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Running head: LIFE COACHING THROUGH AN ADLERIAN LENS 1

Life Coaching Through an Adlerian Lens

A Master’s Project

Presented to

The Faculty of the Adler Graduate School

__________________________________________

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

The Degree of Master of Arts in

Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy

___________________________________________

By:

Daniel Skolte

___________________________________________

Chair: Susan Huber

Member: Carmen Croonquist

___________________________________________

December 2016

LIFE COACHING THROUGH AN ADLERIAN LENS 2

Abstract

Despite the fact that the life coaching industry is unregulated and has a dearth of empirical peer

reviewed literature, the anecdotal reports of those who experience success, demonstrates

encouragement as this industry moves toward a more mainstream study of psychology. The

history of the coaching industry can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophers who sought to

explore the achievement potential of the individual. As the field of psychology emerged from

the study of philosophy, the theoretical work of Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology became

the basis of much of the philosophy which life coaching is based upon: The individual is the

artist and canvas of his or her own life and has the creative powers to achieve his or her life

ambitions. With a foundation in Adlerian philosophy and Individual Psychology, the coaching

model draws upon the client’s own resources to identify goals and aspirations; potential barriers

to those goals; and to be creative in maneuvering around those barriers. From this perspective,

the life coach is able to offer an insightful, meaningful, and informed approach to better assist the

life coach client in self-discovery and achieving his or her sought after goals.


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Acknowledgements

The chief danger in life is that you may take too many precautions.

-Alfred Adler

One way or the other, if human evolution is to go on, we shall have to learn to enjoy life more

thoroughly.

-Mihaly Csikszentmihalhi

Foremost, I thank my Masters Project Chairperson Susan Huber, Ed. D. for her guidance, advice,

encouragement, and getting me “unstuck” so that I could move forward with completing this

project. I extend my gratitude to Carmen Croonquist, MA, for initially introducing me to life

coaching and for being my reader for this project. Evelyn Haas, MA, Director of Admissions and

Student Services gave me wonderful advice to “have fun with writing your masters project”. I am

also appreciative of Jill Sisk, PhD for her assistance in helping me initially organize my ideas into

a workable outline.


Table of Contents

Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................................ 5

History and Background of Life Coaching ..................................................................................... 6

Definition of Terms......................................................................................................................... 7

Adlerian Influence .......................................................................................................................... 9

Coaching Background ............................................................................................................... 12

The Emergence of Life Coaching ................................................................................................. 14

Adlerian Counseling vs. Adlerian Coaching ............................................................................. 16

Life Coach Approaches and Adlerian Principles ...................................................................... 22

Adlerian Influences ....................................................................................................................... 23

Goal Setting and Life Coaching ................................................................................................ 25

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 28

References ..................................................................................................................................... 32

APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 36

Appendix ................................................................................................................................... 37

Presentation ........................................................................................................................... 37

Appendix ................................................................................................................................... 38


Life Coaching Through an Adlerian Lens

This phenomenological study will examine the origins of life coaching and the role of the

life coach as viewed through an Adlerian lens. It will address how a growing body of research

supports the efficacy of the coaching model, identify the readiness of the individual seeking life

coaching, and discuss how training in Adlerian psychology can improve the effectiveness of the

life coach.

Statement of the Problem

The history of life coaching can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophers who

questioned what the achievement potential was for the individual. In modern times, life

coaching has become an unregulated multi-million dollar industry with versions of the coaching

model being offered in the health and wellness industry, executive and corporate levels, financial

industry, and personal life coaching. Each version continues to seek out the achievement

potential of the individual. Those wanting to pursue a career as a life coach, in any of the many

specialties, are able to do so by either calling himself or herself a coach, or acquiring certification

through the International Coaching Federation (ICF) (Seligman, 2002).

Although the coaching industry lacks any regulation in the form of licensure, the ICF

offers accreditation and approval of coach-training programs that have met the ICFs high

standards of practice (International Coach Federation, 2010, Seligman, 2002). These

certification processes enable the client to more clearly understand what it is that a professional

coach can offer the client. Along with certification, the ICF defines coaching as a “partnering

with clients in a thought-provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximize their

personal and professional potential” (International Coach Federation, 2010, para. 10).


History and Background of Life Coaching

Coaching is a multi-disciplinary, multi-theory combination of applied psychology

(Anderson, Williams, & Kramer, 2012). Much of what we know about coaching dates back

centuries ago. The early civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt reveal peoples’ search for

answers regarding how they fit into the natural world (Shiraev, 2011; Spence, 2005). Later

Greek philosophers sought answers for the question “What motivates people to do what they

do?” A growing body of knowledge emerged from three major areas: moral values, philosophy,

and the study of cognition (Shiraev, 2011). Such influential thinkers as Socrates (470-399 BCE),

Plato (428-347 BCE), and Aristotle (384-322) have continued to influence philosophical thought.

These ancient philosophers saw the capacity of individuals to attain self-knowledge and truth

(Spence, 2007). The emergence of psychology as a separate discipline occurred in the late 1800s

and early 1900s through the works of Alfred Adler, Sigmund Freud, Charles Darwin, Albert

Bandura, Aaron Beck, Albert Ellis, and others. Although the historical study of psychology

includes the contributions of many theorists, this project will limit the scope of influence to the

theoretical works of Alfred Adler.

It is important, for those pursuing a career as a life coach, to understand the ontology of

how life coaching emerged as a new industry. With a foundation in Adlerian philosophy and

Individual Psychology, the coaching model draws upon the clients’ own resources to identify

goals and aspirations; to identify potential barriers to those goals; and to be creative in

maneuvering around those barriers. It is from this perspective the life coach practitioner is able

to offer an insightful, meaningful, and informed approach to better assist the client in self-

discovery and achieving his or her sought after goals (Anderson et al., 2012; Colker, 2014;

Davison & Gasiorowski, 2006; International Coach Federation, 2010).


Definition of Terms

Acting “As If”

A philosophical construct based on Vaihingers’s The Philosophy of “As If”. The client is

asked to pretend “as if” a specific belief were different (Griffith & Powers, 2007, p. 8)

Early Recollections

“Personal myths [which are] held in memory and periodically REHEARSED for

PURPOSES of individual identity and orientation” (Griffith & Powers, 2007, p. 26).

Felt Minus

“The universally-experienced INFERIORITY FEELINGS of incompleteness, of being

below, of being in a position of “less than” the others, or less than what life requires or

allows” (Griffith & Powers, 2007, p. 39).

Fictional Plus

“A subjectively-constructed image of maturity, mastery, completion, fulfillment, or

perfection which the individual STRIVES to attain in his or her struggle to MOVE away

from the felt minus situation toward the fictional plus PERSONALITY IDEAL” (Griffith

& Powers, 2007, p. 39).

Guidelines

Unconscious biases used as “a framework for personal and ready choices” related to

assumptions and personal convictions together with “the fundamental orientation toward

a personal GOAL of success” (Griffith & Powers, 2007, p. 15).


Life Tasks

Three tasks which challenges the individual in living in a social context: the social task

(life in a community), the work task (allows the individual a sense of contributing to the

welfare of others), and the love task (dependent upon the first two tasks in order to raise a

family and to contribute to society at large. (Griffith and Powers, 2007, p. 64)

Lifestyle

“Unconscious and fundamental biases, formed in childhood as a result of early

experiences to which we are exposed, becoming the basis of self-concept” (Dreikurs,

2000, p. 57).

Mistaken Beliefs

Mistaken convictions at the base of the individual’s STYLE OF LIVING that have led to

a faulty ADAPTATION and some lack of success in meeting one of more to the

challenges of life. They are reflected as conclusions in EARLY RECOLLECTIONS . . .

[which] permit the formulation of the Basic Mistakes which [were] made in his

childhood and maintained throughout life (Dreikurs, 1973, as cited by Griffith & Powers,

2007, p. 31).

Movement

Bodily postures and attitudes [which] always indicate the manner in which an individual

approaches his goals. The following movements must correspond: to striving, advancing

movements; to resistance, retreating movements; to inner progress, a continuation of

movement; to standstill, interruption of movement; to feelings of resistance, inhibition

and tension (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956).


Private Logic

A term which Dreikurs and H. L. Ansbacher adapted from Adler’s “private intelligence”

describes the FICTIONAL (“as if”) line of reasoning proceeding from meaning premised

upon the person’s private and unique valuation of self, others, and the world, and what

life requires of him or her (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 414; Griffith & Powers,

2007, p. 83).

Safeguarding Tendency

Movement of the discouraged person in thought, FEELING, and action in response to

perceived threats to his or her self-esteem. [They] may be expressed in anxiety, panic

attacks, or paralysis, more or less severs, and all relative to the individual’s degree of

DISCOURAGEMENT or diminished sense of SOCIAL FEELING and connectedness

(Griffith & Powers, 2007, p. 89).

Style of Life

Developed in earliest childhood in which a child will strive to develop along a line of

direction fixed by the goal which he chooses for himself. These goals are an unconscious

striving for perfection, completion, superiority, or evolution and become a lifelong fixed

law of movement (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, pp. 186-187).

Adlerian Influence

Adler believed the psychological health of the individual was tied to his or her ability to

be socially involved (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014; Ferguson, 2003; Mosak &

Maniacci, 1999). This was a significant departure from Sigmund Freud who theorized that

psychological pathologies stemmed from the unconscious forces of the ego, id, and super ego

(Ansbacher & Ansbacher; 1956; Williams & Davis, 2002). Adler broke from Freud’s theory,


positing that the individual ought to be viewed as an indivisible whole. This approach was to

become the philosophical foundation of what he termed Individual Psychology. Within this

framework, Adler encouraged the client to draw from his or her own resources in a way that

supported useful behaviors in striving for perfection and to identify behaviors that were not

useful, which worked to keep the individual from striving for perfection (Colker, 2014; Mosak &

Maniacci, 1999).

How the individual used behaviors was an important indicator to Adler of how well the

individual was able to engage with others in society. Adler defined this as an individuals’ ability

to successfully engage in three important communal ties or life tasks, and was important in the

overall mental health of the individual (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Griffith & Powers, 2007;

Mosak & Manniacci, 1999). These tasks are intertwined with each other and cannot exist

independently (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956).

Adler described these tasks as

Three problems [which] are irrevocably set before every individual: community feeling,

occupation, and love. All three are linked one another by the first: the greater the error in

respect to these problems made by the bearer of an erroneous style of life, the more

complications will threaten him. (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 297)

These terms continue to ask the question of how people fit into the natural world; how they

contribute to society through work; how work affects our relationship with others; how it creates

a sense of cooperation and contributes to the welfare of others; and how our sexual role results in

the continuation of society (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Mosak & Manniacci, 1999).

Adler believed the psychological health of the individual was dependent upon the

strength of social interest, an important component of the three communal ties or life tasks


(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). As the individual developed more social interest and

connectedness with others, the less neurotic he or she became. This was demonstrated with

Stein’s (2013) development and research of the theory of meaning through cognitive-behavioral

process as applied to the nursing model. The essential assumptions of this theory included

The nurse and the client can grow through the interactive relationship.

Both the nurse and the client are being, becoming, and changing through the

relationship.

The nurse can help the client to change negative thinking to facilitate more positive

feelings and desirable behaviour.

Through the evolving relationship, the client and the nurse find a greater depth and

meaning of life (p. 487).

The theory of meaning through cognitive process reflects the transformative changes that

can occur in the life coach-client relationship: as the relationship gains strength, the individual is

able to learn from others and, in turn, continue to develop the self (Stein, 2013). Leider (2010)

demonstrated the concept of social interest in his book The Power of Purpose, writing that

“When we work and live on purpose, we bring together the needs of the world with our special

gifts in a vocation or calling” (p. 44). Leider also addressed the importance of recognizing that:

Physical illness or disability may take away independence and make inaccessible those

things that provided, or might have provided, purpose and meaning when we were

healthier and more able. However, one of the great truths of purpose is that it is not

limited by circumstance. In fact, major challenges may offer the choice of new direction

and purpose that can add years of healthy life. As a result, we may experience a new

calling to serve others in some way. (p. 125)


Connection with others in the manner that Leider discussed, allowed individuals to

develop a positive self-concept through pro-social behaviors. Pro-social behaviors (like social

interest) reflect the aptitude, attitude, and ability of the individual in his or her striving for

perfection within the community (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014; King & Shelley,

2008). Brigman, White, and LaFountain illustrated the operation of increasing pro-social

behavior with the “Crucial C’s”: connection, capability, counting (feeling worthwhile), and

courage. The Crucial C’s were dependent upon the individual developing communication skills,

self-discipline, assuming responsibility, and making wise decisions (2003). These and other

foundational concepts, which Adler presented in his theory of Individual Psychology, are

reflected in the coaching process and the relatively new study of positive psychology.

Coaching Background

Originating in the military, the Human Potential Movement (HPM), arose in the 1940s in

an effort to improve performance of military members. Lasting until the 1970s, it laid the

groundwork for the coaching industry as it exists today (Spence, 2007; Williams & Davis, 2002).

Spence showed that the reason for its demise was related specifically to a lack of empirically

based studies and practitioners not being grounded in sound scientific rationale as a basis for

their practice (2007).

The 1990s saw a renewed interested in the coaching industry in the United States.

Thomas Leonard, an American financial planner and entrepreneur, has been credited with

establishing the foundation for professional life coaching and in 1992 established Coach U, the

first school for professional coaches (CoachU, n.d.). Variations of life coaching expanded into

areas such as executive coaching, leadership coaching, and health coaching to name a few


(Spence, 2007). In 1994 he established the ICF which is now recognized as the global standard

for coaching certification.

Although the ICF is responsible for laying the foundation for certification and ethical

practices, one of the challenges that the coaching industry continues to face is how to validate the

work life coaches perform. Though much literature and many books have been written on the

topic of life coaching, little of it reflects important, carefully designed, structured research

studies. Grant (2003) pointed out there is “little empirical research into the effectiveness of life

coaching, with anecdotal and marketing claims from the coaching industry itself forming the

bulk of evidence” (p. 254). Spence (2007) further identified problems with the current trend in

the coaching industry with the statement that “claiming that coaching is a profession (when it is

not) diminishes the credibility of the industry in the eyes of the true professionals who

understand the current status of coaching [which is in need of peer reviewed research]” (p. 261).

In a meta-analysis of coaching specific literature 4 years later, Grant and Cavanaugh

(2007) noted that from 1980 to 2007, there were a total of 69 outcome studies examining the

effectiveness of coaching since 1980. Of those, 34 had within-subjects studies design, 12

between-subjects design, and 23 case studies. They found that although case studies provided

descriptive and in-depth information, the resulting data lacked the ability to add to a theoretical

knowledge base or to evaluate coaching outcomes (2007).

Grant and Cavanaugh (2007) pointed out eight of the 12 between-subjects studies were

randomized. In general, the randomized studies demonstrated coaching was effective when it

was solution-focused. When the coaching relationship was perceived as peer to peer it resulted

in increased motivation, facilitation of goal attainment, reduced anxiety, and decreased stress.

Grant and Cavanaugh identified the need to create consistency in the measurement of satisfaction


with coaching surveys and goal attainment outcomes that worked to strengthen the validity and

reliability of future studies.

Spence (2007) identified a need for the coaching industry to examine why some events,

such as the HPM, failed to gain traction. He continued offering a recommendation that

evidence-based coaching be based on empirical research leading to the validation which the

coaching industry needs in order to survive. This was supported by Grant and Cavanaugh (2007)

who identified problems such as a lack of formal training, no barriers for entry into the life coach

industry, a lack of state or industry regulatory guidelines, and no significant body of knowledge

relevant to coaching.

The Emergence of Life Coaching

HPM has been shown to be a forerunner to the life coaching movement (Spence, 2007;

Williams & Davis, 2002). Individuals who received training in the techniques of coaching, who

have the knowledge of basic positive psychological concepts, and know when to refer a client to

a mental health provider, are well prepared in developing a successful career as a life coach

(Seligman, 2002). Along with academic training in cognitive-development theory (Seligman),

certification through training programs with ICF endorsement establishes credentials for the

practitioner which potential clients find more attractive (International Coach Federation, 2010).

According to Seligman (2002), Positive Psychology studies the manner in which the

individual experiences positive emotions, the process of life engagement, and how the individual

applies meaning to his or her life. This definition of Positive Psychology, which is consistent

with Adler’s philosophical approach of Individual Psychology, describes how the individual

lives his or her life in terms of life style, movement, and plane of living. As it applies to life

coaching, these concepts were used in the context of what Adler called “behaviors on the useful


side of living” (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014). Useful behaviors allow the

individual to live life on the horizontal plane where movement is in a forward direction and

supports a style of living that demonstrates a higher degree of social interest, or concern for

others (Ansbacher & Ansbacher; Colker; Ferguson, 2003; Williams & Davis, 2002).

This connectedness and concern, with and for others, as a motivational process Adler

described as social interest and is supported by current research in the area of neuropsychology.

Marlatt (2014) showed that the brain releases the neurochemical dopamine (which creates a

sense of euphoria) when an individual acts for the benefit of others, as opposed to when he or she

acts for the benefit of the self. As the individual engages on the plane of forward movement

(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014; Mosak & Maniacci, 1999; Powers & Griffith,

1987) he or she is able to develop a more clear sense of accomplishment, a motivation of what to

strive for, and create meaning related to a sense of pleasure, survival, and comfort (Colker, 2014;

Csikszentmihalye, 1990; Page & Ferguson, 2005).

Diessner (1995) explained the cognitive component of this process as the teleological

aspect of Cognitive-Development Psychology as having direction and purpose. He explained

that the cognitive developmental process of an organism was that of change, implying that this

change was related to growth (1995). This approach strongly aligned with Adler’s statement that

the client becomes both the canvas and artist of his or her own life (Ansbacher & Ansbacher,

1956).

Life coaching encompasses the teleological process of Adler’s forward movement

(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956) and Diessner’s explanation of the cognitive-developmental

process as the impetus for change and growth (1995). Grant pointed out that although there was

a dearth of empirical literature on the how and why life coaching was effective, there have been


compelling anecdotal reports of the successes which life coaching clients’ experience (2003).

These anecdotal reports appear to be a necessary but not sufficient explanation to why and how

life coaching affects change. An inherent weakness of these anecdotal reports and marketing

claims are that they are published within the coaching industry itself and lack the peer review

process (Grant, 2003). It is important to consider the manner in which peer reviewed valid

coaching research can inform the distinction between the need for counseling and the benefit of

life coaching. More research, needed to explore the impact of cognitive and behavioral

constructs on the coaching process, will create the impetus the coaching process requires in order

to move away from a pseudo psychological study.

Adlerian Counseling vs. Adlerian Coaching

The nexus of Adlerian counseling and life coaching through an Adlerian lens is found in

the philosophical approaches to relationship building based on equality leading to a goal of

cooperation. Williams and Davis (2002) identified the importance of viewing the client as the

expert, relying on his or her strengths, demonstrating encouragement, and looking toward the

future. These principles reflect both coaching and counseling from an Adlerian perspective and

Adler’s theory of Individual Psychology (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). Improving social

relationships, developing empathy for others, and learning how to take the perspective of others

are important features of each approach (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Williams & Davis,

2002). Encouragement and support of the client creates an environment in which the individual

is able to achieve his or her highest potential (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014;

Dreikurs, 2000; Davison & Gasiorowski, 2006).

An important distinction between the terms of Adlerian counseling and Adlerian

coaching is that counseling has a focus on past traumatic events which leads to some type of


pathology, while coaching, rooted in positive psychology and the philosophy of Alfred Adler’s

individual psychology, has a focus on striving for a more fulfilling future (Ansbacher &

Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014; Davison & Gasiorowski, 2006; Leonard, 1998; Williams &

Davis, 2002). Regarding whether or not coaching is indicated versus counseling (Table 1), the

ICF Code of Ethics clearly states the coach must make a referral to a mental health provider in

the event a client demonstrates behaviors consistent with mental health concerns (International

Coach Federation, 2010). Adhering to this ethical principle allows the practitioner of both

counseling and coaching to develop a deeper therapeutic relationship with the client and allows

the client to experience movement towards his or her stated goals (Ansbacher & Ansbacher,

1956; Davison & Gasiorowski, 2006; Mosak & Maniacci, 1999).

Table One

Comparison: Coaching and Counseling

Adlerian Coaching Adlerian Counseling

Client as expert Client as expert

Development of empathy for others Development of empathy for others

Future focus Past trauma focus

Improvement in social relationships Improvement in social relationships

Perspective taking Perspective taking

Ansbacher and Ansbacher (1956) defined movement as existing on either the vertical

plane or the horizontal plane. The vertical plane demonstrated a drive for upward mobility,

status, and a desire to be superior to others while the horizontal plane indicated a sense of

equality and concern for others. These actions, which became guidelines, supported the fictional


goal and private logic of how the individual defined success. Living life on the vertical plane

took on a form of safeguarding, resulting in disengagement with others, a lower sense of social

interest, and an increased sense of neurosis. This style of living differed from living on the

horizontal plane which resulted in a higher degree of social interest evidenced by a concern for

others, a lack of concern about status, and viewing others as equal in society (Ansbacher &

Ansbacher, 1956; Powers & Griffith, 1987).

The manner an individual engages with the community is reflected in the plane of

movement (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956) and is an indicator of the emotional intelligence

(EQ) an individual possesses (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Salovey and Mayer defined EQ “not as

the general sense of self and appraisal of others [but rather] the ability to monitor one’s own and

others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide

one’s thinking and actions” (p. 189). An individual is able to recognize emotional reactions and

gauge the affective response of others, while at the same time expressing empathy “should be

perceived as genuine and warm by others, while individuals lacking these skills should appear

oblivious and boorish” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 199). In chapter three of their book

Emotional Intelligence 2.0, Bradberry and Greaves (2009) described EQ (Table 2) as having four

component skills: (a) Self-awareness, and (b) self-management skills which comprise personal

competence, (c) social awareness, and (d) relationship management skills which comprise social

competence.


Table Two

Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Skills

Personal Competence Social Competence

Self-Awareness Social-Awareness

Self-Management Relationship Management

EQ is reflected in Adler’s definition of social interest (as cited by Ansbacher &

Ansbacher, 1956, p. 135). Adler might agree that EQ is the ability to “see with the eyes of

another, to hear with the ears of another, to feel with the heart of another” and reflects “the

capacity for identification, which alone makes us capable of friendship, love of mankind,

sympathy, occupation, and love is the basis of social interest and can be practiced and exercised

only in conjunction with others” (p. 136). Adler’s construct of social interest was reflected in

Salovey and Mayer (1990) research on EQ. They defined EQ as “the recognition and use of

one’s own and others’ emotional states to solve problems and regulate behavior” (p. 189). The

construct which Salovey and Mayer, used to explain the ability of being aware of one’s own

emotional state as well as the emotional state of others, was consistent with Adler’s construct of

social interest. Martin Seligman (2002) viewed EQ as being comprised of social intelligence and

personal intelligence. In his text, Authentic Happiness, he stated that:

Social and personal intelligence are knowledge of self and others. You are aware of the

motives and feelings of others, and you can respond well to them. Social intelligence is

the ability to notice differences among others, especially with respect to their moods,

temperament, motivations, and intentions – and then to act upon these distinctions. (pp.

143-144)


Salovey and Mayer (1990) described an EQ individual as having the ability to monitor

emotions as well as the emotions of others in a way that affects a more positive outcome in

context of where a specific interaction occurred. Bradberry and Greaves further defined EQ as a

cognitive-emotional sensory operation occurring in the frontal lobe without specific awareness of

the event (2009). An individual with a higher EQ becomes more aware of sensory stimulation,

which originates in the emotion center of the brain (the limbic system) and is cognitive of how

his or her thinking changes in relationship to others. Possessing this awareness allows the

individual to be mindful of the emotional reactions to interactional stimuli and to respond in a

manner which indicates he or she understands the degree of perceived threat to self and others

(Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). EQ differs from cognitive intelligence

(IQ) in that the ability to learn changes very little over a lifetime while EQ is a skill that can be

learned and, with practice, can be improved.

The influence of Adler’s definition of social interest, along with the research of Seligman

(2004) in positive psychology, and Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) work in EQ added important

layers to and validation of the coaching model. The coaching model is an active process that

incorporates the principles of:

Adler’s individual psychology looking at how the individual lives his or her life in terms

of lifestyle, movement, and plane of living (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956).

Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) definition of EQ as the ability to recognize our own and

others emotional states, and

Seligman’s (2002) definition of positive psychology as the process in which the

individual finds and applies meaning to his or her life.


Individuals who report feeling dissatisfied with where they see themselves in any of the domains

of life (personal, work, spiritual, etc.) but motivated to move forward with identified goals are

likely to benefit from life coaching (Grant, 2003).

The coaching approach recognizes that the client has the ability to tell or paint his or her

own story (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956), possesses an awareness of his or her EQ (Salovey &

Mayer, 1990) and is motivated to discover those things which make him, or her content and

happy (Seligman, 2002). These characteristics have the effect of creating transformative changes

in the lives of the client (International Coach Federation, 2010) and move the client toward goal

attainment (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, Grant, 2003) Viewed through an Adlerian lens, the

coaching professional is “accessible; accepting; balanced; [creates a sense of] belonging; [has the

ability] to be caring, compassionate, collaborative, creative, and all the rest” (Wagner, 2011, p.

61).

What occurs when the client loses his or her motivation or drive? How does the life

coach respond to or recognize the indicators when a life coach client might be giving up? A

client might lose motivation or drive because of safeguarding behaviors or sideshows such as

hesitation, feeling superior or less than, making “if only” statements, or shifting attention onto

others or less important matters (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Griffith & Powers, 2007;

Mosak & Maniacci, 1999). According to Adler, sideshows allowed the individual to rationalize

his or her inability to engage the life tasks and affected the motivational state of the client

(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Mosak & Maniacci, 1999). Comments such as “If only I

weren’t unemployed”, “If only I had the money”, or “ If only my husband hadn’t died”, kept the

individual in a state of hesitation, which in turn caused him or her to experience more

discouragement.


Life Coach Approaches and Adlerian Principles

A thorough understanding of the ethics covering the coach-client relationship is essential

in all aspects of the life coaching approach (Williams & Davis, 2002). Ethical considerations are

enumerated in the ICF Code of Ethics for life coaches. This document established a well-defined

practice model for the individual wanting to become a credentialed life coach. The philosophical

statement of the ICF reflects Alfred Adler’s view of the client as the expert of his or her life,

possessing the innate ability for self-discovery in a creative and resourceful manner, viewing the

client as an indivisible whole (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014; International Coach

Federation, 2010). The definition of coaching reflects an Adlerian approach to building

therapeutic relationships. This is reflected in both the coaching and counseling roles where the

client is allowed to experience self-discovery through deep learning, improve performance, and

allowed changes to occur which enhance quality of life (Anderson et al., 2012; Ansbacher &

Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014; International Coach Federation, 2010). The ethical nature of

this therapeutic relationship is contained in Part Two of the ICF’s Standards of Ethical Conduct

(International Coach Federation, 2015) and addresses: (a) Professional conduct at large (para. 1-

9), (b) Professional conduct with clients (para. 10-21), (c) Confidentiality/Privacy (para. 22-24),

and (d) Conflicts of interest (para. 25-28; n.d.).

Part Four of the ICF defines the pledge of Ethics wherein the professional coach

recognizes the importance of ethical obligations to the client, to treat individuals with respect and

dignity of their individuality, and to be a role model for the clients (International Coach

Federation, 2015).

Life coaching is defined in part one of the ICF as a “partnering with the client in a

thought provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximize their personal and


professional potential” (2010). In assisting and supporting this goal, the coach challenges the

client with questions of how he or she will achieve the sought after goal, explore ways in which

the client will deal with barriers to those goals, and provide an unwavering support system for

the goals the client has established even when the client appears to lose motivation (Williams &

Davis, 2002). The life coach, who has a well-developed sense of EQ, is able to be more effective

with encouraging and motivating the client.

Adlerian Influences

Life coaching, which described human beings as existing in a social context, is embedded

in Adlerian philosophy (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014). The extent to which an

individual perceives his or her level of significance reflects an ability to move toward a self-

determined goal or preferred future that is influenced by an individual’s lifestyle (Ansbacher &

Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014; Mosak & Maniacci, 1999). In the absence of mental health

pathology, the life coach is able to effectively work with a client in goal achievement and assist

the client in identifying behaviors which get in the way of him or her achieving those goals

(Colker, 2014). The client is also able to identify behaviors and practice skills which lead to

increased performance and movement toward the sought after goal (Colker, 2014).

Adler believed that all behavior was directed toward a pattern of forward movement,

standing still, or backward movement. This movement pattern is affected by the individual’s

lifestyle, described as major themes an individual uses in an unconscious, consistent, and

repetitive manner which predisposes him or her in how successful he or she is in completing the

life tasks (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Griffith & Powers, 2007). These unique

individualized themes are shaped from early childhood and develop over time. They allow the

individual to make sense of the world; to figure out how he or she fits into the world, and to


experience a fictional plus which moves the individual away from a felt minus (Ansbacher &

Ansbacher, 1956; Powers & Griffith, 2007). Adler described this process as Lifestyle

(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956) while Dreikurs (2000) described these themes as the style of

life. These unconscious biases or guidelines have an effect on goal development, values, and

personal drives (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Griffith & Powers, 2007; Mosak & Maniacci,

1999; Williams & Davis, 2002).

Movement through the life tasks is dependent upon behaviors which move the individual

closer to or further away from one of two goals: The fictional goal of the ideal self or the

immediate goal which requires the individual to fulfill the life tasks. Each of these goals is

constant and allows the individual to experience a feeling of significance and to move away from

feelings of inferiority. Guidelines, formed in early childhood, are the maps by which the

fictional goals are formed and are important factors in the development of mistaken beliefs

(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014; Griffith & Powers, 2007).

Once a fictional goal is formed, the function of guidelines becomes an unconscious effort

to maintain the fictional goal in an effort to ensure a self-consistent personality (Ansbacher &

Ansbacher, 1956; Griffith & Powers, 2007). Adler used the term Lifestyle or self-concept

(which he believed was developed by the age of 4 or 5) to describe the unconscious manner in

which an individual lived his or her life and became the basis for development of the personality

(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Dreikurs, 2000; Griffith & Powers, 2007; Powers & Griffith,

1987). The concept of self-set goals was the basis of Adler’s Lifestyle construct and was

evidenced by the individual’s sense of private logic. Adler (as cited by Ansbacher & Ansbacher,

1956) believed that encouragement of the individual was required to redirect the individual’s


goals and private logic. This encouragement of individuals resulted in an increase of optimism

that led to a positive expectation of self and others (Ferguson, 2003).

The Lifestyle Assessment, an instrument used to explore early recollections (ERs) is used

to assist the client in becoming aware of his or her fictional goals or private logic (Disque &

Bitter, 2004; Griffith & Powers, 2007, p. 26). These ERs “[mirror] presently-held convictions,

evaluations, attitudes, and biases . . . without explicit awareness of meaning or purpose (p. 26).

The Lifestyle Assessment, which has the potential of changing the self-concept, allows the client

to become aware of personal biases and private logic (pp. 36-37).

Adler (as quoted by Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956) stated that as the individual moves

toward an increased feeling of significance, he or she is more prepared to meet the tasks of

living; work, love, and community. How successfully engaged an individual is in the completion

of life tasks lays the groundwork for the individual to contribute in a socially constructive

manner. This behavior leads to greater social interest and an improved sense of subjective well-

being (SWB) along with an increased sense of significance. (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956;

Colker, 2014; Pavot & Diener, 2008; Powers & Griffith, 1987). An individual’s SWB and sense

of significance (Pavot & Diener, 2008) are strongly related to his or her engagement in meeting

the three tasks of life (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956) and reflect an important step in goal

achievement.

Goal Setting and Life Coaching

To demonstrate the effectiveness of life coaching on self-reported quality of life in the

domains of living such as work, health, and relationships, Grant (2003) conducted a within-

subjects designed experiment consisting of twenty postgraduate students from a major Australian

university. His findings revealed “a life coaching program can facilitate goal attainment,


improve mental health and enhance quality of life” (p. 259). Grant pointed out that one

weakness of the goal attainment scale used in his research was that the participants in the study

self-reported the degree of goal attainment. Further limitations of the study included the

participants were self-selected; there was no control group; and a potential demand effect

wherein the participants anticipated an expected outcome (2003). Despite the limitations of this

study, the strength of it demonstrated that “life coaching should be a results-orientated solution-

focused process, rather than an introspective, overly-philosophical endeavor” (p. 262).

Individuals engaged in the life coaching process, engaged in a cognitive-behavioral manner

which resulted in purposeful changes, moving them away from being overly self-reflective into a

mindset allowing for more insight, leading to successful goal attainment. (Grant, 2003)

When an individual experienced an increased sense of significance and SWB (Pavot &

Diener, 2008), he or she experienced a perceived plus which described a sense of mastery toward

achieving a goal or a felt minus which was experienced as a sense of inferiority and

incompleteness (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Colker, 2014; Ferguson, 2003; Powers &

Griffith, 1987). Offering the opportunity for the client to act “as if” he or she possessed the

ability to move forward; to experience a perceived plus, allowed the client to engage in creative

problem solving in a manner he or she might not otherwise have experienced (Ansbacher &

Ansbacher, 1956; Griffith & Powers, 2007; Pink, 2009; Starr, 2011). In addition to creative

problem solving, Ferguson (2003) found that individuals developed a greater sense of optimism

as a result of encouragement to engage their creativity. This resulted in more positive

expectations for themselves and others leading to greater happiness and productivity. Jane

McGonigal (2011) explained this optimistic attitude in her book Reality is Broken: Why Games

Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World. As a game developer and researcher, she


captured the concepts of Adler’s life tasks and the forward movement of life coaching writing

that

When you strip away the genre differences and the technological complexities, all games

share four defining traits: a goal, rules, a feedback system, and voluntary participation.

The goal is the specific outcome that players will work to achieve. It focuses their

attention and continually orients their participation throughout the game. The goal

provides players with a sense of purpose.

The rules place limitations on how players can achieve the goal. By removing or

limiting the obvious ways of getting to the goal, the rules push players to explore

previously uncharted possibility spaces. They unleash creativity and foster strategic

thinking.

The feedback system tells players how close they are to achieving the goal. It

can take the form of points, levels, a score, or a progress bar. Or, in its basic form, the

feedback system can be as simple as the player’ knowledge of an objective outcome:

“The game is over when . . .” Real-time feedback serves a promise to the players that the

goal is definitely achievable, and it provides motivation to keep playing.

Finally, voluntary participation requires that everyone who is playing the game

knowingly and willingly accepts the goal, the rules, and the feedback. Knowingness

establishes common ground for multiple people to play together. And the freedom to

enter or leave a game at will ensures that intentionally stressful and challenging work is

experience as a safe and pleasurable activity. (McGonigal, 2011, p. 21)


Conclusion

The concept of life coaching can be traced back to the ancient Greek philosophers who

asked the question “What motivates people to do what they do?” Alfred Adler’s theory of

Individual Psychology was both a philosophical and a psychological approach and viewed the

individual as possessing his or her own creative force (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). The

HPM emerged in the 1940’s (Spence, 2007; Williams & Davis, 2002) and reflected Adlerian

concepts and continued to explore human potential. This set the stage for the life coaching

industry, with its many coaching approaches such as executive coaching, lifestyle coaching,

mental health and spiritual coaching, to become a highly lucrative occupation. Life coaching

has a positive impact on and increased self-awareness for individuals. For those who are ready

for the coaching experience, it offers an opportunity to expand choices and awareness of

relationships, and to affect transformational personal and professional changes (Anderson et al.,

2012; Ferguson, 2007).

Viewed through an Adlerian lens, the coaching professional is “accessible, accepting,

balanced, [creates a sense of] belonging; [has the ability] to be caring, compassionate,

collaborative, creative, and all the rest” (Wagner, 2011, p. 61). Page described the professional

coach as an individual who demonstrates an ability to assist the client in realizing his or her

greater potential in regard to self-confidence, sense of efficacy, and to imagine more possibilities

in taking on challenges which has an effect of developing the self and relationship with others

(2005).

A growing body of research has demonstrated life coaching, with a philosophical base in

Adlerian and Positive Psychology, is effective in moving individuals forward in achieving

personal and professional goals (Grant, 2003). Research based models drawn from Individual


Psychology, Cognitive Behavioral Psychology, Social Psychology, and Positive Psychology will

result in the development of sound tenets needed to bring life coaching into its own valid

psychological discipline. Transformative and positive changes occur as a result of the life

coaching process, demonstrating that sought after dreams and ambitions occur when the future is

embraced with a sense of achieving reasonable possibilities. Peer reviewed research, from a

variety of psychological disciplines, will legitimize the life coaching approach as a valued field

of psychological study and give validation to individuals who experience positive changes

because of life coaching.

Discussion

Life coaching is grounded in Alfred Adler’s philosophical approach of Individual

Psychology. Adlerian concepts of movement, private logic, planes of movement, and fulfillment

of life task (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956) has demonstrated the ability to affect transformative

changes for those motivated to engage in the life coaching process. While there are many

anecdotal reports of the effectiveness of this process, there are few well-designed, peer-reviewed

studies controlling for variables such as self-reported changes, demand outcome expectations,

and apparent inability for random selection and random assignment (Grant & Cavanagh, 2007).

Until the coaching industry has accumulated more valid research establishing important

groundwork validating the outcomes of life coaching, it will continue to be viewed as a pseudo

psychological approach.

In an effort to bring legitimacy to the work life coaches perform, Thomas Leonard, the

founder of Coach U, established certification credentialing for life coaches. The credentialing

process, though not required, opens the potential to create a stronger foundation for important

and legitimate research. Other areas of study lend credibility to the creating a strong foundation


of life coaching literature. The work of Pavot and Diener in the area of positive psychology and

satisfaction with life (2008); McGonigal’s research in game design and her four defining traits of

games including specific goals, the limitations of rules, a feedback system, and voluntary

participation (2011); and Salovey and Mayer’s work in the area of Emotional Intelligence (1990)

along with approaches from the fields of social psychology, cognitive and behavioral

psychology, and others areas will push the life coaching industry into a valid domain of applied

positive psychology.

Reflection

The PowerPoint of this project was presented to a group of Veteran Club members at

Southwest Minnesota State University in Marshall, MN. All participants agreed the presentation

was well organized, the content was informative, the PowerPoint was easy to follow, and they

had a better understanding of the Life Coaching process after participating. Valuable feedback

in the evaluation portion of the presentation included comments such as “Good, clear

presentation”; “Well presented, to the point”; “Presenter was very knowledgeable on the

subject”; “Explain the horizontal and vertical charts a little more clearly and neutralize your

commentary on it”. In regard to the feedback on the difference between horizontal and vertical,

after reviewing the video, I noted that a short, but informative explanation was given to explain

how they differed and the effect on social interest and goal setting. The examples used to

explain horizontal plane were not specific, they were about a style of living highlighting concern

for others. The examples used for the vertical plane were more specific, dealing with the

military and corporate structures.

Review of the video of the presentation showed an absence of pacing which allowed the

audience to stay focused on the message and kept me grounded during the presentation. A


dynamic use of vocal modulation and keeping good eye contact with the audience added to more

focus and engagement of the audience members; scanning the audience helped to create a sense

of connection with individuals in the audience. One thing I could have done differently was to

welcome the audience members to ask questions at any point to further clarify particular life

coaching concepts as related to Adlerian Psychology and philosophy.


References

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ethical issues for consideration. In S. J. Knapp (Ed.), APA Handbook in psychology: Vol.

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Ansbacher, H. L., & Ansbacher, R. R. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. New

York, NY: Basic Books.

Bradberry T., & Greaves, J. (2009). Emotional intelligence 2.0. San Diego, CA: TalentSmart.

Brigman, G., White, J., & LaFountain, B. (2003). Student success skills training: an Adlerian

approach to peer coaching. Journal of Individual Psychology, 59(3), 327 – 333.

CoachU. (n.d.). Who we are. Retrieved from http://www.coachu-hq.com/resources.html

Colker, J. (2014). Using the open forum-counseling model in leadership development. Journal of

Individual Psychology, 70(1), 45-56.

Csikszentmihelye, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY:

Harper & Row.

Davison, M., & Gasiorowski, F. (2006). The trend of coaching: Adler, the literature, and

marketplace would agree. Journal of Individual Psychology, 62(2), 188-201.

Diessner, R. (1995). Cognitive-development psychology and the Baha’i Faith: Meaningful

connections. Counseling and Values 39(3). 169-176.

Disque, J. G., & Bitter, J. R. (2004). Emotion, experience, and early recollections: exploring

restorative reorientation and processes in Adlerian therapy. Journal of Individual

Psychology, 60(2), 115 – 131.

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Professional Psychology.


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in Adlerian theory and practice. Journal of Individual Psychology, 56(2), p. 136-144.

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health. Social behavior and personality, 31(3), 253-264.

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Australian Psychologist, 42(4), 239-254.

Griffith, J., & Powers, R. L. (2007). The lexicon of Adlerian psychology. Port Townsend, WA:

Adlerian Psychology Associates.

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professional coach. Retrieved from

http://coachfederation.org/prdetail.cfm?ItemNumber=1837&_ga=1.187624680.19601301

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King, A., & Shelley, C. A. (2008). Community feeling and social interest: Adlerian parallels,

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for organizations and individuals. Journal of Individual Psychology, 61(2), 186-194.

Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008). The satisfaction with life scale and the emerging construct of life

satisfaction. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(2), 137-152.

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APPENDICES


Appendix

Presentation

The presentation was presented to the Southwest Minnesota State (SMSU) Psychology Club on

May 20th, 2016 in Marshall, MN. in the Social Sciences Building at SMSU.


Appendix


1800’s Development of Psychology (late 1800s to now).

Bandura, Beck, Darwin, Ellis, Freud, and others.

Focus on Adler’s Individual Psychology.

LIFE COACHING


The Human Potential Movement

1940s to 1970s

Used by the military

Laid foundation for the Life Coaching model

Influences

Individual Psychology (Adler)

Emotional Intelligence (Salovey & Mayer)

Positive Psychology (Seligman)

Satisfaction with Life (Pavot & Diener)


Influences

Individual Psychology (Adler)

Emotional Intelligence (Salovey & Mayer)

Positive Psychology (Seligman)

Satisfaction with Life (Pavot & Diener)

Provides Structure

Identifies Values and Ambitions

Staying with the clients goals . . . Even if he or she gives up.


Socratic Questions

Client as expert with his or her own answers

Emotional Intelligence: Cognitive Process

Transformational Changes

Social Interest.

“To See with the eyes of another, to Hear with the ears of another, to Feel with the heart of another.” (Alfred Adler).

Believe in your client

Always stay with the Client’s Goal.


Use of symptoms

Hesitation

Procrastination

Blaming

Use of symptoms

Hesitation

Procrastination

Blaming


Use of symptoms

Hesitation

Procrastination

Blaming

Forward movement:

Standing still

Backward movement


PLANES OF MOVEMENT

HORIZONTAL PLANE

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

PLANES OF MOVEMENTVERTICAL PLANE

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%


Forward, Standing Still, Backward.

The Blue Print

Making Changes

WORK:

RELATIONSHIPS:

SOCIAL INTEREST/COMMUNITY:


Certified Training Programs approved through the ICF

No Certification necessary

Expertise and Certification in other areas:

Relationship building.

Client as expert: Artist and Canvas of his or her Life.

Encouragement and Support.

Counseling: a focus on past trauma, pathology, and healing.

Coaching: a focus on the future and goal attainment.


Confidentiality

Agreement between coach and client defining responsibilities of each party

Recognition of when to refer to mental health professional

Truth and honesty; setting of boundaries

Awareness of personal biases

Dual relationships (Conflict of interest)

Ansbacher, H. L. & Ansbacher, R. R. (1956). The individual psychology of Alfred Adler. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Bradberry, T. & Greeves, J. (2009). Emotional Intelligence 2.0. San Diego, CA: TalentSmart.

Diessner, R. (1995). Cognitive-Development psychology and the Baha’i faith: meaningful connections. Counseling and Values 39(3): 169-176.

Ferguson, D. E. & Page, L. J. (2005) coaching versus or coaching and? Adlerian applications for organizations and individuals. Journal of Individual Psychology 61(2): 186-194.

Grant, A. M. (2003). The impact of life coaching on goal attainment, metacognition, and mental health. Social behavior and personality. 31(3): 253-264.

Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008). The satisfaction with life scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction. Journal of Positive Psychology. 3(2): 137-152.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Authentic happiness. New York, NY: Simon & Shuster.

Spence, G. B. (2007). Further development of evidence-based coaching: lessons from the rise and fall of the human potential movement. Australian Psychologist. 42(4): 255-265.

Wagner, L. A. (2011). Perspectives on what it means to be an Adlerian in the 21st century (Master’s Thesis). Retrieved from http://alfredadler.edu/library/masters-projects.


Appendix

A History of Life Coaching Through and Adlerian Lens

Presentation Evaluation

December 8th 2016

______________________________________________________________________

The presentation was well organized.

AGREE ___ DISAGREE___

The content was informative.

AGREE____DISAGREE___

The PowerPoint was easy to follow.


I have a better understanding of Life Coaching.


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A Master’s Project MP... · 2017-02-11 · coaching has become an unregulated multi-million...

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