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A Meso-Scale to Micro-Scale Evaluation of Surface Pavement Impacts to the Urban Heat Island–Aestas Hysteresis Lag

Effect.

Jay S. Golden Director

Sustainable Materials and Renewable Technologies

Program Arizona State University

Main Campus P.O. Box 873211

Tempe, Arizona 85287-3211 Phone / Fax: +1-(480) 965-4951 / (480) 965-8087

Email: jay.golden@asu.edu

Word Count: 9,474 with references

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Abstract

The rapid urbanization of our planet is quickly transitioning regions from

the natural rural vegetation to man-made urban engineered infrastructure. The

anthropogenic-induced change has manifested itself in microscale and

mesoscale increases in temperatures in comparison to adjacent rural regions

which is known as the Urban Heat Island effect (Oke, 1987, Brazel, 2003) and

results in potentially adverse environmental, social and economic consequences

for local and global communities (Golden, 2004).

Prior research has documented between 29% to 45% of the urban fabric

is comprised of paved surfaces to support mobility (Akbari et al. 1999). The

increase of paved surfaces as a function of thermodynamics alters the urban

energy budget due to changes in albedo, thermal mass as well as conduction,

convection and evapotranspiration. This paper is focused on understanding the

interdependency of the paved environment and the urban climate which can be

used as a platform for future mitigative research programs.

Keywords: Urban Climate, Pavements, Thermography, Urban Heat Island,

Sustainable Development.

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”For the truth of the conclusions of physical science,

observation is the supreme Court of Appeal”

Sir Arthur Eddington

1. INTRODUCTION

Simulations conducted by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory indicate

that increasing albedo of 1,250km2 of paved surfaces in Los Angeles, California

by 0.25 would save cooling energy worth $15M year and reduce smog-related

medical and lost-work expenses by $76M per year (Rosenfeld et al. 1998). This

research is focused on the two county urban region of Phoenix, Arizona which is

one of the worlds most rapidly urbanizing regions. In 2004, the City of Phoenix

became the fifth largest city in the United States by population and greater in

geographic extent than the City of Los Angeles, California. Phoenix has an

extreme climate with an average of 89 days per year of 100°F+ (37.7°C+) and

has experienced 143 calendar days of greater than 100°F (37.7°C) as recently as

1989. The region reaches extremely hazardous temperatures as evidenced with

an official daytime high of 122°F (50.4°C) on 26, June 1990 and 121°F (49.4°C)

on 27, July 1995. In addition the Phoenix region has experienced an

0.86ºF/decade-warming rate during the last century which, is one of the highest in

the world. For comparison of varied world cities of different climates, San

Francisco, California was 0.2 ºF /decade; Baltimore, Maryland was 0.2 ºF

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/decade; Washington D.C. was 0.5 ºF /decade; Shanghai, China was 0.2 ºF

/decade; and Tokyo, Japan was 0.6 ºF /decade (Hansen et al. 1999).

<INSERT FIGURE #1 UHI COMPARISON GRAPH>

As presented in Figure #1, a comparison of the Phoenix region annual minimum

high temperatures to adjacent rural settings presents a very pronounced

nocturnal Urban Heat Island Effect (UHI) that corresponds to the rapid

urbanization of the urban region. Official daily temperatures from the National

Weather Service Station at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport were

compared to those from the National Park Service Casa Grande Ruins, the first

national archeological preserve in the United States. This rural site is located

approximately 60 miles southeast of Phoenix and has remained rural in

characteristic with a native desert setting and vegetation (creosotebush, white

buresage and salt bush). The temperature readings at the airport (urban setting)

reflect the change in location of the weather station within the boundaries of the

airport in 1978 (central), 1994 (northeast of runways), and 1997 (south of the

runways). In 1950, temperatures in the central urban area located around Sky

Harbor International Airport were six degrees (+6°F / 3.35°C) warmer on an

annual basis than the rural setting. In 2000, the urban region was experiencing

twelve (+12°F / 6.67°C) degrees higher minimum annual temperatures than the

rural setting.

A major influence in the development of the urban heat island is the transition of

the urban region from native vegetation to that of man-made and engineered

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materials that have lower albedo and higher thermal mass. Various studies have

quantified the urban fabric for western urban regions namely through the use of

aerial color orthophotography, the global biosphere emissions and interactions

system (GLOBEIS) model data and land-use/land-cover (LULC) information from

the United Geological Survey (USGS). Rose et al. (2003) identified paved

surfaces cover 29% of the urban fabric while Akbari et al. (1999) detailed that

39% of the area seen from above the urban canopy (tree canopy) consisted of

paved surfaces including roads, parking areas and sidewalks. An evaluation of

entire metropolitan areas of Salt Lake City, Utah, Sacramento, California and

Chicago, Illinois revealed the percentage of paved areas ranged from 30% to

39% as seen above the canopy and 36% to 45% viewed under the canopy layer

(NIPC 1995, Gray and Finster 2000, Akbari et al. 2001). In residential areas, the

paved surfaces were slightly lower at 29% - 32%. This paper is focused on

methods which can be utilized to quantify the impacts of surface engineered

materials to the urban heat island.

2. PRIOR TEMPERAL RESEARCH

Barber (1957) evaluated pavement surface temperatures and temperatures at

3.5 inch (8.9cm) depths with standard weather report information. The weather

parameters used were wind speed, precipitation, air temperature, and solar

radiation. The pavement was considered to be a semi-infinite mass in contact

with air. Barber observed that pavement temperature fluctuations followed a sine

curve with a period of one day. The research and analyses showed that when

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solar radiation was included in the analyses with air temperature, the sine curve

approximation provided reasonable estimates of asphalt surface temperatures.

Straub, et al (1968) developed models to predict pavement temperatures based

on air temperature and solar radiation that included climatic properties of short-

wave and long-wave back radiation, convection, and air temperature.

Rumney and Jimenez (1971) performed a study of pavement temperatures in

southern Arizona to predict maximum surface temperatures. The study collected

pavement temperatures at various depths, as well as the corresponding surface

temperature and rate of incident solar radiation. From this data a set of

correlations were developed that predicted pavement temperatures for a given

set of air temperatures and solar radiation intensities. In South Africa,

Williamson (1972) developed a model by adapting a FORTRAN IV model

developed by Schenk, Jr. (1963) to understand maximum pavement temperature

in the upper levels of a pavement. Results of the analyses indicated that while

variations in the surface absorption coefficient had large effects on temperatures,

variations in other items, such as, emissive power, convection coefficient, and

thermal conductivity had more marginal effects on temperature. In addition, the

model was validated using case studies. Southgate (1968) developed a method

of adjusting pavement deflection measurements to a reference mean pavement

temperature using a five-day air temperature history. A linear relationship was

found between pavement temperatures at a given depth and the sum of the

surface temperature and the five-day mean air temperature history. The method

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was developed using data from Maryland. A model validation was performed

using data from Arizona and New York. The study showed that the model worked

equally well for additional data sets from radically different climates. Surface

temperatures and air temperatures have been measured at different times (Yang,

1972; Asaeda and Wake, 1995) and peak temperatures have been calculated

(Solaimanian and Kennedy 1993; Solaimanian and Bolzan, 1993).

Pomerantz et al. (1997 & 2000) conducted a semi-quantitative connection

between the albedo of pavements and its effect on the diurnal variation of air

temperature in the mild climate of the San Francisco Bay region in California.

Their results indicated an increase in albedo by 0.1 produces a change in

pavement surface temperature of about -4±1°C (-7 ± 2°F) for an isolation of

about 1000 W/m2 for an increase in albedo of 0.1. Increasing wind speed lowers

the surface temperature and diminishes the influence of the change in albedo.

3. RESEARCH PROPOSITION

During 2003 and 2004 a research campaign was undertaken to better

understand the role of highways, roadways, pavements and other surface

engineered materials in regards to the Urban Heat Island effect in the Phoenix,

Arizona region. Specifically, focus was geared towards the urban energy

balance of the engineered materials and their contribution to the nocturnal UHI

effect with the outcome eventually being a preliminary hierarchical ranking of

engineered surface materials contributing to the hysteresis lag effect which could

be modeled as part o f the land use scheme in micro-scale and meso-scale

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models. This would be accomplished utilizing evasive and non-evasive

methodology.

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.a. Phase I - Meso-Scale Remote Sensing

The first phase of this effort was the acquisition and assimilation of meso-scale

remote sensing data from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and

Reflection Radiometer (ASTER), which is an imaging instrument that is flying on

Terra, a satellite launched in December 1999 as part of NASA's Earth Observing

System (EOS). The ASTER instrument consists of three separate instrument

subsystems (table #1), the Visible and Near Infrared (VNIR), the Shortwave

Infrared (SWIR), and the Thermal Infrared (TIR).

<INSERT TABLE # 1 INSTRUMENT BANDS>

Each subsystem operates in a different spectral region and has its own

telescope(s). The VNIR subsystem consists of two independent telescope

assemblies to minimize image distortion in the backward and nadir looking

telescopes. A time lag occurs between the acquisition of the backward image

and the nadir image. During this time earth rotation displaces the image center.

The VNIR subsystem automatically extracts the correct 4000 pixels based on

orbit position information supplied by the EOS platform. The backward looking

telescope focal plane contains only a single detector array and uses an

interference filter for wavelength discrimination. The focal plane of the nadir

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telescope contains 3 line arrays and uses a dichroic prism and interference filters

for spectral separation allowing all three bands to view the same area

simultaneously. The telescope and detectors are maintained using thermal

control and cooling from a platform provided cold plate.

Unlike the VNIR telescope, the telescope of the TIR subsystem is fixed and both

pointing and scanning is done by the mirror. The VNIR subsystem operates in

three spectral bands at visible and near-IR wavelengths, with a resolution of 15

m. It consists of two telescopes--one nadir-looking with a three-spectral-band

detector, and the other backward-looking with a single-band detector. The

backward-looking telescope provides a second view of the target area for stereo

observations. Cross-track pointing to 24 degrees on either side of the track is

accomplished by rotating the entire telescope assembly. Band separation is

through a combination of dichroic elements and interference filters that allow all

three bands to view the same ground area simultaneously. The data rate is 62

Mbps when all four bands are operating. The SWIR subsystem operates in six

spectral bands in the near-IR region through a single, nadir-pointing telescope

that provides 30 m resolution. The maximum data rate is 23 Mbps. The TIR

subsystem operates in five bands in the thermal infrared region using a single,

fixed-position, nadir-looking telescope with a resolution of 90 m. Unlike the other

instrument subsystems, it has a "whiskbroom" scanning mirror. Each band uses

10 detectors in a staggered array with optical bandpass filters over each detector

element. The maximum data rate is 4.2 Mbps. The scanning mirror functions

both for scanning and cross-track pointing (to ± 8.55 degrees).

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Satellite sensor data acquisition has been used for evaluating the urban surface

temperatures in prior works by Barring et al. (1985), Goldreich (1985) and

Quattrochi and Ridd (1994). As presented in Figure #2, ASTER imagery

captured and synthesized (W. Stefanov - NASA) of the Phoenix, Arizona region

captured on 03 October, 2003 at 22:39 hours provides coarse visual

representation that engineered surfaces, roads, highways and pavements of

parking lots play a significant role in regards to the UHI as well as exhibit variable

surface temperatures related to the hysteresis lag effect.

<INSERT FIGURE #2 HERE – ASTER THERMAL IMAGERY OF PHOENIX>

To aid researchers, the ASTER image was filtered to remove all color bands

except for the top 20% of surface temperatures (figure #3). This provides

researchers the ability to conduct a preliminary assessment of the impacts of

surface engineered materials at near micro-scale and provide for easier definition

of hysteresis lag variability of surface material properties. This “snapshot” in time

reveals the influence of highways and arterials streets as well as increased

surface temperatures of intersections and commercial “strip-mall” and “business

office” parking lots.

However one of the limitations for researching the influences of engineered

materials via satellite imagery is that the thermal infrared bands utilized in

satellite imagery is limited to 90m/pixel. For contrast, the visible to near-infrared

has a 15m/pixel resolution which can provide for defining major land cover

classes, vegetation health and soil properties and shortwave infrared has a

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30m/pixel resolution, which can support identification of such things as urban

surface materials, ecological communities and fugitive dust emissions. The

90m/pixel resolution is too coarse to advance descriptive variances of surface

temperatures. It does however allow the researcher to evaluate meso-scale and

finer surface energy budgets, larger anthropogenic heat sources and heat island

pockets. Beyond the instrumentation limitations, interpretation of the imagery

has been shown to present the potential of biases in apparent surface

temperatures (Roth e t al. 1989) due to the effect of the urban surface structure in

combination with Sun-sensor-surface geometry described as urban surface

anisotropy (Voogt and Oke 1997).

<INSERT FIGURE #3 HERE – TOP 20% ASTER THERMAL IMAGERY OF

PHOENIX>

Based on these preliminary observations, further research was designed and

undertaken to define and quantify surface temperature variances using non-

evasive micro-scale thermography as well as in-situ investigations utilizing

thermocouples at variable depths of each engineered mass.

4.b. MICRO SCALE THERMOGRAPHY

Modern day infrared thermography has its roots with Sir Frederick William

Herschel famous for his discovery of the planet Uranus in 1781. Herschel

worked on calorific rays in the 1800’s and examined how much heat was passed

through the different colored filters he used to observe sunlight. He noted that

filters of different colors seemed to pass different amounts of heat and directed

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sunlight through a glass prism to create a spectrum and then measured the

temperature of each color. Herschel used three thermometers with blackened

bulbs and, for each color of the spectrum, placed one bulb in a visible color while

the other two were placed beyond the spectrum as control samples. As he

measured the individual temperatures of the violet, blue, green, yellow, orange,

and red light, he noticed that all of the colors had temperatures higher than the

controls. Moreover, he found that the temperatures of the colors increased from

the violet to the red part of the spectrum. After noticing this pattern Herschel

decided to measure the temperature just beyond the red portion of the spectrum

where no sunlight was visible (infrared radiation).

Thermography offers a non-evasive analytical method to evaluate thermal

characteristics of surfaces within the urban environment. The other benefit of

thermography is the ability to obtain almost instantaneous results. A campaign

was undertaken during early summer months of 2003 and 2004 in Phoenix.

Primary field research was conducted in the months of May and June which are

characterized by calm clear nights and near summer solstice solar alignment.

The Phoenix region typically enters the summer monsoon in July.

A FLIR Thermacam™ S-60 infrared handheld camera was utilized for this

project. The S-60 system consists of an infrared camera with a built-in 24° lens,

a visual color camera, a laser pointer, and a 4” color LCD on a removable remote

control. The unit has a spectral range of 7.5 to 13µm with a thermal sensitivity of

0.06° at 30°C and a focal plane of 320x240 pixels. The unit is equipped with an

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internal digital camera that can capture a digital image of the IR subject. Images

are stored in either an internal memory or with a memory card.

A field campaign was undertaken which resulted in the collection and

assimilation of over 500 urban surface thermographic images in the Phoenix

region. This included field investigations of highways, arterial streets, pavements

and parking lots, xeric residential, mesic residential, commercial districts,

airports, educational structures and industrial locations throughout the diurnal

cycle. Hand-held thermography provides for immediate “categorization” of

surface temperatures by temperature gradients. However, post use

interpretation of the collected imagery can be accomplished with the utilization of

advanced software. Principal in the evaluation is the need to adjust for distance,

ambient temperature, humidity and emissivity for the material(s) of interest.

These adjustments can be made for each material or structure that is of interest.

As presented in Figure # 4, the IR thermographic unit allows for multiple cross

hair spots that capture surface temperatures and emissivity with individual

adjustments for ambient temperature, reference temperatures and point of shoot

distance. Additionally, manually constructed boxes can be placed within the

image to capture the average temperature for the given material or for various

cross hair spots within the box.

<INSERT FIGURE #4 EXAMPLE IR THERMOGRAPHIC PHOTO>

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4.c. Emissivity

A consideration in reducing bias in thermal infrared evaluations is to correctly

adjust for emissivity, which is defined as the ratio of the emittance of a given

surface at a specified wavelength and temperature to the emittance of an ideal

blackbody at the same wavelength and temperature. Although there exists

various published listings for the emissivity from vendors, field verification for

various materials of concern was undertaken. Several methods have been

developed to calculate the emissivity of different surfaces (Buettner and Kern,

1965; Fuchs and Tanner, 1966; Idso and Jackson, 1968; Zhang et al., 1986; and

Rubio et al., 1997 and 2003). The method utilized for this research was

developed by Reginato of the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory and described

by Fuchs and Tanner (1966).

<INSERT FIGURE # 5 PHOTO OF CONE SAMPLING DEVICE>

The equipment utilized was an infrared thermometer with a 15 degree field-of-

view and a 8-14µm bandpass inserted into a handmade 63 centimeter-tall

aluminum cone (figure #5). Emissivity is calculated as:

ελ =(T 4/λ - T 4/b) / (T 4/s – T4/b) (1)

where: ελ is the thermal emissivity for the spectral band used in temperature

determinations, Tλ is the brightness temperature in degrees Kelvin of the

exposed surface measure by the radiometer, Tb is the radiation temperature of

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the global background environment (sky brightness temperature), and Ts is the

measured radiation temperature of the surface when covered by the low

emissivity cone which is assumed to be the thermodynamic temperature. The

first part of the process is to obtain sky temperature (Tb) with the infrared

thermometer connected to a data logger. The cone is pointed skyward at 45

degrees from the horizon and collecting 10 measurements in 10 seconds as the

thermometer is rotated in a circle at orientation. The thermometer is then quickly

pointed towards the surface about 1-2 meters distant and 5 -6 readings are

obtained (Tλ). Then the cone with the thermometer is quickly placed over the

surface of interest and once completely covered the first surface temperature

(Ts) reading is recorded. A variation of the cone method is the box method.

There are two variants of the box method, one lid (Combs et al. 1965) and two

lids (Buettner and Kern 1965, Rubio et al. 2003). At the top and bottom of the

box there are two interchangeable lids, the “hot lid” which is warmed up and the

“cold lid”. Both lids have a small hole where the radiometer is placed to read the

radiance from the bottom of the box. Both methods are effective for horizontal

plane emissivity readings in the field with hand-held IR thermography. However,

this quick and simple field verification method is not appropriate when examining

complex vertical planes of the urban fabric. Field trials indicated that published

emissivity readings (table 2) provide high confidence levels and even with slight

variances in emissivity values, surface temperature value variations are

negligible.

<INSERT TABLE #2 TYPICAL URBAN EMISSIVITY VALUES>

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5. CONTROL SITE EVALUATIONS

A control site was provided by the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT)

in Phoenix, Arizona. ADOT and local vendors provided materials plus labor and

placed variable surface materials in place per standard DOT specifications

(figure #6). Research was undertaken to investigate both the level of accuracy of

the use of handheld thermography and to quantify the thermal variability of un-

shaded highway and pavement materials.

Insert Figure #6 (digital picture of the sampling site)

The research was carried out with both flexible and rigid pavements. The

research pads as described below were constructed with a typical sub-base

course which is the layer between the base course and the subgrade. The sub-

base course functions as a structural support. A base course, is the layer

immediately beneath the surface course and provides additional load distribution

and contributes to drainage. Finally, the last layer and the focus of this specific

research report is the surface course which is the layer in contact with the traffic

loads and direct solar energy influences. The surface course can be subdivided

into two layers; the wearing course and the binder course. Five different

pavement materials were initially evaluated. All materials had been fully cured.

5.a Conventional Concrete

Conventional concrete is a rigid pavement unlike bituminous materials which are

regarded as flexible pavements. Conventional pavements comprise only about

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7% of paved roads in the United States (FHWA, 2002). Rigid pavements

distribute their load over a wide area of the subgrade due to stiffness where as

flexible pavements tend to distribute loads over a smaller area of the subgrade.

A 30.5 cm x 3.66m x 3.66m (12” x 12’ x 12’) standard 4000 lb. slap of concrete

was sampled. Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) is a concrete aggregate (56%

by weight), sand (33%) and Portland Cement binder (11% by weight).

5.b Conventional Concrete with Crumb Rubber

In the United States, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of

1991 (since expired) mandated states to incorporate waste tires into asphalt

mixes (ISTEA 1991). This led to various states to experiment with crumb rubber.

Shredding waste tires and removing steel debris found in steel-belted tires

generates crumb rubber (CR). There are three mechanical methods used to

shred apart these tires to CR: the crackermill, granulator, and micromill methods.

CR can also be manufactured through the cryogenation method; this method

involves fracturing the rubber after reducing the temperature with liquid nitrogen

(Chesner et al., 1998). CR contains fine rubber particles ranging in size from

0.075-mm to no more than 4.75-mm. CR can be blended into bituminous

concrete by either a wet or dry process. In the wet process, the CR acts as an

asphalt modifier prior to the addition of aggregates; however, this process

requires costly special equipment. In the dry process, CR constitutes a portion of

the fine aggregate prior to the addition of the asphalt cement (Trepanier, J. 1995

& Volle, T. 2000).

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The research bed measured 30.5 cm x 3.66m x 3.66m (12” x 12’ x 12’) with a

standard 4000 lb. slap of concrete that was modified with 40 lbs. of crumb rubber

per cubic yard.

5.c Hot Mix Asphalt (Asphalt Concrete)

Hot mix asphalt (HMA) is also know as asphalt concrete (AC or ACP), asphalt,

blacktop or bitumen. For clarity HMA is used in this document. HMA is a

concrete (93% by weight) with an asphalt binder (7% by weight). AC is the

major paving material for urban streets by a ratio of 9 to 1 (Pomerantz et al. 1997

& 2004). There are a variety of HMA distinguished by design and production

such as dense grade, gap grade and open grade mixes. Dense grade is an

impermeable pavement. A 45.72 m (150’) x 5.49 m (18’) segment of dense

graded asphalt with aggregate that produces a continual grading and low air

voids was divided so that on the north side was a 10.2 cm (4”) depth and on the

south side a 5.1 cm (2”) depth was sampled. Dense graded asphalt concretes

are usually applied for surface course and as the name would imply, the material

is generally impermeable. HMA with a 5% binder at two lifts of 3” to 4” (7.6cm to

10.2cm) is the most common residential and arterial street pavement. HMA is

used in parking lots at a 2” to 3” (5.1cm-7.6cm) depth over a 6” (15.2cm) base of

ABC.

From a sustainability imperative, approximately 100 million tons of HMA is

recycled in the United States as “reclaimed asphalt pavement “(RAP) primarily

during resurfacing and widening projects (APA, 2001). RAP is normally added at

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10 to 30 percent by weight. Additionally, recycled glass is also used as an

aggregate into HMA base course up to 15% by weight of aggregate.

5.d Ultra Thin Whitetopping

In this process, 50 to 100 millimeters of high-strength, fiber reinforced concrete is

placed over a milled surface of distressed Hot Mix Asphalt. Ultra-thin

Whitetopping (UTW) overlays are generally 63 millimeters (2.5”) and 89mm (3.5”)

and have 0.9m (3’), 1.2m (4’) and 1.8m (6’) joint spacing. A 10.2 cm x 3.66 m x

15.24m (4” x 12’ x 50’) slab of ultra thin white (UTW) with 3lbs. fibermesh

polyprop fibers per cubic yard was analyzed. UTW is used as a pavement

maintenance and rehabilitation material. UTW dates back in the United States to

1991 with test sections laid in Louisville, Kentucky (Cement Association 2004). a

bonded, fiber reinforced Portland cement concrete overlay which is generally

used on paving materials that have failed due to rutting or general deterioration.

UTW is usually placed after the existing roadway is milled to a uniform depth and

cleaned. The UTW is placed directly on the milled asphalt surface and finished

with joint spacing at three-foot (0.91m) squares.

5.e Asphalt Rubber – Asphalt Concrete

A product which dates back to the 1940’s but which is re-entering the urban

surface market as an emerging technology is Rubberized Asphalt (RA). Its origin

goes back to the U.S. Rubber Reclaiming Company, which marketed, a

devulcanized recycled rubber product, called Ramflex.™ and later modified in the

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mid-1970’s by the Arizona Refining Company Inc. Later in the 1960’s, Charles

MacDonald then the City of Phoenix, Arizona Materials Engineer experimented

with mixing crumb rubber from ground tires with asphalt. This resulted in the

paten known as the MacDonald Process or Wet Process for making Asphalt

Rubber (AR). The Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT) was one of the

first agencies to experiment with the use of asphalt rubber as a stress absorbing

membrane and as an interlayer under a hot mix asphalt surfacing. ARAC uses

almost twice the amount of binder than traditional HMA (8% to 4.5%). Of the 8%

binder approximately 80% is an asphalt binder and 20% of the 8% is crumb

rubber. The cost of ARAC is approximately $40 per ton (Arizona) vs. $25 per ton

costs of HMA. ARAC is primarily utilized for road rehabilitation projects.

5.f Quality Control Measures

A weather station was placed at the research facility to acquire diurnal

meteorological data. An adjacent Maricopa County Flood Control District

weather station was also utilized to validate conditions. Thermocouples were

utilized to verify the accuracy of hand held thermography as well as to quantify

sub-surface temperatures. Thermocouple sensors consists o f two dissimilar

metals, joined together at one end, which produce a small voltage at given

temperatures. This voltage is measured and interpreted by a thermocouple

thermometer. Self contained sensors that contain a battery, clock, temperature

sensor and memory by Command Center™ which have a sensor accuracy of

±1°C and a range of -10° to 85°C were used. Each sensor can store 2,048

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readings and can be set to sample at adjusted intervals by easy to use computer

software. Each sensor is 1/4” x 3/4” in diameter with cable length typically of 12’.

The battery life for each sensor is rated for up to 10 years. The variable surfaces

were cored and the thermocouples were placed inside the cored asphalt based

materials below ground surface at 1.27 cm (0.5”), 3.81 cm (1.5”), 7.62 cm (3.0”)

and, 19.05 cm (7.5”). Thermocouplers were placed within the concrete cores

(figure #7) at 1.27 cm (0.5”), 5.08 cm (2.0”), 10.16 cm (4.0”), 15.24 cm (6.0”) and,

30.48 cm (12.0”) below ground surface.

<Figure #7 INSERT PHOTOGRAPH # picture of core and thermocouples>

Direct readings were set for every twenty minutes during the complete diurnal

cycle. Handheld IR thermography was obtained during the diurnal cycle on a

two-hour basis with the aid of an elevated mechanical two-person lift of

approximately 9.14 meters (30 feet).

5.g Solar Radiance and Other Meteorological Influences

Surface material evaluations were made in conjunction with detailed

meteorological observations. For the period of 00:00 hours on 26 June 2004 to

09:00 hours on 27 June 2004, ambient temperature, humidity, wind direction,

wind strength, rainfall and solar irradiance were collected every twenty minutes.

The presented data was selected due to the very calm, clear days with low

humidity and average elevated ambient temperatures. During the diurnal cycle,

maximum wind speeds reached an un-sustained 9.654 km/hr at 12:00 hours and

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16:00 hours with a diurnal average of 3.28 km/hr wind speed. Humidity reached

a maximum percent of 27 at 09:00 hours with and average of 16% relative

humidity. Minimum ambient temperature was 27.5°C at 04:00 on 26 June 2004.

That temperature was sustained for twenty minutes. Maximum temperature

reached 46°C at 14:20 hours on 26 June 2004 and was sustained for twenty

minutes. Sunrise for that date was 05:20 hours with sunset at 19:42 hours.

Solar irradiance as measured in W/m2 was first recorded at 06:45 on 26 June

2004 at 9 W/m2, reached a maximum of 945 W/m2 from 12:20 hours to 12:40

hours and with a last recorded reading of 4 W/m2 at 19:45 hours.

6. Comparative Analysis Handheld Thermography v. In-situ

Thermocouples

Phase II of this project was to evaluate the relative accuracy of evaluating

surface temperatures of the urban fabric utilizing handheld thermography in an

effort to gain greater resolution in comparison to satellite remote sensing. Data

was retrieved from the two day period ending July 24, 2004. The period had

variable climatic inputs as the 23 of July was cloudy while 24 July was a clear sky

day. Research compared surface thermal imagery approximately 2 meters in

distance to thermocouplers placed “near surface” (1.27cm) below ground surface

for each material. As presented in Figure #8, the temperal difference between

the Thermal IR imagery to that of the thermocouples for a common 12” pour of

concrete was less than ±10% (±7.81%) with the average variance at ±0.78.

INSERT FIGURE # 8 GRAPH OF THERMAL IR VS THERMOCOUPLES

23

The handheld thermographic IR unit was evaluated in a similar manner to other

engineered surface materials such as asphalt and variations of concrete by

thickness and aggregates. The results of those evaluations were consistent with

the 12” (30.5cm) Portland concrete cement slab and the other sampled surface

materials. A portable Ranger® ST infrared thermometer from Raytek was

utilized as an additional means to verify the use of the hand-held thermography

unit. The results were consistent with the percent of accuracy as the

thermocouples with surface temperature readings within ±5%.

7. SURFACE MATERIAL EVALUATIONS

Phase III of this research effort evaluated variability between ambient air and

surface temperatures of the seven separate materials during 26 June to 27 June

2004 (warmest days). The materials were free from vertical geometric influences

as well as anthropogenic sources. The results indicated that the coolest

maximum static surface temperature was conventional concrete at 329ºK

followed by (increasing temporal order) (2) both ultra-thin whitetopping and

conventional concrete with crumb rubber at 330.5K (3) at 336.5ºK conventional

hot mix asphalt, (4) asphalt rubber asphalt concrete at 337.5ºK, (5) hot mix

asphalt thin at 338ºK and the surface material with the highest surface

temperature was ARAC thin at 339ºK.

However, there was no direct correlation between surface material types and the

maximum temperature and the coolest temperature. The material which had the

lowest surface temperature during the diurnal cycle was UTW at 303.5ºK

24

followed by, (2) both conventional concrete and crumb rubber concrete a t 304ºK,

(4) ARAC had a minimum surface temperature of 305ºK, (5) was ARAC mix thin

at 305.5ºK, (6) HMA thin at 305.5ºK and the warmest minimum surface

temperature was (7) conventional hot mix asphalt at 307ºK. The diurnal

temperature variations including the ?T for each material in comparison to

ambient air temperatures is presented as Figure # 9.

<INSERT FIGURE # 9 Diurnal Variability of Surface Materials>

The diurnal rates of heating and cooling of both the surface materials and

ambient air shows a sharper rate of temporal rise versus rate of cooling (figure

#10). The rate of heating is 1.1ºK per hour for ambient air temperature, 1.4 ºK for

concrete rubber, 1.5ºK for conventional concrete, 1.6 º UTW, 1.7ºK for dense

grade hot mix asphalt, 1.8 ºK for both the thick side of the asphalt rubber asphalt

concrete (ARAC) and for the thin side of the hot mix asphalt and, 1.9 ºK for the

thin ARAC.

<INSERT FIGURE #10 SURFACE MATERIAL HEATING RATES>

The cooling rates (figure 11) were 1.1ºK per hour for thick ARAC, 1.0ºK for both

blends (thick and thin) of hot mix asphalt, and the thin layer of ARAC, 0.9ºK for

ambient air and UTW and, 0.8ºK per hour cooling rate for concrete rubber and

conventional concrete.

<INSERT FIGURE #11 SURFACE MATERIAL COOLING RATES>

25

7.a VARIABILITY INFLUENCES

7.a.1 Albedo

During July 2004, slight albedo alterations were made to the existing sampled

materials. Solar radiation includes visible light typically 43% of solar energy,

near infrared light (52%), and ultraviolet light (5%). The albedo of a material is

the fraction of light incident that is reflected from a surface.

a = flux of reflected radiation (2)

Incoming short-wave radiation (K?) is controlled by the azimuth (O) and zenith (?)

angles of the Sun relative to the horizon, with a maximum at the local solar noon

(Oke 1987). ? is not a perfect constant throughout the day however, K? can be

expected to be reduced in proportion to K? since the surface is not opaque to

short-wave radiation (? short = 0). Therefore the percent of K? that is not reflected

is absorbed which can be represented as:

K* = K?- K? (3) = K? (1-a)

A field survey of each material of interest was conducted on a calm, clear day to

determine albedo. A pyranometer was used to measure the intensity of the solar

radiation by converting light into a DC voltage which was fed into a voltmeter and

data logger. Table # 3 provides typical urban material albedos as well as albedo

measurements from a July 2004 field survey. Prior research had been

Flux of incident radiation

26

conducted by Bolz and Tuve (1973) who documented AC pavement albedos

from 0.05 to 0.15 with aging as a factor.

<INSERT TABLE 3 – PAVEMENT MEASUREMENTS HERE>

As presented in Figure # 12, material pavements are closely aligned with solar

radiance rather than ambient temperature. Thus albedo is of importance in

developing UHI mitigation strategies.

<Insert Figure 12 graph of material, solar radiance and ambient

temperature>

The asphalt rubber- asphalt concrete-thin had the lowest-? pavement (0.12) as

well as the highest peak surface temperature of 340°K (67°C). This is in

comparison to the conventional concrete test pad with the highest-? pavement of

0.46 and a surface temperature of 324°K (51°C). The difference in the peak

temperature is 16° (C & K) or an apparent dependence of the change in

temperature on the change in albedo was:

??/?? = -4.7°K/0.1 (4)

This is consistent with prior works including those carried out by Lawrence

Berkley National Laboratory which resulted in ??/?? ranges of -3.9°C/0.1 to -

7°C/0.1.

7.b Material Modification – Albedo and Porosity

27

In exploring the role of albedo, modifications were made to the surface layer of

low albedo materials in the test pads.

Consumer spray application white paint was purchased and applied in an

approximate 1m x 1m squares centered in all the flexible pavement materials.

As presented, in figure #13, the surface temperature of the10.2cm thick pad (4” –

10.2cm) of asphalt rubber-asphalt concrete went from the highest temperature of

340°K (67°C) to the lowest surface temperature of all pavements both flexible

and rigid,at 324°K (51°C) with an albedo increase from .13 to .26. The -

12.3°K/.01 is far higher than typical albedo mitigation rates. Additionally, while

the surface temperature of the modified ARAC is the same as conventional

concrete (tied as the overall lowest surface temperatures) the ARAC had a .20

darker albedo than the conventional concrete. The ARAC is an open-graded

HMA mixture which is designed to be water permeable and is comprised on

crushed stone or gravel with very small percentage of manufactured sands.

<INSERT FIGURE #13 ALBEDO MODIFICATION TO PAVEMENT CHART>

Further evaluation of the role of porosity with surface temperatures was

undertaken by examining ASTER thermal imagery of interstate road sections

with Asphalt Rubber-Asphalt Concrete-Friction Course layers in the Phoenix

region. As presented in Figure #14, the segment of the interstate highway with

the ARAC-FC provided a reduced surface temperature resolution.

<INSERT Figure #14> Role of Porosity on Highways

28

Crumb rubber as an additive either to asphalt, concrete or as a friction course

layer has the potential of reducing diurnal surface temperatures including on

roads where convective forces from traffic are present. In addition to the micro-

scale urban climate benefits, porous concretes and asphalts have environmental

benefits such as noise reduction and more efficient management of surface

water (stormwater) run-off. The addition of an asphalt-rubber friction course as

well as porous concretes on highways has been documented to reduce traffic

noise up to 10dB’s. An increase of 3 dB’s doubles the energy or intensity, and

an increase of 6dB’s quadruples the energy or intensity (Danish Road Institute,

2001).

Historically, sound barriers have been extensively utilized as a means to reduce

pavement noise in populace areas. However, sound barriers can act to reduce

convective air movements and themselves act as conductive agents. Porous

materials alter the generation of noise by minimizing the air pumping between the

tire and road surfaces as well as to absorb sound through internal friction.

The utilization of crumb rubber provides for the management of waste tires which

typically amount to 0.915 to 1.0 tires per person, per year (California EPA, 2003).

In the Phoenix, Arizona region large scale waste tire fires has been a more

common occurrence as exemplified by a 3 million waste tire fire on the Gila River

Indian Community on the southern side of the Phoenix region. This fire took over

two weeks to extinguish and caused various air quality and water quality adverse

impacts.

29

8. DISCUSSION

Two distinct areas of research were conducted in regards to the role of surface

pavements in regards to the urban heat island. The first goal was to quantify the

utilization and accuracy of hand-held IR themography units to examine surface

temperatures of the urban fabric in urban settings. Thermal satellite imagery

provides researchers a first level examination of regional surface temperatures

but has drawbacks including coarse resolution and the inability to design pre-

determined timed intervals for data assimilation during the diurnal cycle due to

the planetary rotation of the satellite. As presented, hand-held IR cameras

provide a relatively easy to use instrument to acquire surface temperatures on a

as-needed basis. Additionally, IR themography allows for the acquisition and

assimilation of data from multiple areas of interest without evasive

instrumentation such as thermocouples, which can present a safety hazard for

the collector of data on heavy traffic areas.

Secondly, this investigation examined the role of pavements in the Urban Heat

Island as a function of increased thermal storage, lower permeability and lower

albedo. The urban heat island needs to be considered in terms of the micro-

scale and meso-scale. At the micro-scale level, issues of human comfort, energy

consumption and water consumption are in play. At the meso-scale level, social

considerations of air quality, health and quality of life are of significance.

Sustainable engineering practices call for the evaluation of the economic,

30

environmental and social impacts as a result of our utilization of man-made

materials in urban areas. As presented in this research, the regulatory

framework to mitigate the urban heat island by increasing albedo has been

modified to introduce the coupled benefits of albedo and porosity. This mitigation

method can potentially provide for a more sustainable approach to the urban

heat island effect.

Further research is being undertaken to evaluate this mitigation method in

regards to life cycle management. Additionally, the findings will be evaluated for

the two very distinct classes of surface pavements – highways and roads vs.

parking lot pavements. Research is also being conducted in regards to canopy

converge mitigation of pavements and coupled benefits of canopy coverage with

modified surface pavements (porosity and albedo) to the micro-climate and

meso-climate. The answers to these research questions will provide a platform

to facilitate the implementation of appropriate pavement designs to aid in the

mitigation of the negative impacts of the urban heat island effect from

pavements.

31

9. ACKNOWLDEGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. Kamil Kaloush, from

the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department and the Advance Materials

Laboratory at Arizona State University for his guidance and tremendous support

during the hot summer months, Professor Peter Guthrie Director of the Centre for

Sustainable Development and the Department of Engineering at the University of

Cambridge, Mr. Mark Belshe, Vice President of FNF Construction for support in

material applications, the Arizona Department of Transportation, Dr. William

Stefanov of NASA for providing remote sensing assistance and Dr. Nancy

Selover, Assistant State Climatologist in Arizona for the use of various

instrumentation.

32

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46

White, S., G. Heiman, et al. 1990. Initial Cooling of Pavements and the

Development of Pavement Cooling Charts. Canadian Journal of Civil

Engineering, v 17 n 1, February 1990: 94-101.

Williams, R.C.; Duncan, G. and White, T.D. (1996). Hot-Mix Asphalt Segregation:

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Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. Washington, D.C.

pp. 97-105.

Williamson, R.H. 1971. The Calculation and Simulation of Temperature

Variations in Pavements. Unknown: 59pp.

Williamson, R.H. 1971. The Simulation of Pavement Temperatures from Finite

Difference Considerations. R & D Rpt: 91pp.

Williamson, R.H. 1972. Effects of Environment on Pavement Temperatures.

International Conference on Structural Design Proceedings: 144-158.

Willoughby, K.A.; Mahoney, J.P.; Pierce, L.M.; Uhlmeyer, J.S.; Anderson, K.W.;

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Related Asphalt Concrete Pavement Temperature Differentials and the

Corresponding Density Differentials. Washington State Department of

Transportation. Olympia, WA.

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/ppsc/research/CompleteReports/WARD476_1FinalCycl

icSeg.pdf.

47

Wilson, A.H. 1976. The Distribution of Temperatures in Experimental Pavements

at Alconbury By-pass. TRRL Lab Report 719: 30pp.

Wolfe, R. K., G. L. Heath, D. C. Colony. 1987. The University of Toledo Time-

Temperature Model Laboratory and Field Validation. Report to The Ohio

Department of Transportation.

Wood, W., Deem, H. and Lucks, C. (1964). Thermal radiative properties. New

York, Plenum Press.

Yang, N. (1972). Design of Functional Pavements New York, NY, McGraw Hill

Book Company.

Zheang, Y., Zhang, C., and Klemas, V. (1986). Quantitative measurements of

ambient radiation, emissivity and truth temperature of a greybody; Methods and

experimental results. Appl. Optics. 25:3683-3689.

48

Figure #1 – Role of Urbanization on Regional Climate. Source. Golden, J.S.

2004.

Rapid Urbanization & the Urban Heat Island EffectAnnual Minimum Temperatures

Phoenix, Arizona v. Rural SettingBrazel, A. & J. Golden 2004

58

63

68

73

78

83

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Deg

rees

F

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

3,000,000

3,500,000

4,000,000

Pop

ulat

ion

Sky Harbor Airport(Urban) Casa Grande NationalMonument (Rural)Regional UrbanPopulationExpon. (Regional Urban

49

Subsystem Band No. Spectral Range Spatial Resolution

VNIR 1 2

3N 3B

0.52 - 0.60 0.63 - 0.69 0.78 - 0.86 0.78 - 0.86

15m

SWIR 4 5 6 7 8 9

1.600 - 1.700 2.145 - 2.185 2.185 - 2.225 2.235 - 2.285 2.295 - 2.365 2.360 - 2.430

30m

TIR 10 11 12 13 14

8.125 - 8.475 8.475 - 8.825 8.925 - 9.275 10.25 - 10.95 10.95 - 11.65

90m

Table # 1 ASTER Spectral Passband Courtesy of JPL - NASA

50

Figure #2. ASTER Satellite Thermal Image of the Greater Phoenix Region.

51

Figure #3 Top 20% Surface Temperatures from ASTER Thermal Imagery.

52

Figure #4 Thermal IR Thermographic Photograph of Various Surface Pavements

53

Figure #5 Emissivity Cone Sampling Device

To be included.

54

Table #2. Typical Urban Emissivity Values. Sources: Gubareff et al. 1960, Wood et al. 1964

Category Sub-Category Temperature

°C emissivity Aluminum Commercial Sheet 100 0.090 Asphalt Ambient 0.90-0.98 Brick Building 1000 0.45 Red, rough, no gross irregularities 20 0.93 Grog, brick, glazed 1100 0.75 Silica brick 1000 0.8 Fire Brick 1000 0.75 Concrete 0-100 0.94 Concrete Tiles 1000 0.63 Glass Smooth 0-200 0.95 Paint, Lacquers, Varnishes Alum. Paint 0-100 0.55 Bronze Paint 0-100 0.8 Black Glass Paint 0-100 0.9 White Lacquer 0-100 0.95 Green paint 0-100 0.95 Gray paint 0-100 0.95 Lamp black 0-100 0.95 Gold Enamel 0-100 0.37 Black shiny lacquer, sprayed on iron 24 0.875 Black shiny shellac on tinned iron sheet 21 0.821 Black matte shellac 77-146 0.91

Black on white lacquer 38-93 0.800-0.950

Flat black lacquer 38-93 0.960-0.980

Steel Not Oxidized 100-1200 0.35 Lightly Oxidized 100-1200 0.45-.50

55

Figure #6. Pavement Sampling Location.

56

Figure #7. Picture of thermocouple sampling devices placed into cores.

57

Figure #8. Graph of Thermal IR vs. Thermocouple Readings.

Comparative of Thermographic IR Surface Temperature vs. In-Situ Thermocouple. Conventional Concrete.

Phoenix, Arizona 23-24 July 2004 J.S. Golden

30

33

36

39

42

45

48

51

54

57

12:0

0 A

M

4:00

AM

6:00

AM

9:00

AM

12:0

0 P

M

3:00

PM

10:0

0 P

M

2:00

AM

4:00

AM

6:00

AM

9:00

AM

12:0

0 P

M

2:00

PM

3:00

PM

23-Jul-04 24-Jul-04

Tem

per

atu

re in

C

Themocouple

Hand-Held Thermal IR

58

Figure #9. Diurnal Variability of Surface Materials.

Diurnal Variability of Surface Materials 26 June - 27 June 2004 Phoenix, Arizona

J.S. Golden

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

AMBIE

NT TE

MPERA

TURE

Hot M

ix Asph

alt

ARAC

Thick

HMA T

hin

ARAC

MIX T

HIN

Crumb R

ubber

Conv.

Concr

ete UTW

Material Type

Del

ta T

in

Deg

rees

K o

f a

Mat

eria

ls M

in

and

Max

Tem

p.

280

290

300

310

320

330

340

350

Min

/ M

ax T

emp

erat

ure

in K

Variability in C

Min. Temp in K

Max. Temp inK

59

The Hysteresis Lag Effect with Thermodynamic Factors Phoenix Arizona 26-27 June 2004

J.S. Golden

0100200300400500600700800900

1000

6/26/2

004 0

:00 1:00

2:00

3:00

4:005:0

06:0

07:0

08:0

09:0

010

:0011

:0012

:0013

:0014

:0015

:0016

:0017

:0018

:0019

:0020

:0021

:0022

:0023

:00

24:00

:00

Date and Time

So

lar

Rad

ian

ce in

W

/m2

300305310315320325330335340345

Tem

per

atu

res

in

Deg

rees

K

Solar Radiance W/m2

ARAC Mix Thin in Deg K

Ambient Temp in K

Figure #10. Surface Material Heating Rates.

60

Figure #11. Surface Material Cooling Rates.

Cooling Rate of Surface Materials 26 June 2004 Phoenix, Arizona

J.S. Golden

300

302

304

306

308

310

312

314

316

318

320

322

324

326

328

330

332

334

336

6/25/2

000 1

7:00

6/25/2

000 1

8:00

6/25/2

000 1

9:00

6/25/2

000 20

:00

6/25/2

000 2

1:00

6/25/2

000 2

2:00

6/25/2

000 2

3:00

6/26/2

000

6/26/2

000 1

:00

6/26/2

000 2

:00

6/26/2

000 3

:00

6/26/2

000 4

:00

6/26/2

000 5

:00

6/26/2

000 6

:00

6/26/2

000 7

:00

6/26/2

000 8

:00

6/26/2

000 9

:00

Date and Time Hourly Interval

Tem

per

atu

re in

K

Dense Grade HMA ThickThick AR Gap Mix

Dense Grade HMA ThinARAC Mix

Concrete RubberConcrete

UTW AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

61

Adapted from: Oke, 1987 and Heat Storage of Pavement and Pomerantz et al.

2000.

Table #3. Typical Urban Pavement Measurements.

Material Albedo Heat

Conductivity Specific

Heat Porosity (W/mC) (J/cm3/C) % Soils Dark, wet 0.05 0.17 1.94 16.5 Light, dry 0.40 0.04 1.15 16.5

Desert 0.20-0.45

Grass Long 0.16 Short 0.26

Asphalt new 0.05-0.10 0.74 1.42 8.9

worn 0.10-0.15

Gray Portland Cement new

0.35-0.40 1.69 2.07 -

worn 0.20-0.30

White Portland Cement new

0.70-0.80

worn 0.40-0.60

Sand 0.07 0.61 30

62

Figure #12. Effect of Solar Radiance and Albedo to Surface Temperatures.

INFLUENCE OF ALBEDO ON PAVEMENT SURFACES 24 July 2004 – Phoenix, Arizona

J.S. Golden

K? K? a Surface Temperature in

°F Temperature in

°K

HMA Thin 827.25 167.28 0.20 146 336 HMA Thin with White Paint 863.24 220.00 0.25 137 331 HMA Thick 863.16 146.35 0.17 145 336 HMA Thick with White Paint 863.24 221.42 0.26 133 329 Chip Seal Standard 863.09 130.20 0.15 145 336 12" Concrete 827.11 376.67 0.46 124 324 Crumb Rubber Concrete 845.09 356.28 0.42 129 327 Asphalt Rubber Thick 844.76 111.65 0.13 152 340 Asphalt Rubber Thick with White Paint 862.80 223.25 0.26 124 324 UTW 862.80 369.49 0.43 129 327 Asphalt Rubber Thin 862.80 106.42 0.12 153 340 Asphalt Rubber Thin with White Paint 844.75 105.45 0.12 149 338

63

Table 13. Albedo Modification of Pavements.

Albedo v. Surface Temperature 24 July 2004 Phoenix, Arizona

J.S. Golden

0.10

0.120.14

0.160.18

0.200.220.24

0.260.28

0.300.32

0.340.360.38

0.400.42

0.440.46

0.48

12"Concrete

CrumbRubber

Concrete UTW HMA Thin

HMA Thinwith White

PaintHMAThick

HMAThick with

WhitePaint

Chip SealStandard

AsphaltRubberThick

AsphaltRubber

Thick withWhitePaint

AsphaltRubberThin

AsphaltRubber

Thin withWhitePaint

Alb

edo

50.00

54.00

58.00

62.00

66.00

70.00

Su

rfac

e T

emp

erat

ure

in C

a

Surface Temperature

64

Figure 14. Porosity and Pavements. ASTER imagery of pavement variations. Phoenix, Arizona October 30, 2003.

Interstate-10 with ACAR-FC

Interstate-10 with

Conventional Concrete