Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 3, November 2012

A critical race and class analysis of learning in the organic farming movement

Catherine EtmanskiRoyal Roads University, Canada

The purpose of this paper is to add to a growing body of literature that critiques the whiteness of the organic farming movement and analyse potential ramifications of this if farmers are to be understood as educators. Given that farmers do not necessarily self-identify as educators, it is important to understand that in raising this critique, this paper is as much a challenge the author is extending to herself and other educators interested in food sovereignty as it is to members of the organic farming movement. This paper draws from the author’s personal experiences and interest in the small-scale organic farming movement. It provides a brief overview of this movement, which is followed by a discussion of anti-racist food scholarship that critically assesses the inequities and inconsistencies that have developed as a result of hegemonic whiteness within the movement. It then demonstrates how a movement of Indigenous food sovereignty is emerging parallel to the organic farming movement and how food sovereignty is directly

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related to empowerment through the reclamation of cultural, spiritual, and linguistic practices. Finally, it discusses the potential benefits of adult educators interested in the organic farming movement linking their efforts to a broader framework of food sovereignty, especially through learning to become better allies with Indigenous populations in different parts of the world.

Introduction

Followingthecompletionofmydoctoralstudiesin2007,Isoughtoutanopportunitytoworkonasmallorganicfarm.Assomereadersmightunderstand,atthatparticularmomentintimeIfeltstronglycompelledtobeoutdoors,awayfrommycomputer,gettingmyhandsdirty,andworkingouttherigiditythathaddevelopedinmybodythroughthewritingprocess.Ialsobelievedthatknowledgeoftogrowmyownfoodwasimportanttolearninlightofmultiple,interrelatedglobaltragedies,includingtheglobaleconomiccrisis,environmentaldegradationandclimatechange,allofwhichresultinconcernsforfood security.

Throughinteractionsworkingsidebysideinthefield,overmeals,oratfarmers’markets,Ilearnedaboutthedailyoperationsofthisparticularfarm:thetechnicaldetailsofgrowingfood,aswellastheimportanceoflocalagriculture,permaculture,theorganiccertificationprocess,cropdiversity,soilhealth,seedsaving,irrigation,foodsecurity,humanworkingconditions,animalwelfare,andmore.Togetherwithotheremployees,apprentices,volunteervisitorsonworkingholidaysfromaroundtheworld,children,andtheirfriends,Igainedarangeofnewperspectivesfromtheplantingandharvestingofcropstothepolitics,philosophy,andaestheticsbehindtheorganicfarmingmovement—nottomentionthebusinessofsellingorganicvegetables.AsIreflectedelsewhere:

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Inmyexperience,conversations[onthefarm]wereasrichasanygraduatelevelclassroom,and,forme,theyprovidedasafespacetoaskquestions,sharemyownknowledgeandobservationsfromanoutsideperspective,andgettoknowpreviouslyunexploredelementsofmyphysicalstrengthandidentity.Thekeydifferencewasthattheseconversationssimultaneouslyengagedmybodyaswellasmyheartandmind,allowedmetoexperiencetheseasonsmorefully,andsolidifiedtheoryintopracticethroughtheeverydayactionsofthefarm.(Etmanski,inpress,para19).

ThroughoutmydoctoralworkIhadexplored,amongothertopics,principlesofadultlearning,communityleadership,andsocialjusticethroughintersectionalanalysesofpowerandprivilege.Asknowledgeiswonttodo,thesetopicsinformedmyexperiencewhileIworkedonthefarmandcontinuetoinformmetothisday.Linkedtomybackgroundinadulteducation,Ihaverecentlybegunreflectingontheinformallearningthatoccursinthecontextofthesmall-scaleorganicfarmingmovement.Thiskindoflearningcanbecharacterizedasoccurring“informallyandincidentally,inpeople’severydaylives”(Foley,1999:1)bypeopleinsideofsocialmovementsaswellasthoseobservingfromtheoutside(Hall&Clover,2005).Irecentlydocumentedthesereflectionsinachapterexaminingthelearning-centredroleoffarmsandfarmersintheorganicfarmingmovement(Etmanski,inpress).

Yet,asIcontinuetocontemplatethistopic,thecriticaladulteducatorinmeiscurioustounderstandwhatopportunitiesexisttomoreexplicitlylinkasocialjusticeperspective(inparticular,ananti-racistandIndigenousRightsperspective)tothesmall-scaleorganicfarmingmovementingeneralandtomyhomecommunitymorespecifically.Moreover,asdocumentedinmyforthcomingchaptermentionedabove,whilemyexperiencewasthatlearningcertainlyhappensinformallyandincidentallythroughdailyinteractions,duringmytimeonthefarm,Ialsolearnedthatintentionaleducationaleffortsalsotakeplacewithintheorganicfarmingcommunity.These

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includeorganizednetworksforinternshipandapprenticeshipcalledWorldwideOpportunitiesonOrganicFarms(WWOOF)andStewardsofIrreplaceableLand(SOIL).WhilenoneofthefarmerswithwhomIworkedself-identifiedprimarilyaseducators,thenaturalcorollaryofpeopleseekingoutlearningexperiencesonfarmsisthatfarmersdoplayaneducationalroleinraisingawareness—notonlyaboutthetechniquesusedtogrowfood,butalsointhepoliticsoffoodsecurity.

Inlightoftheserecentreflections,thepurposeofthispaperistoadd to a growing body of literature that critiques the whiteness of theorganicfarmingmovementandanalysepotentialramificationsofthisiffarmersaretobeunderstoodaseducators.Giventhatfarmersdonotnecessarilyself-identifyaseducators,itisimportanttounderstandthatinraisingthiscritique,thispaperisasmuchachallengeIamextendingtomyselfandothereducatorsinterestedinfoodsovereigntyasitistomembersoftheorganicfarmingmovement.Todevelopthiscritique,Iopenwithabriefoverviewoftheorganicfarmingmovement,followedbyadiscussionofanti-racistfoodscholarshipthatcriticallyassessestheinequitiesandinconsistenciesthathavedevelopedasaresultofhegemonicwhitenesswithinthemovement.IthendemonstratehowamovementofIndigenousfoodsovereigntyisemergingparalleltotheorganicfarmingmovementanddiscussthepotentialbenefitsofadulteducatorswithinthismovementlinkingtheireffortstoabroaderframeworkoffoodsovereignty,especiallyamongstIndigenouspopulations in different parts of the world.

The organic farming movement

AsIhavedescribedelsewhere(Etmanski,inpress),theorganicfarmingmovementhasemergedlargelyinresponsetocurrentindustrialagriculturepracticesaroundtheworld.Thelistofsocial,economic,andenvironmentalproblems–indeedsomewouldsaycrises–associatedwiththedominantagriculturalparadigm

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isextensive.Tonamebutafewexamples:theextensiveuseofnaturalgasandoilinfertilizers,pesticides,farminginfrastructure,machinery,andfoodtransportation(particularlyinthefaceofPeakOil);damagesassociatedwithgrowingmono-crops,cashcrops,andagro-fuels;depletionofsoilsandrainforests,aswellasgroundwaterpollutionleadingtooceanic‘deadzones’;displacementofIndigenouspeoplesandotherunethicaltreatmentofbothhumansandanimals;subsidiesandproductdumping,whichcreateanincreasinglyunequalglobalmarketplace;andfinally,themultiplewaysinwhichindustrialagriculturecontributestoClimateChange.ManychallengesstemfromthetechnologicalandchemicalchangestoagricultureduringtheGreenRevolution,whichultimately“provedtobeunsustainableasitdamagedtheenvironment,causeddramaticlossofbiodiversityandassociatedtraditionalknowledge,[favoured]wealthierfarmers,andleftmanypoorfarmersdeeperindebt”(Altieri,2009:102).P.C.KesavanandS.Malarvannan(2010)suggestedthat“today,itiswidelyacknowledgedthatthe‘yieldgains’associatedwiththegreenrevolutionofthe1960sand1970shavetaperedofflargelybecauseofdeteriorationinthestructure,qualityandfertilityofthesoil”(p.908).Inaddition,thespreadofpatent-protected,fertilizer-dependentseedsthroughneo-liberalglobalizationpolicieshascreateddebtanddependencyonforeignaidamongstpoorfarmersaroundtheworld(Altieri,2009:103).Theuseofcertainpesticidesintreatingseedswasrecently linked to the worldwide decline of the honeybee population (Krupke,Hunt,Eitzer,Andino&Given,2012),andscientistshavebeencallingforfurtherinvestigationintolinksbetweenthegeneraluse of pesticides or herbicides and the occurrence of cancer in both children(HoarZahm&Ward,1998)andadults(Dich,HoarZahm,Hanberg&Adami,1997).Thelistgoeson.

Peopleinmanypartsoftheworldhavebeentakingactionatboththelocalandgloballeveltoresistandtransformthedominantagriculturalsystem.InNorthAmerica,thedrivetosupportlocal,organicagricultureandeatinseasonproduce(therebyreducing

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theenvironmentalimpactoftransportationoverlongdistances)isgainingmomentumthroughsuchbestsellingbooksasMichaelPollan’s, In Defense of Food(2008)andThe Omnivore’s Dilemma (2006),aswellasthroughpopulardocumentaryfilmssuchas,Food Inc. (Kenner,2008;helpfullycritiquedbyFlowers&Swan,2011).Thegapbetweenfoodproducersandconsumersisalsonarrowingthroughsuchfood-centredmovementsasthe100-MileDiet(Smith&MacKinnon,2007),ortheinternationalSlowFoodMovement,whichpromotesgood,clean,andfairfoodforall(e.g.seeSlowFoodCanada,2012).Inparallel,thenumberoforganicfarmsinCanadaisontherise,particularlyintheprovinceofBritishColumbia,whichgrewfrom154certifiedproducersin1992,to430in2001(MacNair,2004:10).TheCertifiedOrganicAssociationsofBC(COABC,2012)lists68certifiedorganicfarmsonVancouverIsland(whereIlive)andthesurroundingGulfIslands—andthisnumberiscomplementedbyanabundanceofnon-certifiedfarms,farmsintransition,andbackyard,community,orschoolgardens(LifeCycles,2012).

Anti-racist food scholarship

Despitethisgrowingmovementaroundfoodandorganicfarminganti-racistfoodjusticescholarssuchasAlisonHopeAlkonandJulianAgyeman(2011)havesuggestedthattheNorthAmericanalterativefoodmovement“mayitselfbesomethingofamonoculture”(p.2).Theseauthors’critiqueissadlyironicgiventhewidelyheldadverseopinionofmono-croppingpracticeswithinthesmall-scaleorganicfoodmovement.ItisparticularlyproblematicinmyhomecontextsinceCanadianshavelonggrappledwiththeconceptsofmulticulturalismanddiversity.TheCanadianMulticulturalAct(Canada,1985),forexample,isanattempttopromoteequityandequalityamongstpeopleofallculturalbackgrounds.Yet,proponentsofcriticalracetheoryhavesuggestedthattherhetoricsurroundingmulticulturalismanddiversityhasbecomesopowerfulthatitcanrenderthemajorityofCanadiansignoranttocurrentandreal

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interpersonalandstructuralactsofracism.ShereneRazack(1998)suggestedthatthedenialofracismhasbecome“integraltowhiteCanadianidentity”(p.11)whileJo-AnnLeeandJohnLutz(2005)furthercontendedthat“liberalmulticulturalismdoesnotaddressracismsystematically,becauseracismisviewedasanindividualpathologyandnotseenaspartofthesocialorder”(p.17).Inthisway,manyCanadians(amongothers)haveatendencytoeitherdenythatdiscriminationexists,orviewtheresultsofinterconnectedideologiesofdiscrimination(Miles,1989)astheanecdotalactionsonbehalfofignorantindividualsratherthansystemicoutcomes.Nevertheless,aswillbediscussedhere,theso-called‘whiteness’oftheNorthAmericanorganicfoodmovementhasnotgoneunnoticed,anobservationthatreflectsmyownexperienceofthelocalorganicfarmingmovementaswell.

Intheireditedcompilationentitled,Cultivating Food Justice,AlkonandAgyemanweavetogetherfifteenchaptersoutliningthevariouswaysinwhichraceandclassareimplicatedorignoredinjustconceptionsoffoodsustainability.TopicsrangefromlegalregulationsurroundingsomeChineseimmigrants’agriculturalpractices(Minkoff-Zern,Peluso,Sowerwine,&Getz,2011)andhungerorfoodinsecurityamongstfarmworkers’inmainstreamagriculture(Brown&Getz,2011),tofarmlandownershipamongstBlackNationalistreligiousorganizations(McCutcheon,2011)andresistingorbreakingmainstreamstereotypesof(‘white’)veganism(Harper,2011).RachelSlocumfurtheroutlinedthemultiplelensesthroughwhichscholarsareviewing“theintricaciesofrace,powerandfood”(2007:520),whichechomanyofthetopicsmentionedabove.Theseinclude,butarenotlimitedto:theracialpoliticsofvariousfoods;food,identity,andnationalism;representationsofdifferenceviafood;therolesofracialisedgroupsinfoodproduction(e.g.intermsofagriculturalknowledgeandlabour);colonialism,neo-colonialism,andsettlersocietyinglobalfoodcircuits;themeaningsoffoodconsumptionfordifferentlylocatedpeopleinthespacesofbody,home,community

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andnation;and,finally,theracialisedaspectsoforganicfoodproductionaswellasthesocialmovement(outlinedabove)inwhichthisfoodproductionisembedded.Duetospaceconstraints,Iwillnotgointodetailoneachofthesetopicshere,butinterestedreaderscouldseeSlocum(2007)foralistofusefulreferences.

TheoverwhelmingconsensusamongtheseauthorsisthatthealternativefoodmovementisdominatedbyaEuro-whitemembershipthatpromotesecologically-friendly,ethicalfoodwhile—withasenseoftragicirony—largelyignoringracialisedinjustices,“anomissionwhichreflectsitsadherents’raceandclassprivilege”(Alkon&Agyeman,2011:331).Saiddifferently,andparticularlyinrelationtoaU.S.-basedcommunityfoodsecuritycoalition,“themovement’swhitenesshasbeenbroughtupateveryannualconference”(Slocum,2006:331).Myownwhiteness,andthatofmanypeopleinvolvedinthelocalfoodmovementwhereIlive,reflectsthisrealityaswell—arealitythatprovidestheimpetusforwritingthispaper.

Asaresult,althoughthealternativefoodmovementsmayintendtopromoteethicalfoodpractices,inpracticesometimesnormativeassumptionsbasedondominantvaluesareperpetuatedthroughalackofreflexivityaroundprivilege.Thesemayincludeunquestionednarrativesthat(a)ethicalfoodnecessarilymustcostmoreand(b)if only people knewwhatwasintheirfoodandtheunethicalmeansbywhichitisproduced,they/wewouldchangetheir/ourhabits(Guthman,2011).Inflaggingtheseassumptions,Guthmanisnotdismissingtheglobaltradepoliciesandprocessesthroughwhichcertainfoodsareinequitablyregulatedorsubsidized(expandeduponbyHolt-Giménez,2011);rather,sheissuggestingthatbyuncriticallyaccepting that ethical food unfortunately but necessarily costs more welimitourimaginationandabilitytoargueforethicalfoodforall.Moreover,ourmotivationsforeatingthewaywedoarefarmorecomplexthanthe‘ifonlytheyknew’narrativewouldsuggest(seealsoFlowers&Swan,2011).

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Becausetheyaredominant,suchassumptions,values,andnormstypicallygounquestioned,unnamed,andunnoticedbythoseinpositionsofrelativesocialpower—anabsentcentre“withthepowertodefineitselfonlyintermsofwhatitdesignatesitsopposites”(Pajaczkowska&Young,1992:202).Saiddifferently,whitenesspresidesas“theunmarkedcategoryagainstwhichdifferenceisconstructed,whitenessneverhastospeakitsname,neverhastoacknowledgeitsroleasanorganizingprincipleinsocialandculturalrelations”(Lipsitz,2002:61-62).AccordingtoBrendaMcMahonwhitenessincludesatleastthreelayers:(2)thephysical,phenotypalcharacteristicsandlimitedskinpigmentationassociatedwithWesternEuropeans,(2)thesocialprivilegeassociatedwithdominant,Euro-Westernculturalnorms,and(3)theunarticulatedbeliefs,policies,andpracticesthatmaintainthestatusquoandreproducepoweramongst‘white’peopleandthosewhohavemorecloselyassimilatedto‘white’culturalpractices(2007:687).JulieGuthmanfurtherproposedthat“theunconscioushabitsofwhiteprivilegeareinsomerespectsmoreperniciousthantheexplicitracismofwhitesupremacybecause[theyare]notexamined”(2011:266).Asthe‘ifonlytheyknew’narrativeimplies,whensuchassumptionsareleftunexamined,evenwell-intentionedindividualsandmovementsforsocialjusticeriskunconsciouslymeasuringothersagainsttheseunarticulatedexpectations.Insodoing,theyunintentionallyreproducethediscriminatorypracticestheymayhavesoughttoovercome.

Allthisisnottosaythatpeopleofcolourdonotparticipateinthealternativefoodmovement;indeedvariousstreamsofthemovementexistandpeopleparticipatingwithinthemarediverseassuggestedbyPriscillaMcCutcheon(2011)andA.BreezeHarper(2011)above.However,proponentsofalternativefoodpracticesandothereducatorsoughttobemindfulnottomisconstruethechallengeas“adiversityproblemratherthanasarelationalprocessembeddedinsocietythatconstitutescommunityfood”(Slocum,2006:331).Inotherwords,sincewhitenessishegemonicinNorthAmerica,

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thealternativefoodmovementslocatedthereinreflectthisculturalhegemony.Foodjusticemustthereforebeanalysedthroughamoreintersectional lens that includes an understanding of structural racismandclassisminsteadofindividualactsofexclusionorracismalone(Holt-Giménez,2011:319).Thissomewhatparadoxicallylocatestheorganicfarmingmovementasbothalternativeandmainstreamatonce,suggestingthatinfacttherearemultiple,looselyrelated,occasionallyoverlappingmovementsunderway.Fortheremainderofthispaper,whenIrefertotheorganicfarmingmovementIamreferringtothismainstream,Euro-whitealternativefoodmovement,todifferentiateitfromtheIndigenous1foodmovementdiscussedbelow.

Indigenous Food Sovereignty (IFS)

Despitethecurrentsurgeofinterestinlocal,organicfoods,colonialismcameclosetodestroyingtheIndigenousfoodsystems–andtheIndigenouspeoples–ofCanada.AsBalldescribed,IndigenouspeopleinCanadahave“withstoodtheneardestructionoftheirpopulations,socialstructures,andculturesasaresultofcolonialinterventions”(2005:3).Thesecolonialinterventionshaveincludedviolentactsofwarfare,exposuretodiseases,segregationandrestrictionoftravelthroughasystemoflandreservations,forcedsterilization,forcedconfinementofIndigenouschildreningovernmentsponsoredResidentialSchools,andsocialpoliciesthatpromotedthelegaladoptionofIndigenouschildrenintowhitefamilies(Ball,2005).ThrougharecentCanadianTruthandReconciliationCommission,“thegovernmentnowrecognizesthattheconsequencesoftheIndianResidentialSchoolspolicywereprofoundlynegativeandthatthispolicyhashadalastinganddamagingimpactonAboriginalculture,heritageandlanguage”(Regan,2010:1).Nevertheless,thelegacyofthesepolicieshasanongoingimpactnotonlyonculture,heritage,andlanguage,butalsoon food.

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Overthepastfewdecades,ratesofchronic,non-communicablediseasessuchasobesity,typeIIdiabetes,heartdisease,andsomeformsofcancerhavebeenrisingdisproportionatelyamongstIndigenouspeoples(Damman,Eide,&Kuhnlein,2008;Milburn,2004;Power,2008;WaziyatawinWilson,2004;Whiting&Mackenzie,1998).“Canada’sAboriginalpeople,forexample,haveratesofdiabetessomethreetimesthenationalaverageandhigherratesofotherchronicdiseases”(Milburn,2004:414).ThesediseasesaredirectlyattributedtotheongoingeffectsofcolonizationandtheWesternizationofIndigenouspopulationsworldwide,whichmeansthatchanges“indiets,patternsofworkandleisurehaveoccurredwithindustrialization,urbanization,economicdevelopment,andtheglobalizationofmarkets”(Damman,Eide,&Kuhnlein,2008:135).Thesedramaticlifestylechangeshaveresultedina‘nutritiontransition’awayfromtraditionalfoods(sometimescalledwildorcountryfoods)towardhighlyrefinedandprocessedstore-boughtfoods.

FactorsinfluencingthedeclineoftraditionalfoodintakeamongstIndigenouspeopleincludebutarenotlimitedto:

• increasingavailabilityofWesternfoods,includinginsomecasesculturallyinappropriatefoodaid(e.g.the‘boxesofhope’distributedamongstpoorKollaandJujuyhouseholdsinArgentina,seeDamman,Eide,&Kuhnlein,2008);

• migrationtourbancentreswherepeoplearemoreapttojointhemainstreameconomywhileadaptingtourbanlifestyles,leavinglesstimetofish,hunt,orgathertraditionalfoods.Thisalsoresultsinfeweropportunitiesforknowledgetransmissionfromelderstothenextgenerationsandweakeningsocialbondsofreciprocityintheexchangeoftraditionalfoods;

• appropriationoftraditionalterritoriesbygovernmentsandcorporations,creatingdisplacementfromanddecliningaccesstoland;

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• decreasedoverallknowledgeoftraditionalfoodpracticesduetothelegacyofcolonialeducation,includinggovernmentsuppliednutritionguides(e.g.thosethatrecommendmilktolactoseintolerantpopulations,seeMilburn,2004);

• effectsofTVadvertisingandmarketingofnotonlyWesternfoods,butalsoofWesternlifestyle;

• contaminantsfoundinsometraditionalfoods(e.g.mercuryinfishandmarinemammals,whichareimportantstaplesintheInuitdietintheCanadianNorth;seeChan&Receveur,2000),aswellasanimalextinctionandchangingmigratorypatternsduetoclimatechange;andfinally,

• feelingsofshameandculturalinferiorityassociatedwitheatingtraditionalfoods,especiallyamongstyouth.

ThislastpointislinkedtoFanon’s(1967)conceptofinternalizedracism,whereindividualsoutsidethedominatingculture,particularlycolonizedpeoples,begintoacceptthebarrageofracistmessagesintheirenvironmentandcometobelievethattheirdifferencesfromthedominantgrouptrulyaredeficitsorweaknesses.

Fortheseandmanyotherreasons,Indigenousleaders,scholars,andactivistssuchasWaziyatawinAngelaWilsonarguethat:

asIndigenousknowledgeisrevaluedandrevived,ourpeoplebecomestrongerandwefuelourcapacityformeaningfulresistancetocolonization.Indeed,acrossCanadaandinvariouspartsoftheworld,Indigenouspeoplesaremobilizingtopromote,protectand,insomecases,reclaimpre-colonialpracticesrelatedtofood(Baskin,2008;Milburn,2004;WaziyatawinWilson,2004).Theimportanceofthiswork,then,cannotbeoverstated;therecoveryofIndigenousknowledgeisIndigenousempowerment”(2004:371).

Food,therefore,cannotbeviewedinisolationfromotherformsofIndigenousknowledge.Instead,itmustbeunderstoodholisticallyinthecontextofinterdependentrelationshipsbetweenland,language,culture,artsandcrafts,health,spirituality,lifestyle,andgeneralways

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ofbeingintheworld.ThemovementofIndigenousfoodsovereigntythereforestrengthensIndigenouspeople’s“abilitytorespondtoourownneedsforhealthy,culturallyadaptedIndigenousfoods”(IndigenousFoodSystemsNetwork,n.d.,sectiononIndigenousFoodSovereignty,para.1).

Thoughthelanguageoffoodsovereigntymaybecurrent,thepractices,knowledge,values,andwisdomnecessarytomaintainbothautonomyfromtheindustrialagriculturalsystemandhealthy,respectfulrelationswiththelandarenotnew.Forexample,theIndigenousFoodSystemsNetworkpromotesfourprinciplesbasedintraditionalknowledgethatarerelatedtofoodsovereignty:

Sacred or divine sovereignty: FoodisagiftfromtheCreator;inthisrespecttherighttofoodissacredandcannotbeconstrainedorrecalledbycoloniallaws,policiesandinstitutions.Indigenousfoodsovereigntyisfundamentallyachievedbyupholdingoursacredresponsibilitytonurturehealthy,interdependentrelationshipswiththeland,plantsandanimalsthatprovideuswithourfood.

Participatory: IFSisfundamentallybasedon“action”,orthedaytodaypracticeofmaintainingculturalharvestingstrategies.TomaintainIndigenousfoodsovereigntyasalivingrealityforbothpresentandfuturegenerations,continuedparticipationinculturalharvestingstrategiesatalloftheindividual,family,communityandregionallevelsiskey.

Self-determination: The ability to respond to our own needs forhealthy,culturallyadaptedIndigenousfoods.Theabilitytomakedecisionsovertheamountandqualityoffoodwehunt,fish,gather,growandeat.Freedomfromdependenceongrocerystoresorcorporatelycontrolledfoodproduction,distributionandconsumptioninindustrializedeconomies.

Policy: IFSattemptstoreconcileIndigenousfoodandculturalvalueswithcoloniallawsandpoliciesandmainstreameconomicactivities.IFStherebyprovidesarestorativeframeworkforpolicyreforminforestry,fisheries,rangeland,environmental

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conservation,health,agriculture,andruralandcommunitydevelopment.(SeelistingforIndigenousFoodSystemsNetworkinreferences.)

WhilethesefourguidingprinciplesprovideaframeworkforIndigenousfoodsovereignty(inCanada),theyarerelatedinpurposeifnotbysignaturetoaglobalIndigenousandpeasant-basedmovementforfoodsovereigntyreferredtoasLa Via Campesina (2012)orthepeasantroad(seealsoAurelieDesmarais,2007;Borras,Jr.,2008;Martínez-Torres&Rosset,2010;Torrez,2011).Thismovementconstitutesatransnational“peasant-lednetworkthathasgrowntorepresent200millionfarmersin70countriesinAfrica,Asia,Europe,andtheAmericas,andencompassingapproximately150localandnationalorganizations”(Etmanski,inpress,para8).Everycountry’srighttoautonomousdecision-makingpoweroveragriculturalpolicy,inconsultationwithpeasantsandIndigenouspeoplesisakeyelementoftheVia Campesinamovement(Schuurman,1995).

Asmentionedabove,sincemultiple,occasionallyoverlappingfoodmovementsexist,theextenttowhichtheseglobalactionstopromoteIndigenousFoodSovereigntyareunderstoodwithinthemoremainstreamelementsoftheorganicfarmingmovementareunknown.Inmyexperienceofthismovement,Ihavelearnedaboutthestructures(e.g.corporateinterestsinunjustglobaltradepolicies)thatgiverisetothedominantagriculturalsystem,butrarelyhaveIhadconversationsabouttheactsofracismthatpermittedtheneardecimationoftheoriginalinhabitantsoftheonwhichwenowfarm.Certainly,somefarmersactivelypromotethiskindofanalysis,forexample,agrassrootsgroupinthisregion,theRainbowChardCollective,makesreferencetoLa Via Campesina and argues that theirown“workasfoodactivistsisnotdoneuntilitismadeaccessibletoall”(RainbowChardCollective,March,2011,n.p.).Althoughtheselargerstrugglesforfoodsovereigntyaredirectlylinkedtothepoliticalcontextoftheorganicfarmingmovement,whetherornot

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theprivilegeofwhitenessprecludesawarenessofthesestrugglesisatopicthatmeritsmoreresearch.

Food as a potential means of solidarity

AlthoughtheorganicfarmingmovementandIndigenousfoodsovereigntymovementarefundamentallyrelatedthroughtheirfocusonfood,withproponentsnodoubtintersectingandoverlappingtosomeextent,theyappeartobeemergingonparallelratherthandeeplyinterconnectedtrajectories.Whilesomescholarshave(cautiously)suggestedthatorganicfarmers’knowledgeisaformofIndigenousknowledge(Sumner,2008),othershaveproposed“that it is essential to open an inquiry into sustainable food practices thatdonotoperateinoppositionto,butratherautonomouslyfromthemainstreamfoodsmovement”(Mares&Peña,2011:200).Asdescribedabove,sincereclaimingIndigenousfoodsystemsisanactofself-determination,empowerment,andresistancetoongoingracismandtheeffectsofcolonization,themovementforIndigenousfoodsovereigntywilllikelycontinuegainingmomentumonaparallelcoursetotheorganicfarmingmovement.Myintention,therefore,isnottosuggestthatIndigenousFoodSovereigntybecomesubsumedundertheorganicfoodmovement.

Yet,inreturningtothequestionofwhatopportunitiesexisttomoreexplicitlylinkanintersectionalsocialjusticeperspective(inparticular,ananti-racistandIndigenousRightsperspective)tothesmall-scaleorganicfarmingmovement,AlisonHopeAlkonandJulianAgyemanputforwardaverypracticalstance.Theyhavecalledforsolidarityofeffortbyvirtueoftherelativelyprivilegedmembersoftheorganicfarmingmovementseeing“thelow-incomecommunitiesandcommunitiesofcolormostdeeplyharmedbyindustrialagricultureaspotentialallies”(Alkon&Agyeman,2011:332).Otherwisestated,“ifactivistsinthefoodmovementaretogobeyondprovidingalternativesandtrulychallengeagribusiness’sdestructivepower,they

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willneedabroadcoalitionofsupporters”(Alkon&Agyeman,2011:4;seealsoMares&Peña,2011).Respectfulengagementwillnodoubtmeanmovingbeyondasuperficialoraestheticdesiretobecomemorediverse,towardacriticallyreflexiverelationshipbasedonmutuallearning,nottomentionaleveloftolerancefortheimperfectpoliticsofsolidarity(DuPuis,Harrison,&Goodman,2011).Inmycommunity,thiswillalsoinvolveunsettlingthesettler(Regan,2010)througharecognitionthattheorganicfarmingmovementexistsbyvirtueofsettlementonuncededIndigenouslands.

Saiddifferently,thiscallforsolidarityacrossdifferenceisreflectedinVandanaShiva’s(2005)worktodemonstratethesymboliclinkbetweenthelongstandingpracticeofseedsavingtomaintainbiodiversityandtheinherentvalueofhumandiversity.Shearguedthat:

Theseedsbeingpushedtoextinctioncarrywithinthemseedsofotherwaysofthinkingaboutnature,andotherwaysoffulfillingourneeds.[…]Cultivatingandconservingdiversityisnoluxuryinourtimes.Itisasurvivalimperative.Itisthepre-conditionforfreedomforall.Indiversity,thesmallesthasaplaceandarole,andallowingthesmalltoflourishbecomestherealtestoffreedom.(Shiva,2005:94).

Assuch,notonlydoessolidarityacrossdifferenceofferabroadercoalitionofsupportagainstthepracticesofindustrialagriculture,inthesetimeswherewearefacedwithincreasinglycomplexsocio-economicandecologicalchallenges,thevalueofnotonlyremembering,butworkingtogethertoactivelyregeneratediverseknowledgescannotbeunderestimated.

Nevertheless,asfarmersandeducatorsintheorganicfarmingmovementfindsanappropriatebalancebetweenrespectingautonomyandseekingwaysofworkinginsolidarityacrossdifference,itwillalsobeusefultounderstandthatnotallknowledgeismeanttobesharedwithallpeopleatalltimes.“Thisnotionofknowledge-

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sharing,orafreelyaccessibleknowledgecommonsisitselfaeuro-centricassumption”(Corntassel&Gaudry,inpress).ThismeansthatEldersandknowledge-keepersmaychoosetheconditionsunderwhichcertainknowledgecanandwillbeshared.Membersoftheorganicfarmingmovementwhoseektoworkacrossdifferencemustrespectthisfundamentalrighttoautonomyanddesiretoprotectknowledgesthatwerenearlydecimatedthroughcolonialpractices.

Conclusion

Thispaperhasaimedtoraiseawarenessamongsteducatorsinterestedinlearningthroughtheorganicfarmingmovement,bysuggestingthatweoughttoattendmoreexplicitlytothepoliticsofrace,class,andotherdimensionsofpowerandprivilegeembeddedinthismovement.Thecritiquepresentedhererepresentsanareaofpotentialgrowthnotonlyforfarmers,butalsoforconsumersoforganicoralternativefoods.However,responsibilitytocriticallyexaminetheembeddedEurocentricassumptionsofthismovementandworktomitigatethedetrimentaloutcomesofsuchassumptionsextendsfarbeyondtheroleoffarmersandconsumers,especiallyasfarmersthemselvesareoftenfacingeconomicconstraints(Pilgeram,2011;Tunnicliffe,2011).Thoseofuswhoself-identifyaseducators,includingme,havearoletoplayinraisingawarenessandcreatinganinfrastructureofsupportfordeepeningtheanti-racistandclassanalysiswithintheorganicoralternativefoodmovement.Thisanalysisincludesacknowledgingthatalthoughmembersofthismovementmaybestrugglingagainstthedetrimentaleffectsofindustrialagricultureworldwide,manyofusaresimultaneouslybenefittingfromtheprivilegeofwhiteness.Moreover,thisprivilegeisnotnecessarilyperpetuatedbyindividualactsofracism,thoughtheymayofcourseoccur.RatherthelegacyofcolonialismhascreatedandmaintainedstructuralinjusticeforIndigenouspeoplesinmanypartsoftheworld,injusticeperpetuatedthroughreducedaccesstohealthy,culturallyappropriatefoods.AsIndigenouspeoplesfightfor

Catherine Etmanski 501

sovereignty,notonlyoffood,butofcultural,linguistic,andspiritualpracticesthatservetoregeneratetheirhealth,adulteducatorscommittedtothegoaloffoodjusticehaveanopportunitytolearnhowtobecomebetterallies.

Notes

1InlinewithWaziyatawinWilson,Iamgivingpreferencetotheword“Indigenous”overotherterminologysuchasFirstNations,AboriginalPeoples,AmericanIndiansandsoon,“becauseoftheimplicitnotionofcomingfromthelandandbeingoftheland,[whichsupports]apoliticaldeclarationabout[Indigenouspeoples’]claimstotheland”(2004:371).

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About the author

Catherine Etmanski is an Assistant Professor in the School of Leadership Studies at Royal Roads University, Canada. Her current program of research focuses on examples of collaborative leadership and informal, experiential learning in the small-scale organic farming movement, with a particular focus on food sovereignty on Vancouver Island. She continues to draw upon her doctoral research (2007), which employed arts-based research to promote and explore transformative learning and embodied ways of knowing with international graduate students..

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Contact details

School of Leadership Studies, Faculty of Social and Applied Sciences, Royal Roads University, 2005 Sooke Road, Victoria, BC, Canada V9B 5Y2.

Email: catherine.etmanski@royalroads.ca