (King & Kitchener, 1994; Wood,
1983).
Adult learners in this study were given the Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI).
This instrument (King & Kitchener, 1994) provides a means for evaluating the decision-
making and reflective thinking skills of the adults. Scores from this study are displayed in
Table 9. The column to the left lists the pseudonym of the five adult learners. The next
three columns – D1, D2, and D3 – list the score the adult learner received for each of the
three dilemmas they were presented to him/her from the inventory during an interview.
The dilemmas, as explained in Chapter III, focus on several challenging topics that may
include the origins of the pyramids, bias in news reporting, creationism vs. evolution, and
the causes of alcoholism in families. These scores are assigned based on two RJI rater’s
assessment of the interview transcripts. The overall stage, as listed in the next column, is
the average of the three individual dilemma scores and relates to one of the seven stages of
the Reflective Judgment Model. See Table 1 for a complete description of the model.
The last column reports the category within the Reflective Judgment Model where
the adult learner’s score falls. These categories describe the reasoning the adult learner
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used in responding to ill-structured problems. Pre-reflective thinking utilizes the
reasoning that
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Table 9
Reflective Judgment Scores of Adult Learners
Name Average Score D1 D2 D3 Overall Stage Category
Gail 3 3 2 3 Pre-Reflective
Guy 5 5 6 5 Quasi-Reflective
Polo 3 4 3 4 Quasi-Reflective
Richard 5 4 3 4 Quasi-Reflective
Rose 4 4 5 4 Quasi-Reflective______________________________________________________________________
knowledge can be absolute and that answers to complex problems exist in the explanation
of authority figures. Quasi-reflective thinking involves reasoning that knowledge can be
uncertain and the adult learner can cite sources for knowledge can differ based on context.
However, the adult learner struggled to form their own conclusions or justify their beliefs
about a complex problem. Chapter II contains a detailed discussion of these categories
and their meaning within the Reflective Judgment Model (pp. 36-37).
These scores on Table 9 provide a view of these adult learners, and cannot be
generalized to any group of adult learners anywhere else. What we do know about
reflective judgment is that adult learners who possess high-level reflective thinking skills
are thought to be highly formally educated, often with terminal or graduate degrees, which
was not the case with any of the adult learners in this study. The level of reflective
thinking displayed, when they were assessed using the Reflective Judgment Inventory
(RJI), was average. These findings demonstrate that the participants develop reflective
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judgment similarly to those who are able to choose a route of formal higher education.
Their reflective thinking skills come from their motivation to learn and the growth they
experience from overcoming complex problems in their own lives.
Theme 6: Active learning environments, identified in this study, provided
access to other adult learners, encouraged problem solving, and supported learner
self-esteem. There are some commonly accepted aspects of adult learning that have
evolved from theory to accepted principles. One is that adults are experienced, self-
directed learners. When they learn on their own, they capitalize on their preferences of
content, rate, method, and time of day. (Tough, 1979) The reality of working with adults
in a more structured environment is that they can sometimes be unmotivated, dependent,
lacking in direction, and lacking confidence. These behaviors may be due in part to the
fact that they are not free to choose their most preferred learning activity or they are not
proficient in the setting they are in. This would certainly be expected considering a self
directed learning, in a formal or non-formal setting, would have less control, support, and
cannot easily predict the direction of the learning activity. (Cross, 1981; Wlodkowski,
1993)
The findings of this study suggest that learning environments that allow
participants the ability to be self-directed will facilitate greater comfort in the
environment. While it was discovered that learners prefer different levels of activity
within an environment (i.e. Lecturer of speaker vs. discussion groups), the common
thread among active learners in this study is that the environment must have other adult
learners who are in similar circumstances. Richard is a private person who enjoys
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solitude when he is studying or learning. However, his ideal learning environment
involves other learners in his same situation, in a location that is “away from kids and
away from other distractions.” He believes that, “If I am there to learn, that’s great and
that’s the final criteria.” (Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat. 5, p. 106) Richard’s personal
preference for quiet solitude is overridden by having other learners in the same
environment with a common purpose.
Polo’s notion of an effective learning environment is a formal setting with other
learners where she can engage others along common learning objectives, assert leadership
in a group, and be nurturing to others. This suits the more gregarious personality of Polo.
She gains energy and self-esteem from the feeling of common purpose in a learning setting
where she and others role model effective learning behaviors. She describes an ideal
learning setting were she is part of a group of five or six adult learners. “After taking a
personal inventory, which all students are required to complete, each group meets
together. Groups consist of five or six people. I’ve always been assigned as the leader of
the group. In doing that, it’s a learned behavior in that I was able to recognize the
strengths of all players and use those for the benefit of our product, a paper.”, Polo
described. (Polo, int. 11/7/01, cat. 10, p. 95)
A group setting is also the preferred situation where participants can contemplate
complex problems. Again, adult learners did identify a preference for solitary situations
as where they do their best thinking. Richard identified the time he does his best thinking
as in the middle of the night. (Richard, int. 11/18/01, cat. 15) Polo and Rose like the
morning or the middle of the day, (Polo, int. 11/7/01, cat. 15; Rose, int. 12/11/01, cat. 8)
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when they are fresh and can focus without distraction. Gail was most effective in the
evening when it’s quiet and the children are sleeping. (Gail, field note, 7/11/02). However,
when questioned about how others affect their decision-making, they felt the chance to
work cooperatively on problems or to pose solutions to a group was preferred. Rose
finds it hard to take a different path when others provide feedback and advice. “They
give their advice. It was a hard thing for me to learn that they can give advice that does
not mean you have to take it. It’s good to take what you need and it’s great to get input
and support when you do make a decision.”, reflected Rose. She noted that she is drawn
to learning settings where there is a common interest between learners and an opportunity
to make friends. (Rose, int. 12/11/01, cat. 15, p. 140)
As noted in theme four, self-esteem is a common quality of an active adult learner.
The learning settings where these active learners participate support their self-esteem, and
again, that can stem from a facilitator or teacher that builds their confidence. Polo would
like a facilitator who builds the self-esteem of the learner, rather than draws attention to
their own expertise and credentials. “I don’t care about seeing the long alphabet behind
their name. (i.e. Phd, ME, etc.) I think the love of learning and teaching is a true passion
and when I look for an instructor, I look for techniques that extend beyond the workbook.
I look for creativity in assignments that enhances my learning.” (Polo, int. 11/7/01, cat. 4,
pp. 95)
Rose provides an example of an instructor who tears down an adult learner’s self-
esteem, by making them self-conscious and disabling them from being able to draw from
their preferred learning style. “I remember I took a class from this one young instructor
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and he made some little wise crack about your life’s work was being in school, but I’ve
always felt that I could continue school forever and the things I’m in, like genealogy, you
have to study.” (Rose, int. 12/7/01, cat. 2, p. 138)
Learning environments that allow the learner to interact with others, challenge
themselves with complex problems or issues, and support the learners self-esteem
provide the optimum environment for active adult learning. These qualities are not
exclusive to formal or non-formal learning environments. They also apply to self-directed
(informal) learning environments that are not structured or formalized.
Polo’s hobby is photography. She took it up because she is involved in a public
school where the students are teenage parents and the school provides a nursery
environment for the children. During graduation, she started taking pictures of graduating
mothers with their children. “I use my own camera. We hang up a sheet and use a plant
and a stool. There is some creativity involved….Everyone loved the photograph, so we
give the moms the opportunity to do that type of photograph.”, Polo explained. (Polo,
int. 10/23/01, cat. 13, p. 68) All of the elements of a motivating learning environment are
present in Polo’s example. There are others involved in the activity who have a personal
interest; she is being challenged by the creative process and providing a positive outcome
for teenaged parents; and the outcome contributes to Polo’s self-esteem. Polo explained
how she feels about this learning activity. She said, “When I see how proud the moms
and dads are, because there are males involved in the program. When they see their
pictures, it’s a memory for them and they’ve worked really hard for it. So it makes me
feel good.” (Polo, int. 10/23/01, cat. 13, p. 63)
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Guy spent the last ten years of his life going to classes in pursuit of his bachelors
degree. His attention to a formal educational goal has not diminished his desire to learn in
other areas, assuming the environment is right. Guy’s new learning activity is sailing. “I
am motivated by self interest. I am constantly trying to learn about construction, by
reading books. Same thing with my sailing, because it’s my passion. I read about sailing
and learn about sailing. That’s a fairly recent thing in my life. I’ve only been sailing for
about 15 years. By joining the Tucson Sailing Club and being around those people, I’m
trying to learn even more from others. But what motivates me more is my own self-
interest and seeing what I can do with it”, Guy explained. (Guy, int. 12/29/03, cat. 2, p.
48) Again, the qualities of an active learning environment are present in Polo and Guy’s
stories. The environment involves others with common interests, there are challenges and
complex problems to be solved in an informal manner, and the learner’s self-esteem is
enhanced through success.
Summary
The identification of participants followed the following parameters: participants
must be 35 to 55 years of age, must have little or no post-secondary education, must have
active involvement in a diverse number of learning activities, must represent cultural and
gender diversity, and must live in the Tucson community because interviews would not
be conducted over the telephone or computer. Sixteen learner questionnaires were
completed out of a one hundred potential adult learners with five of these being selected
for the study. Learners were interviewed three times for an hour or less using semi-
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structured questioning. Sessions were tape recorded as the researcher took field notes and
asked questions. This line of questioning allowed the researcher to assess how adult
learners process and problem solve, which is an outcome of learning. The researcher
successfully scheduled and conducted interviews with three family members who the
adult learners identified in the interview as being influential. These interviews with family
members were also tape recorded and this data was integrated into participant data as a
means of confirming the findings of the study.
The researcher employed a transcription technician who assisted in transferring
tape recorded data to computerized transcripts. The researcher did some of transcription
work in order to become more familiar with the data and to speed up the transcription
process. Data analysis only began only after all the data was organized, page-numbered,
and placed in binders. The researcher read the raw data several times start to finish and
then identified eighteen initial categories. Each cluster of data was assigned a category
identified by the number of that category. These initial categories were done as a first
step so that data could be groups into more manageable groups. Another review of these
initial categories resulted in the six themes that are identified as the major findings of this
study.
Three women and two men offered the opportunity to compare gender as it
relates to lifelong learning. Participants all had either an associates or bachelor’s degree;
however all of those who achieved bachelor’s degrees did so later in life. These adult
learners would not be in this study if they did not seek a wide variety of learning
activities. Activities include discussions, reading, recreation and fitness, photography,
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home repair, landscaping, art, software and computers, ethics, genealogy, and team
projects, just to name a few.
Themes were developed from the initial categories, through extensive analysis and
data sorting. These themes are focused groupings of data which better describe the
finding of this study.
Theme 1: Active adult learners may be identified through learning
accomplishments. Adult learners for this study were identified by the number of learning
activities in which they were active or were accomplished. In Chapter One, active adult
learners were defined as adults who are successful in their personal lives, careers, and
community as a result of being oriented toward learning throughout their adult lives.
(Houle, 1992) Determining that an adult is “oriented toward learning throughout their
adult lives” is difficult, and beyond the scope of this study, however learning
accomplishment of the five learners in this study seemed to be tied to making a change in
the adult’s life. More sophisticated tools may be developed in the future which would
examine the amount of time an adult spends on learning tasks, and the difficulty or
challenge of those activities. Again, the development of such an instrument is beyond the
scope of this study, however the learners in this study were constantly looking for new
learning challenges that advanced their understanding of their favorite learning topics.
This finding may inspire other researchers to pursue to methods of predicting active
learners.
Theme 2: Learning accomplishments were achieved in spite of barriers. This
theme was repeated throughout the lives of all of the participants in this study. Each of
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the adults had overwhelming obstacles which stood in the way of learning goals. They
faced the same challenges that any adult faces in life, but their learning either stems from
these barriers, or is enhanced from overcoming these barriers.
Theme 3: Participants in this study are motivated through the support of a
positive family environment and individual family members. There are three major types
of support provided by others for the adults in this study. Parental messaging is defined
as the communication of positive messages, both overt and covert, provided by the
parents or guardians who influence adults when they are adolescents. Immediate family
support is words and behaviors that come from the participant’s immediate family, or
those family members that are spouses, children, partners, or other significant people
who are within their living unit. Supportive immediate family within the living unit is the
factor that makes learning opportunities available and helps participants consider acting
upon these opportunities. Extended family support comes from those people in an
adult’s life who influence their learning, whom are not part of their family unit. They
may be siblings, parents, friends, or colleagues.
Theme 4: Positive self-esteem is a characteristic of participants in this study.
Self-esteem is express in the confidence and satisfaction of the participants in this study.
Their confidence stems from their personal and academic accomplishment in the face of
challenging barriers and complications. The satisfaction of learning generates interest in
the next learning project as in any cause-and-effect cycle but the net result is a more
robust self-esteem with regard to their learning skills and abilities.
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Theme 5: Active learners in this study displayed reflective thinking. Reflective
thinking is the type of thinking that is applied to complex problems, where the right
answer is not at hand. Further, it is cited as one of the outcomes of formal, higher
education. Formal, higher education trains one to question the difficult problems faced in
life and to find potential solutions. Being a critical consumer of information is a skill that
is coveted. (King & Kitchener,1994; Wood, 1983,) The level of reflective thinking
displayed, when they were assessed using the Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI), were
at the pre-reflective or quasi-reflective stage. These finding demonstrate that participants
develop reflective judgment similarly to those who are formally educated in a traditional
manner, but that formal education really does help in sharpening and developing these
skills.
Theme 6: Active learning environments, identified in this study, provided access
to other adult learners, encouraged problem solving, and supported learner self-esteem.
Adults are experienced, self-directed learners. When they learn on their own, they
capitalize on their preferences of content, rate, method, and time of day. (Tough, 1979)
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Chapter V
Conclusions
The conclusions of this study must begin by examining the initial purpose. The
purpose of this study was to examine the attitudes, motivations, preferred resources,
desired settings, and reflective thinking of participants. The attitudes and motivations of
participants in this study are interesting and contribute to the literature. In fact, this
study contributes new ideas to how active adult learners are defined. The findings in this
study do not point to some innate quality that is found in participants that is not present
in others. This study substantiates that attitudes and motivations are manifest by the
environment in which the learner was reared and that in which he/she is struggling to
navigate as an adult.
The primary research question in this study is: What are the common factors in
the lives of adult learners in this study, which enhance motivation and opportunity for
learning? The answer to this question is answered with the following conclusions. First,
active learners, as defined operationally by this study, are further defined by the criteria
in the first conclusion. Three factors, family support, barrier navigation, and pre-
reflective thinking – were common in the lives of adult learners in this study. The
response to the primary research question is further explained throughout this chapter.
Defining Active Adult Learners
Who are active adult learners? The answer to this question is valuable to
practitioner and researchers since it is predictive of who will participate in learning
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activities, and who will not. The literature, as stated in Chapter II, would have us
identify the typical active adult learner as better educated (formally), younger, has a
higher level of income, Caucasian, and likely to be employed full-time. (Merriam &
Caffarella, 1991, 1999) However, we know this information must be viewed with caution
since it is a compilation of many different studies and hides, through the process of
extrapolation, very rich and substantive variations that are important.
One of the results of this study is the analysis of data that provides greater insight
into the participants. Based on the analysis of the participants in this study, a criteria is
introduced in Table 10 for the purpose of summarizing the characteristics and learning
environment of participants in this study. This criteria is not intended to be predictive of
Table 10
The Criteria of an Active Adult Learner
Criteria A:Adult learners were raised as adolescents in environments where active learning wassupported and role modeled by family members. The types of support for learningpresent in their family environment including parental messaging, immediate family, orextended family. Attendance and academic accomplishment in primary and secondaryschool can be an outcome of this fertile environment.
Criteria B:Adult learners in this study were motivated through rising above barriers. They workedthrough problems with learning and adaptation. The ability to envision solutions, useeducation as a vehicle for accomplishing goals, and maintain high self-esteem throughaccomplishment of learning goals. A barrier perceived or real is addressed like a goalchallenging the adult learner to rise to a new level of competence.
Criteria C:Active adult learners in this study displayed quasi-reflective thinking predominantly(King & Kitchener, 1994) when confronted with unstructured, complex problems. Skillsof deduction, reasoning, and justification may be enhanced with formal, non-formal, andinformal learning.
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all adult learners nor is it considered a participation model. It provides criteria that future
researchers may use in identifying adult learners. The criteria must be used with caution,
since it is based on the analysis of the small group of adult learners in this study.
The criteria are meant to be applied collectively to an adult learner. It is possible
to apply these criteria to learners in other studies, but caution must be used in considering
the results because these criteria were developed from the five adults in this study.
Criteria A is supported by the data collected in this study on family support.
The three categories of support for active adult learners, parental messaging, immediate
family, and extended family, were identified in chapter IV, and form the basis for this
category of the criteria. It is the belief of the researcher that family support is the
foundation for an active adult learner as defined for this study (Keintz, 2004). Advocates
of the value of formal education need not be threatened by this finding because the value
of formal education cannot be over emphasized or under valued. However, excelling
academically in primary and secondary education does not guarantee that a person will
become an active adult learner. This researcher found very rich data from the five learners
in this study suggesting the power of this factor for these learners. Years of studies have
linked formal education to achieving goals as an adult learner, (Lorimer, 1931; McGrath,
1938; Kaplan, 1945; Cervero and Kirkpatrick, 1989) but completion of formal education
may be traced to a supportive family environment. The modeling provided to adult
learners in this study as adolescents influenced their work ethic, motivation, and the
choices made as adults.
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Criteria B acknowledge that barriers experienced by active adult learners, in this
study, made them stronger. Those adult learners who face and overcome the challenges in
life build self- esteem and utilize learning as a means for picking themselves up. This is in
alignment with the notion commonly held among adult educators that the profession
operates at the fringe, where there is the greatest need for education. Marriage, children,
time, health, family commitments, work commitments, unsupportive supervisors,
unsupportive spouses, lack of technology resources, and lack of financial resources were
identified through content analysis as barriers for these active adult learners in this study.
However, they are only barriers to pursuing educational endeavors. The daily challenges
of work and life, that may not be educationally related, contributed to the self-esteem of
the active adult learner in this study. These challenges sharpened their critical and
reflective thinking skills and challenged them to consider all available opportunities.
Criteria C challenges the education community to be inclusive of non-formal and
informal learning when making a case that formal education builds skills for critical inquiry
and reflective thinking. The active adult learners in this study all scored predominantly in
the quasi-reflective stage of the Reflective Judgment Model. (King & Kitchener, 1994)
This is important because reflective judgment is desirable as an outcome of formal
learning. It is noted that many of the learners in this study had completed associates and
bachelor degrees, mostly later in life and through significant sacrifice, and this formal
education most likely enhanced their reflective judgment abilities. It must be conceded
that informal and non-formal learning, along with overcoming numerous ill-structured
problems in daily life, also contributed to reflective judgment. The Reflective Judgment
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Inventory (RJI) should be highly valued as a measure of an adult’s learning ability and
may be an accurate predictor of an active adult learner, when results are cross-referenced
with age and educational experience.
Conclusions Related to Motivation
Active adult learners stand out because they are perpetually learning. When facing
a complex life or work dilemma, their natural orientation would be to consider all the
potential approaches to solving the problem. Most of these solutions, in the active
learner’s consideration, involve the enhancement of knowledge, skill, or certification
provided by education and learning. The act of choosing and implementing one of these
solutions likely leads to resolution of the problem and increased self-esteem. This
somewhat simplistic, cyclical construct provides an effective explanation of the process
and steps. However, the missing element is still where learning motivation comes from.
A helpful metaphor is a watermill on a river. When the river is low, the mill has
potential to accomplish the task at hand – milling grain into flour or generating power –
but without water, the mill has no motivation. When the water level grows, the millwheel
turns from the flow of the water in perpetual motion. The active adult learner’s
watermark is always high for learning and their process of addressing problems through
education is set in perpetual motion. In many cases of adult learners, their flow is limited
or not constant because their self-esteem is not such to put the motivational process into
constant motion. The finding in this study is that the active adult learner’s self-esteem
leads to confidence and motivation when facing an educational challenge.
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This study was modeled after the classic study of participation, The Inquiring
Mind , by Cyril Houle (1961) which provided a great deal of motivation for research on
participation and self directed learning. Houle interviewed adult learners in his study and
developed categories of participation, including the goal-oriented learner who learns to
meet specific goals; the activity-oriented learner whose motivations have little or no
bearing on the content of the activity; and learning-oriented learner who seek to learn for
enjoyment. These categories were established to make the point that the motives of adult
learners vary considerably.
The active adult learners in this study demonstrated all three categories of
participation. It would be impossible to categorize them as a certain type of learner using
the Houle typology. Learning motivation is different depending upon the learning
activity. Each learner demonstrated and articulated the capacity to utilize all three
categories of motivation, which may also be indicative of an active adult learner. There
may indeed be a preferred orientation for each learner, but the active learner is capable of
drawing from all three motivations depending on the circumstance.
Tools for Identifying Active Adult Learners
Identifying active adult learners is not an exact science, but there are descriptive
characteristics that can be tools for researchers and educators. The discussion of the
Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI), under Category C of the criteria, argues in favor of
reflective judgment being predictive of active learning. Those adults that are identified as
pre-reflective or quasi-reflective under the criteria of the Reflective Judgment Model
(King & Kitchener, 1994) are inclined to be active adult learners. A condition of using
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this tool is to control for the age of the participants. Research suggests that adult learning
peaks between ages 25 and 34 years of age. (Courtney, 1991) This researcher arbitrarily
set the age limit at 55 years of age so that adult learners could reflect accurately on their
peak years as learners. Age is important because it is a confounding factor with
measuring reflective judgment. According to King & Kitchener (1994), “Age brings with
it more opportunities for a broad range of life experience.” (p. 160)
The value of the learner questionnaire in this study was that it provided the
researcher with a look at the participant’s learning from a holistic perspective that was
inclusive of formal, non-formal, informal learning. The learner questionnaire worked well
for the purposes of this study, and is a model for other questionnaires or surveys that
may be developed that would quantify and place weights on learning activities providing a
guide to determine if a person is an active adult learner. An example of an instrument of
this type currently available is the Self Directed Learning Readiness Inventory
(Guglielmino, 1977) which focuses only on informal learning.
Lessons About Learning Environments
There were some lessons about learning environments that can be taken away
from this study. A clear theme that was evident throughout this study was that adults
enjoy learning from each other. This characteristic was documented under theme 6 in
Chapter IV. Active adult learners in this study referred to their enjoyment of sharing
ideas with other learners, working in groups, and the process of active learning supports
the process of reflectively thinking through problems in a trial-and-error fashion. These
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are techniques commonly practiced among enlightened adult educators who understand
how adults are unique.
The aspect that contributes to the literature of classroom learning for adults is that
adult learners in this study identified role modeling as an effective method. The role
models who are most effective are other adult learners. Self-confidence can be enhanced
when other adult learners serve as the source of knowledge in formal, non-formal, or in
self directed learning situations. There were learners who expressed a preference for
problem solving alone or who needed solitude, but the ability to bounce ideas off of
others and to share in a common solution or project helped them to gain self confidence.
Self-esteem, generated through the adult learner realizing they contribute to the process of
knowing, facilitates the flow of active adult learning, as describe in an earlier discussion in
this chapter.
Researcher Reflexivity
The researcher in a qualitative study is the instrument and is assumed to bring
biases into a study. The researcher must identify those biases and examine how they may
affect the outcomes of a qualitative study. This researcher can identify several biases that
have affected this study which include leading the participants in some interviews, and
the personal interest of participant in this study leading to acquiescence.
The transcription process is very revealing of the quality of questioning that is
used. Early interviews in this study were transcribed by a professional clerical assistant
employed by the research while interview conducted later in the data collection process
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were transcribed by the researcher. Transcripts from the professional clerical assistant
were not closely analyzed until the process of analysis had begun, however when the
researcher was personally transcribing data, poorly structure, leading, and unclear
questions became evident. Questioning techniques were improved with time, but in the
case of some participants, the data had already been collected. These questions were
identified in the transcripts, but some of this data was still used in the analysis.
Participants for this study were recruited through the School of Extended Studies
at the University of Arizona, through emails sent to colleagues at the same campus, and
through contacts at a local community college in Tucson, AZ. Some of the participants
who were selected for the study were already acquainted with the researcher. These
participants may have chosen to provide data supportive of the premise of the study.
An existing relationship with a participant does not constitute a bias initially, because any
adult learner may want to be treated favorably by the researcher and thus, acquiescence
the study. This is certainly a concern for this study but acquiescence cannot be
completely controlled for. Every effort was made to not lead the participants with
questions and it was explained that certain answers or information was not being sought.
They were aware that they were considered to be active learners and that was why they
were selected for the study.
Implications for the Research Community
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There are several new concepts introduced in this study that may contribute to
the research community. Specifically, the development of a criteria for active adult
learners updates past research and provides an opportunity for other researchers to test
the criteria it establishes.
The classification of support from an adult learner’s family as parental messaging,
immediate family, and extended family provides greater structure for this factor, and the
extensive discussion of how powerful family support is in the scope of developing an
active adult learners. The overall implications do not contradict what is already
determined to be important in the educational support of adolescence. However, this
research further supports parental and family involvement in a child’s education as it has
longer term affects that result in the child becoming an adult who lives a enjoyable and
accomplished life as an active adult learner.
Barriers to education have different meanings in different contexts; however
barriers in the context of this study generally had a positive affect on the adult learners.
In fact, these educational barriers challenged learners to envision their success and utilize
education as a means for overcoming these challenges. Not all learning is motivated in this
manner, but certainly the affect of these barriers is additive to the overall literature of
active adult learners.
The use of the Reflective Judgment Model, and the Reflective Judgment Inventory
(RJI) (King & Kitchener, 1994) added perspective to this study. The RJI provided a
means for describing the outcome of life-long learning. This will add the opportunity for
future researchers to utilize the RJI with predominantly non-formal and informal learners.
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A challenge for adult educators is giving credibility to self-directed and informal learning
as a legitimate form of learning among the world of all educators. The demonstration that
these activities add to the ability of learners to think reflectively and provide critical
analysis of complex problem-solving would add the credibility of these learning activities
and would elevate the value associated with those who are active in these processes. The
integration of these tools in this study paves the way for this future study to be
conducted. Finally, as described earlier in this study, the RJI and the learner
questionnaire can contribute to future studies that seek to identify and define the active
adult learner.
An interned outcome of this qualitative study is to tell a story of an average group
of adult learners to the depth not often attained by adult educators. As other adult
educators read this study, they will reflect on these findings and may choose to examine
additional questions that beg to be answered through research. Some of these questions
may include:
• Is there value in the use of the Reflective Judgment Inventory for predicting if
adults are active learners?
• What are the specific, long-terms affects of family support on active adult
learning?
• Are there certain types of family support that are more powerful than others as
predictors of active adult learners?
• What is the long-term affect of family support on self-esteem, development, or
socioeconomic status?
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• Is the criteria introduced in this study predictive of active adult learning?
• How could the criteria be expanded or reorganized to be of greater assistance to
adult learners?
Final Thoughts
This researcher is proud to follow the path carved by Cyril Houle, (1961) in his
book, The Inquiring Mind. Houle knew that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to
paint the picture of adult learners through national census and survey data because of
their diversity. He chose to get to the heart of the matter by talking to adults individually
and examining the intricacies of their lives, motivations, and dreams. This study is not
intended to provide the answer to what constitutes an active adult learner. It is written to
tell the story of five adults whose lives have been changed immeasurably by their passion
for learning. Expressing the richness of their life experience is the underlying value of this
research.
We have learned from Malcolm Knowles (1975) that adult educators are
facilitators of adult learning. The knowledge that adults bring has value and depth and
should be treated with respect and care. This researcher has learned, through this study,
to respect the knowledge of adults and to care for the manner in which it is extricated for
the benefit of others. The key to this process is building the self-esteem of the adult
learner, challenge them to use what they have learned, and provide the proper
environment for this knowledge and wisdom to improve their lives and those for whom
they are responsible. It is the opinion of this researcher that all adult educators must
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conduct research life this in order to truly understand those whom they are charged to
serve.
Summary
Who are active adult learners? One of the important results of this study is the
analysis of rich and substitutive data that provides greater insight into the active adult
learner. The criteria provides a standard by which future research may be developed;
however it must be approached with caution, since it is based on the analysis of the small
cluster of adult learners in this study. The following are the criteria identified by this
study:
Criteria A: Active adult learners were raised in environments where active
learning is supported and role modeled by adults. Some or all types of support are
present including parental messaging, immediate family, or extended family (Chapter
IV, p. x). Attendance and academic accomplishment in primary and secondary school is
more the result or outcome of this fertile home environment, than the sole indictor of an
active adult learner.
Criteria B: Active adult learners are motivated through rising above barriers to
their prosperity and learning. Their vision, when confronted with challenges, includes
learning and adaptation. The ability to envision themselves achieving their goals, using
education as a vehicle for achieving success, and the acquiring self-esteem gained from
achieving a learning objective is cyclical. A barrier, perceived or real, is addressed like a
goal challenging the active adult learner to rise to a new level of competence.
137
Criteria C: Active adult learners displayed pre-reflective and quasi-reflective
thinking (King & Kitchener, 1994) when confronted with unstructured, complex
problems. These skills of deduction, reasoning, and justification may be enhanced by
higher levels of formal learning. Thus, formal post-secondary education is a chosen
activity that may enhance adults abilities to be reflective problem solvers.
Conclusions related to motivation
Active adult learners stand out because they are caught in perpetual learning
motion. The active adult learner is assumed to have self-esteem. When facing a complex
life or work dilemma, a person’s natural orientation would be to consider all the potential
approaches to solving the problem. The active adult learner’s desire for learning and their
process of addressing problems through education is set in perpetual motion. The finding
in this study is that the active adult learner’s self-esteem leads to confidence and
motivation when facing an educational challenge.
Houle (1961) interviewed adult learners developing categories of participation,
including the goal-oriented learner; the activity-oriented learner; and learning-oriented
learner. These categories were established to make the point that the motives of adult
learners vary considerably. The active adult learners in this study demonstrated all three
categories of participation and are capable of drawing from all three motivations
depending on the circumstance.
Tools for Identifying Active Adult Learners
138
Identifying active adult learners is not an exact science, but there are descriptive
characteristics that can be tools for researchers and educators. The discussion of the
Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI) in criteria C argues in favor of reflective judgment
being predictive of active learning. Those adults that are identified as pre-reflective or
quasi-reflective under the criteria of the Reflective Judgment Model (King & Kitchener,
1994) are inclined to be active adult learners. Another possible tool is the learner
questionnaire which worked well for the purposes of this study, and could a model for
other questionnaires or surveys that may be developed.
Lessons about Learning Environments
A clear theme that was evident throughout this study was that adults enjoy
learning from each other. Active adult learners in this study referred to their enjoyment
of sharing ideas with other learners, working in groups, and the process of active learning
supports the process of reflectively thinking through problems in a trial-and-error
fashion. These are techniques commonly practiced among enlightened adult educators
who understand how adults are unique.
Researcher Reflexivity
The researcher in a qualitative study is the instrument and is assumed to bring
biases into a study. The researcher must identify those biases and examine how they may
affect the outcomes of a qualitative study. This researcher can identify several biases that
have affected this study which include leading the participants in some interviews, and
the personal interest of participant in this study leading to acquiescence.
Implications for the Research Community
139
There are several new concepts introduced in this study that may contribute to
the research community. Specifically, the development of criteria for active adult learners
updates past research and provides an opportunity for other researchers to test the
criteria it establishes.
The classification of support from an adult learners family as parental messaging,
immediate family, and extended family provides greater structure for this factor, and the
extensive discussion of how powerful family support is in the scope of developing an
active adult learners.
Barriers to education have different meanings in different contexts; however
barriers in the context of this study generally had a positive affect on the adult learners.
In fact, these educational barriers challenged learners to envision solutions and utilize
education as a means for overcoming these challenges. Not all learning is motivated in this
manner, but certainly the affect of these barriers is additive to the overall literature of
active adult learners.
The use of the Reflective Judgment Model, and the Reflective Judgment Inventory
(RJI) (King & Kitchener, 1994) added significant perspective to this study. The
examination of active adult learners in this study provided a means for describing the
outcome of life-long learning. This will add the opportunity for future researchers to
utilize the RJI with predominantly non-formal and informal learners.
140
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Appendix ALearner Questionnaire
A. Contact and Personal Information:
1. Name: ____________________________________________________________ (Last) (First)
2. Evening Phone: _______________________DaytimePhone___________________
3. My current age in years is:____Under 20____20-24 ____ 25-29___30-34___35-39___40-44___45-50 ____50 +
4. U.S Ethnic Group or Nationality:____Multiracial American ____Hispanic American____African American ____White American____Native American ____Asian American
B. Work History:1. Primary Occupation:___________________________________________________2. Number of years employed in your primary occupation: _________3. Have you been employed in your current occupation your entire work life? Yes ____ No ____4. If you answered “no” on the previous question, please list any former occupations andyears worked. If you answered “yes”, move on to question #5_____________________________Yrs:________5. In your primary occupation, is there a requirement of continuing education? Yes __No__6. Please describe any continuing education requirements for certification, license, orcontinued employment?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. What work-related educational activities do you participate in that are not required?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
C. Formal Education History:Formal education is educational activities offered through an institution or organizationthat awards credits, diplomas, degrees, certificates or licensure for completion of aprogram of study. The content of formal education is structured and presented by aqualified instructor, professor, teacher, or a designee under their supervision.
154
Please indicate all formal education you have completed. You may indicate more thanone.Formal EducationCompleted Degree(s) (if applicable)
1. ___8th Grade N/A2. ___Junior High School (10th Grade) N/A3. ___High School N/A4. ___Graduation Equivalency Degree (GED) N/A5. ___ Trade School (i.e. Vocational-Technical)________________________________6. ___ Military Training School ____________________________________________7. ___ Associates Degree(s)_______________________________________________8. ___ Bachelors Degree(s)________________________________________________9. ___ Masters Degree(s)__________________________________________________10. ___ Professional Degree(s) (dental, medical)_________________________________11. ___Doctoral Degree(s)__________________________________________________12. ___Other Formal Education______________________________________________13. ___ Please describe:____________________________________________________
D. Non-Formal Education Activities:Non-formal education is defined as educational activities that are voluntary and organizedin a structured manner, but the learner is not provided with credits, diplomas, degrees,certificates or licensure for completion.
Please mark the sources and list the types of non-formal educational activities from thepast and present in which you have been active.Example:Public Libraries meet with the library board; attend workshops; tutor kids in readingskills
Non-formal activity source Types of activities
1. ___ Art and Hobbie Centers_______________________________________2. ___Community Education _______________________________________3. ___ Community Leadership _________________________________4. ___ Community Recreation _________________________________5. ___ Continuing Education _______________________________________6. ___Correctional Institute _______________________________________
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7.___ Cultural Centers/Organizations__________________________________8. ___ Employment Union Education__________________________________9. ___ Fraternal Organizations _________________________________10. ___Health and Wellness Agencies_________________________________11.___Literary Societies ___________________________________________12. ___Non-Credit Enrichment Courses________________________________13. ___Professional Association Activities______________________________14. ___ Public Libraries___________________________________________15. ___ Religious Education _______________________________________16. ___ Senior Citizen Center _______________________________________17. ___ Service Organizations ___________________________________18. ___ Professional Association Meetings_______________________________19. ___ Other.____________________________________________________20. ___ Other._______ _____________________________________________21. ___ Other.____________________________________________________22. ___ Other.____________________________________________________
23. Estimate the frequency for an average month in which you have participated in any ofthe non-formal educational activities selected above during the past year. Count allindividual meetings within the series. (i.e. A weekly Rotary meeting is fouractivities/month)
__1-5 __ 6-10 __ 11-15 __ 16-20 __ 20 or more times per month.
24. Please describe in a few sentences one of the non-formal educational activity that youparticipate in the most.________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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E. Informal Education Activities:Informal education is learning not involving an organization or institution where thelearner independently directs their own interacts with resources in a deliberate way tofulfill personal learning goals.
Please indicate the types of informal learning in which you choose to participate forpersonal development and occupational enrichment. Try to identify only those activitiesin which you participate routinely. Remember, informal educational activities are:
• self-directed• unstructured by another individual, institution, or organization,• provided without tangible rewards or credit, and• participated in routinely (at least monthly).
Question: Please select an informal (self-directed) educational activity in which youparticipate frequently. You may choose one identified above. Describe how often youparticipate and what you have learned from this activity.Selected Activity: _______________________________________________________Description of individual benefits:_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Appendix B
Reflective Judgment Dilemmas
The Origins of the Egyptian Pyramids:
Most historians claim that the pyramids were built as tombs for kings by the ancientEgyptians, using human labor, and aided by ropes, pulleys, and rollers. Others havesuggested that the Egyptians could not by themselves have built such huge structures, forthey had neither the mathematical knowledge, the necessary tools, nor an adequate sourceof power. They claim that the Egyptians were aided by visitors from other worlds.
The Objectivity of News Reporting:
Some people believe that news stories represent unbiased, objective reporting of newsevents. Others say that there is not such a thing as unbiased, objective reporting, and thateven in reporting the facts, the news reporters project their own interpretations into whatthey write.
Creation vs. Evolution:
Many religions of the world have creation stories. These stories suggest that divine beingscreated the earth and its people. Scientists claim, however, that people evolved fromlower animal forms (some of which were similar to apes) into the human form knowntoday.
The Cause of Alcoholism:
Some researchers contend that alcoholism is due, at least in part, to genetic factors. Theyoften refer to a number of family and twin studies to support this contention. Otherresearchers, however, do not think that alcoholism is in any way inherited. They claimthat alcoholism is psychologically determined. They also claim that the reason thatseveral members of the same family often suffer from alcoholism is due to the fact thatthey share common family experiences, socioeconomic status, or employment.
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Appendix CConsent Form
An Examination of Active Adult LearnersThe purpose of this study is to examine active adult learners with concentration on their learning
processes, reflective thinking, decision-making, and participation in learning.Research Procedure:
Subjects in this study have already completed a learner questionnaire profiling their educationalbackground and learning experiences. Upon the subject agreeing to continue, a total of three meetings ofapproximately one hour will be scheduled between the researcher and the subject. During the first meeting, thesubject will be asked if they have any questions. Subjects will be provided with an overview of the study and willbe administered the Reflective Judgment Inventory (RJI) in their first session. The RJI is administered bypresenting subjects with four complex ethical dilemmas. After the interviewer reads the dilemmas to the subjectand they read along on a provided script, the subject is asked a series of questions. Some questions are standard foreach dilemma however the interviewer is free to ask follow up questions for clarification. These interviews aretape recorded, transcribed, and the transcripts are sent to a private rater service outside Arizona. The rating willproduce a score, which corresponds to a scale on the Reflective Judgment Model.
Subsequent interview sessions will consist of the interviewer posing questions to the subject in asomewhat structured manner. These questions will require the subject to describe learning preferences, explaininformation provided in the learner questionnaire, and provide general analysis of previous and current learningexperiences. The subject will have the option of not responding to questions that may cause discomfort. As in theinitial RJI interview, responses will be tape recorded, and transcribed for analysis.
Subjects will be asked to write a journal to record any post-interview thoughts, experiences, or questionsthat may aid the researcher. The method for journal writing will be agreed upon mutually between the researcherand subject. The researcher may request permission of the subject to observe him/her in a learning situation(classroom, workshop, etc.); or may request permission to interview significant other individuals (instructors,spouses, co-workers, etc.) regarding the subjects learning processes and preferences. These additionalobservations and/or interviews will be determined during interview sessions with the subject and will be mutuallyagreed upon.
Interviews will be scheduled in a location that is convenient to the subject and the researcher, and canfacilitate confidentiality.I n c e n t i v e s :
Subjects for this study will be paid $30 for the required minimum of three interviews, plus journalingactivities associated with these interviews. Payment will be made in cash following the third interview.Interviews will be approximately one hour, and but may vary slightly in length depending on the progress made.The researcher may require additional interviews. The subject will be compensated at a rate of $10 per hour foradditional sessions mutually agreed upon by the researcher and the subject. Subjects participating in this studywill be allowed to read a draft of the final research document and will be asked to volunteer any comments ofthoughts. Subjects have the potential of to gaining a better understanding of their own approach to complexethical dilemmas on a daily basis and their individual learning habits and processes.C o n f i d e n t i a l i t y :
Subjects in this study will not be identified individually in the text of any resulting document from thisstudy. Subjects will be asked to identify a pseudonym (different name) for the study, which will allow theresearcher to maintain confidentiality while printing quotes. RJI scores will be published, but will be associatedwith the corresponding pseudonym of the subject. Significant others interviewed in this study will also beidentified with pseudonym and confidentiality will be maintained in a similar manner as for the subject.Agreement:
My participation is voluntary. I understand that I may refuse to participate at any time, and will notresult in penalty or loss of benefits to which I am otherwise entitled. Compensation for subjects will be proratedaccording to the number of hours the subject participated in the study. (Based on a rate of $10/hour)
(Print)Name: ________________________________________Address:______________________________________
Signed: _________________________________________________________ Date:_______________________
Phone:
159
______________________________________________________________________________________
160
Appendix DSemi-Structured Question List
(Utilized for two interview sessions)
General Questions• What is the educational background of your family? Parents? What degrees were
earned?• How would you describe the educational interests of your parents? What influence
did they have on you?• What motivated you to participate in this study?• What are your personal goals?• What role do you see education playing in your personal life?• Why are you enrolled in formal/non-formal courses at Extended University?• What motivates you to enroll in educational activities? (Explore motivation for
education based on the learner questionnaire, and their educational experience.)• In your current occupation, what kinds of educational activities are provided for the
development of job knowledge and skill?• What incentives do you receive for continuing education or expanding job skills in
your career?
Targeted QuestionsLearning Processes:• Please select a meaningful learning experience from your learner questionnaire, and tell
me about it.• Why was this experience meaningful to you? What elements of this experience made it
appealing? What did you learn from this experience?• Based on your learning experience at Extended University, what teaching methods
have you found to be most beneficial to your learning?• What do you see as the role of the instructor, facilitator, or leaders in your extended
university course? What do you feel is your role in the process of learning?• What do you, as the learner, bring to the course?• What methods are most effective in helping you learn? How do you learn best?
(Explain what is meant by method, if necessary.)• What was the role of others in the process of learning? What affect do they have in
your personal efforts to learn more?
Reflective Thinking/Decision-making:• When are the times when you do your best thinking? (i.e. “In the shower. While
exercising.)• Do you feel your educational experiences have affected your ability to think and
reflect effectively? If yes, please explain.
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• Please describe for me the last time you were faced with a complicated question orproblem that required a great deal of energy to determine a solution. Please describethis situation.
• What is the process you go through mentally when you are faced with a challengingand complex problem? (Use an example here if possible.)
• Where have you learned to apply this approach to solving problems?• Do you believe every problem has a correct solution? Please explain why you said
(yes) (no).• How do other people affect your decision-making process?
Participation in learning• What motivates you to learn?• What motivates you to want to pursue learning activities such as those you have
identified in your learner questionnaire? Allow them to reference their learningquestionnaire if necessary.
• Describe for me what you feel people in your life would say about your participationin education?
• Who do you feel are the greatest supporters of your learning activities? Why?• Who do you feel are non-supporters of you learning activities? Why?• How did you arrive at the decision to participate in ___________ as an activity?• What factors, if any, could make your participation in learning more difficult?• What factors contribute to you desire to participate in learning activities.
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Appendix E
Reflective Judgment Inventory Questions
AFTER READING ONE OF THE FOUR REQUIRED ETHICAL DILEMMAS, THESUBJECT IS ASKED:• What do you think about these statements?
IF THE PERSON CAN ARTICULATE A POINT OF VIEW ABOUT THE ILL-DEFINEDPROBLEM:• How did you come to hold this point of view?• On what do you base that point of view?• Can you ever know for sure that your position is correct? How? OR Why not?
IF THE PERSON CANNOT ARTICULATE A POINT OF VIEW ABOUT THEILLDEFINED PROBLEM:• Did you ever have a point of view on this issue? Why not currently?• Could you ever say which was the better position? How? OR Why not?• Will we ever know for sure which is the better position? How? OR Why not?• When two people differ about matters such as this, is it the case that one opinion is
right and one is wrong?
IF YES: What do you mean by “better”? What makes one opinion better?IF NO: Why not?• How is it possible that people have such different points of view about this subject?• How is it possible that experts in the field disagree about this subject?