FREEDOA HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS

with Documents

Deborah Gray WhiteRUTGERS UNIVERSITY

Mia BayRUTGERS UNIVERSITY

Waldo E. Martin Jr.UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIAI BERKELEY

Bedford 1st. MartinisBoston • New York

~;W)J!j.'IIiI/'iii!MfllllllfII/.jf}f!.'M~iI!i_'IiIIiiJii!/IIIW/I~/I!/_'$~'!/I'. _

Brief Contents

GHAPTER 1 FromAfricatoAmerica, 1441-1808 2

GHAPTER 2 African Slavery in North America, 1619-1739 54

GHAPTER 3 African Americans in the Age of Revolution, 1740-1783 110

GHAPTER 4 Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic, 1783-1829 160

GHAPTER 5 Black Life in theSlave South, 1820-1860 210

GHAPTER 6 The Northern Black Freedom Struggle and the Coming of the Civil War,1830-1860 264

GHAPTER 7 Freedom Rising: The Civil War, 1861-1865 322

GHAPTER 8 Reconstruction: The Making and Unmaking of a Revolution,1865-1885 376

GHAPTER 9 Black Life and Culture, 1880-1915 430

GHAPTER 10 The New Negro, 1915-1940 492

GHAPTER 11 Fighting for a Double Victory, 1939-1948 550

GHAPTER 12 The Early Civil Rights Movement, 1947-1963 604

GHAPTER 13 Multiple Meanings of Freedom: The Movement Broadens, 1963-1975 662

GHAPTER 14 The Challenge of Conservatism in an Era of Change, 1968-2000 720

GHAPTER 15 African Americans and the New Century, 2000-Present 774

xxi

Contents

Pretace ixVersions and Supplements xviiSpecial Features xxxixMaps xliIntroduction tor Students xliii

From Africa to America,1441-1808

African Origins 4The History ofWest Africa 5Slavery in West Africa 9

The Rise of the Transatlantic Slave Trade 10Europe in the Age of the Slave Trade 10The Enslavement ofIndigenous Peoples 12The First Africans in the Americas 14The Business of Slave Trading 16

The Long Middle Passage 18Capture and Confinement 20On the Slave Coast 24Inside the Slave Ship 26Hardship and Misery On Board 29

Conclusion: The Slave Trade's Diaspora 30

Chapter Review 31

2

DDCUMENTS: Inside the Slave Trade 32KING AFONSO I (MVEMBA NZINGA), Letter to the Portuguese King Joao III, 1526 + •PETER BLAKE,An Account of the Mortality of the Slaves Aboard the Ship James, 1675-1676 •JAMESBARBOTJR., General Observations on the Management of Slaves, 1700 • ALEXANDERFALCONBRIDGE,An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa, 1788

DOCUMENTS: The African Slave Captives 38OLAUDAHEQUIANO, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or GustavusVassa, the African, 1789 • BELINDA, The Petition of Belinda, 1782

VISUAL SOURCES: European Images of Africans in the Era of the SlaveTrade 43Facsimile of the Catalan Atlas Showing the King ofMali Holding a Gold Nugget, 1375 •Sebastian Münster, German Map of Africa, 1554 • Willem Janszoon Blaeu, New Dutch Map

xxiii

xxiv CONTENTS_______ 'ilkJi!iJ!!}IlPrdi. •••• "I/i;.J _

of Africa, 1644 • Page from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, 1252-1284 • The Adoration ofthe Magi, c. 1500 • lohn BarbotMeetingwith the KingofSestro, 1691 • Negro's Cannoes,Carrying Slaves, on Board of Ships att Manfroe, seventeenth century • Portraits ofWestAfricans, 1679 • African Slaves in the Mines, 1565 • Antislavery Carneo, late eighteenthcentury • Group ofNegros, as Imported to Be Sold for Slaves, 1796

Notes 52 • Suggested References 53

African Slavery in North America,1619-1739 54

Slavery and Freedom in Early English North America 56Settlers, Servants, and Slaves in the Chesapeake 57The Expansion of Slavery in the Chesapeake 62The Creation ofthe Carolinas 64Africans in New England 66

Slavery in the Middle Atlantic Colonies 70Slavery and Half-Freedom in New Netherland 71Slavery in England's Middle Colonies 73

Frontiers and Forced Labor 75Slavery in French Louisiana 76Black Society in Spanish Florida 77Slavery and Servitude in Early Georgia 79The Stono Rebellion 79

Conclusion: Regional Variations of Early American Slavery 82

Chapter Review 83

DDCUMENTS: Making Slaves 84The Codification of Slavery and Race in Seventeenth-Century Virginia, 1630-1680 • An Actfor Regulating of Slaves in New Jersey, 1713-1714 • The South Carolina Slave Code, 1740

DDCUMENTS: British Colonists Debate the Merits of Slavery 90SAMUELSEWALL,The Selling of Joseph: A Memorial, 1700 • ] OHN SAFFIN,ABrief andCandid Answer to a Late Printed Sheet, Bntitled, The Selling ofJoseph, 1701 • GEORGIASETTLERS,The Settlers' Petition, 1738 • GEORGIA TRUSTEES,Answer of the Trustees, 1739

VISUAL SOURCES: African Labor in the Making of the Americas 97Nieu Amsterdarn, c. 1642-1643 • Lucy Parke Byrd, c. 1716 • Canoe for Pearl Fishing,c.1586 • Tent Boat, 1769 • Map ofthe Pernambuco Region in Northeast Brazil, 1662 •Slaves Producing Sugar, 1681 • Engraving of a Virginia Tobacco Farm, 1725 • TradeCard Promoting Virginia Tobacco, eighteenth century • Tobacco Label, c. 1730 •Slaves Making Dye from Indigo, 1748 • Processing Indigo Dye, 1757 (detail)

Notes 108 • Suggested References 109

CONTENTS XXV_____________________________________ x:·'/fii/i!MJi/I!.WiIIiRl;J;/!l$f/Jl!ll;I/Ii! _

African Americans in theAge of Revolution, 1740-1783 110

African American Life in Eighteenth-Century North America 112Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies 113Shaping an African American Culture 114The Slaves' Great Awakening 116

The African American Revolution 120The Road to Independence 121Black Patriots 124Black Loyalists 128

Slaves, Soldiers, and the Outcome of the Revolution 131American Victory, British Defeat 131The Fate ofBlack Loyalists 132Closer to Freedom 135

Conclusion: The American Revolution's Mixed Results for Blacks 138

Chapter Review 139

DOCUMENTS: The Great Awakening in the South 140GEORGE WHITEFIELD, A Public Letter to Slaveholders, 1740 • JAMES HABERSHAM AND

WILLIAM PIERCY, Papers on David Margate, 1775 • DAVID GEORGE, A Fugitive SlavesEarly Life and Religious Conversion, 1785

DOCUMENTS: African American Patriots 145PHILLIS WHEATLEY, A Poem to the Earl of Dartmouth, 1772 • PHILLIS WHEATLEY, Letterto the Reverend Samson Occom, 1774 • LEMUEL HAYNES, Liberty Further Extended, 1776

VISUAl SOURCES: Freedom's Fight 149Paul Revere, Ihe Bloody Massacre, 1770 • Crispus Attucks, the First Martyr of theAmerican Revolution, 1855 • Lithograph of the Boston Massacre, 1856 • John Trumbull,Ihe Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker's HilI, 17th June 1775, c. 1815-1831 (afterthe 1786 version) • John Trumbull, George Washington, 1780 • Edward Savage,Ihe Washington Family, 1789-1796 • Jean-Baptiste Le Paon, General Lafayette atYorktown, Attended by James Armistead, c. 1783 • John Blennerhassett Martin, JamesArmistead Lafayette, c. 1824 • John Singleton Copley, Ihe Death of Major Peirson,January 6,1781, 1783

Notes 158 • Suggested References 159

xxvi CONTENTS

Slavery and Freedom in theNew Republic, 1783-1829 160

The Limits of Democracy 162The Status of Slavery in the New Nation 163Slavery's Cotton Frontiers 165Slavery and Empire 170

Slavery and Freedom outside the Plantation South 171Urban Slavery and Southern Free Blacks 173Gabriel's Rebellion 174Achieving Emancipation in the North 176

Free Black Life in the New Republic 178Free Black Organizations 179Free BlackEducation and Employment 181White Hostility 183The Colonization Debate 186

Conclusion: African American Freedom in Black and White 188

Chapter Review 189

DOCUMENTS: Slavery's Children 190SOJOURNER TRUTH, A Former Slaves Fight to Free Her Son, 1850 • MADISON HEMINGS,

Life among the Lowly, 1873

DOCUMENTS: Free Black Activism 194

THOMAS COLE AND OTHER FREE BLACKS, A Memorial to the South Carolina Senate,1791 • ABsALoMJoNEs AND OTHERS, Petition to Congress on the Fugitive Slave Aet,1799 • GEORGE LAWRENCE, Oration on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, 1813 • FREE

PEOPLE OF COLOR OF RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, Petition to Congress on Colonization, 1817

VISUAl SOURCES: The Black Body in Early American Culture 199Cover ofBenjamin Banneker's Almanac, 1795 • SamuelJennings, Liberty Displaying theArts and Seienees} or the Genius of Ameriea Eneouraging the Emaneipation of the Blaeks,1792 • NewJersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery'sMembershipCertificate, 1792 • Charles White's Illustrations of the Anatomical Features ofAnimalsand Humans, 1799 • Charles White's Comparisons ofHumans and Other Primates,1799 • Oliver Goldsmith, A History of the Earth} and Animated Nature, 1774 • The TruePicture ofMary-Sabina, c. 1744 • James Akin, A Philosophie Coek, c. 1804 • BobalitionBroadside, 1825

Notes 208 • Suggested References 209

CONTENTS xxvii____________________________________ '_a~_~l'~.!:_- _

The Expansion and Consolidation of Slavery 212Slavery, Cotton, and American Industrialization 213The Missouri Cornprornise Crisis 215Slavery Expands into Indian Territory 216The Dornestic Slave Trade 218

Black Challenges to Slavery 220Denrnark Vesey's Plot 221David Walker's Exile 222Nat Turner's Rebellion, the Amistad Case, and the Creole Insurrection 225

Everyday Resistance to Slavery 227Disobedience and Defiance 227Runaways Who Escaped frorn Slavery 229

Survival, Community, and Culture 232Slave Religion 233Gender, Age, and Work 235Marriage and Farnily 237

Conclusion: Surviving Slavery 240

Chapter Review 241

Black life in the Slave South,1820-1860 210

DOGUMENTS: Managing the Slaves 242

THOMAS PINCKNEY [ACHATES], Reflections, Occasioned by the Late Disturbances inCharleston, 1822 • P. C. WESTON, Management of a Southern Plantation, 1857

DOGUMENTS: Slave Testimony 245

FRANCIS HENDERSON, A Fugitive's Story, 1856 • VILET LESTER, Letter to Patsey Patterson,1857 • MARY REYNOLDS, The Days of Slavery, 1937

VISUAL SOURGES: The Art of the Plantation 250

Detail of aJar by Dave, 1857 • Oak LeafPanelfrorn a Slave Quilt, 1857-1858 • SlaveQuilt with Star ofBethlehern Pattern Variation, c. 1837-1850 • Harriet Powers, BibleQjlilt, 1886 • Francis Jukes, Mount Vernon in Virginia, 1800 • Scipio Hunted, 'As MenHunt a Deer!," frorn Uncle Tom's Cabin, or Life among the Lowly, 1852 • Black WornenSlaves frorn Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an American Slave, Written byHimself, 1849-1850 • Slave Children in Sunday School frorn Life at the South, or "UncleTom's Cabin" as 1t 15,1852 • Slave Children and Schoolrnaster frorn Life at the South, or"Uncle Tom's Cabin" as It 15,1852 • Slaves Dancing frorn Aunt Phillis's Cabin, or SouthernLife as 1t 15,1852 • Death ofDinah frorn Frank Freeman's Barber Shop, 1852 • A Childand Her Nanny, c. 1855 • A Slave Farnily in a Georgia Cotton Field, c. 1860

Notes 262 • Suggested References 263

xxviii CONTENTS

The Northern Black Freedom Struggleand the Coming of the Civil War,1830-1860 264

The Boundaries of Freedom 266Racial Discrimination in the Era of the Common Man 266Black Communities in an Era ofExpansion 269Black Self-Help in an Era ofMoral Reform 272

Forging a Black Freedom Struggle 276Black Communities Connect 277BlackActivists andActivism 278The Abolitionist Movement 282

The Slavery Question and National Crisis 285Westward Expansion and Slaveryin the Territories 285The Fugitive SlaveCrisis 287Confrontations in Kansas and the Courts 290Emigration and Insurrection 292

Conclusion: Whose Country Is It? 295

Chapter Review 297

DOCUMENTS: Elite Black Women Speak Out on Education, Citizenship,and Slavery 298

SARAH MAPPS DOUGLASS, To Make the Slaves' Cause Our Own, 1832 • ELIZABETH

JENNINGS, On the Cultivation of Black Wornens Minds, 1837 • Lucy STANTON, Slaveryand Abolition as War, 1850 • SARA G. STANLEY, A Call to Action! Black Wornen SupportBlack Male Vote in Ohio, 1856

DOCUMENTS: Former Slaves Speak Out on Slavery 303

HENRY HIGHLAND GARNET, An Address to the Slaves of the United States of Arnerica,1843 • FREDERICK DOUGLASS, What to the Slave Is the Fourth ofJuly?, 1852

VISUAl SOURCES: Minstrel Shows 309

Dancingfor Eels, 1820 • Dancingfor Eels, A Scene frorn the New Play of New- York asIt Is, as Played at the Chatharn Theatre, N.Y., 1848 • Jim Crow, c. 1835 • Zip Coon,c. 1834 • Coal Black Rose, c. 1830 • The Virginia Serenaders, 1844 • Christy'sMinstrels, c. 1847 • "Oh, Susanna," as Sung by Christy's Celebrated Band ofMinstrels,c. 1850 • Topsy in Uncle Torns Cabin, 1852 • Ira Aldridge, Shakespearean Actor,1853 • FrankJohnson, Musician, Bandleader, and Composer (undated) • Boz'sJuba, 1848

Notes 320 • Suggested References 321

CONTENTS xxix

Freedom Rising: The Civil War,1861-1865 322

The Coming of War and the Seizing of Freedom, 1861-1862 324War Aims and Battlefield Realities 324Union Poliey on Blaek Soldiers and Blaek Freedom 326Refugee Slaves and Freedpeople 328

Turning Points, 1862-1863 332The Emancipation Proclarnation 332The U.S. Colored Troops 334Afriean Americans in the Major Battles of 1863 338

Horne Fronts and War's End, 1863-1865 340Riots and Restoration of the Union 341Civilians at Work for the War 343Union Victory, Slave Emaneipation, and the Renewed Strugglefor Equality 346

Conclusion: Emancipation and Equality 349

Chapter Review 350

DDCUMENTS: Wartime Opportunities and Dilemmas 351ALFRED M. GREEN, Let Us 0 0 0 Take Up the Sworfl, 1861 • ISAIAH C. WEARS, Ihe EvilInjustice of Colonization, 1862 • THOMAS MORRIS CHESTER, Negro Self-Respect and Prideof Race, 1862

DOCUMENTS: Black Women at Work during the War 355

Lucy SKIPWITH, Letters to Her Master, 1861-1865 • SUSIE KING TAYLOR, Reminiscencesof My Life in Camp, 1902 • SARAH H. BRADFORD, Harriet Tubman: Ready for Service tothe Union Cause, 1886

VISUAl SOURCES: The Moment and Meaning of Emancipation 362

Watch Meeting-Dec. 31st- Waitingfor the Hour, 1863 • Wateh Meeting Posteard,1863 • Reading the Emancipation Proclamation, 1864 • Colored Troops under GeneralWild, Liberating Slaves in North Carolina, 1864 • Arrival of a Federal Column at a Planter'sHouse in Dixie, 1863 • Emancipated Slaves, 1863 • Slave Children, "As We FoundThem" and "As They Are Now;' 1864 • Private Hubbard Pryor, before and after Enlistingin the U.SoColored Troops, 1864 • President Lincoln Riding through Richmond, April 4,amid the Enthusiastic Cheers of the Inhabitants, 1865 • Forever Free, 1867 • Freedmen'sMemorial, 1876

Notes 374 • Suggested References 375

XXX CONTENTS

Reconstruction: The Making andUnmaking of a Revolution, 1865-1885 376

A Social Revolution 378Freedom and Family 378Church and Community 381Land and Labor 384The Hope ofEducation 386

A Short-Lived Political Revolution 390The Political Contest over Reconstruction 390Black Reconstruction 393The Defeat ofReconstruction 397

Opportunities and Limits outside the South 400Autonomy in the West 400The Right to Work for Fair Wages 403The Struggle for Equal Rights 405

Conclusion: Revolutions and Reversals 407

Chapter Review . 408

DDGUMENTS: Letters to the Freedmen's Bureau, 1865-1868 409J OSEPH R. J OHNSON, The Need for Hornes, 1865 • HENRY BRAM, ISHMAEL MOULTRIE,AND YATES SAMPSON, ARequest for Homesteads, 1865 • TONEY GOLDEN WILLIAM,GABRIEL ANDREWS, AND TONEY AxON, The Terms ofWork, 1865 • JAMES HERNEY, ARequest for Furlough, 1866 • CYNTHA NICKoLS, ARequest for Custody, 1867 • MILLYJ OHNSON, Seeking Information about Her Children, 1867 • J OE EASLEY, Persecution of theFreedpeople, 1868

DOGUMENTS: Race, Sex, and the Vote 414SOJOURNER TRUTH, Equal Voting Rights, 1867 • PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICANEQUAL RIGHTS ASSOCIATION, A Debate: Negro Male Suifrage vs. Woman Suifrage,1869 • MARY ANN SHADD CARY, Womans Right to Vote, early 1870s

VISUAl SOURGES: Portrayals of Reconstruction-Era African Americans 419The Birth of a Nation, 1915 • Democratic Party Broadside, 1866 • Campaign BadgeSupporting Horatio Seymour and Frands P. Blair Jr. for President and Vice President,1868 • Colored Rule in a Reconstructed(?) State, 1874 • The Ignorant Vote, 1876 • The"Practical" Politicians Love for the Negro, 1885 • The Darktown Fire Brigade, 1887 • ALiterary Debate in the Darktown Club, 1885 • Crumpled, 1886

Notes 428 • Suggested References 429

CONTENTS xxxi

Black life and Culture,1880-1915 430

Racism and Black Challenges 432Racial Segregation 4321deologies ofWhite Supremacy 435Disfranchisement and Political Activism 437Lynching and the Campaign against It 438

Freedom's First Generation 442Black Women and Men in the Era ofJim Crow 443Black Communities in the Cities ofthe New South 447New Cultural Expressions 451

Migration, Accommodation, and Protest 454Migration Hopes and Disappointments 455TheAge ofBookerT. Washington 456The Emergence ofW E. B. Du Bois 458

Conclusion: Uplift 464

Chapter Review 465

DOGUMENTS: Lynching 466

Ihe Lynching of Charles MitchelI, 1897 • Ihe Lyl)ching ofVirgii Jones, Robert Jones,Ihomas Jones, and Joseph Riley, 1908 • Ihe Lynching ofLaura and Lawrence Nelson, 1911 •T. THOMAS FORTUNE, Fiendishness in Texas, 1885 • 1da B. Wells, Ihe Case Stated, 1895 •BOOKERT. WASHINGTON,A Protest against the Burning and Lynching ofNegroes, 1904 •MARY CHURCH TERRELL,Lynchingfrom a Negro's Point ofView, 1904

DOGUMENTS: Debt Peonage 475

A GEORGIA NEGRO PEON, Ihe New Slavery in the South, 1904 • W E. B. Du BOIS, Alongthe Color Une, 1910 • LETTERTO THE EDITOR, From the South, 1911

VISUAl SOURGES: Exhibit 0'American Negroes at the Paris World's Fair 480The Paris Exposition, 1900 • The Black Village in a Colonial Exhibition, Toulouse,France, 1908 • Exhibit of American Negroes, 1900 • Occupations ofNegroes and Whitesin Georgia, 1900 • Congressional Medal ofHonor Winners, c. 1900 • MricanAmericans Sorting Tobacco, 1900 • Composing Room of the Richmond Planet, 1900 •Morning Prayers at Fisk University, 1900 • Dentistry at Howard University, 1900 •Model Dining Room at the Agricultural and Mechanical College in Greensboro, NorthCarolina, 1900 • Atlanta University Students, 1899 or 1900 • Baseball Players fromMorris Brown College, 1899 or 1900 • Bazoline Estelle Usher, Atlanta UniversityStudent, 1899 or 1900

Notes 490 • Suggested References 491

xxxii CONTENTS

The New Negro,1915-1940 492

The Great Migration and the Great War 494Origins and Patterns ofMigration 494Black Communities in the Metropolises of the North 496Mrican Americans and the Great War 500

The New Negro Arrives 504Institutional Bases for Social Science and Historical Studies 505The Universal Negro Improvement Association 507The Harlem Renaissance 510

The Great Depression and the New Deal 515Economic Crisis and the Roosevelt Presidency 516Mrican American Politics 518Black Culture in Hard Times 523

Conclusion: Mass Movements and Mass Culture 526Chapter Review 527

DOCUMENTS: Explorations in Black Identity 528

LANGSTON HUGHES, Poems, 1921-1925 • GWENDOLYN BENNETT, Poems, 1923-1927 •ZORA NEALE HURSTON, How It Feels to Be Colored Me, 1928

DOCUMENTS: Black Socialism and Communism 534A. PHILIP RANDOLPH, Gur Reason for Being, 1919 • W. E. B. Du BOIS, Negro Editors onCommunism: A Symposium of the American Negro Press, 1932 • ANGELO HERNDON, YouCannot Kill the Working Class, 1934 • RrCHARD WRIGHT, 12Million Black Voices, 1941

VISUAl SOURCES: Representations of African Americans in Film 540Al]olson in The Jazz Singer, 1927 • Stepin Fetchit in The County Chairman, 1935 • Bill"Bojangles" Robinson in Harlem Is Heaven, 1932 • Paul Robeson in The Emperor Jones,1933 • Paul Robeson in Sanders of the River, 1935 • Nina Mae McKinney in GangSmashers, 1938 • Hattie McDaniel in Gone with the Wind, 1939 • Butterfly McQueen inGone with the Wind, 1939 • Fredi Washington and Louise Beavers in Imitation of Life,1934 • Poster for an Early Mrican American Film, 1916 • Edna Mae Harris in LyingLips, 1939

Notes 548 • Suggested References 548

The Crisis ot World War 11 552The War Begins 553African Americans Respond to the War 556Discrimination in the Military 557

Atrican Americans on the Home Front 560New Jobs and Wartime Migration 561Organizing for Economic Opportunity 565

The Struggle tor Citizenship Rights 567The Right to Vote 569New Beginnings in Political and Cultural Life 573Desegregating the Army and the GI Bill 575

Conclusion: A Partial Victory 577

Chapter Review 578

DDCUMENTS: Atrican Americans and the Tuskegee Experiments 579Classification ofTuskegee Syphilis Study Participants, 1969 • Interview with a TuskegeeSyphilis Study Participant, 1972 • PRESIDENT BILL CLINTON, The Nations Apology to theTuskegee Syphilis Study Participants, 1997 • ALEXANDERJEFFERSON, Interview with aTuskegee Airman, 2006 • WILLIAM H. HASTIE AND GEORGE E. STRATEMEYER,Resignation Memo and Response, 1943

CONTENTS____________________________________ .dl.iI&'i'.iQNilfi/ilikW!'ilfltlit_i!!i!J!'i!i,

Fighting for a Double Victory,1939-1948

xxxiii

550

DOCUMENTS: Testimony trom the Front 586PRIVATEJOHN S. LYONs, Letter to the Pittsburgh Courier, 1943 • SERGEANT BEN lUSERJR., Letter to the Pittsburgh Courier, 1944 • MRs. CHARLES H. PURYEAR, Letter to theCrisis, 1945 • PRIVATE FIRST CLASS ROBERT E. THREET, Letter to Truman K. Gibson,1943 • LIEUTENANT MARGARITTE GERTRUDE IVORY-BERTRAM, Incidents As an ArmyNurse, 1941-1945 • PRIVATE FIRST CLASS GLADYS O. THOMAS-ANDERSON, The 6888thPostal Battalion, 1944-1946 • THELMA THURSTON GORHAM, Negro Army Wives, 1943

VISUAl SOURCES: The Struggle tor the Hearts and Minds of Black Americansthrough World War 11Propaganda 592Transfusion Cartoon, 1942-1945 • Good Enough to Die ... but Not Good Enough toPitcht, 1945 • Hitler Is Here!, 1943 • Suddenly Popular, 1942 • IfYou Can't GoAcross ... ComeAcross! Buy War Bonds, 1942-1945 • Keep Us Flying! Buy War Bonds,c. 1942 • United We Win, 1943 • Recruiting Women, 1943 • Why Joe Joined the Army!,1942 • Pvt. Joe Louis Says ... , 1942

Notes 602 • Suggested Reterences 603

xxxiv CONTENTS

The Early Civil Rights Movement,1947-1963

Anticommunism and the Postwar Black Freedom Struggle 606African Americans and Truman's Loyalty Program 607Loyalty Programs Force New Strategies 610

The Transformation of the Southern Civil Rights Movement 612Triumphs and Tragedies in the Early Years, 1951-1956 612New Leadership for a New Movement 616The Watershed Years of the Southern Movement 618Frustrations Mount 622

Civil Rights: ANational Movement 625Civil Rights in the North and West 625Fighting Back 629The March on Washington and the Aftermath 631

Conclusion: The Evolution of the Black Freedom Struggle 635

Chapter Review 636

DOGUMENTS: The Murder of Emmett Till 637

604

MAMIE TILL BRADLEY,Telegram to President Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1955 • WILLIAMBRADFORDHUIE, What Happened to Emmett Till's Killers?, 1957 • CHARLES C. DIGGSJR., Report to the Pittsburgh Courier, 1955 • W. BEVERLYCARTER,Letter to E. FredericMorrow, 1955 • E. FREDERIC MORROW, White House Memo, 1955 • J. EDGARHoovER, Letter to Dillon Anderson, 1955 • J. EDGAR HoovER, FBI Memo on CommunistActivity, 1956

DOGUMENTS: We Are Not Afraid 645

ANNE MOODY, Coming of Age in Mississippi, 1968 • CLEVELANDSELLERS,Ihe River ofNo Return, 1973 • ANDREW L.JORDAN,Murder in Mississippi, 1955 • ELIZABETHECKFORD, Ihe First Day: Little Rock, 1957 • ANGELA DAVIS, With My Mind onFreedom, 1974

VISUAl SOURGES: The Media and the Civil Rights Movement 651

Emmett Till, 1954 • National Guardsmen Escorting Freedom Riders, 1961 • FreedomRiders beside Their Burned Bus, 1961 • Birmingham Demonstrators Being Sprayed withFire Hoses, 1963 • Birmingham Demonstrator Being Attacked by a Police Dog,1963 • Elizabeth Eckford Walking toward Little Rock Central High School, 1957 •Demonstrators Kneeling in Prayer in Albany, Georgia, 1962 • James Zwerg in HisHospital Bed, 1961 • John R. Salter, Joan Trumpauer, and Anne Moody Sit In atWoolworth's inJackson, Mississippi, 1963 • A Woolworth's Protest in New York,1960 • Martin Luther KingJr. at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, 1963

Notes 660 • Suggested References 661

CONTENTS XXXV

Multiple Meanings of Freedom:The Movement Broadens, 1963-1975 662

The Emergence of Black Power 665Expanding the Civil Rights Struggle 665Early BlackPower Organizations 666Malcolm X 668

The Struggle Transforms 671BlackPower and Mississippi Politics 672Bloody Encounters 674Black Power Ascends 676

Economic Justice and Affirmative Action 681Politics and the Fight forJobs 681Urban Dilemmas 682Tackling Economic Injustice 684

War, Radicalism, and Turbulence 686The Vietnam War and Black Opposition 687Urban Radicalism 690

Conclusion: Progress, Challenges, and Change 693

Chapter Review 694

DDGUMENTS: The FBI, COINTELPRO, and the Infiltration of the Black FreedomMovement 695COINTELPRO Targets Black Organizations, 1967 • PBI Tries to Discredit StokelyCarmichael, 1968 • COINTELPRO Praises Its Eiforts to Infiltrate TV News, 1968 • PBIDirects Field Offices to Target the Black Panther Party, 1968 • PBI Uses Pake Letters toDivide the Chicago Black Panthers and the Blackstone Rangers, 1969 • Tangible Results,1969 • "Special Payment" Request and Ploor Plan of Pred Hampton's Apartment, 1969 •State Department Concerns about African Visitors, 1960 • Church Committee Report, 1976

DOGUMENTS: Black Families, Black Women, and the Moynihan Report 703DANIEL PATRICK MOYNIHAN, The Negro Pamily: The Case for National Action,1965 • WILLIAM H. GRIER AND PRICE M. COBBS, Black Rage, 1968 • EDWIN

HARGROVE AND CLAlRE C. HODGE, lobs and the Negro Pamily: A Reappraisal, 1971 •MICHELE WALLACE, Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman, 1978

VISUAl SOURGES: The Black Arts Movement 709Ernie Barnes,The Sugar Shack, 1972 • Faith Ringgold, The Plag IsBleeding, 1967 • LOIsMailouJones, Vbi Girlfrom Tai Region, 1972 • Elizabeth Catlett, Homage to My Young BlackSisters, 1968 • BarkleyHendricks, October's Gone ... Goodnight, 1973 • BarkleyHendricks,Iconfor My Man Superman (Superman never saved any black people - Bobby Seale), 1969 •Raymond Saunders,lack lohnson, 1972 • Raymond Saunders,Red Star, 1970

Notes 717 • Suggested References 718

xxxvi CONTENTS

The Challenge of Conservatismin an Era of Change, 1968-2000

Opposition to the Black Freedom Movement 723Emergence of the New Right 723Law and Order, the Southern Strategy, and Anti-Affirmative Action 724The Reagan Era 726

The Persistence of the Black Freedom Struggle 729The Transformation of the BlackPanthers 729The Emergence of BlackWomen 731The Fight for Education 734Black Political Gains 736The Expansion of the BlackMiddle Class 737

The Different Faces of Black America 739The Class Divide 739Hip-Hop, Violence, and the Emergence of a New Generation 742Gender and Sexuality 744AllAfrica's Children 746

Conclusion: Black Americans on the Eve of the New Millennium 749

Chapter Review 750

DOGUMENTS: Black Americans Debate Affirmative Action 751

SHELBY STEELE, A Negative Vote on Affirmative Action, 1990 • RANDALL KENNEDY,

Persuasion and Distrust: The Affirmative Action Debate, 1986

720

DOGUMENTS: The Million Man and Million Woman Marches 757MAULANA KAREN GA, Mission Statement for the Million Man March, 1995 • ]AMES].

LULLEN, Actions That Count for More Than Marching, 1995 • RON DANIELS, FromPatriarchy to Partnership, 1996 • Mission Statement for the Million Woman March,1997 • ]uNE]oRDAN,AGatheringPurpose, 1998 • C.DELoREsTucKER,ADayforWomen, 1997 • ELIJAH GOSIER, ]ourneys Deserve Praise-to a Point, 1997

VISUAl SOURGES: Hip-Hop Culture 764

A Break-Dancer in New York City's Washington Square Park, 1984 • A GraffitiArtistin Long Island City, Queens, New York,2009 • Run-DMC, 1987 • Still from theMovie Beat Street, 1984 • Queen Latifah, 1993 • Salt-N-Pepa, 1994 • Damon Dash,2007 • Suge Knight, 1993 • Lauryn Hill, 1999 • Hip-Hop in Senegal: PositiveBlack Soul, 2005 • Street Dancing in Abbas, Morocco, 2008 • Hip-Hop Culture inBeijing, 2006

Notes 772 • Suggested References 773

CONTENTS xxxvii

African Americans and the New Century,2000-Present 774

Diversity and Racial Belonging 777New Categories ofDifference 778Solidarity, Culture, and the Meaning ofBlackness 783Diversity in Politics and Religion 785

Trying Times 788The Carceral State, or "the New Jim Crow" 7889 / 11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq 793Hurricane Katrina 794

Change Comes to America 796Obama's Forerunners, Campaign, and Victory 796The ObamaAdministration 799Obama and Race in America 800The 2012 Election 803

Conclusion: The Promise or Illusion of the New Century 804

Chapter Review 805

DOCUMENTS: The Despair of Hurricane Katrina 806

TRYMAINELEE, A Reporter's Eyewitness Aeeount,. 2005 • KEVINJ OHNSON, "CampGreyhound" Outpost ofLaw and Order, USA Today, September 8,2005 • JIM DWYERANDCHRISTOPHER DREW, Fear Exeeeded Crime's Reality in New Orleans, New York Times,September 29,2005 • Photographs of the Devastation, 2005

DOCUMENTS: The Trayvon Martin Case 815Photographs of Trayvon Martin and George Zimmerman, 2012 • Protesting the Case,2012 • THE NATION, Trayvon Martin: Guilty ofBeing Blaek, 2012 • JESSEWASHINGTON,Trayvon Martin, My Son, and the Blaek Male Code, 2012 • Autopsy Report, 2012 •Neighborhood Wateh Program Poster, 2012 • Florida's "Stand Your Ground" Law, 2011

VISUAl SOURCES: First Lady Michelle Obama 824Michelle Obama Speaking at the Democratic National Convention, 2008 • Ihe Polities ofFear,2008 • White House Family Portrait, 2009 • White House Governors' Dinner,2009 • Miehelle 0, 2009 • Let's Move! Campaign, 2011

Notes 830 • Suggested References 831

xxxviii CONTENTS

Appendix: Documents A-1The Declaration ofIndependence • The Constitution of the United States ofAmerica • Amendments to the Constitution • The Emancipation Proclarnation[1863] • Presidents of the United States • Selected Legislative Acts • SelectedSupreme Court Decisions • Selected Speeches and Letters

Appendix: Tables and Charts A-48AfricanAmerican Population ofthe United States, 1790-2010 • AfricanAmericanEducational Attainment in the United States, 2011 • Unemployment Rates in the UnitedStates by Race and Hispanic Origin, 2005-2010 • Educational Attainment in the UnitedStates, 1960-2010 • African American Occupational Distribution, 1900 and 2010 •African American Regional Distribution, 1850-2010

Glossary of Key Terms G-1

Index 1-1