A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .
-
Upload
britney-hawkins -
Category
Documents
-
view
221 -
download
3
Transcript of A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .
![Page 1: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
A course on
Honours College version2014
Lecturer: Hans van de SandeWWW.VANDESANDEINLEZINGEN.NL
![Page 2: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Activities implying social influence
![Page 3: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Another exampleIn fact: everything in and about this page is social influence
![Page 4: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
CONTENTS of the courseI. Human nature and social influence
– Orientation, What is social psychology? Themes in SP– Human nature, McDougall, Nature vs nurture in humans and society
(Tönnies)– Emotion, Trust, Ethology– Belonging vs Excelling, Dominance, Formal vs. informal
hierarchies, Power is potential influence, Power is given, Philosophical basics.
II. The situation and social influence– Appraisal, Ecological psychology, Affordances, – Reversal theory, – General Theories:Social Impact Theory, Groupmind, Ecological Ps.
III. Leadership and social influence: Power vs Rules
– Power tactics, Idiosyncrasy credits and ESM, Power vs rules– Rules and norms, rule formation, Elias:aggression – Varieties of leadership, Charisma Narcism
![Page 5: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Theme 1Lecture 1 Oct 30
Human nature and social influence
![Page 6: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
part 1
Social psychology described
![Page 7: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
The canon of Social Psychology is mainly the canon of Social Influence
![Page 8: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
some SP quotes• ALLPORT: Social psychologists consider their
science as an endeavour to understand and explain the way in which thoughts, emotions and behaviour of the individual are influenced by the real, imagined or implied presence of other human beings
• MCGARTY& HASLAM:[]all people are [necessarily]
amateur social psychologists. {But many people can escape being an amateur cognitive psychologist, cell biologist, economist, astronomer, sociologist or physicist.}
•
• Groffen: Every theory selects its own facts• Stapel: Every scientist makes his own facts • Hegel: So much the worse for the facts
![Page 9: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Grand themes in SocPsych• Approach-avoidance
• Motivation, fight-flight, ethology, conflict, attraction, cohesion• Communication
• Communication theory, mass comm., NV comm., lying• Decision
• Ratio, bounded rationality, altruism, game theory, dilemma's, SEU, prospect theory, economic psychology, choice of partner
• Image formation • Cognitive SP, prejudice, attitude theory, social representations
• Imitation • Conformity, modelling, fashion, contamination,
synchronisation• Power
• Social influence, hierarchies, leadership, authority, control, rules, norms
![Page 10: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Characteristics of SP thinking• SP in present form: American, Production oriented,
Aversive toward spirituality, Beta oriënted, Experimental
So SP type thinking is characterised by:• Monocausality, and linear relations• Either-Or thinking (critical experiments)
• Democracy as central value• Aversive of vitalism (e.g. behaviorisme)
• A-poëtic and a-intellectual oriëntation (APA manual)
• High degree of control in way of saying things• Strong conformity and susceptibility to fads• Description, no prescription (comp. Andragogy)
• Thinking in terms of processes (not structures)
• Aiming for Achievement and Efficiency (Publish or perish)
• Admiration for clever use of statistics
![Page 11: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Three kinds of GD, Three kinds of SP1. Scientific reserch, mostly through experiments, on
behaviour in small task-groups (Triplett, 1895, Mayo, 1930, Lewin, 1940, Festinger, 1950, etc)
2. The application of the results of these studies in practice (J.Remmerswaal, Handboek Groepsdynamica)
3. The ideology that goal directedness is the core of work, that work is always work in teams, that leadership should always be democratic, that performance is always enhanced by rewards and that equity is the goal of every human being (eg ‘belief in a just world’)
![Page 12: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Part 2
Human nature
![Page 13: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Making top quality can be time consuming
• Earth: 5 billion years• Life on earth: 3 billion years• Poly-cellular: 1 billion years• Vertebrates : 500 million years• Mammals: 200 million years• Primates: 30 million years• Hominides: 2 million years• Homo sapiens: 200.000 years
200 mil 100 mil 20 mil
5 4 3 2 1
![Page 14: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
William McDougall(1871-1938)
• McDougall studied medicine and physiology at the University of Cambridge and in London, and Göttingen. After teaching at University College London and Oxford, he was recruited by William James to Harvard University, where he served as a professor of psychology from 1920 to 1927. He then moved to Duke University where he remained until his death. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among his students was Cyril Burt
• Uit: Murchison A History of Psychology in Autobiography ( http://www.webcitation.org/5Y7KtO9iC )
• In 1907 I wrote my Social Psychology, which, I imagine, will be reckoned my most original contribution to psychology. It was written by invitation as a member of a projected series of semipopular scientific books, after the style of the old international series. The other members of the series never materialized. I had no thought that it might be used as a college textbook. I wrote for the general public. The genesis of the main thesis of that book is, I think, of some slight interest. Lecturing one day in 1906, I found myself making the sweeping assertion that the energy displayed in every human activity might in principle be traced back to some inborn disposition or instinct. When I returned home I reflected that this was a very sweeping generalization, one not to be found in any of the books; and that, if it was true, it was very important. I set to work to apply the principle in detail, becoming more and more convinced both of its truth and of its importance; and my Social Psychology emerged.
Yet in the main I have lived hitherto the sort of life which in my youth I judged to be the most desirable; and that perhaps is all a man can properly demand. Even if my books are very much at fault, many of their readers may have profited in some degree from the intellectual effort to comprehend them. I have done no great wrongs; and, as I often tell myself, it is something to have done my part in bringing up a little flock of whom I may justly be proud. And yet, was it right to bring them into existence? Was the Buddha's teaching true? It is a deep question, and I have found no answer
The main instincts and emotions according to McDougall
1. Flight : Fear
2. Avoidance ; Disgust
3. Curiosity : Amazement
4. Fighting : Anger
5. Dominance : Pride
6. Child care : Love
7. Procreation : ??????
8. Herd instinct
9. Collecting : Avarice
10. Construction
![Page 15: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
© 2011 JP van de Sande RuGSome conjectures about ‘Nature’• Nature is the underground. Culture, and thus learning, is what grows
on it. Everyone is his own gardener. Gardeners copy• Does nature provide us with Fixed Action Patterns?
– In lower animals often, in higher ones seldom. What is given is a possibility and a motivation. The rest we have to acquire through playing, modelling and rehearsing. Humans moreover are great ruminators of ideas
• What is this ‘motivation?– Positive emotion when we succeed, negative when we fail (proximate)– Plus a good memory for experience: succes stamps in, pain stamps out
(Thorndike 1910, Law of effect) (proximate)
• Isn’t that a resuscitation of hedonism (epicurism), and thus of reinforcement theory?– Indeed, but in an evolution-theoretical context, and of wider scope
• What could have been the evolutionary mechanism? (ultimate)– Animals that don’t like eating/copulating/child care/equity/hoarding or what other
basic concern, have less off spring. So we all descend from people who juist loved eating/copulating/child care/equity/hoarding or what other basic concern
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BASIC CONCERNS (≈ instinct)
Common to animals and manMust be universal for all human cultures (e.g. Brown, 1991)
Must give pleasure in success and pain in failureMust be important for fitness Must be inborn, not acquiredMust be flexible and malleable through learningMust occur in two forms: Earnest and PlayMust have a high degree of generality Must be easily interpretable in terms of behaviour
In humans: Must be so dependable in its potential profit that a whole and important branch of industry can be founded on it
![Page 16: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGMan travels along two railsNATURE
Procreation Child care BelongingReconnoiteringStatus Aggression CommunicationForagingHoardingTerritorialityHunting BuildingExchange Body care Resting MigrationPlay
CULTURERELATIONS, EDUCATION, PEDAGOGICSFORMS OF SOCIETY, STATES, UNIONSIDEALS, VALUES, EVALUATIONSHEROES, MYTHS, FAIRY TALESGOVERNMENT, POLITICS, JURIDICAL
SYSTEM, ARGUMENTATION, RHETORICS
RULES, NORMS, CUSTOMS, FOLKLORE, LAWS
SCIENCE, RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY, RATIONALITY, ECONOMICS
WARFARE, FORTIFICATIONLANGUAGE, POETRY, NOVELS, FILMEATING, DRINKING, GOURMANDISE,
WINE, FESTIVALS, CAFE’STECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, APPARATUS,
WEAPONS, MAGIC, COMPUTERS ART, BUILDINGS, ORNAMENTATIONTRADE, BANKING, ADMINISTRATINGCLOTHING, COSMETICS, BATHINGIMMIGRATION, VACATION, TRAVELGAMES, SPORTS, CHESS, THEATRE
COMPUTERGAMING
![Page 17: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
© 2011 JP van de Sande RuGStatus • In animals: Dominance hierarchy, Tournaments, Fights, Signalling
systems
• In humans: Ambition, Competition, Respect, Obedience, Mercedes, Apple, Armani, Gucci, Aristocracy, Outdo the neighbours, Mobbing, Power struggle, Arrogance, Body building, Breast implants, Conspicuous consumption, Jewellery, Skyboxes, Platforms and moreover: a lot of JEALOUSY
• As play: All competitions: football, hockey, bridge, golf, Alpinism, Championships, Political debates, Board games, Coma drinking
• Societal consequences: Hierarchies, Monarchy, Rat race, Competitive society, Status symbols, Status industry, Sports, Top 10/50/100 etc, Lists, High and Low culture, Differentiation in neighbourhoods, schools & universities, Honours college
• Regulation by culture: Informal: hardly; Formal: strong; Culture is in itself a status system
![Page 18: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGMankind is changing tracksNATURE
We are emotional mammals‘Instincts’ and emotionsWeak impulse controlNarcism is an illnessSlow development
SOCIETY: GemeinschaftNeed to belongGroup goalsRules for behaviourDuty; Honour; TraditionConservative; StabilityReligion; MagicCharismatic leadershipSTRONG TIES
In crisis:Cohesion & cooperation upImprovisation Fight/flight
CULTUREWe are rational thinkers
Norms & ValuesCost-Benefit analysisNarcism is normalQuick planning
SOCIETY: GesellschaftNeed for freedomGoals are individualisticFashions for behaviourFreedom; Money; ChangeProgressive; DynamicIdeology; ScienceTransactional leadershipWEAK TIES
In crisis:Cohesion & cooperation down Planning & prioritiesProfessionalism
![Page 19: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Part 3
Ethology, Ratio and emotion
![Page 20: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
The social animal I• Man is a social animal, thus great importance of
– Groups (membership/reference; primary/secondary)– Sense of belonging (to family, friends, society etc.)– Communication (Style, source, credibility)– Norms and rules
– (Once borders of ‘Normal’ are passed, stopping is difficult)
– Knowing when and how to rule, knowing when and how to obey: STATUS
• Man is a rational and flexible animal and thus– He easily accepts a replacement as the real thing
(the mother and the mouse trap)
• E.g. Nescafe, Twitter, drugs, prostitution, TV, canned vegs, cell phone communication, botox
![Page 21: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Humans and Apes
![Page 22: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGCONCLUSIONS• We share Human nature with our animal brethren
– This gives us drive and emotions
• Humans moreover have inherited enormous cognitive capabilities
– This gives us flexibility and enormously increased learning capacity– This makes that the play-period is much longer than in other species
• These two aspects reflect themselves in societies• Societies are impossible without Social influence
– In Gemeinschaft-like societies SI is often exerted for group purposes– In Gesellschaft-like societies typically for individual purposes
• SI has many forms: modelling, leadership, imitation, norms, rules, laws, threats, identification etc.
• People differ in the way they react on their surroundings– Pigs as well!
![Page 23: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Part 4
Belonging vs Excelling
![Page 24: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGThe social animal II• The basic concern to Belong tells us that we must stick to
our groups, and, if necessary, search new groups• If we live in a Gemeinschaft it is mostly sticking to, and that
forever. In a Gesellschaft it is continuous search and change• The basic concern of Dominance tells us that we must try
to get one up on our fellow beings• The other side of the coin is that we also are very good in
submission• If we live in a Gemeinschaft we must submit to an often
harsh ruler: The In a Gesellschaft we are much more free, e.g. in changing jobs or partners or friends. But we often function in a formal hierarchy.
• There’s a catch somewhere. Where?
![Page 25: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
© 2011 JP van de Sande RuGThe catch• Being social (friendly, adaptable, empathic) is
necessary to belong• But being social does not get you an position
• Striving after dominance and status implies being competitive, egoistical and ruthless
• But being competitive tends to drive you out of the group
• In the Gemeinschaft this conflict was institutionally solved by common goals (e.g. religion)
• The individual was therefore in continuous danger (eg.sacrifice)
• In the Gesellschaft there is a lack of these common goals • Therefore in a Gesellschaft the institutions are in danger
![Page 26: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Two kinds of dominance (Kalma, 1992)
STATUS
INCLUSION
CORE GROUP
PERIFERAL MEMBERS
Soc.Dom.Aggr.Dom.
![Page 27: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Formal vs Informal hierarchy
Differences between F and IF I
Designed/≈rational Evolved/≈emotionalPositions PersonsExternally composed Internally composedHigher level decides Coalition decidesCan be reorganised StableMixed sex Same sexIn- & Extrinsic rewards Intrinsic rewardsMany at the bottom Only 1 at bottom
![Page 28: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Part 5
What is power?
![Page 29: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGfMRI: Dominance research• Schjelderupp-Ebbe was the first to investigate dominance hierarchies
• Function of this (norm) system is to get more time for other concerns
• That implies that individuals are less aroused in an existing and stable dominance hierarchy than in uncertain hierarchies
• This was indeed the outcome of:
• Zink, Tong, Chen, Bassett, Stein & Meyer-Lindenberg (2008) Know Your Place: Neural Processing of Social Hierarchy in Humans Neuron, 58, 273-283
![Page 30: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
When thinking or talking about power we are easily blinded:
• By size
• By beautiful colours
• By impressing displays
• By bluffing (seeming ruthlessness)
• By frightening or threatening behaviour
• By conspicuousness
• By earnestness of expression
De alpha
![Page 31: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
© 2011 JP van de Sande RuGInfluential thinkers on Power• Machiavelli (1513) Power is something you can possess.
In order not to loose it drastic measures may be necessary, because they work better than the ethical correct ones
• Hobbes (1651) The natural state of mankind is the “war of all against all”. To mitigate that, a strong state (Leviathan) is necessary. ‘The mitre and the sword’
• Nietzsche (1885) Man, but in fact all of nature, has a stong will to power: Wille zur Macht. Will, in this sense, is that which happens necessarily
• Adler (1920) Power is the ground of all our thinking and feeling. If we feel to have not enough power we may develop an Inferiority complex.
![Page 32: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
© 20011JP van de Sande RuGPower as SP sees it• Influence is when something acts in a way it would
otherwise not have acted• P can influence O by physical or social power• Power is potential influence• If we use power it tends to wear thin• Power only works when O is susceptible to it• So power rests in the needs of the subordinate• So power is rather given than taken• Therefore democracy often works better than
despotism• But not always
![Page 33: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
The bases of power (French & Raven, 1958)
• Power must of course be founded on something. According to SP canon power bases are:– Reward
– Punishment
– Identification
– Authority
– Expertise
– Information
• The bases of power lie in the needs of O. (the less powerful)
• Because these needs change through habitation , power wears down
• Power is always reciprocal: both parties have power sources (power and counter power: The balance of Power)
economic
relation
knowledge
![Page 34: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Kelman’s 3 kinds of influence (1958)
• Compliance – Behavioral theory/Exchange theory
– Impression related motives
• Identification– Depth psychology
– Validity seeking motives
• Internalization– Cognitive Psychology
– Ego defensive motives
No pressure to conform
Under high pressure to conform.
![Page 35: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Influence differentially appreciated1. In some circumstances influence is very welcome:
1. When coming from friend (help, advice, support)
2. When giving advantage for self (subsidy, investment)
3. But only when both these factors are certain (trust)
2. In many circumstances influence is not welcome:1. When coming from possible enemy
2. When involving possible cost for self
3. When situation is uncertain 3. Therefore people show Resistance to change
1. Reactance: resistance to influence attempt2. Skepticism: doubt about the content of proposal3. Inertia: not wanting to change
![Page 36: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGASSIGNMENT I• WRITE A SHORT ESSAY and send it to me Sunday 24:00
– The subject is: Influences in the life of a student• First step: Friday gather data
– For Instance: Tomorrow you take note every hour at exactly XX:00 hours, what influence attempts you have undergone that hour and which you exerted, or devise something even more brilliant
– Note whether it was physical or social
• Second step: Saturday do some analysis• Pose yourself questions like: How many of each kind?• Is there a daily trend?• How sure are you of the reliability and validity of your data?
• Third step: Sunday write a paper – of about 678 words ;-), consisting of
• a) a beginning • b) a middle part and • c) an ending (cf: Aristotle, POETICS, ca 350 bC)
![Page 37: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Assignment1 GENERAL REMARKS about earlier papers
TRENDS:Not many looked at ‘trends’. Obviously the idea is easily pooh poohed. This is not justified at all
PERIOD: Most took care to delineate the observation periodSITUATION: Not every situation was described. Let alone carefully described
PHYSICAL/SOCIAL is difficult opposition. No one remarked on that. Maybe better is: physical/psychological or Individual/social.
(note: psychical means: relating to parapsychology)
UNITS OF OBS: Problem in observations is the size of the unities observed: Shopping or taking something from the shelf. Sports or calling: Here that ball!
REL & VAL: Reliability is whether you can repeat the measurement with the same result. In Psychol. mostly applied to questionnaires or tests. (Test-Retest; Split half) In observation difficultValidity is whether the measurement tells you something you wanted to know (construct validity, predictive validity)
GENERALISING: Generalisability is a related concept, meaning whether the conclusions drawn from the study have a wider applicability outside the situation in which you did your study
POWER VS RULES was not a main point in most analyses. Yet it is the main point in the course
REPORTING: Only some give their observations in a table. Only half gave understandable comments on their observations (but without showing them). The rest only gave conclusions. Bad show!!
![Page 38: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Theme 2
The situation and social influence
![Page 39: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Part 1
Appraisal of the situation
![Page 40: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Van Heck’s taxonomy of situations• Interpersonal conflict, disasters, fights
• Cooperation, exchange of ideas
• Intimacy, relations en sexual activity
• Recreation, amusement, partying
• Travelling
• Rituals, religion, funerals
• Sports and competition
• Excesses (sex and booze), gambling, hypnosis
• House keeping, serving
• Buying, selling, trading
![Page 41: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Interaction between Person and Situation• Situation influences person:
probabilities of behaviour change through:
– Possibilities and impossibilities of certain behaviours (affordances) – Activating c.q. suppressing of fixed action patterns (FAPs)
– Generating an idea in the head of the person (‘Priming’)
– Contaminating the person with an emotion or an idea (eg. Contagious songs)
• Person influences situation:– Seeking out certain types of situations
– Influence the situation by conserving or changing it
– Look for a different situation
– Deny the characteristics of the situation or misperceive it
![Page 42: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
HOW BEHAVIOUR IS DIRECTED
PERSON habits characteristics sex, class, age education abilities character
SITUATION compulsivenessof situation
PERCEPTION of SITUATIONCOMFORTABLE? (LEUK) STIMULATING? CONTROL? (BANG) CHALLENGE? (SAAI)
US/THEM FEELING? FORMAL?
EMOTION
BEHAVIOUR
RUMINATION
![Page 43: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Appraisal Review vdSande (27 studies)
These 6 dimensions were used most frequently to make sense ofSituations. Consequently these dimensions are important in determining the way we react on situations.
![Page 44: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Part 2
An original vision on motivation
![Page 45: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGREVERSAL THEORY (Apter, 2002)• Humans (and animals) do not always function in the same
manner, in fact differences between you today and you tomorrow may be greater than between you and me : STATES instead of TRAITS
• States are Bi-stable (either one or the other) and vary along different dimensions
• E.g. TELIC----PARATELIC ( )– Sometimes we are goal directed and serious – Sometimes we look for new goals, in a playful way
• Reversals between states can be frequent or infrequent: – Satiation : And now for something completely different– Situation : The situation elicits a reversal (eg. Sports field)– Frustration : You don’t succeed, or it becomes too dangerous – Imitation : Others can be highly contagious
![Page 46: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Reversal Theory (Apter, 1980)
telic
paratelic
quiet sensation
aversive
agreeable
![Page 47: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGReversal Theory (Apter, 2002)
PLAYCONFORM RULE EGO
SERIOUS REBELSYMPA ALTER
GOALS RULES TRANSACTION RELATION
![Page 48: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Part 3
Endeavours towards general theories
![Page 49: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Social Impact theory (Latane, 1981)• Law of social impact (=influence)
I = f (SIN)• Or: Impact of a sender of influence is a
function of Strength, Immediacy en Number
• A considerbly more complicated version is:
I = f a(SpIqNr)• Moreover Latane made a Dynamic variant: Consolidation (majority
wins), Clustering (forming of Subgroups), Correlation (Convergence on several points) & Continuing diversity
![Page 50: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
The GROUP-MIND
• Group mind exists :– LeBon (1895),
Durkheim (1912)
• Group mind result of identification:– Freud (1922)
• Groups are more than the sum of parts:– Lewin (1939)
• Group has personality– Cattell (1952)
• Group mind doesn’t exist; Group = sum of parts– Allport (1924)
• Group mind is artefact of social identity– Reicher (1990)
• Group behaviour is normal synchronised behaviour– McPhail (1992)– Social cognition
PRO CONTRA
![Page 51: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Undermanned1. Show strong, frequent and varied
actions in carrying out goal related behaviour
2. Act to correct inadequate behaviour of others
3. Be reluctant to reject group members whose behaviour is inadequate
4. Feel important, responsible and versatile as a result of their participation
5. Be concerned about the continued maintenance of the group
6. Be less sensitive to and evaluative of individual differences among group members
7. Think of themselves and other group members in terms of the jobs they do rather than in terms of personality characteristics
Overmanned1. Perform tasks in a perfunctory,
lackadaisical manner2. Show a high degree of task
specialisation
3. Demonstrate little concern for the quality of the group product
4. Exert little effort in helping others in the group
5. Feel cynical about the group and its functions
6. Evidence low self esteem, with little sense of competence and versatility
7. Focus on personalities and idiosyncrasies of people in the group rather than on task related matters
Barker & Gump (1964). Under- en over- manningAlso see: Ganster & Dwyer. (1995) J.Management
![Page 52: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGAssignment IIWRITE A SHORT ESSAY and hand it to me next time
The subject is: Situations in the life of a student
Think of 3 different situations in which you often find yourself(e.g. studying in UB, drinking with friends in pub, doing sports, shopping or whatever)
Describe which rules you feel that govern your behaviourWhich rules are general and which situation specific?In how far are you a different person in each of these
situations?
Some 621 words should do the trick.
![Page 53: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Theme 3Lecture 3 Nov 11th
Leadership and social influence: Power vs Rules
![Page 54: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGTypes of social influenceEXAMPLES of activities
1. Advertising
2. Application
3. Associating
4. Attitude change
5. Befriending
6. Brainstorming
7. Buying
8. Caring
9. Communication
10. Competing
11. Conforming
12. Copulating
13. Crime
14. Crying
15. Dating
16. Drinking
17. Eating
18. Educating
19. Fads
20. Fashion
21. Following
22. Forming
23. Hiring
24. Hypnotizing
25. Individual sports
26. Kissing
27. Laughing
Implying Social Influence
28. Law giving
29. Leading
30. Lying
31. Marketing
32. Marrying
33. MPI
34. Murdering
35. Norming
36. Panic
37. Performing
38. Persuading
39. Propaganda
40. Racism
41. Resistance
42. Resisting
43. Scares
44. Scoring
45. Selling
46. Smiling
47. Smoking
48. Squatting
49. Stealing
50. Team spirit
51. Team sports
52. Teen spirit
53. Tempting
54. The wave
CLASSES of Influence
I SIGNSPhysical coercion (e.g. walls, entrances etc)Physical suggestions (e.g. paths, windows)Impersonal coercion (e.g. prohibition signs)Impersonal suggestions (e.g. arrows, signs)Personal coercion (e.g. threatening, bullying)Personal suggestions (e.g. answering, smiling)
II NORMSImpersonal rules (e.g. laws, codes, regulations)Impersonal norms (e.g. directions, instructions)Personal rules (e.g. directions by authority)Personal norms (e.g. manners, altruism, attire, etc.)
III VALUESImpersonal moral values (e.g. equity, fairness)Impersonal values (e.g. innovation, modernity)Personal moral values (e.g. charity, Pol.correctnes)Personal values (e.g. hobbies, involvement)
IV POWER6 power basesPower tactics
![Page 55: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Part 1
Influence theory applied
![Page 56: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Falbo’s view on power tacticsRATIONALOften towards superiors
IRRATIONAL
DIRECTOften by superiors
DISCUSSION
REQUEST
INSTRUCTION
NEGOTIATION
PERSUASION
PUNISHING
PERSISTING
FAIT ACCOMPLI
PRESSURE
THREATENING DEMANDING
INDIRECTOften by inferiors
SHOWING EXPERTISE
CLAIMING EXPERTISE
DISENGAGEMENT
HINTING
MANIPULATE
SUPPLICATE
INGRATIATE
AVOIDING
EVADING
![Page 57: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
How to become powerful• A good beginning is: the silver spoon, a good
marriage or a good education• Everybody can become powerful (meritocracy) but you
have to work for it• Others must have the idea that they profit from what
you do
• Initially you must show that you like the group by showing conformity. For OKP (OSM) that is relatively simple
• If you don’t you will not be trusted and your achievements won’t be appreciated too
• If you do, you can try to achieve. If you’re trusted that is seen as positive for the group, you will slowly gain idiosyncrasy credit (Hollander, 1971)
![Page 58: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
A similar model (EST Berger, 1980)
StatusCharacteristics
Expectation State
Evaluation Status
• Observable Status-related-characteristics form beginning (appearance, relations, behavior, sex, race)
• Every group member gets his own Expectation state (≈reputation)• Behavior is important > achievements (=evaluation) but also group-
orientedness (=trust) • Informal status is given by colleagues, Formal status by superiors• High status members have more privileges qua unimportant rules, but
demands are higher qua central rules (status liability)
Opportunity to behave Behavior
![Page 59: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Personal power vs. RulesSocial influence has two forms• Direct, through personal power and influence on basis of respect
– Quick; Often simple tactics like threat are enough – Can be perceived as inequitable, negative and aversive: Power wears down
• Indirect, through rules and impersonal influence– Slow: rules must be made and refined. They must become ‘normal’– Are felt as equitable: if well vindicated, no wear and tear
• Just like power, rules are a means of having your way • When the existing rules suit you, it becomes unnecessary to
use your personal power• In the human world rules are very important, but we only
notice a very small part of them, as we are ‘rule-blind’• Humans are not very fond of the unpredictable• The more culture, the more rules (cf. Elias, The civilisation process, 1938)
![Page 60: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Part 2
Rules and conflicts
![Page 61: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
How we form rules• Essentially by making an agreement (implicit or explicit)
• This agreement can be subconscious (such as in Fashion, Fads, Fears, Norms etc)
• Two kinds of agreement:– Formal (laws, contracts): Difficult to change, detrimental for trust– Informal (understanding, gentlemen’s agreement): Can be changed
if trust exists
• Other way of looking at norms (Cialdini, 1995) : a) Norms in the form of rules (injunctive )
b)Norms in the form of what others do (descriptive)
c) Moreover: idiosyncratic norms
• If a) & b) are conflicting, “the turnips are cooked” (cf. Cialdini, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion, 2001)
![Page 62: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Figurationsociology: Norbert Elias (1938-2008)
Human culture changes, and these changes are caused by social influence. How?
• Humans tend to copy the habits of their equals
• People who consider themselves better, take care to develop ‘better’ norms (e.g. ‘gentleman-like)
• So: Aristocracy walks in front• The general status characteristic
affect control is very important for distinguishing oneself as superior
• Innovation is caused by copying habits of superiors and thus the more simple norms and rules (But not always the affect control!)
• So civilisations develop into a more and more detailed system of norms
![Page 63: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Agression as a‘normed’ phenomenon, a historical view
1700 1800 1900 2000
TORTURE
DUELLING
DEATH PENALTY
USE OF FIREARMS
POSSESSION OF FIREARMS
RAPE
BEATING SPOUSE
COLONIALISM
FIGHTING
BEATING CHILDREN
RESISTANCE AGAINST STATE
![Page 64: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Us/Them (Intergroup) conflict
COMPETITION
NEG. POWERTACTICS
CATEGORISATION
C
O
N
F
L
I
C
T
EXT.ATTRIBUTION
MISPERCEPTION
ING- OUTG.BIASSTEREOTYPES MORAL (DIABOLISATION)
VIRILE
COMMITMENT
RECIPROCITY
AROUSAL
C
O
N
F
L
I
C
TCOHESION
IN-G-COOPERATION
![Page 65: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Part 3
Leadership as influence
![Page 66: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
POWER IS GIVEN not taken• To gain power one has to prove himself as trustworthy• If inferiors have no trust, the powerholder will be sabotaged• The impression of shared interest is central here• That’s why social network is important (de Waal, 1982)
• Coalitions are the motor of evaluations and thus of attribution of status
• Evaluation of behaviour is therefore important• Two aspects critical: Treatment & Social skills• Power, like trust, comes on foot and leaves on horseback• This means that much power is based on COMPLIANCE,
some on IDENTIFICATION and a little bit on INTERNALISATION, all on the side of the followers
![Page 67: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
PROBLEMSOLVING for FOLLOWERS
![Page 68: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
LEADERSHIP• Leadership implies something that is being led
• Is that “the organisation”? Not in a ‘Gemeinschaft’
• It is always a group of people, and the processes within this group, that are being influenced
• Leading is influencing in a desired direction, but also influencing the desires
• The more leading is felt to be ‘natural’ the better• Two main types: Task leader & Social-emotional leader (Bales, 1950)
• Some leaders score high on both• Other typology: Transactional & Transformational leader• Last type derived from Charismatic leadership
(Weber, 1922,http://www.textlog.de/7415.html)
![Page 69: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Another 2 varieties of being a leader
•
![Page 70: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Visions on leadership• Hitler: to be a leader means to be able to move masses
• Ho Chi Minh: to use people is like using wood. A skilled worker can make use of all kinds of wood, be it big or small, straight or crooked
• Eisenhower: leadership is the ability to decide what is to be done, and then to get others to want to do it
• Truman: a leader is a man who has the ability to get other people to do what thay don’t want to do, and like it
• Disraeli: I must follow the people. Am I not their leader?
• Ford: The question who must be the boss is like the question who will sing bass in a quartet
• Bonaparte: A leader is a merchant in hope
![Page 71: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
THE SUBJECTS• The leader attracts all attention, in the media,
in daily life, and even in science • But we rather should look at the followers,
because:
POWER IS GIVEN• Power rests essentially on coalitions (de Waal,1982) • Many people have a talent for subordination• Less people have a talent for leadership• Many people find responsibility aversive
(Dalrymple, 2001, Life at the bottom)
• People love to identify with power and success
![Page 72: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Charismatic leadership. Freud’s vision (1921)• Basics
– Man is born with the aptitude for many social mechanisms– In the Primal horde, these are seen in their purest form– Hierarchy and despotism are the rule. Love and hate for the leader occur together
• Starting points– Leader has special competences (practical and verbal) and fascination for an idea– Leader has personal liking for his inferiors and tends to seek them out– Leader has Narcistic personality– Therefore leader needs constant confirmation of excellency of own self by inferiors
• Development– On the basis of these competences leader gains credit– Credit is seen by leader as proof that his narcistic choice was right– Leader keeps gaining strength (vicious circle)– Followers feel that they contributed to this growing strength– Followers feel important through libidinous identification with the leader
• Effects:– Leader’s wish is felt as own wish (identification)– Every follower has the idea that he has a personal relation with leader– Strong and self-willed followers get into conflict and either leave group or win
![Page 73: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
Some charismatics in contact with themselves
![Page 74: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
Charisma: Transformation (Bass, 1997)
• No transactions, but transformation or No transactions but inspiration
• Great importance of communication
• Sources of influence:• Idealised influence
• Inspirational motivation
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualised consideration
• Rather a description of aspects than a description of the process
• Therefore revival of Freud’s Theory (See Goethals 2005)
![Page 75: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Part 4
Influencing publics
![Page 76: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGrhetorics• Has very long history, eg. China and India• In Greece Sophists (Gorgias), later Aristoteles• In Rome Seneca and Cicero• In middle ages Augustinus and Scholastics• During reformation Propaganda• From 1900 psychology: Le Bon, Freud, Bernays• Then a deluge of marketing and advertisement
![Page 77: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
© 2011 JP van de Sande RuGMODERN RHETORICS• ARISTOTELES (384-322 BC)
• RHETORICA RESTS ON THREE PILLARS:
• Ethos, logos en pathos» Correctness of principles and character (credibility)
» Effectiveness and correctness of arguments (logic)
» Engagement of emotions (populism)
• It uses a playing field not always under control: the ‘’• PRATKANIS (2007, The science of Social Influence, p. 30 ff)
– Credibility through Altercasting (putting self & other in certain roles):• Altercasting through: Contact, Authority, Expertise, High
status, Physical attraction, Similarity, Intimacy, Responsibility, Minority, Social identity, Consensus, Modeling, Reinforcement, etc.
• CIALDINI (2001) Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion
![Page 78: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Truth or relativism?• Things that people believe to be real, are real
in their consequences (Thomas’ dictum)
Or: Truth may exist, but we can only experience it through our senses and cognitive apparatus (Kant, 1781)
• Truth is therefore not a useful concept• Truth is something like a value: you should strive towards it• The experience of truth depends on many factors, of which
expectation and credibility of source are only two• Important are the emotional consequences of happenings• Two emotions are paramount in deciding about truth:
• Fears and Wishes
![Page 79: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
Factors contributing to the impact of a message
• Attention to source of message• Noise, being occupied, lost GSM, or GSM not working
• Perception of message• Visibility, bad eyes, not able to read
• Understanding of total message• Language, Wording, length, emotional tone, signs of danger
• Integrating message in own knowledge• Evaluation of message, congruity with situation
• Knowing how to behave
• Having insufficient knowledge to assimilate the full meaning
• Having possibility to behave• Being constrained, taking care of others, being stuck
NEGATIVE FACTORS WORK STRONGER UNDER STRESS
![Page 80: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGSimple model of communication
fact sender medium receiver
PHYSICAL
DISTORTIONBY NOISE
PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISTORTIONBY PROPERTIES
![Page 81: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
THE GATEKEEPER SYSTEMMass communication mainly has an indirect effect
Some people in a community are trusted by the others and thus they are influential in what is believed by the community, and what not
They are the gatekeepers (Lewin, 1947) or connectors (Gladwell, The Tipping point, 2000)
It is necessary and sufficient to identify them and aim your message for these people
![Page 82: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
εσχατον
![Page 83: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
εσχατον
![Page 84: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
εσχατον
![Page 85: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
Theme 1 Lecture 2 Nov 4th
Human nature and social influence
![Page 86: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
Two ways of thinking and influencing
![Page 87: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
•© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGProcreation• In animals: partner choice, making nest, lair, territorium, courtship,
mating
• In humans: falling in love, Romance novels, 50 shades of gray, saving for trousseau, jealousy, Visiting cafes or festivals, rape, poetry, popmusic, giving presents, dressing up, using axe, make up, stalking, pornography, prostitution, breast enlargement, dating
• In game-form: playing doctor, playing dad & mom, priest & pupil, scoutmaster & boy scout, kinky sex, SM games
• Societal consequences: marriage, blackmail, sexindustry, sex in advertising, on TV and Film, sex in popindustry, sex as reward (corruption)
• Regulation by culture: very strong
![Page 88: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGEthology• Darwin (1872) The expression of the emotions in men and animals
• Schjelderupp-Ebbe, T. (1912) Beiträge zur psychologie des haushuhns
• Lorenz, K. (1948) Er sprach mit dem Vieh, den Vogel und den Fischen
• Tinbergen, N. (1951) The study of instinct• Two perspectives: Proximate en Ultimate
• De Waal, F. (1982) Chimpanzee politics (partially in Google books)
• Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989) Human ethology
• For a much more thorough treatment see lectures of Koolhaas in this series
![Page 89: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
Niko Tinbergen• The
stickleback study
• (1938)
• Fixed Action Patterns
![Page 90: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
© 2011 JP van de Sande RuGTHE PERSONALITY OF PIGS (Bolhuis, 2004)
PROACTIVE–First acting, then thinking –Enterprising –Not concerned about objections–Not easily scared –Confused when surprised –Likes stable patterns and predictability –High pressure: Overactive
REACTIVE–cautious, Wait-Watch –Attentive to surroundings – Sensitive to impressions–Adroit in adapting behaviour to situation –High pressure: Freezing
![Page 91: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
DISTANCE
STRENGTHOF MOTIVE
APPROACH/FIGHT
AVOIDANCE/FLIGHT
APPROACH-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT Epstein & Fenz, 1962
![Page 92: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
MANAGERIALISM(Pollit, 1993; McLaughlin et al., 2001; Mawby & Worthington, 2002)
• Organisations do more resemble each other than they differ
• Know-how is secondary. Any professional can be hired
• Emphasis on output and results
• Efficiency and growth are the magic words
• Development and use of performance indicators and ranking lists
• Emphasis on the advantages of competition
• If opportunity knocks, throw wide open the doors
• Centralisation: Self directing teams are abhorrent • The citizen is seen as customer and the employee as tool (HRM)
• Never look backward (Henry Ford: history is bunk), always forward
• No interest in and knowledge of unintended consequences
• The ideal is central policy and local service
• Loyalty to group is sentimental bunk, but the image can be useful
![Page 93: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
Organisations in Peace & WarTraining periods longSelection on managerial capacities
Promotion based on avoiding blame
Goals long termDemocratic attitude and leadershipConcern for correct proceduresSanctions for relatively small
infractionsTechnical solutions for human
problemsRivalry between servicesProfessionalisationPreparation
Training periods shortSelection on inspiration and
enthusiasmPromotion based on results
Goals short termAuthoritarian attitude and leadership“Cutting the red tape”Polarisation in sanctions
Human solutions for technical problems
Superordinate goal reduces rivalriesImprovisationResilience
![Page 94: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGResearch and leadership• Maaike Verbree promoveerde op 17 november 2011 aan de Vrije Universiteit.• Academisch leiderschap is cruciaal voor wetenschappelijke topprestaties. Dit blijkt
uit het promotieonderzoek van Maaike Verbree, waarop ze op 17 november promoveert aan de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Haar onderzoek voerde ze uit bij het Rathenau Instituut, dat ook het proefschrift uitgeeft.
Voorbeeld geven Verbree onderzocht hoe het academisch leiderschap van invloed is op de prestaties van onderzoeksgroepen. Het onderzoek is gebaseerd op een vragenlijst over academisch leiderschap die door ruim driehonderd onderzoeksleiders werkzaam in het academisch gezondheidsonderzoek is ingevuld.
Zij wijst twee factoren aan die een positieve invloed hebben op de prestaties van onderzoeksgroepen. Leiderschap blijkt cruciaal te zijn voor topprestaties: academische leiders geven het voorbeeld door een sterke betrokkenheid te tonen en de kwaliteitsnorm te bepalen.
NetwerkenDe andere belangrijke factor is netwerkmanagement. Hierbij gaat het om de manier waarop academische leiders hun groep positioneren in de wetenschappelijke en maatschappelijke omgeving.
![Page 95: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGFurther readings about SI and leadership• Ian Robertson (2012) The Winner Effect: How Power Affects Your
Brain, London, Bloomsbury– http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/finance/2012/0618/1224318130167.html
– Excellent book on the neurological and hormonal aspects of leadership
• Haslam, S.A, Reicher, S.D. & Platow, M.J. (2010) The new psychology of leadership, Identity, Influence and Power. London, Psychology Press
– http://www.agrippa.co.uk/Executive-Coaching/Latest-Thinking-October-2011-The-New-Psychology-of-Leadership.pdf
– Excellent book on the social aspects of leadership
• Hoyt, C.I., Goethals, G.R, & and Forsyth, D. R. (2008) A contemporary social psychology of leadership
– https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~dforsyth/pubs/HoytGoethalsForsyth2008.pdf
– An interesting introduction to an unfindable book
• There is an enormous profusion of popular books on leadership– http://www.leadershipnow.com/leadershop/leadership_classics.html
– Not all of them are so excellent, in fact: don’t read, just be amazed and draw your conclusions
• Pratkanis, A.R. (ed) (2007) The science of social influence. New York, Psychology Press
– Contains the famous list of 100+ SI techniques that are used to deceive people
![Page 96: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
Improvement also takes much timeOur model exists some 200.000 yearsOf those years 198.000 were before ChristAll that time we were building up our civilisationQuite recently, some amazing developments took place:We developed the technical means to deplete all fossil
material built up in the last 3 billion yearsWe developed the technical means to raise average age with
some 40 yearsWe developed the technical means to combat almost every
kind of disasterWe developed the technical means to create disasters on an
unheard of scaleThese means were then used by people who had the reflexes
of cavemen
Did you know that one day a certain van de Sande will try to understand us?
Did you know that one day a certain van de Sande will try to understand us?
Aaah, fuck off
Aaah, fuck off
![Page 97: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
What is rationality?• A means of being one up on nature. • The better an animal was able to learn and to draw
conclusions from it, the better its chance of survival• Categorisation of what happens to us helps enormously in
remembering • Ratio to an important degree is nothing but categorizing and
then operating with those categories. Conceptual thinking• Decision making is imputed goal of ratio, but...• It is strongly influenced by conditioning: 95% of our
behavioural choices is Habitual• It is strongly influenced by emotion: many decisions are
taken on a subconscious level, thus before elaboration of cognitions has taken place
![Page 98: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
What is emotion?• A means of being one with nature.
• The better an animal was in feeling emotions and acting on them, the better its chance of survival
• Categorisation of what happens to us helps in feeling the right emotion
• Emotion can be seen as a means to prepare the individual for action
• Emotion is strongly influenced by conditioning: 85% of our emotions is Habitual
• Sometimes we like control, sometimes sensation
![Page 99: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGA common factor: Trust• Trust is a feeling, but could also be the result of
rational assessment (But, think of jealousy or paranoia)
• Trust is present when people have the conviction of shared interests
• The base can be natural, like in a Gemeinschaft, or cultural, like in a Gesellschaft
• Natural bases are: Kinship, Common ancestry or belongingness, Common fate (war!), Friendship
• Cultural bases are: Morality, Charity, Religion, Cost-Benefit analysis, Fear of consequences, Respect for law (but, think of democracy: organized distrust)
![Page 100: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
© 2006 JP van de Sande RuGRationality, the big difference• Is mainly important in Prescriptive (Normative) models• So rationality is more a question of OUGHT than of IS• What is classical Rationality?
– The goal of decision makers is to maximize own outcome
– Decision makers know for which period they plan
– Decision makers know the utilities of all possible outcomes, and are able to compare them
– Decisionmakers are fully aware of the relevant rules and possibilities of the situation and know the odds
• This is NEVER the case. Kahneman & Tversky developed Prospect theory to mend this.
• But, even if not perfect, it helps in outwitting dumber ones (the lion and the Nikes)
• We call this ‘bounded rationality’ (Simon, 1955)
• Thus: the smarter the animal, the better its survival chance (resilience)
![Page 101: A course on Honours College version2014 Lecturer: Hans van de Sande .](https://reader037.fdocuments.net/reader037/viewer/2022110100/56649e0c5503460f94af5494/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
Emotion, the big commonality(MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences p273)
• An emotion is a psychological state or process that functions in the management of goals.
• It is typically elicited by evaluating an event as relevant to a goal; it is positive when the goal is advanced, negative when the goal is impeded.
• The core of an emotion is readiness to act in a certain way (Frijda 1986); it is an urgency, or prioritisation, of some goals and plans rather than others.
• Emotions can interrupt ongoing action; also they prioritise certain kinds of social interaction, prompting, for instance cooperation or conflict
• Psychologist tried to explain behaviour through rational choice (Reasoned action model Fischbein & Ajzen, 1975) A central concept was ATTITUDE. It failed miserably
• .