Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and

Teaching (2005-2012) Teaching (2005-2012)

Volume 1 Number 1 Journal of Business & Leadership Article 12

1-1-2005

A Leadership Primer: Managerial Leadership Defined and A Leadership Primer: Managerial Leadership Defined and

Discussed From The Perspective of Four Leadership Models Discussed From The Perspective of Four Leadership Models

Timothy Heinze Waynesburg College

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Heinze, Timothy (2005) "A Leadership Primer: Managerial Leadership Defined and Discussed From The Perspective of Four Leadership Models," Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012): Vol. 1 : No. 1 , Article 12. Available at: https://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol1/iss1/12

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Jo urn31 or l)u, lll CS' and Leaders h ip . Rc>cJr Ch. Pra cu cc. and Teac hin g

~ 005 . Vol I . No I . 95- 1 0~

A LEADERSHIP PRIMER: MANAGERIAL LEADERSHIP DEFINED AND DISCUSSED FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF FOUR LEADERSHIP MODELS

Timothy ll einze. Waynesbur g Coll ege

,'H fllla;:erial le ad ership is difficult to comprell ensil ·e ~r defin e. A holi stic uwl erstandin;: of mf11w;;erial le ad ership is hest ohrained rllrou;:ll examining and int e;:ratin;: multiple models. Four lead er.\·flip models

are ret·iewe d from a l1istorical, de.finirional. and applicatory perspecri1·e. Til e four model.\ · include tllree we /1 -/..,,oH •n. ll em ·ilr researched theories (situarional. tran.iformational. and parll-;:oal) and one relative

newcom er (;: rass roots). Eac ll model prm •id es si;:nijicanr in\ ·igllts iflfo ril e narure of true lead ersllip. and ril

e comhinarion of rll ese four models prm ·id es a holistic oven •iew of lead ersllip. Afrer rel'iew in;: eacll

mode

l. til e paper addresses poinrs of cont •er;: ence and dil•er;: ence in order to prm·id e a compr ell ensil'e und

ersrandin;: of nullw;:eriall ead ersl1ip.

Introduc ti on

\ L1n ::Jgc 1·inl lcadcr>. hip i ~ ~1 constru ct that i" c:1 :-. ' to

rccogn11C but ditlicul1 10 defi ne (Yu i-J. 1989).

Rc-.,ca rchcr.., h:l\ c -., o ught :1 uni' er..,::J iitcd defini ti on and h::J\C fa il ed '-it ogdi ll (J~ c ited in Yul-.1 ) -., t ::Jtc-., 1 h:1t ·· four

decade-., o r rc-., c::Jrch on lc ::J dcr -., hqJ h: t\ c produ ce d a

bl' \\ ild cnn g ma~~ o r li nd i n g~ . ... l :tnd j the cndk "

::l CC

UillUI

Llt iOil Of empirica l data ha <. llOt prod uc ed Ll ll

integrated under:-- tandin g o f l cadcr~ hip .. ( 1989: :253 ).

t\lth ough lc::Jdcr~ h ip model :- fal l 11 1 and out o f

\ (lgUe. th e ab-.,o lut c 1dea Of lcadc r, hip rem ain s \ table.

LcadL-r.., kt' c C\ " ted t h 1·o ughout hi -., tor;. rega rdless o f the prL'-.,C ilCC o f the a CC LII'Ll tC or ln aCC UI'at C model:-, u -.,cd tO

de-.,cnbc them . I he fa ct th at lcadcr<. hip C\i ~ t s as an

nb..,olu tc . IWn- trnn'>i tL) I'\ co ns tr uct that doc~ not

fundnmcnwll;

O\\C

its C\ i , tencc or prog rc;.;, ion to a gi, L'n

mode l mea ns th at nil mode l-.,. ~ga 1·dlc s-., o f th eir

ngl'. hn' e potent in I npp l ica t ion " ith 1n tndn; ·.., modern

l c::Jc!er ~ hip L'll\

ironment . 1-he current pnper sugge sts th :1 t n co m pre hensive

under. tandi ng o f lencle rship is best obtain ed through th e

e\aminat ion o f multipl e mode l ~. 1-·om mode ls ''i ll be

re\ ie"ccl f rom a hi sto ri ca l. defini ti onal. and npp l ica tor:

pe rspccti\ e. l:.ac h mode l. o r piece o r the mannger ial

lende rship pua le. prO\ ides signifi cant insights int o th e

nature o f true leade rship . nne! the co mbi nati on o r th ese

four piece pro\' id es a co mpr ehen i'c O\e n ie" o f

leader hip . The

four in vesti ga ted mode ls ( situ ati onal.

tr

ansform ati onnl

!t ransacti onal. pnth -goa l. and gmss­roo ts) in c lud e three well -1-.no ,,n . heav i ly resea rched

th eori es and one relati ve ne\\'co mer (gras -roo ts). A ft er

thoroughly rev ie'' in g enc h mode l. th e pape r addresses po ints o f conve rgen ce and divergence in order to prov ide

a co mpr ehensive understanding o f the concept

manage ri al lea dershi p.

95

S IT UATI ONA L MODEL

Hist01 ·ical Co nte xt and Definiti o n

Situati onnl len dership theorie ~ emer ged in th e 1960 s

n '-OC iet; bcg;J n to ree:-,.a min e trndi ti onal moorin gs and

tlml\\ niT tr::Jd iti onal nppr oac hes. Rebe lli on ''n s in :

aut hori t) "a s out ( Bodroghl-.oz;. 199 1 ). Relati \' ism

raged ( clwdler. 19 76 ). T he iden o r a lea der ' ' ho po~sc ;,s cd abso lute. i ntrin ~ i c lende rship skill fell out o f

\ Og ue and ' ' as replaced by th e idea o f a relati v isti c

leader'' ho " as pr im:1ri l: dee med to be J leJder by so le

'irtue o f hi s o r her sit uJti on. T he th eory '' as first prnmotccl h; I kr~ e; and Bla n c h :~rd in th ei r arti c le on

lea cler;, hip lifc -c ; c lcs ( l lcr~e: & 131:lll chard. 1969) . Bass

prO\ ide;, nn 0 \ Cr\ ie\\ o f thei r th eory b; ;, ugges ting that

~ i t uat ionnl lcac!er

;, h i p in' o h es th e ide:1 th at " th e l ea der is th e product o r a situati on .. nne! th at .. th e emergence o f n

great leader i ~ a r l' sult o f time. p lnce, :1 nd cir cum stance"

(13a ::.;,. 1990

: 38) .

Fernancle7 :lll d Vec chio suggest th at

acco rdi ng to ~ i tu a ti o n a l leade rs hip theory. ·• foll ower s are th e mo~ t crit ical fac to r in lea dership eve nt s .. (Fernnnde z

& Vecc hio. 1997: 67) . T hcrcl'ore. it ca n be seen th at

~ itu ::Jtionn l leadershi p. ns it;, nnmc imp li es. is mor.e about th e -., i tuati on nnd lc ~;, about th e per -o n. The theory

fundamental!

:

presupposes that :1 n ;o nc cn n be a lea der i f

prO\ idee!" ith th e right opportunit) .

Applicati ons

fil e situnti ona l mode l is unique in th at its ca reer has

inc luded both pract ica I and <t cndem ic ph ases of

<tpp l icati on. G raeff ( 1983) hi ghl ight s th e enormous

popu larity o f th e model w ithin bu siness c irc les during th e late 1970 s and en r ly 1980s. G rae ff mentions that "an

unobtrusive measure of it s sustained popul arity in

indu stry is its abi lit y to support three ful l pages o f adve rti sin g ext ollin g its v irtues in th e ce nter o f a leadin g

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Heinze: A Leadership Primer: Managerial Leadership Defined and Discussed

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practi ti oner's j ourn al of train in g and deve lopment" ( 1983 : 28 5) . Ho\\ ever. th e th eory· s peri od of practica l (!pp lica ti on ''as re lati w ly short -li\'ed as academi c cr itique of th e mode l mounted (Bla nk & Weitze l. 1990). A fc" resea r-chers ind icated that th e mode I possessed ,alid it\ onl\ as a train in u. mec hani sm. other indi ca ted th at th-e lll L; de l " n::. on I : ~ p::~ rti a ll : applicab le (Vecchi o. 198

7). and a ;, ize:1 ble majorit: in di ca ted th at the mode l

1\(! o, co mple te!\ \' Oid of pr(! cti ca l application (Dainty. 1986). As th e mode l's usefu l li fe on the practi ca l fron t 1\a ned. th e model' s momentu m on th e acade mi c front de\ el oped speed b) ' irtuc of the model' s startlingl y ne\\ pwpositi ons reg~1rding th e natu re of leade rshi p. Though ha

r;, h in th e ir practi ca l cr itiqu e. Yuki and Graeff :1d mit

that th e mode l·, --roc us on th e trul : s itu::~ ti o n a l nature of lc::~dc r s hip and .. . 1 it s] recogniti on of the need for bella\ ior tlc\ibi lit : on th e pan of the leader .. (G raeff. 19

83: 290) "a" a 'alu::~ble add it ion to academi c th ought

and helped to ba lance leadershi p th eories a\\ a\ from th e one- s ided approache s of the tra it :1nd be hav ioral

theo r·ists. Vi

e\\ed fr om thi s perspec ti,·e. s itu ::~ ti o n al k ade rshi p theor: has y ie lded signi fi ca nt app lica ti on

" ithin leadershi p th ough t and leadershi p practi ce .

Relationship to Contemporary Leadership F.n,·ironm ent

Situat ional leadershi p th eor) apparent! : lost mu ch llf i ~:-, practi c:-r l re le' ance once academi c cri ti cs began to "' ~ te rn a ti ca lh critiq ue the mode l and demonstrate its ti1 eore ti ca l -short co min g s. Ho,,ev er. thi s lack of ;1pp li cab ilir:;. " ithin th e modern leadership environment is onl y e\ id ent "hen th e mode l is viewed fr om a micro per -pec ti ve . Parti cul ar mi cro fa ce ts o f th e mode l. such as it s prcsc ri pti\ e th eor: (G r ::~eff. 1983) or it s , ·ie\\ S on the i nt erre I at ionsh i po. bet\\ ee n subordin ate maturity ~llld

leadership be ha,·ior (B lank & We it ze l. 1990). have been l:1rge l: di scred ited. but en ough of th e mode l' s "up erstru cture remain s to prov ide va luab le input for toda: - ~ le :1de rship dia logue. As iso lati oni sm on a per~o n a l or orga ni za ti onal from becomes increasin gly di rtic ult ''

ithin today·s g loba l economy. the theory' s

emph as is on e\ tern al relati onships rema in s \'it all y import ant and engag ingly prac tica l. Graeff emphasizes that -- the recognition of th e subordinate as the most importa nt s itu ati onal determin ant o f appropri ate leader be hav ior is a perspecti ,·e th at seems justified and hi ghl y app ropriate ... -- ( 1983: 290). Therefore. through its repeated emphasis on th e re lational aspec ts of leadership. situati ona l leadership theory has done a grea t service to leade rship thought and rema in s. from thi s pe rspective. emin entl y prac tica l fo r today·s business environm ent.

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Journ al of Bus iness and Leadersh ip Resea rc h. Practice. and Tea chin g

TRANSFORMATIONALffRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL

Historical Context & Definition

As hi ghli ghted by Wren ( 199-1 ). a strategic shift 1n leade rship th ought occ urred in th e 1960s. During the ea rl y pan of the centu r). a producti on foc us dominated leadershi p thought. and the human. or fo ll ower. was almost tangential. Tra it and behavioral leadership th eori es foc used primaril y on the indi vidua l leader rath er than on th e leader's environm ent (Me llo. 2003) . Thi s foc us bega n to change in th e 1960s as societ: at large began to mi grate from a production ori entati on to a personal ori entation (Bass . 1990). Situational leade rship th eo ri es re tl ec ted thi s shiti and poss ibly moved leade rship thought an un r; omfo 11 ab le di stance from a ba lanced prod uct/peopl e paradigm . The stage was set for a reori entin g theor: to br in g leadership thought bac k into ba lance. and thu s \\aS born the transformati onal lea de rship mode I.

Burn s first proposed transform ati ona l/t ransac ti onal leade rship in hi s germin a l 1\ 0rk entitl ed. Leadership ( 197 8) . The theo ry \\'a s funh er shaped by Bass who de,

·e loped a kee n interest in th e construct while read in g

Burn s· book ( Hoo ijberg & C ho i. 2000) . Bass built upon Burn s· th eory by c lar ify in g the noti on of transform ati ona l leadership . Rather than simpl y describin g the acti ons of a tra nsfo rmati ona l leader. Bass att empted to defi ne th e ac tua l charac te ri sti cs exhibited by ::1 tran sformati ona l leader. According to Bass. tra nsform ati ona l leade rshi p invo lves " th e leader mov ing th e fo ll o\\ er beyond imm ediate se lf- interests through idea li zed influence (c hari sma). in spirati on. inte llec tua l stimul ati on. or ind i,·idua li zed cons id erati on" (Bass, 1999 11 ) Wi lli ams (as c ited in Bass) contend s that transforma ti ona l leaders engage in id ea li zed influence, inspi rati on. stim ul ati on. and consideration through d isplaying more "a ltrui sm. co nsc ienti ousness. sport smanship. co urtesy. and c i,·ic virtu e" ( 1999: 12) th an th e ave rage non-transfo rmati onal leader di spl ays. Therefo re. transfo rmational leadership in vo lv es leading individuals to be a ll th at they ca n be through prov idin g gui da nce and direction that e leva tes the fo llower above mere by- th e- boo k responsive ness and into an empowered rea lm of personal and organi zational ac tua I iza ti on.

Bass c1 i fferentiates thi s transformational leadership from transac tiona l leade rship by defining transac tional leadership as " the exc hange re lationship between leader and fo llower to meet th eir own se lf-interests" (Bass, 1999 : I 0) . Spiro. Stanton. and Ri ch operationally illustrate thi s de fin it ion when they state that

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transac ti onal leaders ··know the ri ght way to do thin gs .. 0003 : 307) Transacti ona l leadership can be effec ti ve in ~ive n in stances. but overa ll. it is a less des irab le ;pproac h (Bass . 1990) While transac ti onal leade rship is to be comm ended for knowing th e ri ght way to do thin gs. transformati onal leadership betters the score by a lso e.\ hibitin g the kn owledge of what to do ri ght.

Applications

Tra nsform il t ional/rransac ti ona I leadership th eory has fo un d app li cati on within both busin ess and acade mi a On the practi ca l front. the theory hil s filt ered do11 n to co ll ege- le1·e I leade rship te.\ tS and is used to deve lop the leadership framework of tomorr 011 ·s bus iness le: 1ders (Spir o. Stant on. & Ri ch. 2003) Additi onil ll: . th e thcor: continu es to gencmte acade mi c di sc uss ion Th ough it has fa ced milder criti cism th il n s itu ati on a I lcade r·s h i p th eory has faced. trans formilt ion a I th e or:· has st iII enj oyed substanti ve acade mi c rev iew and co ntinu es to rece i1 c ongo in g resea rch atte ntion (Avio li o & Bass . 1999)

Rt•lations hip to Contemporary Leadership Environment

Throughout recent eco nomi c nuctu ati ons. the term corporat e right s izin g has emerged as the busin ess euphemi sm of th e da y. Accordin g to Ba ruch J nd Hind . thi ~ ri ght siLin g has been accompanied by .. il shiti all'a) fr

om paterna listi c and benevo lent empl oyment .. (Ba ruch

& Hin d. 1999 295) . T hi s shift has resulted in significa nt empl oyee mora le iss ues and a hei ghtened need to r inspirin g leade rshi p (Dess ler. 1999 J. When th e term in spiration is used. the tran sform ati ona l mode l and it s emph asis on chari smati c or in spirat ional leade rship im rn edi ately come to mind (Bilss. 1999) . Empl oyees stru gg lin g in a down sized environm ent are needy ca ndi da tes for the leadership charac teri sti cs hi ghli ght ed in the transform ati ona l model. and Byc io. Hac kert . and All en ( 1995) have demonstrated that these leadership characte ri sti cs enge nder pos iti ve mora le deve lopment s. In pa11i cul ar. th ey uncove red positi ve effec ts associated with important transformati onal leadershi p va ri ab les such as chari smati c or inspirati ona l leadership. indi vidua li zed cons iderati on. and inte ll ec tua l stimul ati on (Byc io. Hackett. & Allen. 1995) . Transfo rm ati onal leadership theo ry also addresses the modern trend of empl oyee empowe rm ent through creatin g a paradigm that enab les subordinate empl oyees to criti ca ll y assess a gtve n situati on rather th an mere ly consultin g the corporate trainin g manu a l' s recommend ati ons on a particular topi c.

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Journal o f Busines> and Leader ship Kcscar c h. l'r :ICtiCc . and 1 cachlll g

PATH-GOAL MODEL

Historical Co ntext a nd Definition

R.J . House· s path-goal th eory of leadership gre11 out of moti vationa l research conducted at the U ni1 · e r s it~

of Michi gan' s In stitut e fo r Soc iill Research (E1·ans. 1996) . Simil ar to sit ua ti onal leadership th cl~ ry . path -goa l th

eory appea rs to hilve been heav il y innuenccd by th en­

current soc ioeconomi c th ought. The po11 erf ully formati ve cultural innuence o f th e 1960s on pa th -goa l th eory's centra l tenets is see n in Jermi er 's desc ripti on o r th e theory as .. anti-e liti st .. through its ·· ro ll o11 ·e r- ccnt ered conce pt s and a subte.\ t loaded 11 ith serva nt-t ype leadership rh etori c .. (Jermi er. 1996 3 14) . T he theory. in House· s own 11 0rd s (a c ited in Schri es heim & Neider). in l'oh -e s de finin g a leader JS J n indi vidua l 11 ho in crea ses ··perso nal pay-offs to subordin ates for 11 ork-goal attJi nm ent[s]. .. ·· ( 1996: 3 17) I louse pos tul ates that a leade r enables subordin ates to ac hi eve th ese wo rk -goa l

att a inments through estab li shin g a .. pa th to th ese payoffs .. th at reduces .. roadb loc ks and pitfa ll s .. and in creases .. the opportuniti es for perso na I sat is fac t ion en rout e .. (Sc hri eshei m & Ne id er. 1996 3 17) The theory additi ona ll y co ntends that leadership behal'i ors arc s itu ationall y determin ed (Bass. 1990) and can be ca tegori zed into eight classes of leadership behav ior th at interact with subordin ate d i ffercnces J nd mode rato r 1·ari ab les in ord er w ac hi eve an optima l out co me (House. 1996) . The th eorv possesses a grea t amount of intuiti ve appea l and has bee n e.\ tens ivc ly rev iewed Hebb (as c it ed in Eva ns) states thJ t .. a good theor: [is] one th at stays around long enough to he lp one ge t to ::t bett er th eory .. ( 1996 : 306) T he pat h-goa l th eory has stimulated int ense debate and spa11 ned m::t ny new leadershi p th eoric . J nd from th is 1·ant ilgc. one ca n consider th e th eory to be good.

Application

Though intuiti ve ly ::tppca ling. pa th -goa l th eory has see n re lati vely fe11 practi ca l ap pli cil ti ons T he rea son appears to be that. unlike s itu ati on::t l or transform ati ona l leadershi p theory. th e path -goa l mode l 11 as insuffi c iently radi ca l to cap ture th e publi c ' s att ention. Th e s itu ationa l shift from behav iora l leade rship ilpproac hes had a lread y taken place (Bass. 1990). and th e path -goa l' s va luab le behaviora l add itions went re lative ly unn oticed within industry. However, th e sa me cann ot be sa id for its acade mi c notice (Jermi er. 1996) . Although pa th-goa l th eory has not enj oyed cons istent empiri ca l support (Daint y. 1986), it has rece i,·ccl cons istent academic ana lys is (Pocl sak off. Mac Kenzie. & Ahearn e, 1995) .

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According to .J e rmi er. th e reaso n for thi s att ention tems fro m the '' :1: in '' hi ch pa th-goa l theor: deni ed

certain academi c assumpti ons such as the then­pre\'a ilin g ass umption that leader hi p ce nters around a ··group .. rath er th an around a '"d:adi c·· phenomenon ( 1996 : 3 12) . T hough pa th-goa l has bee n unab le. '' ithin the I im it s o f it s O\\ 11 th eoret ica I parameters. to ::,c

icntifi ca ll: \ erif) th e de ni a l o f th ese ::~ ss umpti on s . the

theon ha

;, spa' ' ned furth er acade mi c resea rch and the de \ e lop ment of ll C\\ thel )ric s 10 addre SS pr e \ iousJ: un co' ercd iss ue;,. Henc e. the model" s ap plica ti on '' ithin a eadem ia ha;, been s igni ficant ( E' ans. 1996) A::, [\1 i ner ... t;r

te-... the ·· th em: i ~ on th e ri ght trad."' ( 1980 : 350) . but.

unfo rtunate!; . it has not left ibe lf enough roo m to fo li o'' tha t track l\.1 co ns iste nt practi ca l app li c~11i o n and util it ;.

Relations hip to Co nt e mp orar y Lcadn ship [ n,·iron rn cn t

In toda: · ~ bu >. in ess ell\ ironm ent '' 'e re str:neg ic pl:rn nin g for C\Cil the minut est o r scenari os hns be come norm ati' e. th e pat h-goa l th eor: o f leade rship o ile rs an

intuiti' e co mp lement to re rgnrn g prnc ti ce . In JJ um

phre: ·, abb i'C\ inted 0 \ Cl'\ ie\\ o f strat eg ic plann in g.

the ;. trJtcgi c p roce~s is defi ned :1S a three-step series in " hi ch e:-.;ec uti\ es "determin e "h ere the organi zmion is. :rgreL· o n" hnc the: \\ Jill to t:-rke it. and estab lish a pl:1n I ll ge t th ere .. ( llum phre: . 200-4 : 96) . This strateg ic pl:111ning mod e l ~oun d s sus pi c ious!: s im il ar to th e th eoreti c::J l un derpin nin gs ::1 11d prac ti c:tl n ut \\ Orkin gs of

the p:1 th- goa l th eor: . House (a s c it ed in 13ass ) indi ca tes th :1 t th e .. success fu l leader ~ 1 10 \\ S the fo lk1\\ er the pa th s (he ha\ iors ) through "hi ch th e rewa rds may be obtai ned .... ! ::~ nd] clarifi e the goa ls o f th e to ll o" ers. as "e ll as th e pat hs to these go::~ l s .. ( 1990. p.-46) . One is :1 lm os t tempt ed to sa: that modern str ategic plannin g is s i rnpl: a mac ro. orga ni zation a I de ,·e lopment of path­gLla l th eo r: . r\ s is the ca::,e "ith s it u ::~ ti o n a l leade rship th eor: . utili z in g thi::, mac ro 'ie" of path-goa l th eor: ~ r n oo th e s O \ e r its many mi cro "rinklc s ami offers th e th eor: a u::,c ful lire in tocb: ·s erl\ ironment. The model prm id e>. mode rn managers. tru gg lin g '' ith ho\\ to apply ::.

t rateg ic orga ni za ti on a I conce pts int o th eir persona l

rn ::~ n agem e nt st: lcs. a conceptua ll y fri endly app roac h th at o tTe rs ge neri c l c::~de rs h i p gui de I incs.

G RASS- ROOTS MODE L

l-li s tor ica l C o nt ex t and Definition

The grass-roots mode l ma: prove to be one of the fi rst of m::tn ) co rrec tin g mode ls a imed at reo ri enting l e::~de r s hi p resea rch and th ought toward a prac ti ca ll y useful rath er th an a th eoreti ca ll y abstrac t methodo logy.

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Journal of Bus1ne>s and Leadnship · Research. Pr acuce. and Tc:ac hing

Researchers are beg innin g to advocate a rejec ti on of the abstract ::~ nd a return to the prac ti ca l. ref reshin g!: simpl e beginnin gs o f leadership th ought. For e:-.;a mple. Burmeister suggests the use of Occam· s razor "hen de, e loping leadership theori es (2003). Burme ister then co ntinues by de finin g leadership as fund amenta ll \' in , oh in g vrsron. in pir::~ti o n . and fo ll O\\ ers:. (B urme ister. 2003 : 153) . Thi s definiti on illu strates an emergin g. S) ncreti sti c trend in leadershi p research. Be rgmann. Hurson. and Ru ss-Eft ( 1999) illustrate thi s trend "ith the grass- roots mode l of leadership . The model pays homage to impli c it leadershi p th eori es (Kell er. 1999) " hile primari ly bu il ding upon " ·hat Be rrc: . A ve rgun . ::rnd Ru s -Eft ( 1993) demonstrate to be th e gro'' in g emph asis on te ::r ms and te::rm leadership dur in g th e 1980s and 90s. Grass-roots l e::~de rs hip theory recogn izcs the cross-orga n iLat ion a I nature of teams and approac hes leadershi p fro m the t e::~ m-ce nte red

ori ent ati on th ::r t has ga in ed o rg ::~ni z::~ ti o n a l promin ence in recent : ca rs (Norri s. 1999) . The mode l \'ie\\ S leadership as a grass-root phenomenon tlwt is e:-.; hi bi ted in teams ::-r nd ope rationa l subgroups throughout a ll leve ls of the orga ni z::rt ion.

A ini ti ::r ll: presented in the book Everyone a Leader: A Grass-roots f\·lode l for the New Workpl ace (Be rgmann . Hurson. & Ru ss-Eft. 1999b). the model appea r to be linl e more th an a tea m-oriented re fo rmul ati on o r s itu ational leadership' s contention th at ::r nyone ca n be ::r leade r. given the proper en\' ironmental sc enari o (Bass. 1990) . Ho" e, ·er. th ough th e model ad mits a po" erful s ituati ona l co mponent . the th eory also in corporates ::1 hea lth y beha\' iora l co mponent. The grass­roots mode I defin es le::rdersh ip as the i nterre lati onsh ip bet\\ een 17 concrete beha, ·iora l competenc ies and the "emoti onal labor .. requ ired to synergisti call y maneuver th ese co mpetencies 111 today's parado:-.; -laced

envir onm ent (Bergmann . H urson. & Ru ss-Eft. 1999: 18). The co mpetenc ie arc not viewed from the perspec ti ve of trai t theor: in" hi ch leade rship is co nstrued to simply in voh 'C th e gi,·cn leadershi p tra its of an indi vid ual ( 11ell o. 2003 ). Rat her. the competencies are viewed from a behav iora l/s ituati ona l perspec ti ve th at a llows for th e continuin g deve lopm ent of leaders and for the ex hi bi ti on of lc::rde rshi p b: multipl e parties within an organi zati on.

A pplication

The grass-roots mode l of leade rship is so new that a ve rdict on it s fu ture pract ica I or academic application is d iffi cult to de li ve r. Howeve r. it is sa fe to suggest that the theory's academic impli ca ti ons have thu s far been minima l. Though th e theory refreshingly addresses the

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need to return to s imple. practica ll y operable leadership mode ls. no academi c arti c les have emerged in direct response to the grass-roots model. Howe\ e r. current resea rch is hi ghli ghtin g th e need for the mode l's practical differentiati on between leadership traits and behaviors. The mode l contends that while innate leadership tra it s ex ist. th ese tra its are ex hibited by parti cul ar behaviors that ca n be developed by grass-roots indi\ idua ls '' ho find them se lves in situati ons req uirin g leade rship (Be rgmann . Hurso n. & Ru ss-Eft. 1999). Therefo re. th ough o ft en imperce ptibl y linl-.ed. leadership trait s and leadership beha\ iors are not fun da ment all :­

equi , ·a len t. Trait are innate and are mani fe sted by beha\ iors " hi ch th emse lve s ma: or may not be innate . Trait s can be mimi cl-. ed th rough de\e lop ing th e be ll a' iors th at are often the ph ys ica l represent ations of a gi\'en trait. and in thi s manner. individual s "ho are not born-leaders can approxi mate fun da ment a I leadership trait s in ce rt ain s itu ati ons.

!\ ~ an exa mple of today"s imprec ise differenti ati on bet\\een tra its and be ha,·iors. Hawke (200.5) de monstrates th at emp loyees tend to , ·ie\\ and express th eir thought s regardin g effective leadership 111

be h;-t\ io ri sti c term s. "here<1s KJpl<ln-Lei serson (200.5) di scusses effecti\'e leadership from the perspec ti,·e of per·sonal tra it s. Both te rm are utili zed in current lite rature. and a lth ough both tra it and be h3\ iora l theor ist argue \'a lid po int s. man: do not appea r to rea lize the separate . )et co mplement ary. nature of the terms and the need fo r a clarify in g meth od of di ffe renti ati on (Estep. :200-l : Latour & Ras t. :200-l: Popp er. Amit. Ga l. Mi shk a i-Sinai. & Lisak. 200-l: Sczesny. Bosa k. rcff. & Sc hyns. 200-l ). The grass-roots mode l pro\' ides a practi ca ll y s imple differenti ati on be t\\een the t\\'O co nstructs and . from thi s perspective. o ffers a cad em ic ians straight fon' arc! uti I it: . However. a ri sin g from the mode l" s lack o f acade mi c credenti als. thi s practical ut ilit y "ill probably be co ns igned to the dustbi 11 . The model" s industri a I app I ica tion. though. is on surer foo ting thanks to Ac hi eveG iobal" s utili za ti on of the model in the ir corporate trainin g semin ars.

Relationship to Contemporary Leadership Environment

Although the grass roots mode l possesses littl e foundational elega nce. its surface structure is a different matter. The mode l offe rs a s impl e approach to leadership that is easily digested by employees of va rying organi zati onal influence in today·s fast-paced world of business (Bergmann. Hurson. & Ru ss-Eft. 1999) When life is characteri zed by a state of perpetLwl white water. littl e time is ava il ab le fo r re tl ective resea rch and

99

Journal of Business and Leadersh1 p Re sea rch . Pract1 ce . and Teac hing

dec is ion-making (Vail I. 1996) Therefore. qui ck fixes are often sought. and the grass-roots mode l pro\'ides such a fix

. Although it does so in a less-than-ri goro us mann er.

the gra ss-roots mode l does manage to combine important leadership elements from trait. behaviora l and situationa l leadership th eor ies. The mode l offers a co mpil ati on of lead in g th eori es and places thi s compil ati on within a framework o f opera ti onal ease. Granted. the grass-roots mode l is little more than a repackaged repetiti on of the past. but such repackaging r not a ltogether nega ti ve if it enab les co nstructi\'e app licati on.

POINT S OF CONVERGE NCE AND DIVERGENCE

Eve n the most di ss imil ar o f hum ans share an underl ying uni for mity by \'irtue of th eir membe rship in th e hum an race . The same ca n be said for leade rship model s. An under ly in g uni formity ex ists between th e most di sparate model s by \' irtue of th e fact th at each approac h att empts to describe th e same uni' e rsa l. Within thi s sect ion. both uni fo rmiti es and po int s o f di,·ergence will be exp lored. These po ints o f di\'ergence ofte n ari se beca use the tudy of leadership is act ual ly a bifurcated stud y cont ainin g t\\ O sepa rate. ye t re lated . areas of exp lorati on One ave nu e dea ls \\"ith wh o th e leade r ac tua ll y is. and the oth er dea ls "ith "hat the leade r actua l I: does. Models of leade r hip 'a r: based on "hether the researc her lim its th e di sc uss ion to th e fir st ave nue. the seco nd ave nu e. or a combi nati on of both ave nu es. If a standa rd protoco l de lin ea tin g th e limit s o f leadership researc h ''ere deve loped. con\'e rgence of th ought " ould probably begin to emerge . Ho\\ eve r. s in ce no such protoco l ex ists. di sparity. tempered by an underl yin g unif ormity. rei gns.

A primary po int o f con\'erge nce among th e four model s co ncerns th e id ea th at s ituati ona l e lements moderate leadership beha,·ior. Eac h model agrees th at th e definiti on of leadership should not be limited to the d isc uss ion of who the leade r intrin sica ll y is. The model s ag ree th at th e leade rship di scuss ion should a lso in corporate a revie \\ of what th e leader does . In thi s mann er. eac h model diverges from the ce ntral tenets of trait and behavior lead ership theory. S ituat ional leadership theory clear ly diverges farthe st from thi s limiting factor and nea rl y fall s o ff th e prove rbi a l other c liff in its attempt to di stance it se lf from tra it and behavior theory. Transformational leade rship th eory I ik ew ise rejects the contention that internal c haracteri sti cs alone compri se the leade rship domain . However. transformational leade rship th eory does so in a less radi ca l mann er. It diverges from s ituationa l

5

Heinze: A Leadership Primer: Managerial Leadership Defined and Discussed

Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2005

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REFERENCES

/\v

i11

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l b ru eh. Y .. & I lind . P. I <J99 . Perp etual m o ti o n in

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Heinze: A Leadership Primer: Managerial Leadership Defined and Discussed

Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2005

Heinze

Sczesnv. S .. Bosa k. J .. Ne ff. D .. & Schyns. B. 2004. Ge r;d er stereo types and the anribution o f leadership tra its: A cross-c ultura l compari son. Sex Roles, 5 1: 63 1-645

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Timothy Hein ze is an ass istant pro fe ssor of marketing at Waynesburg Co ll ege in So uth western Pennsy lvani a. He rece i,·ed a B.S. in bus iness adm ini strati on from Ca li fornia State Uni versity. Chi co. and a M.S. in marketin g from Texas A&M Ll ni,·e rs ir: . He is current I: pursuing a doc torate in bu sines ad mini strati on. Current research interests in c lu lc s::tl es manage men t. leadershi p. and general ion Y mark etin g behav iors.

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