A need for ‘joined up thinking’: Groundwater

management in rural Uganda

Carolyn Roberts University of Gloucestershire, UK

Association of American Geographers AGM, San Francisco, USA, April 2007

U ganda

Lake Victoria

Location

Key influences on water policy and management in Uganda

Economic fragility and high levels of indebtedness Rapid population growth in rural and urban areas,

leading to inability to meet basic needs Post-colonial political instability and ethnic

tensions, leading to infrastructural collapse in the 1970s and 80s

Low levels of literacy (<50%) 1.4m people displaced by civil insurrection Weak infrastructure, institutions, technical

expertise, investment

Agenda 21 summary

‘Water resources must be planned and managed in an integral and holistic way to prevent shortage of water, or pollution of water sources, from impeding development. Satisfaction of basic human needs and preservation of ecosystems must be the priorities; after these, water users should be charged appropriately.

By the year 2000 all states should have national action programmes for water management, based on catchment basins or sub-basins, and efficient water-use programmes. These could include integration of water resource with land use planning and other development and conservation activities, demand management through pricing or regulation.’

Water-related Millennium Development Goals for Uganda100% rural population to have access to safe and

adequate water and sanitation (latrines) by 2015Access is defined as a ‘safe source’ within 1.5 kmReductions in water-related diseases such as

diarrhoeaSome progress (World Bank, 2002) but probably

currently lagging behind targets on both water supplies and sanitation

UNESCO Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Assessment, 2000

Urban water

supply

Rural

water supply

Urban sanitatio

n

Rural sanitation

Population 000’s

(A.D. 2000)

3,083 18,695 3,083 18,695

Pop with house connection/

public sewer

204 229 220 28

Pop with Public Waterpoint/non-sewer sanitation

1,341 2,763 1,834 10,274

Population Served

2,200 8,600 2,960 13,460

% Population served

72 46 96 72

Uganda’s physical environment

24,000 sq km high altitude (1000m+) equatorial territory, in the Nile Basin

17% open water with lakes and swamps

Granitic basement Lateritic Fe/Al soils, clay

loams Monsoonal climate Tropical forest/savannah

mosaic

Uganda’s human background

Population c. 25 m Growth rate 3.1% /a 50% population under

15 Mean family size 5.5-6

children Life expectancy at

birth c.M46, F51 yrs GDP $310 /hd Inflation 6% 154th in world ranking

of economic indicators

Approx. 80% rural population

Large villages and small towns

Water availability in Uganda Uganda apparently has a

large volume of available water per head

Mean water use in Africa is 47l/hd/day

UNEP estimate 25 African countries, including Uganda, will experience water ‘scarcity’ or ‘stress’ in the next 20-30 years, mainly because of population growth

Climate change will increase uncertainty

Distribution and quality problems also influence ‘scarcity’

Ugandan policies on water 1990 Water and Sanitation Programme began for rural towns

(500-50,000 people) 1992 UNCED (Integrated Water Resource Management) 1994 Uganda Water Action Plan 1995 Uganda Water Statute 1996 Uganda (Draft) Water Policy 1998 Regulations for the control of water resources, water and

sewerage and waste water discharges Uganda Wetlands Conservation Strategy 1999-2000 Africa’s Water Vision (U.N.) 2000 Uganda Rural Water and Sanitation Investment Plan and

Strategy 2001 Nile Basin Strategic Action Programme

Current emphases in Ugandan water policy Rational use of water, in an integrated way Decentralisation of responsibility for implementation from the

Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment’s Water Development Department to District Offices

Full cost recovery with some cross-subsidisation of safe water services for poor people

Full stakeholder involvement (Mobilisation Officers) NGO/aid agency and private sector involvement Accountability Safe storage, treatment and disposal of waste, according to

the ‘Polluter Pays’ principle Technical training at local level Increasing emphasis on privatisation

Key areas for research

Comparison of supply management situation in 2001-6 with the late 1960s

Environmental ‘footprints’ of settlementsEnvironmental impacts of water management

strategiesEconomic and social costs and benefits of water

supply arrangementsSustainability criteria for water supplies in

developing areas (Loucks and Gladwell, 1999)Field investigation conducted by UoG and NTCK staff and students

Gilbert White’s ‘Drawers of Water’, 1972

Drawers of Water, 2004

Kamuli

Iganga

Kaliro

Case study villages

Alternative supplies of water in rural areas

Household connected to mains supply, pumped from river, reservoir or borehole

Public or private standpipe with tapBorehole with handpumpWellSpring or protected springRiver, lake or swampPuddle

High tech pumped supply from small reservoir: Kamuli

Cost and maintenance issues

Metered mains household supply: Kamuli

Take up is very low; most residents continue to use alternative sources

Mean daily use in Kamuli in c. 1968 by tap holders was 86l/hd/day (Iganga 85l/hd/d)

‘Rural’ use was c 13-16 l/hd/day

Borehole supplies are also preferred by local people on quality grounds

Public or private pumped supplies to standpipes,

Iganga

Colonial system, disused

Diesel-pumped borehole, with taps

Borehole and hand pumps

Frequently funded from foreign aid programmes

Protected spring

Open well

Protected springs and wells are universal

Surface and groundwater quality parameters

pH Conductivity Nitrate Nitrite Ammonia Phosphate Iron Chloride E. Coli (partial

coverage)

Questionnaire with users, undertaken at the source using NTCK student interpretersGender Indirect estimates of relative wealth (e.g. shoes,

bicycle, clothes?)Distance travelled and mode of transportHousehold sizes (adults, children)Frequency and volume of collections per household,

per dayPrice of waterViews on water quality at source, and any required

treatment prior to consumptionOther water sources used, and reasons

Payment for interviews

3500

35503500

NATWANA

KaliroStation

600

200

200

200

300

300

400

400

500

500

KALIRO R esidentia l area

Sw am ps

R iver

M inor road

R ailw ay line (d isused)

C ontour (m )

Borehole

N ew borehole

N ew area for p ipes

CONDUCTIVITY

600 Sµ

500 Sµ

400 Sµ

300 Sµ

200 Sµ

0 1km

(Approx)

Groundwater contamination Kaliro

3650

3700

3750

3700

3700

3650

700

600

200

300

400

500

IGANGA

Built U p Area

Sw am ps

R iver

M inor R oad

M ajor R oad

D isused Railway L ine

Contour (m ) Borehole

CONDUCTIVITY

700 Sµ

600 Sµ

500 Sµ

400 Sµ

300 Sµ

200 Sµ

0 1km

(Approx)

Groundwater contamination, Iganga

Water quality findingsVillage/town impacts on groundwater quality in Kamuli,

Iganga and Kaliro are clear and apparently repeatable, year on year

Simple analytical technology is adequate Comparison with official data suggests comparable

picture for nitrate, phosphate, ammonia, pH, conductivity, iron, chloride

Bacteriological data may not be requiredContamination is the result of lack of sanitation, pit

latrine seepage and detergent disposalUsers frequently draw on contaminated sources, in all

settings

Basic findings on water use Typical consumption by

borehole users in Iganga, Kaliro and Kamuli is c. 20l/hd/day

UK domestic consumption is between 200 and 300 l/hd/day

US domestic consumption is c 400 l/hd/day

Fetching water requires about 5-10% typical calorific intake (White et al)

The ‘safe water chain’

Lack of sanitation and effective drainage impedes progress on sustainable supplies

Implementation is problematic despite the efforts of mobilisation officers

The socio economic impact of scarcity is as severe as in the 1960s For most rural Ugandan

women in 2006 the ‘rhythm’ of the working day is still made up of walking, queuing and carrying water

Iganga: Diesel-driven pumped borehole supplying standpipes

Water sellers’ prices are approximately twice that of personally carried supplies

Take up by wealthier residents is significant

Policy Impact OneRapid population growth leading to inadequate facilitiesPolicy suggests that a new borehole/facility is requiredMaximum population within 1.5 km soughtBoreholes installed in urban/suburban areasLocal groundwater is contaminated from pit latrines and

other waste waterPeople abandon traditional sources and walk into town

to collect water from boreholesPerception that water quality is good, no perceived

need or no fuel for boiling Increased risk of water-borne diseases

Health and social wellbeing impacts

What happens next: Policy Impact Two

Water yields are relatively low per boreholeTypical use is only c. 20 l/hd/dayWomen and children queue for hoursBorehole area is poorly maintained and leakage,

spillage or animal trampling occursStagnant water supports mosquitoesPeople are infected with malaria whilst queuing into

the eveningPrivatised health care providers flourish Inhabitants perceive higher levels of healthcare in

urban areas, promoting rural-urban migration

Key findings

Villages and small towns have a significant environmental footprint on groundwater

Water quality may be estimated adequately by using simple determinands such as conductivity, reducing the need to wait for official assessments to become available

Water supply provision must be matched by investment in sanitation

Education is significant, but needs to be based on appropriate scientific information

Strategic targets are being overwhelmed by population growth

The impact of privatisation?

Lack of technical capacity in local government, plus issues of non-compliance with central policy by aid agencies has promoted privatisation

Some sources are removed altogether

Water costs have risen to approximately 10% of family income in sampled villages

Concepts of sustainability

‘Sustainable water resource systems are those designed and managed to fully contribute to the objectives of society, now and in the future, while maintaining their ecological, environmental, and hydrological integrity’

Loucks and Gladwell, 1999

Concepts of Sustainability

1. Engineering

2. Economics

3. Environment

4. Equity

Concepts of sustainability

ResilienceAdaptive capacityVulnerability

Acknowledgements Staff and students from

National Teachers’ College Kaliro, Uganda

Staff and students from University of Gloucestershire

Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment, Kampala, Uganda

Uganda Bureau of Statistics

Busoga Trust White G.F., Bradley D.J.,

and White A.U. 1972 Drawers of Water University of Chicago Press