A History of Fashion and Costume -...

A History ofFashion andCostumeThe MedievalWorld

Philip Steele

The Medieval World

Copyright © 2005 Bailey Publishing Associates Ltd

Produced for Facts On File by

Bailey Publishing Associates Ltd

11a Woodlands

Hove BN3 6TJ

Project Manager: Roberta Bailey

Editor:Alex Woolf

Text Designer: Simon Borrough

Artwork: Dave Burroughs, Peter Dennis,

Tony Morris

Picture Research: Glass Onion Pictures

Printed and bound in Hong Kong

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced or utilized in any form or by any

means, electronic or mechanical, including

photocopying, recording, or by any information

storage or retrieval systems, without permission in

writing from the publisher. For information

contact:

Facts On File, Inc.

132 West 31st Street

New York NY 10001

Facts On File books are available at special

discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for

businesses, associations, institutions, or sales

promotions. Please call our Special Sales

Department in NewYork at 212/967-8800 or

800/322-8755.

You can find Facts On File on the World Wide

Web at: http://www.factsonfile.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-

Publication Data

Steele, Philip, 1948–A history of fashion and costume.

The medieval world/Philip Steele.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8160-5945-41. Clothing and dress—History—

Medieval, 500–1500GT575.S84 2005391/.009/02—dc 22 2004060891

The publishers would like to thank the

following for permission to use their

pictures:

Art Archive: 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14. 15

(both), 16, 19, 21, 22, 25 (bottom), 26,

27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40,

41, 43, 45, 47, 48 (top), 49, 51, 53 (top),

54 (both), 55, 56, 57, 58, 59

Werner Forman Archive: 12, 13, 25

(top), 38, 48 (bottom), 53 (bottom)

Contents

Introduction 5

Chapter 1: Europe 500–1000 6



Chapter 4: Africa and Asia 500-1550 36

Chapter 5: Oceania and the Americas 500-1550 50

Timeline 60

Glossary 61

Further Information 62

Index 64

IntroductionThe costumes of the Middle Ages still fascinate us. Children’sfairytale books are filled with fanciful pictures of Europeanprincesses in tall “steeple” hats, of honest woodcutters inhomespun cloth, of knights in shining armor, and colorfulcourt jesters. Medieval costume inspired romantic poets andartists of the nineteenth century, as well as the makers offantasy films in the twenty-first.The reality of medievalcostume is every bit as interesting as the fantasy.

Finding OutHow do we discover the truth about the way people dressedin the medieval period? Firstly, actual items of jewelry, crowns,shoes, suits of armor, and the remains of textiles have survived.The latter may be fragments of cloth uncovered byarchaeologists, or they may be whole garments now preservedin a palace or museum. Secondly, there are visual referencessupplied by statues, memorial brasses in churches, paintings, orillustrated manuscripts.Thirdly, we have descriptions ofclothing in medieval literature, or references to it in otherwritten records such as laws, tax receipts, or trading accounts.

When and Where?The term “Middle Ages” strictly refers to the period ofEuropean history between the classical and the modern age.It begins with the fall of the Roman Empire in the west, in476 CE, and may be said to end with the fall of the easternRoman, or Byzantine, Empire in 1453. It is sometimesextended to include the Renaissance, the cultural reawakeningwhich began in southern Europe and continued into the mid-sixteenth century.

This book deals broadly with the period 500 to 1550 CE andlooks beyond the frontiers of Europe to the Silk Road, theancient trading route between China and the West. It visits thedye pits of Kano in West Africa and crosses the Indian andPacific Oceans. It describes the dress of the Incas in Peru andthe feather craftworkers of Aztec Mexico.

Costume does not just reveal ideas about beauty or fashion.It tells us about craft, technology, politics and power, socialclasses, religion, customs, childhood, and the world of work.It is the key to a bygone age.

6

ThisAnglo-Saxonceremonial helmet, fromSutton Hoo in England,dates from about 625. Itshows Roman influence inits design.

Raiders and Riders

When the Roman Empire finallycollapsed in 476 CE, Germanic tribes

such as the Angles, Saxons, and Frankswere already invading much of

western Europe.The incomers werewarriors and their dress waspractical, designed for riding andbattle, for farming, or for buildingnew settlements, rather than foraffairs of state, business, or leisure.

Chapter 1: Europe 500–1000

TroubledTimesThe earlyMiddle Ages inEurope havesometimes beencalled the DarkAges.Therewas almostconstantwarfare,

lawlessness, and alack of stable

government.This led tothe disruption of

education, and only limitedhistorical records have survived.

However, the artistic inspiration andhigh craft standards of peoples such asthe Angles, Saxons, Irish, or Vikings,seen for example in their survivingjewelry, suggest that this age was farfrom barbaric.

Kingdoms andEmpiresIn eastern and central Europe, therewere invasions by Slavs fromsouthern Russia, and Magyars(Hungarians) from Asia. However, thecity of Constantinople or Byzantium(modern Istanbul), capital of theByzantine Empire, did not fall toinvaders.The empire offered all thepomp and glitter of an imperial courtand provided a living for all sorts ofpeople, including officials, lawyers,teachers, merchants, priests, laborers,and organizers of horse races.

By the seventh and eighth centuries,new, small kingdoms were beingfounded across western Europe, andin 800 the Frankish rulerCharlemagne was crowned ruler ofan empire which stretched from thePyrenean Mountains, on the borders

7

of Spain, to central Europe.WesternEurope, now mostly Christian, wasbecoming a more settled society.

The SocialBackground To understand how people dressed inthe Middle Ages, we need to knowhow society was organized.Thefeudal system was developing at thistime—a social order based on oathsof service. Kings granted large areasof land to their nobles in return fortheir loyalty and military support.Workers promised to supply labor,military service, and produce to thenobles in return for militaryprotection or a roof over their heads.Increasingly, the superior status of thenobles was emphasized by their dress,quality of cloth, and styles of fashion.

Early MedievalTextilesWoolen cloth was processed by hand.Raw wool was carded (combed out)and then wound onto a handheld cleftstick, called a distaff. From here it wasdrawn out with the fingers onto adrop spindle, a suspended rod abouteight inches (20 cm) long, fitted witha disk called a whorl.The whorl keptthe spindle revolving evenly.The pullof gravity drew the thread downwardas it was twisted by the spindle.Threadcould then be wound into a skein,for coloring with natural dyes.

The woody stems of the flax plantwere stripped, dried, and then soakedin water to extract the fiber inside.This could be spun and woven to

Europe 500–1000

make linen, which was cooler andsmoother than wool.Another plant,hemp, could be processed to make acheaper, scratchier cloth, sometimesused by poor people. Cotton was stilla rare import for most of Europe.

A reconstruction atJorvik, the Vikingsettlement of York, inEngland, shows thevertical warp-weightedloom in use at the time.

A Viking LoomThe Vikings were Scandinavian sea raiders, whoattacked and settled the coasts of western Europe inthe ninth century. Their looms, or weaving frames,leaned upright against the walls of their houses. Theupright, or warp, threads were kept taut at the base bystone or clay weights and were separated by ahorizontal bar called a heddle. The horizontal, or weft,threads were passed through the gap in the warp andthen beaten upwards with a long batten made of wood,iron, or whalebone. Weaving was done in the home.

8

State and Church

Crowned HeadsThe royal crowns of the earlyMiddle Ages derived from royalcirclets or diadems worn inPersia, which were adopted bythe Byzantine emperors andempresses. These crownsincluded pendants, jeweledpieces hanging down on eachside of the face. Kings of theVisigoths, a Germanic people whoruled Spain in the 600s, worecirclets of thick gold set withpearls and precious stones. Twocenturies later, Charlemagne’scrown was made up of goldplaques set with sapphires andemeralds and decorated withenameled figures from the Bible.Many crowns were topped withcrosses, emphasizing that theking ruled by the will of God.

The warrior bands of the earlyMiddle Ages would be led by achieftain or warlord, who might ownbetter weapons or armor than hisfollowers, but who wore no specialclothes to indicate his rank. However,when kingdoms and empires werefounded, the descendants of thosechieftains had much grander ideas oftheir own importance.Thetombstone of Cadfan, seventh-century ruler of Gwynedd, a smallkingdom in North Wales, describeshim as “the wisest and mostrenowned of all kings.”The highstatus now enjoyed by even minorroyalty was reinforced by theircostume.

The Frankish emperorCharlemagne, who livedfrom 747 to 814, is shownhere both as crownedhead of state and as aman of action.

The Byzantine emperorJustinian I, who died in565, wears a crown withpendants and a purplerobe.

9

Robes and JewelsWestern European kings lookedeastward to the splendor of theByzantine Empire. Its powerfulemperor wore a long under-tunicwith a looser, shorter outer tunic.Thecloth was of silk, embroidered withgold thread.The Byzantine empresswore a long tunic with a richlyembroidered collar and stole, studdedwith gems.As in ancient Rome,purple was the color reserved for theimperial family. Other Europeanrulers also began to wear long robesfor state occasions, and decoratedtheir clothes with jewels.

RegaliaMedieval rulers wore or carried allsorts of emblems, called regalia (royalthings), to emphasize their status asrepresentatives of the state.Theseincluded cloaks, rings, scepters, orbs,swords, bracelets, gloves and, mostimportantly, crowns.The full royalcostume would be worn atcoronations and important stateoccasions. Medieval kings werefrequently in the saddle, hunting orfighting battles, and at such timestheir long robes would be replacedby more practical tunics, cloaks, orshirts of mail.

Religious DressEarly Christian monks and priestswore similar tunics and cloaks toeveryone else. However, religiouscostume, like royal dress, soondeveloped symbolic meanings. InRome and Constantinople, bishopsand popes dressed to show that theirauthority came from God.Their dress

became very grand.Wide,T-shapedtunics called dalmatics were of thesame design as those worn by kingsfor their coronations. Bishops in theCeltic Church wore crowns. Clergywore long, white tunics called albsbeneath sleeveless mantles calledchasubles. Long stoles or scarveswould be embroidered with the signof the cross.

The appearance of the clergy led tomany heated debates in the earlyMiddle Ages. Monks in the CatholicChurch of Rome shaved a circularpatch from their hair as a symbol ofthe crown of thorns worn by Jesus.However, monks in the CelticChurch shaved a band across theirhair from ear to ear, a custom whichprobably dated back to the druids,the Celtic priests of the pre-Christianage.The Catholic Church ruled thatthis tonsure (method of shaving) wasunholy. Between the seventh andtwelfth centuries the Celtic Churchwas absorbed into the Romantradition.

Deacons of the Churchlead the Byzantineempress Theodora(500–548) to worship. Shewears a crown andimperial robes under agem-studded collar.

Europe 500–1000

10

Chieftains, Lords, and LadiesIn the early Middle Ages the upperclasses were chiefly distinguished bythe quality of the cloth they wore, byembroidered hems and cuffs, and byfine dyes. Broad bands of color werepopular among nobles of northernEurope.

Tunics and TrousersThe linen or woolen tunic was thebasis of dress across most of Europefor all social classes and both sexes.The long tunics and robes of theRoman Empire were still seen at theroyal court or in church, but shorter,knee-length tunics were now wornby noblemen, often with breeches.These might be bound around thecalves with crisscrossed thongs orworn with knee-length laced bootsor shoes of soft leather.

Most noblewomen also wore tunics,with designs that varied with timeand place. In seventh-century Spain

Byzantine SilksSilk was the most luxurious cloth of all. Thebreeding of silkworms and the spinning and weavingof this shimmering textile had originally been asecret of the Chinese, but had gradually spreadsouthward and westward across Asia. The Greeksand Romans knew about silk, but the first seriousattempt at creating a European silk industry beganat Constantinople in the reign of Justinian I (c. 482–565 CE). Manufacture took place under highsecurity, within the palace walls, and was of a veryhigh standard. The best quality cloth was reservedfor the emperor, but the courtiers also wore finesilk. Manufacture and trade were strictly controlledby the imperial cour t.

the tunic might be more like a dress,shaped and close-fitting with longsleeves. In eighth-century France alooser, calf-length tunic, with three-quarter-length sleeves, might beworn over a long shift. Long stoles orscarves could be draped gracefullyover the shoulders or head.Noblewomen wore delicate shoes ofsoft leather or embroidered linen.

Girdles and CloaksTunics for both sexes were generallygathered with a girdle or belt, whichmight be a strip of fancy leather orembroidered cloth. Men might wearan ornate buckle or a sheath for aknife on their belt, while a woman’sgirdle often supported a satchel, asthere were no pockets in theirgarments. Sometimes women wore abroad sash around the hips, knottedand hanging down at the front.

Byzantine noble, 600

Europe 500–1000

11

Even the finest palaces of the earlyMiddle Ages were drafty places, andthe wooden halls of a prince orchieftain in northern Europe musthave been bitterly cold in winter.Warm cloaks of wool, fur, or hidewere a necessity.

JewelryCloaks for men and women weregenerally fastened at the shoulder orthe chest by a round brooch securedwith a long pin.The brooch wasoften the most elaborate andbeautiful item worn. One of the mostsplendid examples is the “Tara”brooch, made in Ireland in the earlyeighth century. It is crafted fromsilver, bronze, glass, and amber, andeven the back of the brooch—whichwould not have been seen whenworn—is as lavishly decorated as the front.

Brooches, buckles, pins, necklaces,and earrings of this period show a

high degree of craftsmanship.The Viking chieftains of the ninthcentury had some very fine examplesmade for themselves, and they alsotraded or plundered jewelry on theirsea voyages. Hoards of Vikingtreasure, buried for safekeeping, revealhigh-quality gold jewelry from allover Europe and the Middle East.

Enamelled brooch used tofasten cloaks. It was foundin the bed of the RiverShannon, in Ireland.

Frenchlady, 850

Anglo-Saxonnoble, 950

12

Working ClothesIn the Roman Empire, most laborersand slaves wore knee-length tunics,the most practical dress for plowing,fishing, or building a house. Forgreater mobility, the hem of the tuniccould be drawn through the legs andtucked up into the belt, similar to ababy’s diaper.This continued to benormal working dress during theearly medieval period in southernEurope.

Cloths and DyesTunics for slaves, or the poorest insociety, were made of the coarsestwoolen, linen, or hemp cloth.Thesewere undyed. However, middle-classpeople, such as merchants, worehomespun cloth of a better quality.This might be dyed with the extractsof flowers, leaves, roots, or bark.Natural dyes included a plant calledwoad, which gave a blue color; awildflower called weld, or dyer’s

A simple tunic remained the working dress ofthe plowman during most of the Middle Ages.

rocket, which produced yellow; andmadder, an evergreen shrub of theMediterranean region, whose rootproduced a crimson dye.

Heavy-duty ClothingThe waterlogged clay of northernEurope required heavier plows thanthe lighter soils of the south.Northern farming was generallymuddier, wetter, and colder, so peopledressed accordingly.As well as thetunic, short breeches or longertrousers were generally worn, thelatter often tied with thongs. Shoes ofcalfskin or goatskin were tightenedwith leather laces. Soles would bereplaced when worn out, andsometimes shoes were fitted withwooden soles, like clogs. Knee-lengthboots and gaiters tied to linentrousers were also worn, althoughbare legs and feet were commonamong the poorest citizens.

Women at WorkA woman’s work in a ninth-centuryViking settlement was fairly typicalof this age. It might include cooking,fetching water, and looking afterlivestock.When summer came andthe men sailed off to raid foreignshores, the women stayed behind torun the household and often thefarm as well.A lot of time was spentspinning, weaving, and makingclothes for the family.A Vikingwoman would wear a long shift ofwool or linen, with a sleevelesswoolen tunic over the top.This wassecured with shoulder straps fastenedby brooches. Keys, pins, or otheruseful items were often kept on

forward in the front.There were alsobroad-brimmed straw sunhats.

Europe 500–1000

13

chains which hung from thesebrooches.

Everyday AccessoriesClothes were not made with pockets.Instead, pouches or purses of cloth orleather were attached to belts inorder to hold money, hair combs, orother small or precious items. Not alljewelry was made of costly silver orgold. In northern Europe, antlerhorn, walrus tusk, bone, wood, glassbeads, and stones such as jet, readilyfound on some beaches, were madeinto very beautiful ornaments.

Hats were a rare sight in the earlyMiddle Ages. Simple cloth caps in the“Phrygian” style of the ancientGreeks were sometimes worn.Thesewere conical, with the peak flopping

All Wrapped UpMost people who wished toprotect themselves from rain orsnow would simply raise theircloaks to cover their heads. Thecloak could also be wrappedaround the body to serve asbedding for a weary traveler or aViking seafarer. Woolen cloakssoon became soaked throughwith rain or spray, but cloaks ofhide could offer somewaterproofing. Iceland, colonizedby Vikings in 874, becamefamous for exporting shaggywoolen cloaks. In easternEurope, Bulgarian sheepskincoats became popular, worn withthe fleecy side against the body.

Viking women’s dress washome-made, simple,practical and oftencolorful. Hair was wornlong or tied back. Marriedwomen wore headscarves.

Viking shoes weregenerally made of goat- orcalf-skin and were eitherslippers or laced aroundthe ankle.

Dressing for WarAfter the collapse of the RomanEmpire in the west, large standingarmies rarely took to the battlefield.Much of the military action was nowcarried out by small, mobile bands ofmounted warriors. Most wereordinary working people who owedallegiance to a local chieftain or lord.

They wore simple jerkins or tunicswith breeches.A leather belt carrieda scabbard for the sword. Little armorwas worn. Some stitched metal platesonto their clothes for protection, butonly the leaders owned helmets ormail shirts.The early Franks piled uptheir hair in braids to provide paddedprotection for their heads.

It was much the same with theViking raiders of the ninth century.

Their simple, conical helmets weremade of iron or hardened

leather. Some had nasals (barsto protect the nose).A fewleading warriors hadhelmets with cheek guardsor ornate protection forthe face.The elite Viking

shock troops were known asberserkers, or “wearers ofbearskin shirts.”They wouldwork themselves up into a

blood-crazed frenzy beforebattle.We still talk of people ina rage “going berserk.”

Armies ofEmpireThe more orderly, large-scalemilitary activities familiar to

the ancient Romans lived onin the Byzantine Empire,which succeeded in recapturingformer Roman territory in Italyand North Africa. However, theold Roman-style legions—largeunits of well-trained professionalsoldiers—had been disbanded.The Byzantine Empire was reallya land of merchants, and its rulerspreferred to hire mercenaries to

This decorative helmet,with an iron cap, wouldhave been a highly prizedpossession. It was foundin a burial at Vendel inSweden, and probablydates from the secondhalf of the seventhcentury.

Europe 500–1000

15

fight for them rather than raise theirown armies.The Byzantine footsoldiers wore scale armor—tunics ofsewn metal plates—over breeches.By the reign of Basil II (976–1025),the emperor was protected by anelite bodyguard of Rus (SwedishVikings who had settled in Russia).They were known as the VarangianGuard and wore elaborate armor.

In the early ninth century, thearmies of the Frankish emperorCharlemagne marched into battlewearing tunics with cloaks or kilts,similar to the style of the oldRoman legions.Their helmets wereeither rounded or conical with aridge along the crest.

Rise of the KnightIn the eighth century, a newinvention called the stirrup reachedEurope, which had originated threecenturies earlier in China. Bysecuring a horse rider’s foot, thestirrup allowed him to stay in thesaddle during the shattering impactof a cavalry charge. By the tenthcentury, heavy cavalry wasbecoming increasingly important in

Shirts of MailMail was a form of armor invented by the Celts sometimebefore the fifth century BCE. The Roman legions, whoadopted the use of mail, called it macula (mesh), and thisbecame the French word maille. Mail was made up of small,interlinking iron rings, riveted or pressed together and shapedinto shirts, and later other forms of garment. In the early MiddleAges only a few warriors could afford shirts of mail, but from theninth century onward it became increasingly common.

warfare.The age of theknight was about to begin,and with it would come

many social changes.These altered the waypeople dressed, and notjust on the battlefield.

Angevin knight,c.1125

Carolingian soldier,c.800

16

Land and PowerIn the eleventh century, as the powerof the Byzantine Empire began towane, the Holy Roman Empire—aloose federation of Germanic stateswhich had replaced the eastern part ofCharlemagne’s old empire—prevailedin Europe.The Holy Roman Empireextended from Bohemia and Austriato the Netherlands.

Warfare still dominated all aspects oflife.The mounted warriors, theknights, formed a new social elite.Tournaments, which were mock battlesbetween knights, became a colorfulshowcase for the latest fashions. Longwars were fought to enlarge existingkingdoms or to conquer neighboringstates. Other wars were foughtbetween kings and rebel barons, whowanted regional power.


The feudal system in Europe reached itshigh point from the eleventh to the

thirteenth centuries. Increasingly, themanners, costumes, and even languageof the nobility differed from those ofthe common people who served,labored, and fought for them. By the1300s, feudalism had begun todecline. Bankers and merchants—especially those engaged in the clothtrade—often became wealthier andsometimes more powerful than theirfeudal lords.

The Age of KnightsTextiles andTechnologyAt the height of the Middle Ages,textiles became a mainstay of theEuropean economy. In England, moreand more land was given over tosheep pasture for wool production.Flanders (modern Belgium) saw rapidgrowth in the woolen and linentrade, bringing huge wealth to itsmerchants. High-quality linen wasalso produced in France, and silk inItaly. Cotton appeared in MoorishSpain, and by the fourteenth centuryit was also being woven in northernEurope.

All commercial aspects of the textileindustry were managed by tradingorganizations called guilds.Theserepresentatives of the craftspeople andmerchants controlled prices,

A German manuscript of1305–40 shows a grandtournament. Even thefashions of the noblewomen spectators areoutshone by the gaudycoats-of-arms and crestsdisplayed by the knights.

Europe 1000–1400

marketing, and the training ofapprentices.The Guild of Weavers inLondon was founded in the early1100s.At this time, spinning wasconsidered to be woman’s work andweaving was left to the men.

By the eleventh century, looms weremostly horizontal frames rather thanupright posts. In the 1100s, treadleswere added.These were foot-operated levers, a Chinese inventionwhich moved the heddlemechanically and raised alternatewarp threads in sequence.The yarnwas passed through the gap, or shed,by a hand-operated shuttle, whichcontained a bobbin or reel of thread.Spinning wheels, originally an Indianor Chinese invention, first appearedin Europe in about 1200 and were incommon use from the 1300s.Theyhad a fixed distaff and wheel-drivenspindle.

Eastern LuxuryThe high Middle Ages were markedby conflict between Christianity andIslam. Beginning in 1095, religiousorders of knights were formed tofight against Muslims in a long andbrutal series of wars called theCrusades.These clashes did havesome unexpected outcomes, withMuslim and Christian culturesfrequently influencing each other.This happened in the Middle East,where Christian knights founded theCrusader states of Outremer in theeleventh century. In the Kingdom ofJerusalem, young knights fromnorthern Europe first came across theluxuries of Asia. Many of them

adopted Asian dress, wearing longtunics and robes, pointed slippers,cloth-of-gold and silk, and turbans ontheir heads.This exotic dressinfluenced tastes back home inEurope, as did imports from Moorishkingdoms in Spain and North Africa,and from the Byzantine Empire.

17

A French illustration of the high Middle Agesshows women carding wool, spinning andweaving.

By 1400 the knight's mail was covered insections of plate armor. Here it is beingadjusted by the knight's squire, who istraining to be a knight himself.

18

Ermine and Miters

The kings of the high Middle Agescontinued to wear long tunics androbes in the Byzantine tradition.Thestyle of royal dress varied within thisperiod. For example, royal robesbecame extremely long in the early1100s, and had to be gathered up atthe waist. Long cuffs covered thehands. Queens wore state robes ofthe richest cloths and finest furs.Thefashionable headdresses of the daywere combined with circlets or fullcrowns.

The Royal MantleA large cloak or mantle, trimmedwith fur, was an emblem of royaltyand noble status. One of the mosthighly rated furs was ermine, madefrom the fur of the stoat.The coat ofthis little animal turns white inwinter, except for the black tip of itstail.The white fur with spots of blackwas much admired, and from thereign of King Edward III(1327–1377) onward, only the royalfamily was allowed to wear it inEngland. Scarlet cloth trimmed in

ermine was later adopted byEuropean dukes as part of theirceremonial dress.

Princes of the ChurchThe Roman Catholic Church—which split from the OrthodoxChurch of the Byzantine Empire in1054—was at the height of its powerduring this period.To most westernEuropeans, the popes in Rome wereGod’s representatives on earth.Theydressed in splendid robes and jewels,and wore a kind of crown as asymbol of their power.This papaltiara had evolved from the centralpart of the ancient Persian diademand was worn by all popes from theninth century. By the time of PopeBenedict XII (died 1342), the tiarawas ringed by three crowns, arrangedin tiers.

For religious ceremonies, the popeand all bishops wore a miter.Thisdeveloped from a small crown withpoints at the side, worn in Asia. Bythe end of the twelfth century, the

During the Middle Ages,religious dress for menand women became aseries of uniforms, whichwere rich in symbolicmeaning.

19

miter had become a large, cloth-covered cylinder, embroidered andberibboned, which split into points atthe front and back.

Monks and NunsSome objected to the earthly richesof the Church and preferred to livetheir lives in spiritual retreat. Fromthe tenth century onward, thesemonks and nuns formed different“orders,” communities devoted to areligious life.The orders favored verysimple dress and each had its ownuniform.The Dominicans worewhite gowns and black caps.TheFranciscans, who took a vow ofpoverty, wore a brown habit with acowl, or hood, and a girdle of rope,whose knots reminded them of theirvows as monks.The Carmelites worewhite and brown stripes, and theCarthusians wore white only. Nunshad simple habits with a cloth wornover the head. By day they wore acloth covering for their head andneck called a wimple.

On PilgrimageGreat cathedrals were builtacross Europe at the height ofthe Middle Ages. These andother holy shrines were visited bypilgrims in order to pray or askfor a blessing from a saint.Popular destinations includedRome, Jerusalem, CanterburyCathedral in England, and theCathedral of St. James atCompostela in northwest Spain.A typical pilgrim carried a staffand a satchel and wore a tunic, atravel-stained cloak, and a broad-brimmed hat for protectionagainst sun and rain. Each shrinehad its own small badge made oflead, which pilgrims could wearon their hats or cloaks to showwhere they had been. The badgefor Compostela was a shell, theemblem of St. James.

This statue of St James isdressed as a Compostelapilgrim. Note the shell emblem.

Europe 1000–1400

20

Fashions changed repeatedly betweenthe twelfth and fifteenth centuries, aswealthy young nobles experimentedwith outrageous costumes andhairstyles.Young nobles shocked theirelders and were often criticized bythe Church.

At the beginning of this period,men’s robes were becoming longerand shoes were elongated, withpointed or curled toes. Hair, croppedat the back of the neck in earlyNorman times, was now worn farbeyond the length of a woman’s, andlong beards came into fashion too.

Courtly Fashion

Later, men’s hair was worn muchshorter, with a central part and nobeard.

From the 1340s onward, noblemen’sgarments went to the other extreme,becoming shorter and shorter, withthe exposed legs covered in fittedhose. One leg of the hose might bered, the other blue. Sleeves almosttouched the ground.

From the 1360s, a wide gown withflared sleeves and a high collar alsobecame popular. Known as ahouppelande, it was gathered into

The fashions of royalty andnobility were by now aworld apart from theeveryday dress of common people.

Europe 1000–1400

21

looked at men.All sorts of hiddenmeanings could be read into suchdetails as the color of a dress beingworn.A lady might give a sleeve or ascarf to a knight who offered to beher “champion” at a tournament.

pleats with a belt at the waist. Gloveswere often worn by nobles. Hatswere also now worn, from roundcaps trimmed with fur, to separate orcollared hoods with a long point atthe back, which could be wrappedaround or tucked in.

Sleeves and VeilsNoblewomen’s dress remained longthroughout the Middle Ages, with avariety of tunics and fitted over-gowns, known as bliauds coming inand out of fashion. Some were linedwith furs, and wool and silk of thefinest quality became increasinglyavailable.The luxury of the clothmight be shown off in a long trainsweeping the ground behind thebody, or in rich undergarmentsrevealed through slashes and laces inthe gown. Sleeves might be so tightthat they had to be detached andresewn after each wearing.Women’s hair might be rolled orbraided and coiled around the ears.Hair was generally covered with alinen veil, and in the twelfth centurythe neck and chin were also coveredby a cloth called a barbet.The twocloths were later joined to form asingle head covering, the wimple.Anet of silk or beads, often supportinga stiff linen veil held with pins, waspopular in the late fourteenthcentury.

The Age of RomanceThis was the age of “courtly love,” acode of behavior that idealized thelove of a knight for a usually marriednoblewoman. Courtly love dictatedhow ladies dressed and walked and

Sumptuary LawsDecrees which regulate the spending of the consumerare called sumptuary laws. They were introduced inmost European countries during the later Middle Agesin order to limit the purchase of luxury goods. The aimwas sometimes to curb excess, but more often it was toprevent wealthy merchants’ wives, or others, fromdressing in clothes reserved for the nobility. A Frenchdecree of 1294 does both, banning ordinary peoplefrom wearing certain furs and jewels, and limiting theamount of clothes a lord or lady might buy in a year.However, the rising middle classes were so determinedto show off their newfound wealth that such laws rarelyhad any lasting effect.

The fashion for ladies towear very high headdresses and hatsbegan at the end of thefourteenth century andreached its most extremeforms in the fifteenth.

22

Villeins, Merchants, andMummersPeasant DressFrom the eleventh to the thirteenthcenturies, there were few changes inthe dress of the lower classes. Somewere reasonably provided for, butmost were desperately poor.Common laborers, or villeins, worea knee-length tunic or blouse ofhomespun cloth with breeches andcoarse hose. On their feet they woreshoes of cloth, felt, or leather, orgaiters or wooden clogs. Men of all classes wore a capuchon, a longhood which dangled at the back but fitted closely around the head,extending over the shoulders as acollar or cape. A round, linen cap,which could be tied under the chin and worn under another hat,was also popular. Poor women wore a long gown of homespuncloth and hose.

An English poem called PiersPlowman, dating from the latefourteenth century, describes a poorpeasant family: the man wears roughclothes full of holes; his wife hasbare, bleeding feet; and the baby is

wrapped in rags. In fact, by that time,life was beginning to improve a littlefor some of the poorest people.Thedecline of the feudal system wasleading to a freer life in westernEurope and the payment of regularwages.The Black Death, a terribleplague that devastated Asia andEurope between 1347 and 1351,reduced the workforce to such adegree that the survivors had morebargaining power. Better-qualitywoolen and linen cloth, cloaks, hose,boots, or shoes were now morecommonly worn.

Professions in GownsThe merchants and middle classestended to live within their means,and generally dressed more sensiblythan their superiors. Doctors had towear long gowns, while surgeons,who were seen as workmen withlower status, wore short costumes.Lawyers and university professorsalso wore gowns, and their studentswere expected to dress soberly too,even if they did sometimes brawl anddrink too much wine.

A fourteenth-centuryEnglish manuscript, theLuttrell Psalter, showsfarmers wearing beltedtunics, hoods andbrimmed hats.

Europe 1000–1400

23

elaborately costumed as angels, devils,saints, and martyrs.

May Day andMummeryThere were many religious festivalsduring the Middle Ages, includingsome pre-Christian celebrations. OnMay Day, both nobles and peasantswould wear green or adornthemselves with leaves and flowers,and dance to the music of bagpipes,drums, or fiddles. Carnival, the periodbefore the fast of Lent, took on manyof the customs of an old Romanwinter festival called Saturnalia,during which servants and mastersswapped roles. Revelers, known asmummers, banged drums and woremasks and grotesque costumes.Theymocked the upper classes, dressing agoat as a bishop to preside over the“misrule.”

Jugglers, Jesters, andActorsOne group of people who chose towear brilliant colors were travelingacrobats, jugglers, and musicians.From the twelfth century onward,when fairs began to sell a widervariety of fabrics, entertainers beganto wear multicolored outfits in brightred, yellow, and blue.They wereblamed for spreading a taste for suchoutfits at court. Such garish costumes(known as “motley”) became theuniform of the jester, a joker whowas paid to fool around and makefun of people in the great hall of thecastle. Jingling bells were attached tohis cap.

There were no theaters at this time,but religious shows called miracleplays were often performed outdoors.The actors—all men or boys—were

A doctor demonstrateshow to take the pulse. Hewears a cap and a longgown, as a mark of hisprofession.

Mummers shown in afourteenth-century Flemishmanuscript.

24

surcoat identified the knight.Crusaders joined religious orders, likethose of the monks. One of these, theKnights Templar, wore a whitesurcoat with a black cross.TheHospitallers wore a red surcoat witha white cross.

Across Europe, surcoats began tocarry the emblem, or charge, of thewearer’s family.The garment becameknown as a coat of arms.A code ofrules was developed to regulate thecolors, patterns, and emblems used.These rules were known as heraldry,for it was the task of a royal officialcalled a herald to identify knights bytheir charges. Colorful and elaborateheraldic patterns also appeared onshields, standards, and the clothes ofretainers and servants.

Plate Armor andGreat HelmsBy the thirteenth century, theknight’s legs, hands, and feet werealso covered in mail. Mail waseffective, but it could still be piercedby arrowheads or smashed by macesand axes, so knights began to strap onplates of hardened leather or steel forfurther protection. By the 1400s,beautifully made and jointed platearmor of steel, weighing about forty-five to fifty-five pounds (20–25 kg),often covered the whole of theknight’s body.

The helmet changed too. By the1200s it was a flat-topped cylinderwith the nasal extended to protectcheeks and eyes. By 1250 it was thegreat helm, a large, bucket-shaped

Hauberks and CoifsIn the 1060s the Normans, who werebased in northern France, invaded theBritish Isles and southern Europe.The Norman knight wore a hauberk,a knee-length coat of mail weighingabout 30 pounds (14 kg), over apadded tunic. His head was protectedby a mail hood, or coif, and a conicalhelmet with a nasal. Metal pointscalled spurs, for urging on his horse,were strapped to his heels.

Coats of ArmsDuring the Crusades, Christianknights in the Middle East adoptedthe Muslim Saracens’ habit ofwearing a surcoat.This light over-garment helped protect the armorfrom heat and dust. Emblems on the

Knights and Foot Soldiers

A thirteenth-centurymanuscript showsknights clad in mail andsurcoats. Four knights inthe background wear thegreat helm.

Europe 1000–1400

25

The TournamentThe mock battle, or tournament, began as a way of training knights. It included free-for-allfighting (the mêlée) and one-to-one horseback contests, in which one rider had to unseat theother with his lance. Tournament armor was heavier than field armor, and more padding wasworn underneath. Even so, this was a dangerous sport. Knights began to wear more fancifularmor at tournaments, their helms decorated with crests, plumes, scarves, and ribbons. It wasthe knights’ chance to achieve fame and fortune, and perhaps even a good match in marriage.The ladies of the court watched from pavilions and galleries, dressed in all of their finery.

helmet, padded inside and coveringthe whole coif. Slits and holes in thehelm allowed for vision andbreathing.As plate armor developed,so did a close-fitting, all-enclosinghelmet called the basinet. From about1300 this was fitted with a movablevisor, which could be raised forimproved vision.

Fighting on FootFoot soldiers and archers still woresimple tunics and hose, but manygained protection from padded jerkinsor from mail shirts, armor, and helmetsplundered from the battlefield.

An illustration of about 1340 shows anEnglish knight, Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, beinghanded his jousting helmet, lance and shieldbefore a tournament. His family coat of armsappears on his surcoat and his horse’strappings.

In the 1300s there were majoruprisings by peasants in westernEurope.They were armed only withfarm implements, knives, andhomemade weapons, and had littlearmor.Their rebellions were easily andharshly suppressed by the knights.

Norman battledress 1070

conical helmet

nasal

coif

mail hauberk

belt

quilted under-tunic

slit skirt to enable riding

kite-shaped shield

prick spur

26

The Renaissance

Men ofActionThis was an ageof great artists,architects,sculptors, poets,

and inventors.They celebrated

human beauty andintelligence.Their patrons, often richbankers and princes, wereindividualists with a love of fashionand finery.At this time, the gownsand tunics of the Middle Agesgradually gave way to clothes which,chiefly for men, offered greaterfreedom of movement.

Nations and TradeThe Byzantine Empire fell to theOttoman Turks in 1453, and this ledto an increasing adoption of Asiancostume, such as a broad tunic called

Renaissance means “rebirth.” Historians use theterm to describe the revival of learning that took

place in Europe toward the end of theMiddle Ages.The scholars of the daylooked back to the literature of ancientRome and Greece for their inspiration,but this was also a time of lookingforward: the start of the modern world.The Renaissance was at its mostexuberant in the small city-states of Italyand across southern Europe, but itinfluenced the north as well.


the caftan, in eastern Europe.In western Europe it evolved into agarment called the caban, which wasthe first form of coat.

The fifteenth and early sixteenthcenturies were an age of exploration.The Portuguese sailed around Africa,opening up new trading routes toIndia and Southeast Asia, and newsources of imported textiles.Christopher Columbus, an Italian inthe service of Spain, sailed to theAmericas in 1492.Trade was about tobe organized on a global scale.Withincenturies, this would transform theproduction of fiber, the textile trade,and the kinds of clothes worn aroundthe world.

Fifteen ThousandTailorsThe Renaissance period offered a

Italian gentleman and lady,1540

Europe 1400–1550

27

wider range of textiles—imported orhomemade—than had ever beenavailable in Europe previously.Therewere woolens, silks and taffetas,brocades, velvets, damasks, fustians,cottons, and felts.The city of Milanalone had 15,000 tailors. By the earlysixteenth century, looms were themost complex machines used inmanufacture, and linen had becomevery fine.Women learned how toseparate the threads into delicatepatterns, making early forms of lace.

Palaces,Popes, andProtestantsThe traditional long costume andmantle were still worn at thecoronations of European kings andqueens in the fifteenth and earlysixteenth centuries, and the variousregalia appear on coins of the day.Thecourtiers at the enthronement of theelected doge (chief magistrate) of therepublic of Venice shimmered withsilk, damask, and cloth of gold, themost costly fabric of the day.The dogehimself wore an embroidered horn-shaped cap rather than a crown.Venicederived its wealth from maritimetrade, and each year the doge wouldthrow his official ring into the wavesas a symbol of the “marriage” betweenVenice and the sea.

A 1434 painting by Jan van Eyck shows thedress worn at the wedding of wealthy Italianmerchant Giovanni Arnolfini to his wifeGiovanna.

Costume in ArtThe Renaissance produced many great artists. The patrons who paid for the paintings loved to seethemselves displayed in the very latest fashions. EvenBiblical subjects were painted in the costumes of theday. The Procession of the Magi, painted by BenozzoGozzoli in 1459, shows the full splendor of aRenaissance court, and includes portraits of the Medicifamily, the rich bankers who ruled the Italian city ofFlorence. Renaissance artists delighted in capturingthe quality of silks, velvets, and pearls on canvas.Some, such as Antonio Pisanello (c. 1395–1455) andJacopo Bellini (c. 1400–1470) went further anddesigned textiles themselves. They could be seen asthe first fashion designers.

28

Palace FashionsIn this age of moneymaking, mostkings and other rulers dressed todisplay their wealth, rather than the

old symbols of state power. Castleswere beginning to grow obsoleteduring the later fifteenth century,partly as a result of the increasingfirepower of cannons, which couldbreach the thickest walls. By the1500s, fine royal palaces were beingbuilt instead, their walls hung withrich tapestries, as a splendid settingfor the endless fashion parade of theroyal family and the court. Fifteenth-century centers of high fashionincluded the royal courts of Franceand Spain, the court of the dukes ofBurgundy, and the city-states of Italy,such as Florence,Venice, and Milan.

Not all kings were obsessed withfashion. HenryVII of England(reigned 1485–1509) was thrifty andpreferred simple dress. However, hisson HenryVIII (reigned 1509–1547)loved to show off the latest fashionsas he danced and played music atcourt. He was a handsome youth, butas he grew older he became very fat,and the measurements for hiscostumes and armor became much wider.

The Church DividedDuring the Renaissance period, thepapacy came under the control of thesame wealthy families that ran theItalian city-states. Popes were oftenvery worldly, and richly jeweled ringsand embroidered capes and robesbecame part of Church ceremonialdress.

In the 1500s the Catholic Churchcame under criticism fromProtestants in northern Europe, for

Isabella of Portugal, wifeof Holy Roman EmperorCharles V, wears pearls,jewels, velvet, and lace inthis painting of 1548.

29

being corrupt. Protestants despisedthe wealth and rituals of Rome.Theyliked their own churches to be plainand simple, and this was the fashionof their clothes, too: simple blackcloth and plain, white collars.WhenHenryVIII quarreled with the popeduring the 1530s, the English kingbroke with the Catholic Church andclosed down the monasteries. Monksin their habits disappeared fromEngland, as they also did elsewhere inProtestant northern Europe.

The Heights ofFashionDuring the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies, short costumes becameincreasingly fashionable among youngmen, although their fathers preferredto wear long gowns. Knee-length orcalf-length garments, often with verylong, fancy sleeves, also went in andout of fashion.

Doublet and HoseThe doublet was a padded jerkin,which derived from the protectivegarment worn under a knight’shauberk. It was close-fitting andwaisted, made of rich brocades andtrimmed with fur. In the 1400s thedoublet was generally very short,revealing the full length of the leg,clad in hose.Virility was oftenemphasized and exaggerated with acodpiece. In the 1500s noblemenwore puffed sleeves, slashed to showthe rich, silk lining.“Trunks,” orshort breeches, now appeared, and bythe 1530s these often reached theknee. Short cloaks also becamepopular at this time.

Field of the Cloth of GoldOne of the most ostentatious displays of royal wealth took place at an encampment oflavishly furnished pavilions near Guines, in northern France, in 1520. Even the fountainsspouted wine. The young King Henry VIII of England, and his first wife Catherine of Aragon,were guests of King François I and the French court. Each member of the royal party viedwith the others in wearing the most extravagant costumes, furs, pearls, and jewels. Theevent became known as the Field of the Cloth of Gold. The expense nearly bankrupted bothcountries, but to no avail—they were soon at war with each other.

Dressed in rich robes,Pope Leo X (1475-1521, amember of the powerfulMedici family) is flanked byhis cardinals, who wearred as a sign of theiroffice.

Europe 1400–1550

30

High HatsMany kinds of headgear were wornby noblemen, including brimmedhats of velvet with fur trimmings,round caps, and tall cylinders. In the1500s a flat cap of felt was worn,often adorned with plumes. Astrange “pudding-basin” haircut waspopular for men in northernEurope in the 1400s, while Italiandandies of the high Renaissancewore their hair long and curled. Inthe 1500s most men wore their hairshort, with beards.

If noblemen’s hats of the 1400s werethought to be outlandish, the womenof the court were accused by priestsof being in league with the devil.This was because fashionable hatsworn at this time had twin pointslike horns. Even more extraordinarywas the hennin, a tall, conical hat like

PoulainesBetween the 1390s and 1460s, shoesfor both men and women becameeven more pointed than in earliercenturies.This style was believed tohave originated in Poland, and theshoes were known as poulaines orcrackows (that is, from the city of

Krakow).The points could beup to four inches (10 cm)

long, and it issaid that in

1396, Frenchknights at

Nicopolis had to cut offthe points of their shoes before theywere able to run away from theirattackers. For wet and muddy streets,wooden soles, or pattens, could betied onto the shoes. From the 1470sto the early 1500s, men’s shoesbecame wide slippers with rounded,sometimes puffed, toes.

A pair of poulaines fromthe fifteenth century markthe extreme of medievalcourtly fashion.

High headdresses andhennins were popularamongst noble women inthe early fifteenth century.

Europe 1400–1550

31

a steeple, which supported a fine veil.By 1418 these hats had become sohigh that the doorways of VincennesCastle, in France, had to be raised sothat ladies could pass through them.In Italy too, women’s hair was piledhigh, often with the addition ofartificial hairpieces or extensions.

The Female FormNoblewomen were obsessed withfashion during the Renaissance era,and the Church attacked them forwastefulness and vanity at a timewhen many people were poor.Priests also complained ofindecency, as women’s necklinesplunged lower and lower. Italianwomen wore cosmetics and carriedthem, with a mirror, in a smallpurse.Their eyebrows and faceswere plucked. Fans became afashionable accessory in the warmlands of southern Europe.

Textiles were at their most beautifulat this time, and dresses weredecorated with gems, ribbons, braids,embroidered hems, lace, and pearls.The noblewoman’s undergarmentwas a chemise of silk, while the gownwas tightly bodiced and laced, theskirt sometimes flowing out behindto form a train.The sixteenth centurylook included puffed sleeves, oftenslashed. Bodices were wired toemphasize a narrow waist. By the1530s some women wore a high, lacycollar, which some years laterdeveloped into the ruff.Theheaddress was no longer high, andwas made up of a head cloth, orbonnet and veil.

Fastening ClothesFor most of the Middle Ages,clothes were fastened withties, laces, ribbons, pins, orbrooches. Buttons wereoriginally no more than adecoration: a small knob orornament or piece of raisedcloth, often appearing on awoman’s dress. Buttons wereoccasionally matched with acord loop and used asfasteners, and this functionbecame more common in thefifteenth century, when buttonsgained high-fashion status.Buttons have remained popularas fasteners ever since.

A late fifteenth–centurymanuscript shows a noblecouple setting off to huntwith falcons on a fine Maymorning, riding two-up. Hewears a low-crowned hat, ashort doublet and ridingboots. She rides side-saddle because of herlong gown.

32

century. In the 1500s boots and shoesbecame broader and more rounded,as with the gentry.

The extreme fashions of the court inthe fifteenth century were notdesigned to be practical.Theycelebrated the fact that nobles didnot have to engage in manual work.Everyday dress for ordinary people intown and in the country was muchmore simple.

People at WorkThe laborer of fifteenth–centuryEurope wore a thigh-length tunic orshirt of wool or linen, often coloredbrown, green, or blue.A simple beltaround the waist would be hungwith a money-pouch, a water bottle,a knife, or perhaps a container for astone, used to sharpen his scythe atharvest time. Linen hose might berolled down to the knees or tuckedinside his boots. Collared hoods andwide-brimmed hats of straw or felthad changed little from the previous

Everyday Costume

A Flemish illustration of thelate fifteenth centuryshows a farm laborershearing sheep in June.Woolen cloth was an importantpart of the economy innorthern Europe.

Children with baby c. 1450

Europe 1400–1550

33

An ordinary woman of the town orcountry might wear a long, coloredgown, with sleeves which could beunfastened at the cuff and rolled upfor hard work, such as washingclothes.The outer skirt might betucked up into the waistband of apetticoat or kirtle.This was a separateunder-skirt of coarse cloth, seamed atthe back and gathered into awaistband.A white apron was oftentied around the waist. Sometimes aseparate short-sleeved over-garmentof linen or knitted wool would beworn, similar to a modern sweater.Hair might be tied up in a cloth orkerchief, or a simple headdress of stifflinen which aimed to imitate themore elaborate versions worn bywomen of the upper classes.

Middle ClassesThe costume of the middle classeswas less showy than that of thenobility, but their garments weremade of the best-quality cloth.Along, fur-trimmed gown might beworn by a wealthy wool merchant ora scholar. Older people who werefarsighted might now be seen withspectacles held in their hands orperched on their noses. Spectacleshad probably been invented in the

Growing UpNewborn babies of all social classes were tightly wrapped in bands of linen or wool, beforebeing laid in a cradle or basket. These “swaddling clothes” were believed to keep babieswarm and safe, and to help their limbs to grow straight. Children did not have their ownstyles of dress, but wore scaled-down versions of the adult dress of their day. Their simpletunics allowed plenty of freedom to run around and play—or to work, for country childrenwere expected to help out on the family farm from a young age.

These are wealthy citizensof the fifteenth-centurymerchant class. Theirclothes are of good qualityand imitate the fashion ofthe court.

later thirteenth century.Youngermiddle-class citizens began to wearshorter and shorter tunics during thefifteenth century, sometimes buttoneddown the front.

The wives of wealthy citizens couldalso afford fur trimmings and mighthave fancy, colored cuffs or necklineseven if they did not own thefabulously rich fabrics of the royalcourt.The style of dress and the caps,hoods, and headdresses imitatedcourtly fashions also, but were muchmore conservative. Low necklines ortight lacings were not consideredproper for the respectable wife of amerchant or public official.

34

Dress for a GunnerBy the 1470s handguns were already playing an important part on the battlefield. Guns wereslow to load and very unreliable, so being a hand-gunner was dangerous work. During thisperiod the gunner might strap a breastplate over a mail shirt and wear a brimmed, openhelmet (known as a kettle hat) over a collared hood. He would wear hose and boots. A daggerand a pouch would probably hang from his leather belt, and a powder horn to hold gunpowdermight be slung on a cord across one shoulder.

The metalworking skills of Europeanarmorers peaked in the 1400s andearly 1500s. European towns whichspecialized in the manufacture ofarmor and weapons included:Solingen, Nuremberg, Passau, andAugsburg in Germany; Innsbruck inAustria; Milan in Italy; and Toledo inSpain. Paris was the center of armor-making in France, as London was inEngland.Armor was stamped withthe trademark of each city’s guild andof the armorer himself.The bestarmor was made-to-measure and wasvery expensive.

Full Plate ArmorA knight of the early fifteenthcentury wore linen hose and apadded doublet with mail sections toprotect vulnerable parts of the body.Having dressed in these, the knight(with the help of his squire) strappedon leg armor, secured with laces, andarmored shoes, or sabatons.The upperbody was covered with a backplateand a breastplate, and the arms werealso covered in padded plate sections.Then came the pauldrons, or shoulderpieces, the gorget to protect theneck, and the armored gloves, orgauntlets.The helmet, whichenclosed the whole head, was put on

The Grandest Armorskull

brow reinforce

upper bevor

lower bevor

gorget plate

vambrace

rest

cowter

breastplate

skirt

tasset

gauntlet

cuisse

poleyn

greave

sabaton

rondel

pauldron

rump guard

Full plate-armor, earlyfifteenth century

Europe 1400–1550

35

designs. Similarly splendid armorwas made for the rider’s horse.

Changing TimesThe high point in armormanufacture was reached in thesixteenth century, but already thenature of warfare was changing, asartillery and then handheld firearmsbecame common and more effective.Mobility and vision wereincreasingly important on thebattlefield, and three-quarter or halfsuits of armor became morepractical for knights as well as footsoldiers.

During the 1500s the Spanishconquistadors—the soldiers whoconquered indigenous peoples in theAmericas—wore only a singlecuirass (a piece of armor to protectthe upper body) and a brimmedhelmet, which left the face open.

last.The whole suit of armor wasfinely jointed to allow easymovement.

Fancy StylesDifferent styles of armor developedin the later fifteenth century. Italianarmor tended to be rounded andsmooth, while German armor in theGothic style was elongated andfluted, with long, pointed sabatons.Plates were often brass-edged.Another style, which historians call“Maximilian armor,” appearedbetween 1510 and 1530. It hadheavily ridged plates designed todeflect blades, and squared-offsabatons.The grandest armor of allwas designed to be worn byRenaissance kings and princes onparade or at a tournament. Italianparade armor was often elaboratelydecorated in gold and silver, andembossed with fantastic patterns and

This scene, painted byPaolo Uccello in the1450s, shows Italianmercenary armies fightingin the battle of SanRomano (1432). Theknights wear full platearmor.

36

Chapter 4: Africa and Asia 500–1550

Many of thegarments used

across the Westernworld today, fromtrousers to coats,originated in the East,in the continent ofAsia. For most of themedieval period,Asianlands possessed themost advanced textile

technology in the world, pioneeringsericulture (silk production), spinning wheels,and treadle looms.Asia produced the world’sfinest and most beautiful materials, and these

were being exported toEurope, by land and sea, longbefore the start of themedieval period.The spreadof Asia’s weaving skills wasencouraged by movements ofpeoples, by merchants andtravelers, and even by contactbetween warring armies.

Old Worlds

Asia in the MiddleAgesThe greatest empire in medieval Asiawas that of China.The Chinesebelieved that their homeland lay atthe center of the civilized world.Chinese cultural influence in the

medieval period extended intoKorea, Japan, and Vietnam, and therewas also Chinese contact with India,Arabia, and even East Africa.WesternAsia was greatly influenced by the

These musicians wearcostumes from the earlypart of China's Songdynasty (907–1276). Thiswas a golden age of artsand crafts, in which silkproduction reached anew level of perfection.

China’s chief trading routefor textiles, the Silk Road,passed through CentralAsia. These Chinesestatues, from eighth-centuryXian, show Central Asianmusicians on horseback.

Africa and Asia 500–1550

37

Christian kingdom of Ethiopia tookits traditions and religions from theCoptic Church of Egypt, rather thanIslam.

The interior of the African continentalso had powerful kingdoms andtribal federations with their owncultures and beliefs. Many werefounded by ironworking farmers, theNiger-Congo peoples, who expandedsouthward and eastward from theirwestern-central African homelandbefore, during, and after the medievalperiod. Other areas were populatedby peoples who lived by hunting andgathering food, such as the so-calledPygmies of the rainforests and theKhoi-San peoples of southern Africa.

spread of the Islamic faith by theArabs during the early Middle Ages.Meanwhile, in southern India,powerful Hindu kingdoms arose,whose influence extended intoSoutheast Asia. In the later MiddleAges, Central Asian peoples such asthe Turks and Mongols gainedcontrol of vast areas of Asia, includingnorthern India.

Africa in the MiddleAgesIn the early medieval period, thefaith of Islam was carried westwardthrough Egypt and the rest of NorthAfrica by conquering Arab armies. InAlgeria and Morocco,Arab culturefused with that of the native Berberpeople, becoming known as“Moorish,” and moved on from thereinto southern Spain.The Moorstraded southward across the Sahara,influencing the indigenous empires ofWest Africa.At the same time,Araband Persian merchants sailed downthe coast and islands of East Africa,where a cultural fusion with localpeoples created the “Swahili” culture.In northeast Africa, the ancient

Henna in Asia and AfricaHenna is an Asian shrub, and in ancient Turkey its leaves were dried tomake a powdered dye, in orange, red, or black. With the Islamicexpansion in the early medieval period, the use of henna as a cosmeticspread across North Africa into Moorish Spain, southward along thecoasts of East Africa and through much of the Middle East. The dye wasused to trace elaborate patterns on women’s hands or feet, a customassociated with religious festivals and marriage celebrations. The finesthenna decorations appeared in the Middle East between about 900 and1550, as evidenced from pottery and paintings of the day.

Wild animal motifs havegreat tribal and spiritualsignificance in Africancostume. This armornament takes the formof a leopard.

38

Wearing MasksIn West and Central Africa, masks were worn for allkinds of religious rituals, such as fertility or harvestdances, coming-of-age ceremonies, and funerals. Themasks mostly represented spirits rather than humanforms. They were made of carved and painted wood,feathers, raffia, shells, fur, ivory, or metal and usuallyformed part of an elaborate costume.

In the West African kingdomof Benin, masks like thisone were worn at the hip byrulers during certainceremonies.

Sub-Saharan AfricaBeyond the SaharaAs trade expanded southward acrossthe Sahara during the Middle Ages,camel caravans brought cottons andsilks to the rising states of West Africa.The arrival of Islam in this regionbrought with it flowing robes in theArab style. Native textile industriesdeveloped in the medieval city-statesof the Hausa people, in Ghana, and inthe Mali and Kanem-Bornu empires.A uniquely West African weavingtradition evolved in these places, inwhich strips of beautifully patternedcotton are sewn together.

Kano, a Hausa city founded in 999 CE, soon became famous for itscotton textiles and also for itsleather, exporting hides to theMaghreb. Its medieval dye pits,which used indigo to color the darkblue cotton robes of desert traders,still exist today.

On the East African coast andislands, people also adopted Arabcotton robes, wove cloth, andimported Asian textiles from acrossthe Indian Ocean.

Fur, Hide, and RaffiaAcross Africa, people wore or tradedthe pelts of wild animals, such asleopards.The bravery and status ofwarriors might be emphasized byheaddresses made of lion manes orother evidence of hunting prowess.Short kilts, tunics, and cloaks forboth sexes were often made of wildanimal or cattle hides.The bark ofcertain trees could be soaked andbeaten into a fine cloth. Grasses,

The chief centers of textileproduction in medieval Africa wereEgypt and the northwest, or Maghreb.In the chiefdoms and kingdoms to thesouth of the Sahara Desert, thetextiles, body decorations, andcostumes were often very striking.


39

the most highly valued metal in theearly Middle Ages, later overtaken by gold.

Royal and RitualDressMany African rulers wore or carriedregalia to indicate their royal status.These included elaborate headdresses,feathers and plumes, crowns, scepters,collars or necklaces, gourds, andweapons.African religion was basedon a belief in spirits of nature andmagic, and in honoring the spirits ofone’s ancestors.Traditional curers,guardians of shrines, ritual dancers, ormembers of secret cults often worespecial costumes and masks,representing the power of birds,animals, or spirits.The costumesmight be made of straw, feathers,hide, or fur. Boys and girlsundergoing rituals to mark thecoming of adulthood also had towear special costumes, bodydecorations, or headdresses.

leaves, and fronds, such as those ofraffia palms, were used to make skirtsor other simple coverings.

Body ArtMany African hunters and gathererswent naked most of the time, butdecorated their bodies, faces, or hairwith reddish earth (ocher) or whitewood ash. It is clear from survivingmedieval statues and carvings that thedecorative scarring of faces or bodieswas widespread.The marks oftenindicated status, sex, clan, or tribe.Teeth filed to a point were a mark ofbeauty to some peoples, as extendedearlobes were to others.

Necklaces andAnkletsNecklaces, collars, earrings,armbands, and anklets werecommonly used across medievalAfrica.They might be made ofcopper, gold, iron, ivory, bone,wood, or cowrie shells. Copper was

Cloth is still dyed withindigo in medieval pits atKano, in what is nownorthern Nigeria. ThisHausa city, founded in999, was a center oftextile production in theMiddle Ages.

40

The Arab WorldDuring the Middle Ages, the Arabworld stretched from Spain throughNorth Africa and the Middle East.Textiles were woven by desertnomads as well as in the cities, andcloth was one of the most importanttrading items. Fabrics included wool,cotton, linen, and silk, and Moroccowas famous for its leatherwork.

Influences on DressTwo main factors influenced Arabdress. One of these was climate.Heat and desert sand encouragedthe wearing of loose-fitting robes,often white to reflect the sun, andof veils or scarves to protect thehead and face. Cotton was the idealfabric for such clothing. However,during cold nights and windy orwintry weather, woolen robes orcloaks were also worn.

The other factor influencing Arabdress was the Koran, or Islamicscripture.The Koran orders men todress modestly, with tunics no shorterthan the knee and no longer than theankle.Women were also expected todress modestly in loose robes. Fittedclothes, jewelry, and tattoos werefrowned upon.

Moorish Andalusia became a source of richsilk textiles used in regalia and vestments insouthern Europe.

In this portrait, a Libyanhorseman in the desertis robed much as hismedieval ancestorswould have been.


41

Men’s DressArab men might wear loose, knee-length breeches as underpants,beneath a long tunic. Sleeves couldbe wide or narrow. Over this mightbe worn a jacket or an open-frontedrobe called an aba. Sleeves for bothmen and women were often sewnwith a decorative band called a tiraz.At first these were worn only bycaliphs (rulers), but later they wereadopted more widely.They wereoften embroidered with religiousinscriptions, calling down theblessings of God upon the caliph.Hair was worn short, and older menalways wore a beard.A skull cap wasworn on the head, and around thiswould be wound a long turban.

Arab warriors in the Middle Agesoften wore tunics and boots. Overthis they might put on a quilted,padded jacket or perhaps a shirt ofmail or scale armor.A cotton robe(the “surcoat” adopted by European

Damask and MuslinThe influence of the Arab worldon textiles is shown in wordswe still use for certain types offabric. Damask takes its namefrom Damascus, in Syria. It is areversible fabric made mostoften of silk or linen. A patternis woven into the cloth which isrevealed by the way in whichlight falls upon the fabric.Muslin takes its name fromMosul, a town in present-dayIraq. It is a fine, gauzy cotton.

knights) was sometimes worn overeverything.A conical helmet, oftenwith a turban wrapped around it,protected the head.A leather beltcarried the sword.

Women’s DressArab women also wore loose tunicsand robes, sometimes over tighttrousers.The practice of wearing aveil varied greatly from one region toanother. It might conceal part ormost of the face, or simply be a scarfover the head. In some regions theveil was worn at all times outside thehouse or among strangers, to protectthe wearer’s modesty. In others,Muslim women only wore theveil for worship.

Non-ArabsThe lands of the MuslimArabs were also populatedby other peoples, such as theBerbers and Kurds, who woremuch the same clothes as theirArab neighbors.The Persianstended to favor more luxurioussilks and jewelry than theArabs. Jewish citizens tended towear the dress of the region inwhich they were living. Jewsand Christians living inMuslim lands were sometimesordered to identifythemselves by wearingturbans of a particular color.

This woman wears the costume of theOttoman Turkish court at the end of themedieval period. Unlike most Arab women,she is unveiled.

42

The steppe grasslands of Central Asiawere home to the Turkic-speakingpeoples and tribes. One Turkic group,the Seljuks, ruled large areas ofwestern Asia from the eleventh to thethirteenth centuries.They werefollowed by the Ottomans, MuslimTurks who seized land from theByzantine Empire. By the end of themedieval period, the OttomanEmpire included large areas of theMiddle East and North Africa.

Turkish WarriorsLike all Central Asian warriors, theSeljuk Turks were great horsemenand archers. Illustrations show themwearing knee-length breeches andpointed slippers, quilted jackets, shirtsof mail or scale armor, sashes, andround caps.They carried small bowsand quivers of arrows, round shields,and a kind of slashing sword whichdeveloped into the saber.

Veils and SultansIn the fourteenth century theMoroccan explorer Ibn Battutah wasshocked to find that Turkish womendid not wear the veil and wereentertained alongside their menfolk.

Felt MakingFelt, which was ideal for keeping out cold winds, was one of the most important fabrics for themedieval Mongols. First, the sheep were washed and sheared, and the fleece was thencombed out or carded, and possibly dyed. The wool was spread over a mat of reeds andsprinkled with hot water, then rolled up in the mat and tightly bound. After hours of rolling, thebundle was unpacked. The wool, now densely compacted, was dried and could then be cut andsewn into tunics, jackets and coats, hats, boots, and bags. Felt was also made into rugs andblankets, and was the cloth used for the round tents of the steppes, known as yurts.

Turks and Mongols

A Seljuk Turkishwarrior preparing toshoot an arrow fromhis lightweight bow.


43

collarless caftan known as a del.Thefront overlapped to the right and wasfastened with five ties. It wasgenerally blue, red, or yellow—acolor later reserved for Buddhistpriests. Men wore the del over loosetrousers and high boots.Women woreit longer, over underskirts. Men andunmarried women wore a broad,colored sash around the waist. Bothmen and women braided their hair,with men also shaving parts of theirhead.Those descendants of GenghisKhan’s warriors who ended up livingin luxury in China or Persia woreexpensive silks and furs, andeventually adopted local costume.

This tradition had remained frombefore their conversion to Islam.

As rulers of the great OttomanEmpire, the Turks indulged in luxury.Sultans of the sixteenth century, suchas Suleyman the Magnificent (reigned1520–1566), were neatly bearded andwore huge turbans on their heads.They had splendid tunics, and robeswith elbow-length sleeves.The menand women of the royal court worecottons, silks, brocades, taffetas, andvelvets, mostly produced in the townof Bursa.

Riders of the SteppeThe greatest conquerors of medievalAsia were the Mongols, who lived onthe steppe grasslands of Central andEastern Asia.Their first great leaderwas Temujin, or Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227). Mongol armiesconquered much of Asia and theMiddle East, as well as parts ofeastern Europe.

Mongol armies included horsebackarchers, and light and heavy cavalry.Warriors wore fur or sheepskin capswith long earflaps, or plumed, conicalhelmets made of hardened leather ormetal, with armored flaps to protectthe neck.Tunics of wool or silk,trimmed with fur, were worn inconjunction with armor, which wasmade from small plates of iron orlacquered leather, laced together in strips.

Mongol DressThe basic item of everyday dress forboth men and women was a long,

Mongol archer onhorseback.

44

Saris and DhotisSeveral items of Hindu dress, none ofwhich were cut and sewn, were inuse throughout the ancient, medieval,and modern periods, and continue tobe worn today. One example was thesari, worn by Indian women, whichtook its name from the Sanskrit wordfor cloth, chira. It was made of silk orcotton, often in dazzling colors.Thisrectangle of cloth, between thirteenand twenty-six feet (4–8 m) in lengthand about fifty inches (120 cm) wide,was wrapped around the waist andthen folded into pleats (known asplati), and tucked into the waistband.The rest of the sari (the pallu) wasdraped over the shoulder.The breastswere supported by a band of clothtied at the back (later, the choli, orblouse).A petticoat (ardhoruka) wasfirst worn under a sari in themedieval period.

The dhoti was the male equivalent ofthe sari, being an ankle-length clothwound around the waist.The lungiwas a simple cotton loincloth.Allthese clothes were ideal for theIndian climate and could be tuckedup to make them shorter for work inthe fields.Veils and turbans in variousstyles have provided head coveringthroughout Indian history.

The Delhi SultanateTraditional unsewn garments wereworn in northern Hindu kingdomsof the early Middle Ages. However,the Muslim rulers of the DelhiSultanate, which controlled northernIndia from the thirteenth to thesixteenth centuries, were set apart

In the 1930s, freedom campaignerMohandas K. Gandhi adopted thesimple spinning wheel, whose designhad not changed since the medievalperiod, as an appropriate symbol ofIndia’s history and way of life. Cottonwas grown in the Indus valley (now inPakistan) in prehistoric times.TheIndian subcontinent (all the land southof the Himalayan mountain ranges)was the center of world cottonproduction throughout the MiddleAges. Silks, originally a Chineseinvention, were also made in medievalIndia. Indian skills in dyeing andpatterning textiles were legendary.

Southern Asia

In India, saris of cotton orsilk were worn togetherwith beautiful necklaces,bracelets, anklets,earrings, and nose rings.


45

from most of their subjects by theirtailored clothes, trousers, long-sleevedtunics, and skirts. Many of these weremade of splendid textiles, workedwith gold. Hindu and Muslimweavers worked alongside each otherin the royal workshops, and thetechniques and styles of the twocultures influenced each other.

Southern KingdomsSouthern India remained under therule of Hindu kingdoms, some ofwhich extended their influence acrossparts of Southeast Asia.Templessupported craftworkers’ guilds andworkshops.These produced beautifuljewelry and the finest textiles for theroyal court and also for the ritualdancers who performed in thetemples. Southern Indians stillfavored fine, draped clothes whichaccentuated the human figure. Rankwas shown by the quality of the clothrather than by difference of costume.Even kings went bare-chested.

This painting shows the court of Babur (1483–1530), first Moghul emperor of India. Moghuldress was influenced by Mongol, Persian andIndian costume traditions.

Coat of a Thousand NailsWars between Hindus and Muslims in the Middle Ages were fought with infantry and archers,heavy and light cavalry, and elephants. The Muslim armies in the north did employ someHindus, but were largely made up of non-Indians. They wore the mail shirts and scale armor ofCentral Asia and the Middle East. The native Hindu tradition was to wear light armor, such as acaftan (known here as a kubcha) of padded cloth. However, the Indians learned from theirenemies, and by the end of the Middle Ages their kaftans included the armored “coat of athousand nails,” which was patterned with protective studs.

46

so symmetry, or balance, was also animportant element of fashion design.Ankle-length silk costume was theformal dress for both men and womenduring most of the medieval period.

The most common form of gownworn by important men was the paoshen, a long silk gown generally wornover trousers which were tucked intoboots.Women’s fashion at theimperial court included a narrow-sleeved everyday gown and aceremonial gown with enormouslywide sleeves.

Changing Fashions Chinese women’s fashions variedover the years.There were long

Imperial ChinaAlthough China suffered setbacks andinvasions during the Middle Ages,from the eleventh to the thirteenthcenturies it enjoyed a period ofeconomic prosperity, flourishing artand literature, and technologicaladvances. Its riches in the 1270sastounded the Venetian travelerMarco Polo. Costly bales of textileswere bought and sold along the SilkRoad, a network of trading routeswhich extended from China to theMiddle East.

Chinese FabricsSilk production, or sericulture, wasChina’s most famous invention.Silkworms (caterpillars of the silkmoth) were placed on trays and fedwith mulberry leaves.Theyproduced cocoons, and when thesewere plunged into hot water, thefine filaments came apart and couldbe reeled off and twisted together tomake silk thread. Chinese silk-making probably reached its zenithduring the Song dynasty(907–1276).

Codes of DressThe teachings of Kongfuzi orConfucius, which were already athousand years old at the outset of theMiddle Ages, emphasized social order,

hierarchy, and duty.These concernswere reflected in dress codes. Silkwas the textile worn by emperors

and empresses, by members of theimperial court, and by governmentand military officials. Color andpatched motifs such as animals orbirds indicated rank. Chinese religioustraditions emphasized visual harmony,

This statue from China’sTang dynasty (581-907)shows a lady of the courtwearing an elegant silkgown with long sleevesand an elaborate hairstyle.

This picture shows an emperor and empressfrom China's Ming dynasty (1368–1644).Note the long sleeves of the silk robes.


47

gowns or long skirts worn beneathtunics, sashes and shawls, crowns andheaddresses, higher or lowernecklines, collars or no collars.Themost colorful period for women’sfashion was during the prosperousTang dynasty (618–907), whennoblewomen still led fairly activelives.

Farmers and SoldiersWorking people such as farmers,laborers, or even merchants, wereforbidden from wearing silk gowns.In the cold north, furs andsheepskins kept people warm. In thewarm south, cotton tunics wereworn over loose trousers, withsandals made from straw or rushes.Chinese soldiers wore armor of

Little FeetDuring the tenth or eleventhcenturies, a custom began amongfamilies of Chinese dancers andentertainers. At the age of five orsix, young girls had their feettightly bound. This prevented thefoot from growing naturally andcaused severe deformation. Theintention was that when they grewup, their feet would look tiny andthat they would trip along daintilyas they walked. Later, in the Songdynasty, this cruel practice becamea general fashion, which lastedinto modern times. A pair ofwomen’s embroidered slippers ofthe thirteenth century, discoveredin Fujian province, were just fiveinches (13 cm) long.

scales, small plates, leather, or—fromthe twelfth century—bands of iron.A unique type of armor was inventedin the Tang dynasty, made from up tofifteen layers of glued paper. It wassurprisingly tough.

Non-Chinese FashionsThe Yuan dynasty, founded byMongol conquerors in 1271,brought Mongolian influence tobear on male and female fashion,such as very wide waistbands.However, the Mongols eventuallyadopted Chinese clothes.A painting of 1280 shows the dynasty’sfounder, Kublai Khan, wearing richChinese brocades beneath hisMongolian furs.

48

Korean HanbokThe Korean peninsula, extendingfrom the Chinese mainland, wasoccupied by three small kingdoms atthe start of the Middle Ages:Gogureyo, Silla, and Baekje. Powershifted between the three.A newdynasty, the Goryeo, ruled until theMongols invaded in the 1270s, afterwhich the Joseon kingdom wasfounded.

Korea’s quite bulky-lookingtraditional dress (hanbok) dates backto the Three Kingdoms period. Itoriginated as a caftan-style garment,worn by both men and women,closed right to left and fastened witha belt.This eventually evolved into ashort jacket, the jeogori, tied left-over-right (the Chinese way), with a longribbon. Below this, women wore along, wraparound skirt, the chima, alsofastened with ribbons. Men worebaggy trousers beneath the jacket,gathered in at the ankles.A long coatcalled the durumagi might also beworn. In the Joseon kingdom, as inChina, colors of dress indicated rankand status.

China’s neighbors to the eastincluded the Koreans and theJapanese.There was plenty ofinteraction between the variouscultures, especially in costume andfashion.

Feudal WarriorsMedieval Japan developed a feudal system similar to that of Europe. Its feudal lordswere called daimyo. They wore eboshi, black caps of silk stiffened with lacquered paper, over a topknot of hair. Their knights were called samurai, and they formed a social elite, following a strict code of honor (Bushido). Samurai warriors developedelaborate and very fine armor between 858 and 1185. The o-yoroi (great armor)combined plate sections with strips of small, lacquered plates laced together withtasseled silk cords, wide shoulder guards, and skir ts. It was worn over robes andbreeches. The bowl-shaped helmet had a broad, flared neck flap and crest. Fully armed, the mere appearance of the samurai struck fear into their enemies.

Korea and Japan

A medieval Japanesesamurai dresses for battlein the full o-yoroi.

Skull

Kuwagata (crest)

Side guards

Shoulder guards

Breast plate

Sash

Skirt

Katana

(fighting sword)

Shin guards

Fur shoes

Chinstraps

Pectoral

Short sword

(Wakizashi)

Gauntlet

Breeches


49

Wraparound robes were worn bymany social classes, in cotton, hemp, orramie, if not silk.Working men woretunics over loose trousers and sandalsof straw or wooden-soled shoes. Shoeswere never worn indoors. Splendidcostumes and beautiful masks wereworn by actors in a type of dramacalled Noh, which became popularfrom the 1300s onward.

Japanese CostumeEastward from Korea lay themountainous islands of Japan. Here,craft skills had been practiced sinceprehistoric times: Japan has the oldestknown pottery in the world, and silkand hemp cloths were beingproduced at an early date.At the startof the Middle Ages, the Japanesenobility wore long, silk costumes,either as two separate garments or asa one-piece gown. Chinese fashionswere closely followed. Sumptuarylaws issued in 718 even insisted thatrobes should be fastened in exactlythe same way as in China.

In the ninth and tenth centuries,Japan began to grow away fromChinese influence. Robes formen and women of the imperialcourt, cut to a straight-linepattern and then sewn together,mark the origins of the dressthat in modern times hasbecome known to the Westernworld as the kimono (a wordwhich actually just means“clothing”). Robes could beworn in several layers. Colorsdenoted the status of thewearer and varied with theseasons.

From 1185 emperors lost controlto the nobles and wars ragedthrough Japan. Fashions becamemuch simpler and more austere atthis time, but luxury and colorreturned at the end of the medievalperiod.The modern kimono style didnot appear until after the MiddleAges.

In Noh theatre, males played female parts,and wore masks like this one.

50

Oceania

There is no record of Europeans reaching Australiabefore 1606, although it is possible that a Chinese

fleet reached its shores in the fifteenth century.However, the Australian aborigines had populated thecontinent perhaps 50,000 years previously. During theMiddle Ages, the Aborigines formed scattered groups ofhunters and gatherers across the land.

The vast expanse of the Pacific wasnot crossed by Europeans untilFerdinand Magellan’s fleet enteredthat ocean in 1519. However, itscountless islands had been colonized

Chapter 5: Oceania and the Americas500–1550

by Southeast Asian peoples such asthe Melanesians and the Lapita folk(ancestors of the Polynesians).Polynesian migrations took placebetween about 1000 BCE and 1000 CE. By the 1200s the Polynesianislands were ruled by powerful chiefs.The islands and larger landmasses ofthe Pacific Ocean were not visited byoutsiders during the Middle Ages.There are no written accounts ofhow Australian aborigines or Pacificislanders looked or dressed at thistime. However, later traditions andarchaeological remains offer someevidence. For example, huge, carvedstone figures were raised on EasterIsland during the Middle Ages. Someof the stone heads have elongatedearlobes. Some have earplugs, redtopknots, and what may representtattooing and loincloths.

Australian HuntersAustralia’s aborigines were experts atsurviving in a harsh, hot environment.They lived by fishing, hunting, andgathering, and also sowed andharvested seeds of food plants where

The mysterious EasterIsland statues give ussome clues about theappearance of Polynesianrulers in the Middle Ages.

Oceania and the Americas 500–1550

possible.The aborigines mostly wentnaked, but in many regions they woresewn cloaks of kangaroo or opossumskin, pinned at the shoulder. On theisland of Tasmania they greased theirbodies with animal fat as protectionagainst the cold.

The aborigines wove, knotted, coiled,and dyed fibers such as longpandanus leaves.They made bags,headbands, armbands, pendants,necklaces, bracelets, and pendants,using shells, bones, animal teeth,claws, feathers, and fur. Bodies weredecorated with ocher or ash and cutto produce decorative scarring.Thegeometrical patterns on their bodiesreflected their beliefs in ancestralanimal spirits and clans, and theymade elaborate headdresses forreligious ceremonies and dances. Insome regions hair was dressed withred ocher; in others it was decoratedwith seeds. Men were often bearded.

Across the PacificThe Melanesians, Micronesians, andPolynesians who populated thePacific islands in the medieval periodgenerally made use of grasses, leaves,and fronds to make kilts or longer

Polynesian TattoosOur word tattoo comes from the Tahitian word tatau. The practice of tattooing is found acrossthe Polynesian islands and was common during the medieval period. Archaeologists in NewZealand have dated a uhi (the chisel or burin used to make the tattoos) to sometime between1150 and 1260. Tattooing customs varied across the Pacific, but the patterns were alwaysvery elaborate and had spiritual and social significance. The Maori tattoo, or moko, covered awarrior’s whole head (the most sacred part of his body), and sometimes also his thighs, withswirling lines. Maori women might tattoo their lower face, around the mouth.

skirts. Shells, bones, and flowers wereworn for ornament.A traditiondeveloped of making garments froma barkcloth fabric known as tapa.Thepithy inner bark of the papermulberry tree was stripped away,soaked, and beaten until flat. It wasthen dried, and sectionswere gluedtogether,dyed, andcut.

Facial tattooing wascommon amongst theMaoris of medieval NewZealand and other Pacificislanders.

52

Maori Flax andFeathersThe last of the great Pacificmigrations was carried out by thePolynesian ancestors of the Maoripeople, who probably arrived in

Hine-RehiaWeaving played such an important part in medieval life that itappears time after time in mythology and folklore around the world. InNew Zealand, folk tales of the Polynesian Maori people tell how thefirst settlers on the islands learned how to use local plants forweaving. They tell of Hine-Rehia, a fairy woman, who knew all thesecrets of preparing, working, and dyeing the local form of flax. Shewould only work by night, saying that daylight would destroy herbeautiful work. Local women decided to learn the secret forthemselves. They used trickery to keep her up during the day andspied on her as she worked. She realized too late, and with a wailwas carried away on a cloud. The Maori women now knew how toprepare and plait the flax and make fine cloaks all day long. Hine-Rehia was never seen again, but was sometimes heard wailing in thenight, lamenting the loss of her secret.

New Zealand by canoe toward theend of the tenth century CE. NewZealand was colder than many otherPacific islands, and the islanders had

Cloaks have a longtradition in Maori history,worn by chiefs andrepresenting the honor ofthe family or clan. Theywere generally woven byolder women.

53

North Americawhile in North America tribal peopleslived by hunting or farming.

The 700s CE saw the rise of Pueblocultures, with villages built of adobe(sun-dried mud brick). In the laterMiddle Ages, these villages were builtinto the sides of cliffs and canyons.These defensive sites were abandoned,probably as a result of drought andwarfare, in the fourteenth century.Thethree main Pueblo cultures are knownas Hohokam, Mogollon, and Anasazi.

The southwest of North America hasa dry climate, which has preservedfragments of fabrics, feathers, andfibers. Coarse fibers such as yuccawere used to make sandals andclothing, sewn with bone needles andthread made of animal sinews. Simpleloincloths were worn, or tunics andblankets made from hides and furs.Cotton was cultivated from about theyear 1000.

to adapt to a life in a newenvironment. One of the mostvaluable native plant fibers washarakeke, or New Zealand flax. Othertextile fibers came from a climbingplant called kiekie, and many plantsproduced natural dyes.Twined cordswere worn around the waist,supporting a woven or plaited shortkilt.Women did not always covertheir breasts, and men went intobattle naked.

The Maoris wore cloaks made offlax fiber cloth or the skins of dogs.They also developed a technique fordecorating the finest cloaks withmasses of feathers, most commonlyof the kiwi.The feather cloak, orkahu huruhuru, was a prizedpossession, handed down from onegeneration to the next.

Necklaces of bone and whale toothwere worn, and, later, pendants andlong earrings of greenstone andother materials became popular.Carved combs were worn in thewarrior’s topknot, sometimes witha feather.

The Americas havebeen peopledsinceprehistorictimes. By themedievalperiod, greatempireshad grownup in regionsof South andCentral America,

Textiles played animportant part in the life ofthe Anasazi farmers.

54

Textiles were dyed with plants such assumach, or minerals such as ocher oriron oxide.They were painted withgeometric patterns, or sometimesdecorated with embroidery. Jewelrywas clearly influenced by Mexicanstyles and was made of shell,turquoise, or feathers.

Medieval MississippiThe first towns in North Americaappeared in the 700s CE in theMiddle Mississippi valley and reachedtheir high point in the thirteenthcentury. In 1200 the town of Cahokiahad a population of about tenthousand.The Middle Mississippianswere successful farmers, and alsohunted with bows and arrows.

Surviving Mississippian artifactsinclude masks of wood and shell,copper pendants, and gorgets—engraved shell disks worn on the

chest. Carved images show dancersdressed in masks and feathers.Textileswere made by twining methodsrather than true weaving, and werethen dyed.They were traded over avery wide area, and were made intocloaks, skirts, and bags.The regionalclimate is humid, so only a fewtextile fragments have survived.Clothes were also made from hideand furs.

Tattoos and TopknotsThe influence of the Mississippiansextended into the woodlands of thenortheast. Here, the ancestors of theIroquois peoples learned to clear landand farm, but they were also hunters.Northeastern dress was mostly ofbuckskin or furs.A short cloth wasworn by men to cover the loins, anda fringed skirt by women.The bareupper parts of the body were oftentattooed and adorned with necklaces,

Native Americans of theeast coast wore fewclothes and often tattooedor painted their bodiesand shaved their heads.

55

Civilized cultures had populatedCentral America long before theMiddle Ages. Great cities flourishedduring the medieval period, such asTeotihuacán, near Lake Texcoco; theMayan city of Chichén Itzá; and theAztec capital,Tenochtitlán.

Maguey and CottonFew medieval fabrics have survived inthe tropical climate of the region, butclothing styles and textile processesare revealed in stone carvings andpottery, in Mayan wall paintings, andin Aztec illustrated sheets calledcodices. Native dress was alsodescribed by the conquering Spanish.

Arctic SurvivalWaves of settlers from Siberia,such as the Aleuts and theInuit, had peopled ArcticAmerica in prehistoric times.Migration and settlementcontinued through the medievalperiod, eastward to Greenland.Clothes were made from thehides of caribou, musk ox, polarbear, or arctic hare or fox, andfrom bird skins and feathers.Hides were softened by chewingor beating and sewn with gut tomake tailored, close-fittinglayers. These included breechesfor both men and women, shirts,hoods, gloves, and boots toprotect against wind chill andfrostbite.

Central Americaarmbands, or porcupine quills. Men’sheads were mostly shaven, leaving atopknot or crest. Faces might bepainted.

Red Cedar and DogWoolThe Pacific coast peoples of thenorthwest lived by fishing, andhunting whales and seals.Their chiefsource of fiber was the red cedar tree.Long strips of the soft bark were cuteach summer.These could be wovenon upright looms and made intoblankets or skirts.Another source offiber was the wool from their fluffydogs. Cedar bark was also made intoconical hats, to keep off rain or seaspray.

This codex sheet liststribute goods paid to theAztec rulers by 26 towns intheir empire. Goodsprovided include civilianclothes (top), battledressand war shields (center).

Feather WorkSome of the most skillful craftworkers were the Aztecamanteca, or feather-workers. They were part of alongstanding tradition in the region. Brilliantly coloredfeathers from wild or specially bred tropical birds weretied into fabric as it was woven. Feather work was usedfor headdresses, ceremonial shields, and the splendidcloaks worn only by royalty and the nobility. A headdresswas sent from the Aztec ruler Montezuma II (reigned1502–1520) to the king of Spain. It was made of gold,turquoise, and the shimmering green feathers of thesacred quetzal bird.

56

Aztec quetzal featherheaddress, earlysixteenth century

Aztec dress styles werestrictly regulatedaccording to rank.

Textiles, garments, jewelry, andfeathers often meant much morethan mere items of clothing oradornment.A marriage ceremonywas marked by the symbolic knottingtogether of the clothes worn by brideand groom. Clothes and textiles werealso sent by subject peoples astribute—a kind of tax—to the Aztecemperors.

Spinning was done with a dropspindle, and weaving on backstraplooms. Cactus spines were used asneedles for sewing.The mostcommon fibers in the region camefrom tough desert plants such asmaguey agave.The fibers were coarse,but could produce a surprisinglyflexible cloth, worn by most ordinarypeople. Cool, smooth cotton wascultivated in warm, lowland areasfrom the start of the Middle Ages.Amongst the Aztecs, it was reserved

for nobles in accordance withstrict sumptuary laws.

Dyes were made from minerals,plants, and animals. Purplewas obtained from shellfish,and crimson from cochinealinsects, collected fromcultivated groves of nopalcactus.Textiles werepatterned with geometricdesigns, flowers, or animals,or decorated withembroidery.

Clothes andJewelryClothes worn in the region

were not close-fitting. Loose


57

padded cotton.The Aztec priests,who performed human sacrifices,painted their faces and bodies blackand never washed their hair.

garments were favored, such astunics, loincloths, skirts, and women’sblouses (huipils). Cloaks were knottedaround the neck.The design of theclothes varied little, but the quality ofthe cloth indicated social status.However, even nobles had to wearsimple cloaks when in the companyof the emperor. Mayan paintingsshow lords dressed in jaguar skins,plumes, and ritual headdresses.

Jewelry included ear plugs, lip plugs,earrings, and necklaces. Many of thefinest jewelers were Mixtecs, andthey worked in shell, amber,obsidian, jade, turquoise, and gold.An Aztec emperor wore armbands,anklets, and rattles of gold on hisfeet.To the Aztecs, gold and silverwere sacred metals, associated withworship of the Sun and Moon andwith the emperor and empress.Commoners were not allowed towear precious metals or gems.

Men wore their hair short, and boyswore a long tuft of hair at the back.Unmarried women wore their hairlong, but married women braidedtheir hair around the head, so thattwo bound “horns” stuck out oneach side.A young woman mightpaint her face yellow or use claystamps to pattern her skin with dyes.

Warriors and PriestsWarriors wore elaborate costumes.The Aztec army had two elite units,the Jaguars and the Eagles, whoseuniforms were designed to look likethese creatures. Helmets were madeof bone or wood and armor was of

This statue from Tulashows the battledress of aToltec warrior. The Toltecswere at the height of theirpower between the tenthand twelfth centuries.

58

South AmericaThe last of the great Andeancivilizations was Tawantinsuyu, theempire of the Incas.Their capital,Cuzco, in modern Peru, was foundedin about 1100.The Incas built uptheir empire until it extended 2,230miles (3,600 km) north to south, andabout 200 miles (320 km) inland.It was invaded by Spanish troops inthe 1530s.

Cotton and CamelidsMedieval South America had a very ancient textile tradition.Cotton was widely grown and as acool fiber it was popular in the hot,coastal regions. Camelid wool wasalso prized.The llama had a coarsecoat, but the alpaca and wild vicuña produced yarn of the highestquality. Plants and cochineal insectsprovided dyes.

Drop spindles were used, as they stillare in the Andes.The upright loomwas traditional in some regions, andwas best for making broad strips ofcloth, but the backstrap loom was themost widespread. Needles were ofbone, and embroidery was common.Patterns included animals, flowers,and geometric motifs.The finesttextiles—worn by rulers, nobles, orpriests—might include beautifulfeathers, gold work, sequins, or beads.

Women of all social classes learnedto weave, and there were maleweavers, too. In the Inca empire,textiles were collected as part of atax that all households had to pay,and were stored in governmentwarehouses.

At the start of the Middle Ages, theAndes mountains and Pacific coast ofSouth America were home to variouscultures. In 500 CE the city ofTiwaniku, near Lake Titicaca, mayhave had a population of up to100,000 people.The city-state ofWari reached the height of its powersin about 700 CE, at a time when theancient coastal civilizations of Mochein the north, and Nazca in the aridsouth, were coming to an end.TheChimú civilization was growing upin the city of Chan Chan and was amajor power by 900 CE.

The feather headdress andear plugs signified highrank amongst the Chancaypeople of the centralPeruvian coast in the latemedieval period.


59

Inca DressInca men wore a simple, beltedloincloth beneath a knee-lengthponcho-style tunic, often made ofalpaca wool.A cloak would be wornduring cold weather.Women wore arectangular alpaca wrap, tied by a sashat the waist, and a shawl.The tupu, along decorative pin in copper, silver,or gold was used to fasten wraps,shawls, and cloaks. Sandals were madeof leather or grasses.

There were many regional variants ofheadgear, from headbands andwoolen caps to feathered headdresses.Headdresses indicated rank in theInca army.The crown of the Incaemperor was the llauta, amulticolored braid with tassels andgold pendants.

Gold and SilverThe Moche and Chimú peoplesproduced beautiful gold jewelry, andthe Andean peoples loved to wearnecklaces, pendants, nostril rings, anddisks. Jewelry was also made fromshell, from local turquoise orimported jet, and lapis lazuli. Onlynobles were allowed to wear preciousmetals. Large gold ear plugs were anemblem of noble rank.

Beyond the AndesTo the east of the Andes were the vast rainforests around the Orinoco and Amazon rivers.Here, the peoples went naked or wore leaves and fibers, or skins. They painted their bodieswith tribal markings. Little is known of dress in the far south of the continent at this time, butthe native Fuegians probably appeared much as their descendants did, with matted hair andfaces painted in red, black, and white. They wore cloaks of another wild camelid, the guanaco,and rubbed animal grease into their bodies as protection against the cold.

This Chancay textile is elaborately decorated with zigzag patterns and beads.

60

TimelineCE

527 Justinian the Great becomes Byzantine emperor. He founds silk workshops.

600s Royal costume and regalia is adopted in western Europe,influenced by the Byzantine Empire.

618 The start of the Tang dynasty in China: at this time there is a thriving textile trade through CentralAsia along the Silk Road.

c. 625 Sutton Hoo grave goods include goldbuckles and an ornate helmet,artifacts of Anglo-Saxon England.

718 Sumptuary laws are issued in Japan.c. 800 The Tara brooch. The height of late

Celtic jewelry-making in Ireland.800s Vikings trade in Russian furs, Asian

textiles, and jewelry.858 The beginnings of Samurai armor

in Japan.c. 900 The high point of henna decorative

design in the Middle East (to c. 1550).

c. 900 The growth of the textile trade in Islamic North Africa.

907 The Song dynasty in China: the height of elegance in fashion (to 1276).

957 The Bruges cloth fair. The rise of Flanders as a center of textile production, reaching its height in the 1300s.

999 The founding of Kano, a center of the West African textile trade and dyeing.

c. 1000 The colonizing Maoris learn to use local fiber plants in New Zealand.

c. 1000 Cotton is first cultivated in North America.

1035 A Chinese illustration shows a spinning wheel.

c. 1100 Treadle looms are used in Europe.1100s Long costume is worn in Europe.1100s The founding of the Inca empire in

South America: alpaca and cotton textiles.

1100s Guilds are established by Europeanweavers and tailors.

1100s Crusader kingdoms are establishedin the Middle East, leading to an Asian influence on European dress.

1206 The Delhi Sultanate: Muslim dress is introduced into northern India.

1220s Metal plates begin to be added to mail armor in Europe.

1276 The Mongol conquest of China: the adoption of Mongolian dress styles.

c. 1280 The first spinning wheels appear inEurope.

1294 Sumptuary laws are issued in France.

1320s Lace is first made in France and Flanders.

c. 1340 The rise of the short costume in Europe.

1390s Extremely pointed shoes (poulaines)become popular in Europe (until the1460s).

1400s Renaissance artists design textiles:the world’s first “fashion designers.”

1400s Full plate armor is being worn in Europe.

1400s The Aztec empire, at the height of its power in Mexico, employs Mixteccraft workers.

1418 “Steeple” hats (hennins) are at theirhighest at the royal court of France.

1500s Ornate parade armor is produced inItaly and Germany.

61

Glossarybackstrap A type of loom in which the warpthreads are tensioned by a belt around theweaver’s waist.barkcloth Any fabric produced from the bark ofvarious trees, as used in some Polynesian,African, and Native American cultures.bobbin A spool or reel from which yarn can bedispensed.brocade Any rich fabric with an elaborate, raisedpattern woven into it.capuchon A hood with a long point dangling atthe back.card To comb or disentangle wool, flax or otherfibers before spinning.charge The emblem or badge of a noble family.coat of arms (1) A surcoat emblazoned with thefamily emblem of its owner. (2) The badge of anoble family.codpiece A padded pocket fitted to the front oftight-fitting men’s hose or breeches.coif Any head covering, especially the mail hoodworn by a knight.cowl A large hood attached to the robes of amonk.damask A reversible, patterned fabric made oflinen, silk, cotton or wool.diadem A cloth headband set with jewels, usedas a crown in ancient Persia.distaff A cleft stick, used to hold raw fiber whichis being spun into yarn.doublet A padded jerkin.drop spindle A whirling, suspended rod andwhorl, used to spin yarn.finger weaving One of various techniques forweaving by hand without a loom. flax A family of plants whose fibrous stems arestripped out to make linen.fustian A sturdy, short-piled cloth made of linenwarp and cotton weft. habit The uniform robes worn by a monk or nun,of any religion.hauberk A knee-length coat of mail. heddle A bar on a loom which positions the warp

threads so that the weft may be guided throughthem.hennin A tall, pointed, steeple-like hat worn byEuropean women in the 1400s.homespun A simple cloth that has been woven inthe home or which is made of yarn that has beenspun in the home.hose The common form of leg covering for menand women in medieval Europe. houppelande A flared style of gown worn by menand women in medieval Europe.kerchief A piece of cloth, used as a scarf orhead covering.kettle hat A helmet taking the form of abrimmed iron hat.loom Any kind of frame used to tension threadsduring weaving.mail A form of armor, made up of interlinkedrings of iron.mantle A loose cloak, without sleeves.muslin A fine cotton gauze.nasal The part of a helmet which protects thenose, generally a metal bar.orb A globe, carried as part of regalia.pattens Wooden attachments to the soles ofshoes, designed to keep them out of the mud. pendant Something that hangs from somethingelse, such as side pieces of a crown or anornament hung around the neck.plate armor Armor which covers the wearer infitted sections of metal. poulaines Extremely long and pointed shoes.regalia Clothes, crowns or other emblems usedby a ruler as an emblem of rank.sari A cloth of cotton or silk, wrapped in pleatsaround the waist and draped over the shoulder. scale armor Small platelets of metal or leather,attached to a garment.scepter A staff carried by a ruler as a symbol ofauthority.sericulture The raising of the caterpillars ofcertain moths (‘’silkworms’’) in order to make silktextiles from their cocoons.

62

shed The gap made in the warp threads on aloom, so that the weft can be passed through.shuttle A piece of wood which carries the weftthread through the raised warp threads on aloom.sumptuary laws Laws which regulate theconsumer, especially those declaring whichclothes may be purchased.surcoat A light garment worn over armor.swaddling clothes Bands of linen or wool inwhich babies were once tightly wrapped. tapestry A textile on which pictures or patternshave been woven into the warp threads.taffeta A glossy, plain-woven form of silk. train A long extension to the hem of a dress,trailing behind the wearer.treadles Foot-operated levers which control theheddle on a hand loom.velvet A soft, thick-piled fabric of silk and/orcotton.warp The long or upright threads tensioned by aloom for weaving into textiles.weft The cross threads passed between the warpduring weaving.whorl A disc which keeps the spindle turningevenly during spinning by hand.wimple A cloth covering head and chin, worn byEuropean women in the fourteenth century.

Further InformationAdult General Reference SourcesBrooke, Iris, English Costume from the MiddleAges through the Sixteenth Century (DoverPublications, 2000)Garrett, Valery M., Chinese Clothing: AnIllustrated Guide (Oxford University Press, 1994)Houston, Mary G., Medieval Costume inEngland and France in the Thirteenth,Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Centuries (DoverPublications, 1996)Norris, Herbert, Medieval Costume and Fashion(J. M. Dent and Sons, 1927; reissued by DoverPublications, 1999)Peacock, John, The Chronicle of WesternCostume: From the Ancient World to the LateTwentieth Century (Thames and Hudson, 2003)Pfaffenbichler, Mattias, Medieval Craftsmen:Armourers (British Museum Press, 1992)Staniland, Kay, Medieval Craftsmen:Embroiderers (British Museum Press, 1992)Stilman, Yesida Kalfon, and Stilman, NormanA., Arab Dress: A Short History from the Dawnof Islam to Modern Times (Brill AcademicPublishers, second revised edition, 2003)

Young Adult SourcesDawson, Imogen, Clothes and Crafts in AztecTimes (Gareth Stevens Publishing, 2000)Dawson, Imogen, Clothes and Crafts in the MiddleAges (Gareth Stevens Publishing, 2000)

Internet Resourceshttp://www.costumes.org/history/100pages/greeklinks.htmA general website on the history of costumewith links to sites on different cultures andtheir costumes.

http://www.costumes.org/history/100pages/medievalinks.htm Medieval Costume links page within TheCostumer’s Manifesto site.

63

http://www.costumegallery.com/Medieval.htmLinks to websites on all aspects of medievalcostume, covering the period 100–1499 CE.

http://www.ravensgard.org/gerekr/costumef.htmlRavensgard Costume Page. Contains over ahundred links to Medieval Costume Resources.

http://www.pipcom.com/~tempus/tempus/index.htmlTempus Peregrinator's Web Page. A personalsite by a reenactor who has detailedinformation on medieval clothing, most notablythe Houppelande, but also pages of usefulinformation for those wishing to replicate it forstage or reenacting.

http://www.geocities.com/kaganate/clothing.htmlThe Red Kaganate. Images and information on Central Asian clothing of the Middle Ages,with patterns.

http://www.reconstructinghistory.comReconstructing History Pattern Company.Commercial site with large sections of sitedevoted to free information about Medievaland Renaissance dress in Japan, Ireland andScotland.

http://www.personal.utulsa.edu/~marc-carlson/cloth/bockhome.htmlSome Clothing of The Middle Ages. Well-researched site on rare Medieval Europeanclothing from archeological digs.

http://www.virtue.to/articles/Index.htmlMedieval Clothing Pages. Articles by CynthiaVirtue include both detailed history andextensive how-to information for makingmodern replicas.

http://www.arador.com/main/index.htmlThe Arador Armor Library. Information on bothplate and chain mail armor.

http://www.geocities.com/karen_larsdatter/foolwear.htmFoolish Clothing. Depictions of Jesters andFools in Medieval and Renaissance Art

http://hometown.aol.com/Predslava/GiliarovskaiaPatterns.htmlPatterns and Instructions for Medieval RussianCostumes.

http://www.gryph.com/byzantine/dress.htmThe Basics of Byzantine Dress c. 1000 A.D.Includes pictures of surviving garments.

http://www.nativeweb.org/resources/crafts_indigenous_technology/leather_clothing/native_american_clothing/NativeWeb Resources: Native AmericanClothing links to thirty-one sites on NativeAmerican traditional dress.

64

IndexAborigines 50, 51Arabs 37, 40–41Arctic America 55armor 15, 17, 24, 25, 34, 35, 43, 45,

47, 48Aztecs 55, 56, 57

belts 10, 14, 32bodices 31body art 39, 51, 59Byzantine Empire 9, 10, 14

caftans 26, 43, 45, 48Central America 55–57children 32, 33China 36, 46–47cloaks 11, 13, 18, 51, 52, 53, 57, 59coat of arms 24, 25cosmetics 31cotton 16, 38, 40, 44, 53, 56, 58crowns 8, 9, 18

damask 41dhoti 44doublets 29, 31dyes 12, 38, 39, 44, 54, 56, 58

embroidery 58emperors and empresses 8, 9, 45,

46, 57entertainers 23ermine 18

fastenings 31feather work 56felt 42festival dress 23feudal system 7, 16, 22, 48

gowns 20, 22, 23, 33, 46, 47

hair 9, 13, 20, 21, 30, 31, 33, 41, 43,51, 57

hats 13, 21, 22, 30, 31, 32, 41, 55headdresses 21, 30, 31, 56, 58, 59helmets 6, 14, 15, 24, 25, 34, 41, 43,

48, 57henna 37hides 13, 38, 55Holy Roman Empire 16hose 20, 32

Incas 58, 59India 44Islam 37, 38, 40

Japan 49jewelry 11, 13, 39, 53, 54, 57, 59

kimono 49kings and queens 9, 18, 27, 28,

29knights 15, 16, 17, 24, 25, 34Korea 48

laborers 12, 22, 32, 47, 49leather 38linen 7, 16loincloths 44, 53

Maoris 51, 52, 53masks 38, 54middle classes 12, 21, 22, 33miters 18–19Mongols 43, 47monks and nuns 9, 19, 29

nobility 10, 11, 20, 21, 29, 30, 31,47, 57

Normans 24, 25North America 53–55

Ottoman Empire 42, 43

Pacific islands 50, 51pilgrims 19Polynesians 50, 51, 52popes 18, 28, 29pouches 13

regalia 9, 27, 39religious dress 9, 18, 24, 39, 57Renaissance 26, 27, 28, 31Roman Catholic Church 9, 18, 28,

29, 31

samurai 48saris 44Seljuk Turks 42shoes 10, 12, 13, 20, 22, 30, 32, 47,

49, 59silk 10, 16, 36, 44, 46, 49skirts 33soldiers 15, 25, 34, 35, 41, 42, 43,

47, 57South America 58–59spectacles 33spinning 17, 56Sub-Saharan Africa 38–39sumptuary laws 21, 49surcoats 24, 25, 41

tattoos 51, 54turbans 41, 43, 44

veils 21, 40, 41, 42, 44Vikings 7, 11, 12, 13, 14

weaving 7, 17, 36, 52, 55, 56, 58wool 7, 16, 17, 32, 40, 42, 58

A History of Fashion and Costume -...

Documents

Transcript of A History of Fashion and Costume -...