Appendixes

APPENDIX 1. ABBREVIATIONS OF POLYMER NAMES

Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber Acrylic-styrene-acrylonitrile Cellulose acetate Cellulose nitrate Chlorinated polyethylene Ethylene-propylene-diene monomer rubber Ethylene-vinyl acetate High density polyethylene High modulus polyethylene High impact polystyrene Low density polyethylene Polyacetal (see Polyoxymethylene below) Polyacrylonitrile Polyamide (nylon) Polybenzobisthiazole Polybutadiene Poly(butylene terephthalate) Polycarbonate Polyethylene Poly(ethyer ether ketone) Polyetherimide Polyethersulfone Poly( ethylene terephthalate) Polyimide Poly(methyl methacrylate) Polyoxymethyl~ne

Polypropylene Poly (p-phenylene benzobisthiazole) Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide)

ABS ABR ASA CA CN CPE EPDM EVA HDPE HMPE HIPS LDPE

PAN PA PBT PB PBZT PC PE PEEK PEl PES PET PI PMMA POM PP PPBT PPTA

Poly(phenylene oxide) Poly(phenylene sulfide) Polystyrene Polysulfone Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyurethane Poly(vinyl acetate) Poly(vinyl alcohol) Poly(vinyl chloride) Poly(vinylidene chloride) Poly(vinylidene fluoride) Resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer Styrene-butadiene rubber Styrene-butadiene-styrene

PPO PPS PS PSO PTFE PUR PVAC PYA PVC PVDC PVDF RFL SAN SBR SBS

288

APPENDIX II. LIST OF ACRONYMS TECHNIQUES

Backscattered electron imaging Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy Infrared spectroscopy Microdiffraction Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy Optical microscopy Phase contrast microscopy Polarized light microscopy Scanning electron microscopy Scanning transmission electron microscopy Secondary electron imaging Selected area electron diffraction Small angle neutron scattering Small angle x-ray scattering Transmission electron microscopy Conventional TEM Wavelength dispersive x-ray spectroscopy Wide angle x-ray scattering

BEl EDS IR fJDiff NMR OM PC PLM SEM STEM SEI SAED SANS SAXS TEM CTEM WDS WAXS

Appendixes

APPENDIX III. MANMADE POLYMERIC FIBERS

Fiber type Generic name Trademark Manufacturer

Cell-ulosic Acetate

Rayon Coloray Courtaulds Triacetate Arnel Celanese

Non- Acrylic Acrilan Monsanto cellulosic Creslan Am. Cyanamid

Orlon duPont Aramid Kevlar duPont Fluorocarbon Teflon duPont Modacrylic Sep Monsanto Nylon Antron duPont

Ultron Monsanto Polybenzimidazole Celanese Polyester Dacron duPont

Fortrel Celanese Avlin A vtex Fibers

Polyethylene Polypropylene Herculon Hercules Spandex Lycra duPont

Appendixes 289

APPENDIX IV. COMMON COMMERCIAL POLYMERS AND TRADENAMES FOR PLASTICS, FILMS AND ENGINEERING RESINS

Generic name Tradename Manufacturer Typical end uses

Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene Absom Mobay Automotive, appliance housings, furniture, (ABS) construction

Epoxy Paints, coatings, adhesives, pipes, circuit boards

High impact polystyrene (HIPS) Automotive, appliance housings, furniture

High density PE (HDPE) Containers, pipes, fabricated parts

Low density PE (LDPE) Packaging, films for bags, stretch wrap

Nylon polymer and resin Vydyne Monsanto Carpet yarns, tirecords, cigarette lighters, Zytel duPont sporting goods, brushes

Polybutadiene in copolymers Tires, rubber articles, encapsulation and blends

Poly(butylene terephthalate) Celanex Celanese Automotive and other fabricated parts, bearings, (thermoplastic polyester) (PBT) Valox General Electric housings

Polycarbonate Lexan General Electric Bottles, safety glass, auto lenses, helmets, aircraft interiors

Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) Victrex I.C.I. AM. Cable insulation, coatings, composites

Polyetherimide (PEl) Ultem General Electric Aerospace seats, lights, wiring, films/tapes

Poly( ethylene terephthalate) Mylar duPont Films for packaging, coatings (PET)

PET engineering resin Petlon Mobay Extrudates and moldings, bottles, recording Rynite duPont tapes, electrical insulation

Polyimide (PI) Tulon Amoco Printed circuit boards, insulation/films for Kapton duPont motors, adhesives, electronics Skybond Monsanto

Poly(methyl methacrylate) Lucite duPont Camera lenses, airplane windows, signs (PMMA) Plexiglas Rohm and Haas Molded parts, sheeting

Polyoxymethylene (POM) Celcon Celanese Automotive, plumbing, appliances, electrical Delrin duPont gears, zippers

Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) Noryl General Electric Appliances housings, pumps, shields and PPO-HIPS blends

Polypropylene (PP) Carpet backing, ribbons, appliance housings

Polystyrene (PS) Disposables: cutlery, cups, foam egg cartons

Polysulfone (PSO) Udel Union Carbide Camera bodies, electrical connectors, light sockets, food appliance coatings, cookware

Polytetra-fluoroethylene (PTFE) Teflon duPont Solvent resistant coatings, films and parts Halon Allied

Tefzel duPont Pipe fittings, seals, laboratory ware, aircraft parts

290

APPENDIX IV-continued

Generic name

Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF)

Poly(vinyl acetate) (PV AC)

Poly(vinyl alcohol (PV A)

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)

Saturated Styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymers

Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)

Styrene-butadiene latex

Tradename

Kynar

Elvanol

Kraton G

Rovel

Manufacturer

Pennwalt

duPont

Shell Oil

Uniroyal

Appendixes

Typical end uses

Pipe fittings, seals, laboratory ware, aircraft parts

Paints, adhesives, coatings

Coatings, adhesives, cosmetics

Food wrap, furniture covers, flooring, footwear

Fabricated parts

Dentures, lenses, auto and other fabricated parts

Adhesives, coatings, binders, textile finishes

Appendixes

APPENDIX V. GENERAL SUPPLIERS OF EM ACCESSORIES

American Optical Corp. Scientific Instrument Div. Buffalo, NY 14215

Balzers 8 Sagamore Park Rd Hudson, NH 03051

Denton Vacuum Inc. 2 Pin Oak Lane Cherry Hill, NJ 08003

Diatome USA P.O. Box 125 Fort Washington PA 19034

Ebtec P.O. Box 468111 Bowles Rd Agawam, MA 01001

Agar Aids Ltd 66a Cambridge Rd, Stansted Essex CM24 8DA, UK

Balzers High Vacuum Ltd Northbridge Rd Berkhamsted, Herts HP41EN, UK

Diatome SA Bienne Case postale 551 CH-2501 Bienne Switzerland

Edwards High Vacuum Inc. Edwards High Vacuum 3279 Grand Island Blvd Manor Rd, Crawley, Grand Island, NY 14072 W. Sussex RHIO 2LW, UK

Electron Microscopy Sciences P.O. Box 251 Fort Washington PA 190034

Ernest F. Fullham Inc. 900 Albany-Shaker Rd Latham, NY 12110

Gatan Inc. 780 Commonwealth Dr. Warrendale, P A 15086

Kimball Physics Inc. Kimball Hill Rd Wilton, NH 03086

Ladd Research Inds Inc. P.O. Box 901 Burlington, VT 05402

Gatan Inc. Ingolstadter Strasse 40 D-8000, Munich 45 FRG

LKB Instruments Inc. 12221 Parklawn Dr. Rockville, MD 20852

Micron 3815 Lancaster Pike Wilmington, DE 19805

Ted Pella, Inc. P.O. Box 510 Tustin, CA 92681

Polaron Instruments Inc. 2293 Amber Dr. Line Lexington Industrial Pk Hatfield, PA 19440

Polysciences Inc. Dept. EE5, 400 Valley Rd Warrington, PA 18976

Reichert Scientific Instruments P.O. Box 160 Dexter, MI 48130

Structure Probe! SPI Supplies P.O. Box 656 West Chester, PA 19381

VCR Group 68 Meadowbrook Dr San Francisco, CA 94132

LKB-Produkter AB P.O. Box 76 Stockholm-Bromma 1, Sweden

Polaron Equipment Ltd 21 Greenhill Crescent Holwell Ind. Est. Watford, Hertfordshire WD18XG, UK

(in UK see Polaron Equipment Ltd.)

C. Reichert Optische Werke A.G. Hernalser Haupstr. 219 Vienna XVII, Austria

Ion Tech Ltd

291

2 Park St., Teddington Middlesex TWll OLT, UK

292

APPENDIX VI. SUPPLIERS OF OPTICAL AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPES

Amray Inc. 160 Middlesex Turnpike Bedford, MA 01730

Bausch & Lomb/ARL 9545 Wentworth St. P.O. Box 129 Sunland, CA 91040

AmrayGmbH Frankfurterstrasse 26 D-6242, Kronberg/Taunus F R Germany

Cambridge Instruments Inc. Cambridge Instruments Ltd 40 Robert Pitt Rd Rustat Rd Monsey, NY 10952 Cambridge CBl 3QH, UK

Gatan Inc. 780 Commonwealth Dr. Warrendale, P A 15086

International Scientific Instruments Inc. 1457 McCarthy Blvd Milpitas, CA 95035

JEOL USA Inc. 11 Dearborn Rd Peabody, MA 01960

E. Leitz Link Dr Rockleigh, NJ

NSA Hitachi Sci. Instru. 460 E. Middlefield Rd Mountain View, CA 94043

Philips Elect. Instru. Inc. 85 McKee Dr. Mahwah, NJ 07430

VG Instruments Inc. 300 Broad St. Stamford, CN 06901

Carl Zeiss Inc. One Zeiss Dr. Thornwood, NY 10594

Cambridge Scanning Co. Ltd Bar Hill Cambridge CB3 8EL, UK

International Sci. Instru. Ltd Abbey House, 30 Angel Hill Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk IP33 ILS, UK

JEOL Ltd Jeol House, Grove Park Colindale London NW9 OJN, UK

Leitz-lSI GmbH Wetzlar 6330 West Germany

Hitachi Nissei Sangyo Ltd 4 Sutton Ind. Pk, London Rd Earley, Reading, Berkshire RG6 lA, UK

N. V. Philips I & E Division TQ-111-4 Eindhoven, The Netherlands

VG Microscopes Ltd Charleswood Rd East Grinstead Sussex RH 19 2JQ, UK

Carl Zeiss (Oberkochen) Ltd P.O. Box 78, Woodfield Rd Welwyn Garden City, Herts AL7 lLU, UK

Note: non-USA addresses are due to 1. M. Watt, in 'The Principles and Practice of Electron Microscopy' (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985).

Appendixes

APPENDIX VII. SUPPLIERS OF X-RAY MICROANALYSIS EQUIPMENT

Cameca Instruments Inc. 2001 West Main St. Stamford, CO 06902

Edax International Inc. P.O. Box 135 Prairie View, IL 60069

EG&G Ortec 100 Midland Rd Oak Ridge, TN 37830

JEOL USA Inc. 11 Dearborn Rd Peabody, MA 01960

Kevex Corp. 1101 Chess Dr. P.O. Box 4050 Foster City, CA 94404

Lemont Scientific 2011 Pine Hall Dr. State College, PA 16801

Link Analytical P.O. Box 50810 3290 West Bayshore Rd Palo Alto, CA 94303

Microspec Corp. 45950 Hotchkiss St. Fremont, CA 94539

Princeton Gamma-Tech Inc. 1200 State Rd Princeton, NJ 08540

Tracor Northern 2551 West Beltline Hwy Middleton, WI 53562

Cameca 103 Bd Saint-Denis BP6,92403 Courbevoie Cedex, France

JEOL Ltd 1418 Nakagami, Akishima Tokyo 196, Japan

Kevex Corp. Chilton Road, Chesham, Bucks, HP5 2AU, UK

Link Systems Ltd Halifax Rd, High Wycombe Bucks HP12 3SE, UK

Tracor Europa BV. P.O. Box 333 3720 AH Bilthoven, The Netherlands 030780855

Index

Page numbers in italic refer to illustrations

Abbe theory of imaging 45 Aberrations listed 45, 46 Acid etching 114-15

examples of use 114,115 literature review for 114-15 practical details 114

Acronyms instrumental techniques 268, 275,

278,287 polymer names 287

Acry1ic-styrene-acrylonitrile (ASA) copolymers

staining methods for 106, 109 Acrylics

staining ofl 06 textile fibers 156,157 tradenames for 288, 289

Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymers

end uses listed 289 etching of 113, 114, 116 staining methods for 95, 96, 104,

105, 106, 109 tradenames for 289

Adhesion composites 11,135,219,221,224,

225 pretreatments effect on, 237-8 tire cords, 174, 176

Adhesive labels, microscopy study of 238-9,239

Adhesives, microscopy studies of 237-9

Advantages (of polymers) 1-2

Air Force Ordered Polymers Program 240,248

Amorphous films 180-1 Amorphous polymers 4

molding of 11 Amplitude contrast 50-1 Analytical electron microscopy

(AEM) 26, 29, 35 Analytical microscopy, fundamentals

of 33-6 Anisotropic materials, polarized light

effects on 58-9 Applications (of microscopy)

155-255 adhesives 237-9 composites 214-30 emulsions 230-6 engineering resins and plastics

194-214 fibers 155-76 films 176-83 liquid crystalline polymers 239-54 membranes 184-93

Applications (of polymers) 1 Aramids

etching of111, 112,112 fracture of fibers 161 liquid crystalline polymers 240,

246-8,249 staining of 107, 108 tradenames for fibers 288

Aromatic copolyesters 240, 250, 252-6

Aromatic polyamides, see Aramids

Artifacts 273-5 conductive coatings 126-8

charging effects 126,127 radiation damage effects 126-8,

128, 129 etching 109, 110 optical microscopy 273-4 polishing 82 radiation-caused 67-8, 69, 126-8,

128,129 scanning electron microscopy 274 transmission electron microscopy

(TEM) 51, 274-5 Atactic polymers, definition of 3 Auger spectroscopy 281

Babinet compensators 61 Backscattered electron imaging (BEl)

25,33 characteristics of 267 fiber studies 159-60, 160, 172, 173 mineral filled composites 136, 136 multiphase polymers 213,214

Backscattered electrons, SEM 55 Banded structures (liquid crystalline

polymers) 242-3, 243 Becke line method 21, 158 Berek (rotary) compensators 61 Birefringence

definition of 22, 58, 158 films 182 measurement of 59, 158

Bisphenol A epoxy resins 108

294

Bisphenol A-continued polycarbonate/polyethylene blends

lO7 Block copolymers, definition of 2, 11 Bond breaking 62-4

typical polymers 63 Bragg's law 43, 48 Bright field (BF) imaging 17, 20

characteristics of 267 composites 218, 218, 228 examples 89 polyethylene films 179-80, 179

Cage effect 64 Calcium carbonate filler 225, 227,

227 Carbon, electron diffraction pattern

from 49 Carbon black filled polymers/rubbers

227-30 optical micrographs of 89, 228, 228 specimen preparation methods for

228 TEM micrographs of 229-30, 229

Carbon coatings 122-3, 126 Carbon fiber composites

applications of214 microscopy studies of 221-3 reflected light micrographs of 83,

222 SEM images of 223 specimen preparation method for

84 Carbon fibers, etching of llO Carboxy terminated butadiene-

acrylonitrile (CTBN) copolymer 207

Celanese Corporation liquid crystalline polymers 241 microporous membranes (Celgard ® )

99,99,124,125, 191-2,191, 192,193

Summit Technical Center 276 Cellulose acetate (CA)

etching of 116 films 183,183 membranes 187, 189

Cellulosic fibers staining method for lO6 tradenames for 288

Chain folded structure 5 Chain sequence length, size of 266 Characteristic x-rays 56 Characterization techniques 12-14

microscopy techniques 12-13, 266-73

nonmicroscopy techniques 12, 275-83

resolution size ranges 12,266,267, 268,269

specimen preparation methods 13-14

Chemical/solvent etching 113-14 examples of use 113-14 literature review for 113-14 practical details 113-14

Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), poly(vinyl chloride) multiphase polymer 210

Chlorosulfonic acid staining method 101-2

examples of use 101-2,102,108, 180

literature review for 101-2 practical details 102

Cholesteric crystals 240 Chromatic aberration 46, 54 Clay particles, characterization of 217 Cleavage plane splitting technique

85-6 Coated polymers, mass loss reduction

32 Coherent light, definition of 42-3 Cold drawing process 8-9 Cold stage, examples of use 104, 233,

234 Collodion support films 77, 117, 119 Colloids, definition of230 Compensator method (for

birefringence) 158 Compensators, polarized light 22,

60-1 Complementary techniques 275-83

fiber studies 172, 173 film studies 183, 183

Composites 11,214-30 adhesion in 11,135,219,221,224,

225 applications for 214 carbon black filled rubber 227-30 characterization of 215-16 conductive reinforcements in 215 fiber composites 216, 218-24 fractures of 134,135, 136,136 glass fiber composites 135 hybrid composites 223-4 low temperature (RF) ashing of

215,216 mineral filled composites 136 particle filled composites 224-7 specimen preparation methods for

84,215,216,228

Index

Compounding 11 Compression molding 202 Condenser lenses 18 Conductive coating deposition

methods 121-9 artifacts in 126-8 coating devices

high resolution coating devices 122

ion beam sputtering technique 125-6

sputter coaters 122, 123-5 vacuum evaporators 121-2

coating devices for 121-2, 123-6 gold decoration methods 128 scanning electron microscopy

123-6 transmission electron microscopy

122-3 Contact microradiography 218-19

composites 218-19 Contamination studies, textile fibers

172 Contrast, definition of 16 Contrast mechanisms 50-1

amplitude contrast 50-1 phase contrast 20, 27, 30, 51 scattering contrast 50-1

Contrast transfer function 44-5 Conventional transmission electron

microscopy (CTEM) 27-8 see also Transmission electron

microscopy (TEM) Copolymers

definition of 2, 11 SEM characterization of 204-5

Crazing 4, 137-40 deformation methods used 139-40 TEM specimens for 138-9,140

Critical point, definition of 144 Critical point drying (CPD) method

144-6 practical details 145-6

Crossed polarizers 21 Crosslinking reaction 3, 64, 95, 101 Cryomicroscopy 32 Cryosectioning 85,92-3

see also Ultrathin cryosectioning Crystal unit cell, size of266 Crystalline polymers, see

Semicrystalline polymers Crystallinity

determination by x-ray diffraction technique 276-7

loss caused by radiation 67-8 Crystallographic contrast 51

Index

Dark field (DF) imaging optical microscopy 17, 20 transmission electron microscopy

28,251 Definitions 2-3 Defocus imaging

phase contrast by 51, 81, 179 polyethylene films 179-80, 179 resolution improved by 47

Degradation, radiation-caused 64 Depth of field, definition of 17, 47,

47,54-5 Depth of focus, definition of 17,

47-8,47 Differential interference contrast

(DIC) technique 21 example of 83, 84

Differential thermal analysis (DT A) 278

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 278, 279

Diffraction contrast 27, 51 Diffraction patterns

in image processing 71 theory of 43

Diffraction techniques 29-30, 268, 276-78

Digital image processing 71 Dimensional changes, radiation-

caused 68-9 Disintegrators, TEM specimen

preparations 79-80 Dispersed phase domains, size of 202,

205,266 Dispersed phase polymers, see

Multiphase polymers Dispersions, TEM specimen

preparations 77-8 Dow Corning Silastic 117, 118 Drying methods 90, 140, 141-6

critical point drying method 144-6 freeze drying methods 141-4 water replacement methods 90,

141 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)

278-9 Dynamic microscopy 37-9

equipment required 37-8 examples of use 241 fundamentals of37-9 hot/cold stages for 38-9 tensile stages for 38

Eastman 910 adhesive 117 Ebonite method (for specimen

preparation) 100-1, 175-6

examples of use 100, 101,101,108, 175-6,175, 228, 238

literature review for 100 practical details 100-1 safety precautions required 101

Ehringhaus (rotary) compensators 61 Elastomers, definition of 3 Electron beam (E beam) sputtering

technique 122, 126 Electron diffraction 12, 29, 48, 50

advantages of 277 illustrations of patterns 49 interpretation of patterns 48, 50

Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) 33

Electron interaction volume 24, 25, 25

Electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) 33, 34, 279

Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) 281

Electroplating, etching prior to 200

Elemental analysis 12, 33-6 Elemental mapping 35-6

multi phase polymers 214 Elliptic compensators 61 Emulsifiers, freeze fracture studies of

147 Emulsions

definition of 230 microscopy studies of230-6 particle sizes in 230 specimen preparation methods for

140-1,230,231,232-3 Energy dispersive x-ray spectrometer

(EDS) technique 34, 172 Engineering plastics and resins

194-214 characterization of 195-6 extrudates 196-202 failure analysis of 212-14 molded parts 196-202 multiphase polymers 202-12 tradenames for 289-90 types of 194-5

Epoxy resins as embedding media for microtomy

88,91 end uses listed 289 fiber reinforced 221, 222, 223 stain reaction with 103, 108 toughening of 207, 207, 208

Etching 109-15 acid etching 114-15 chemical/solvent etching 113-14

295

effect in manufacturing processes 199,200

ion/plasma etching 109-13 polymers listed 116 radiation damage used for 67 reasons for 31, 109

Evaporative coatings 123-5 Everhart-Thornley detector 55 Extraction replicas 120-1 Extrudates

flow pattern in 10, 10, 11, 83 liquid crystalline polymers 245,

245, 246, 247 Extrusion processes 10-11

process considerations 196

Failure analysis, engineering resins and plastics 212-14

Fiber assemblages, SEM studies nonwoven fabrics 164, 165 woven fabrics 162, 164, 164

Fiber composites contact microradiography of

218-19 critical fiber length requirement

215,221 OM characterization of216, 218,

218 SEM characterization (of glass fiber

composites) 219-21 specimen preparation methods for

215,216 Fiber extrusion 7-9 Fiber finishes 159,238,238 Fiber studies 155-76

characterization techniques 167-72 contamination studies 172 industrial fibers 172, 174-6 metal loaded fibers 172, 173 nonmicroscopy techniques 155,

167 problem solving applications

167-72 textile fibers 158-67

Fibers fractures of 131-2 metal loaded 172, 173 tradenames for 288

Fibrils, size in LCPs 253, 256 Field, depth of 17, 47, 47, 54-5 Field of view, definition of 17 Films 176-83

birefringence of 182 casting for TEM study 80 crystallinity measurements for 182 drawing for TEM study 80-1

296

Films-continued ease ofinterpretation of images 176 formation from latexes 235 industrial films 181-3 membranes as types of 177 model studies 177-81

amorphous films 180-1 semicrystalline films 177-80

nonmicroscopy methods for 181-2 orientation of 176 tradenames for 289-90

Fixation 95 Flat film membranes 184-92

microporous membranes 99, 99, 184,191-2,191,192,193

reverse osmosis membranes 189-91 SEM studies ofl85-8

Form birefringence 22, 58 Formvar support films 77,119 Fountain (flow field) model 219 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)

spectroscopy 12, 279 Fourier's theorem 43 Fractography 130-1

fiber studies 160-2, 163 Fractures

composites 134, 135, 136, 136, 220, 224

fibers 131-2, 160-2, 163 plastics 132,133-4,197,203-8,

212,213 types of 130-1, 161

Freeze drying methods 141-4 examples of use 141-2, 143,144 practical details 141-2, 142, 144

Freeze etching 146, 232 Freeze fracture techniques 146-7

biological method 146 examples of use 146-7, 235 literature review for 146-7

Freeze shattering method 141 Freezing methods 140-4, 146-7

simple methods 140-1 Functional groups, stain reaction

with 95, 103, 106, 107, 108

Gvalues 65 definition of 62 listed for typical polymers 63 temperature effects on 64

Glass fiber composites liquid crystalline polymers 252, 256 SEI images of 135, 220, 221 SEM characterization of219-21 transmitted light micrographs of

218

Glass fibers characterization of215-16, 216 etched surface of 111 surface finish coating on 238

Gold decoration 128 Graft copolymers, definition of 2, 11 Graphite fiber composites

fracture of 136 microscopy studies of22l-3

Gray (unit), definition of 65

Hackle (fracture) morphology composites 219, 220, 224 engineering resins/plastics 212 fibers 131,132, 162,162

Heating effects 65-6 Heteropolymers, definition of2 High density polyethylene (HDPE)

end uses listed 289 etching of 110, 112 micro porous membranes 185, 185 replication methods for 117 single crystals 79 staining of 106, 108 thin film specimens 81 see also Polyethylene (PE)

High impact polystyrene (HIPS) crazed film of 140 end uses listed 289 etching of 113, 114, 116 staining methods for 96, 106, 109

High performance polymers, 239-40 see also Liquid crystalline polymers

(LCPs) High voltage electron microscope

(HVEM)32 High speed spin-draw fiber process 9 Hoffman modulation contrast

technique 20 Hollow fiber membranes 192-3, 194 Homopolymers, definition of2 Hybrid composites 223-4

Illumination systems 51-3 characteristics of sources 52 optical microscopy 52 transmission electron microscopy

52-3 Image analysis methods 36

image processing in 37 Image analyzing computers 36, 236 Image formation 43-4 Image processing 32, 37, 70-1 Imaging

by lenses 42-53 by scanning 53-7 radiation damage effects on 66-9

Index

Imaging modes, optical microscopy 20-1

In situ deformation 136-7 Incident light techniques 19 Incoherent light, definition of 43 Index ellipsoid 58, 59 Indicatrix, definition of 58, 59 Industrial fibers 172, 174-6 Industrial films 181-3 Infrared dichroism 280 Infrared (IR) spectroscopy 12,

279-80 Injection molding processes 10, 196,

197,202 Instrumental techniques 12-14,

266-73,275-83 acronyms for 268, 275, 278,

288 comparison of267-69 resolution capabilities of 266, 267,

268,269 selection of 272-3

Interference, definition of 43 Interference contrast 21, 51

see also N omarski . . . Interference microscopy 20-1 Interpretation considerations 273.-5 Ion beam sputter coatings 125-6 Ion Tech micros putter gun Ill, 112,

125 Ion/plasma etching 109-13

examples of use 110, 112 literature review for 110 practical details 110-11

Isogyres 240, 241 Isoprene inclusion (and staining)

method 98-9, 170 Isotactic polymers, definition of 3 Izod impact test specimens

fiber composites 219, 220 plastics 205

Kevlar ® fibers, etching of 111 Kink bands, liquid crystalline

polymers 247,249 Kohler illumination 52, 53 Kraton G, staining method for 107,

209

Lamellae 5 polyethylene films 183,183 size of266

Lamellar crystals, microscopy techniques for size determination 12

Laser Raman spectroscopy 280

Index

Latexes 231-6 characterization methods 231-5

optical techniques 231 SEM techniques 231-2, 235 TEM techniques 232-5

definition of230 film coalescence of235, 235 film formation ability 231, 235 freeze drying of 141-4 particle size measurements for

235-6 replication methods for 119 specimen preparation methods for

149-1,231,232,233,235 staining methods for 103-4,104

Lattice imaging 30, 70-1 liquid crystalline polymers 247,

248, 250, 251 Least confusion, plane of 46-7 Lenses 17-18

condenser lenses 18 magnetic lenses 17-18 objective lenses 18, 19-20 projector lenses 18

Lethal dose (of radiation) 65 Light scattering techniques 282 Liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs) 7,

239-56 applications for 240 aromatic copolyesters 240, 250,

252-6 aromatic polyamides 240, 246-8,

249 banded structures in 242-3, 243 cholesteric crystals 240 domain texture of 241, 242 high modulus fibers 246-56 lattice imaging of 30 lyotropic liquid crystals 240 nematic crystals 240 optical textures of 241-3 rigid rod polymers 240, 248-50 smectic crystals 240 solid state structures in 243-5 specimen preparation methods for

85, 241 structural model for 252, 253, 256 thermotropic liquid crystals 240

Low temperature sectioning 85,92-3 Low temperature testing 206 Lyotropic liquid crystalline polymers

240

Macroemulsions, definition of 230 Macrofibrils 156, 253, 256 Magnetic lenses 17-18

Manmade fibers 156, 288 Mass loss, radiation-caused 66-7 Mass spectroscopy (MS) 12 Mass thickness contrast 27, 30, 50 Melt spinning 8 Membrane separation processes,

characteristics of 184 Membranes

applications for 177 flat film membranes 184-92,193 hollow fiber membranes 192-3,194 as types of films 177

Mercuric trifluoroacetate staining method 107

examples of use 107, 108,209 practical details 107

Metal loaded fibers 172, 173 Mica flakes

characterization of, 217 as fillers 224-5, 225, 226

Micelles, definition of 230 Michel-Levy (polarization color)

chart 22, 60 MicroditTraction techniques 267, 268 Microemulsions, definition of 230 Microfibrils 8, 8, 156, 178, 254, 256 Microporous fibers 165-6, 166 Microporous membranes 99, 99, 124,

125,191-2,191,192,193 pore sizes in 184

Microscopy definition ofl2-13, 16 fundamentals of 16-39

Microscopy techniques comparison of267-9 listed 12-13,16-38,267-73 selection of272-3 summarized 267

Microtomes OM sections 86-7 ultrathin sectioning 91-2

Microtomy 85-93 block trimming for 88, 91 embedding methods for 88, 90-1 mounting methods for 87-8 OM sections 86-8 peelback method (for fibers/films)

85-6 sectioning techniques for 88-9, 91 SEM sections 89-90

Mineral filled composites, fracture of 136,136

Mineral fillers 224-7 characterization of216, 217

Mirrors (fracture zones) 131,132, 161,162,212

Model studies amorphous films 180-1 semicrystalline films 177-80

early studies 178-9

297

recent studies 179-80 Modulation transfer function (MTF)

44-5 Molding processes 10-11

fiber composites 219 multilayered structures 197-8, 200 process considerations 196-7 single phase polymers 197 skin-core morphology 10, 196,

197,197,200-2 spherulitic textures in 200 structure-property relations for

202 Moldings, liquid crystalline polymers

243-4,243,244,247 Molecular optics laser examiner

(MOLE) 280 Monomers, definition of 2 Morphology

definition of 3, 283 examples of 3 experimental techniques listed 3

Multicomponent polymers, types of 204

Multiphase polymers, 3,11,202-12 brittle fracture of 202, 203, 207,

207 carbon black filled 229, 230 copolymers 204-5 etching of 116 examples of 194, 203, 210-12 fracture of 132, 134 impact strengths of 202 optical characterization of 204 particle size of dispersed phase

203-4,205,211-12,212 polyurethane containing 205-6 rubber toughened 202-4,206-7 SEM characterization of 204-7 specimen preparation methods for

195-6 staining techniques for 94, 95-100,

107,108 TEM characterization of207-12 toughened thermoset resins 206-7

Naked eye observations 265, 266 Naphthalene thermotropic polymers

(NTPs) 241, 250, 252, 253,253, 256

composites 252,256 domain texture of241, 241, 242

298

Naphthalene thermotropic polymers (NTPs )-continued

etching of 245, 246, 252, extrudates 244-5, 245 molded specimens 244 spun fiber structure 253

Natural rubber, film studies 178 Nematic crystals 240 Neutron scattering techniques 282 Nitrile rubber vukanizate, fractures

in 130 Noise limited resolution 69-70 Nomarski differential interference

contrast microscopy 21, 114, 115,232

Nonmicroscopy techniques 12, 181-2, 275-83

Nonwoven fabrics 164,165 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

spectroscopy 12, 280-1 Numerical aperture (NA), definition

of 19 Nylons

end uses listed 288, 289 etching of 114, 116 fiber studies 161, 164 fracture of 132,133, 161,163 impact modified 210-12, 210, 211,

212,213 molded specimens 197,200-2,

201 rubber toughening of 202, 203 sectioned micrographs 89 staining of 102-3, 104, 105-6,106,

107,108 textile fibers 157, 288 tradenames for 288, 289

Objective lenses 18, 19-20 characteristics of 48 image formation by 43-4

Optical diffraction patterns, in image processing 71

Optical microscopy (OM) 18-22, 269-70

advantages of 269-70 artifacts in 273-4 characteristics of 13, 16, 266, 267,

268 compared with electron microscopy

17,268 for composites 215,216,216,217,

218,218,222,228 compound-microscopes 19, 268 diffraction limit for 46 for fibers 156, 158-9, 166

fundamentals of 18-22 illumination systems for 52 imaging modes 20-1 for latexes 231 limitations of 270 for multi phase polymers 204 replication methods for 116-17 resolution in 45-6, 266, 268 simple microscopes 19 specimen preparation methods for

75-6,86-9,116-17,269 stereo microscopes 19, 265, 266,

268 suppliers of equipment 292

Optical path length, definition of 42 Optics 17, 42-4 Orientation methods 8 Orientation splitting technique 85 Orlon fibers 156, 157 Osmium tetroxide staining method

95-100 examples of use 95-6, 108, 109,

209,209, 210, 232 inclusion methods 98-9, 170 literature review for 95-6 practical details 97-8

aqueous technique 97 vapor technique 95, 97-8

preferential absorption in 96-7 safety precautions when using 95 SEM use 100 two-step reactions in 97

Paraffin wax, as embedding medium for microtomy 89

Particle filled composites 224-7 Particle sizes

emulsions 230 measurement of211-12, 212,

235-6 multiphase polymers 203-4, 205,

212 Peelback method (for fibers/films)

85-6 cleavage plane splitting technique

85-6 illustration of result 86, 169-70,170 orientation splitting technique 85

Penning sputtering 122, 126 Permanganate etching method 114 Peterlin model (of drawing process) 8,

178 Phase contrast, optical microscopy

267 Phase contrast imaging

optical microscopy 12, 20

Index

examples of use 210,211,218, 218

transmission electron microscopy 27-8,30,51

Phosphotungstic acid (PTA) staining method 102-4

examples of use 103-4, 104, 108, 233,234

literature review for 102-3 practical details 103

Photoresist conductive coating 137 Plasma etching 109-13

liquid crystalline polymers 245, 246,252,

see also Ion etching Polarized light 57-8

circularly polarized light 57, 58 electric field vector diagrams 57-8,

57 elliptically polarized light 57, 58 extinction positions defined 22, 60 linear polarized light 57, 58 plane polarized light 57, 58

Polarizing microscopy 12, 21-2, 60-2 characteristics of 267 composites 218, 218, 227 definition of 57 liquid crystalline polymers 240,

241,241,243 microtomed sections 89 multicomponent polymers 204,

204,205 osmium tetroxide stained specimen

96 spherulites observed by 6, 89, 198,

201,218,218 Polishing methods 81-5

artifacts caused by 82 illustration of result 83 for surfaces 82, 84 techniques used 82 for thin sections 84-5

Polyacetals mineral fillers in 225, 227 molded parts 197-8,198,199,200 multiphase polymer morphology

204 see also Polyoxymethylene (POM)

Poly(acrylic acid) (P AA) 119-21 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) textile fibers,

157 Polyamides

glass fiber composite 218 staining methods for 102-3, 104,

105, 106, 107, 108 textile fibers 157

Index Polybenzimidazole (PBI)

drying of 145 fibers 288 membranes 188, 189-91,189

Polybutadiene (PB) bond breaking in 63 end uses listed 289 staining methods for 108

Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) end uses listed 289 etching of 110 moldings 200, 202 replication methods for 118 thin film preparation 80 tradenames for 289

Polycarbonate (PC) end uses listed 289 etching of 116 tradenames for 289

Polychloroprene, staining method for 95

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), bond breaking in 63

Polyesters fibers 98-9, 98, 156, 159, 167, 170,

169, 170, 170-1, 172 films 183 staining methods for 96, 97, 98-9,

98, 103, 106, 108 tradenames for 288, 289 see also Poly(buty1ene

terephthalate); Poly( ethylene terephthalate)

Poly(ether ketone) end uses listed 289 tradename for 289

Polyetherimide (PEl) end uses listed 289 tradename for 289

Poly(ethylene oxide), freeze fracturing of 146

Polyethylene (PE) bond breaking in 63 crystallinity loss in 67, 68 dimensional changes in 69 electron diffraction patterns from

49 etching of 110, 113, 114,115,

116 fibers 158 films 177, 178, 179-80, 179, 182,

183,183 hollow fiber membranes 193, 194 microporous'membranes 185,185 replication methods for 121 single crystals 78, 79

staining methods for 101-2,102, 108

thin film preparation 80, 81 see also High density polyethylene

(HDPE) Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)

end uses listed, 289 etching ofllO, 111, 112, 113, 116 fibers 156,167,170,169,170,

170-1,170,171,172 fracture of 131-2,132 osmium tetroxide stained specimen

96,97 staining method for 96, 97, 97 thin film preparation 80 tradenames for 289

Polyimide (PI) end uses listed 289 tradenames for 289

Polyisobutylene, bond breaking in 63 Polymers, acronyms for 287 Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)

bond breaking in 63 electron interaction volume in 25,

25 end uses listed 289 staining method for 104 tradenames for 289

Polyoxymethylene (POM) bond breaking in 63 crystallinity loss in 67 end uses listed 289 etching of 116 mineral fillers in 225, 227 polarized light micrograph 6 radiation effects on 67, 127-8,128 replication methods for 119 tradenames for 289

Poly(phenyl ether) (PPE), wettability studies 237

Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) end uses listed 289 etching of 114 staining methods for 107, 108 tradename for 289

Poly(p-phenylene benzobisthiazole) (PPBT) 240, 248-50, 250, 251

Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPT A) 240, 242, 246, 248, 250

Polypropylene (PP) bond breaking in 63 end uses listed 288, 289 etching of 11 0, 114, 116 films 178, 180 microporous membranes 99, 99,

191-2,191,192,193

299

replication methods for 120,121, 124,125

staining methods for 99, 99, 103, 106, 108

tradenames for fibers 288 Polystyrene (PS)

bond breaking in 63 crazing studies 138, 139-40, 140 electron diffraction pattern from

49 end uses listed 289 freeze drying of 143 optical properties of 42 radiation effects on 66 rubber toughening of203 staining methods for 104-6, 107

Polysulfone (PSO) composite membranes 186, 187-8 end uses listed 289 tradename for 289

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) bond breaking in 63 tradenames for 288, 290

Polyurethanes (PUR) etching of 116 SEM characterization of 205-6,

206 staining method for 96

Poly(vinyl acetate) (PV AC) end uses listed 290 etching of 110 latex particles 232

Poly(vinyl acetatelbutyl acrylate) (PV AC/BA), latex film coalescence 235, 235

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PV A) end uses listed 290 staining methods for 106 tradenames for 290

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) bond breaking in 63 chlorinated polyethylene

multiphase polymer 210 end uses listed 290 fracture of 137

Poly(vinylidene chloride) (PVDC), latex particles 232

Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) end uses listed 290 tradename for 290

Poly(p-xylylene), single crystals 78 Post-it® (3M) products, microscopy

study of 238-9, 239 Problem solving

fiber studies 166-72 flow chart for 272

300

Problem solving-continued instrumentation techniques for

266-73 interpretation considerations 273-5 protocol for 265 starting point for 264-5 supporting characterizations used

275-83 Processes 7-11

extrusion 10-11,196-202 fiber extrusion 7-9 fIlm extrusion 8-9 molding 10-11, 196-202

Projector lenses 18

Quantitative microscopy 36-7 calibration techniques 36-7 fundamentals of36-7 latex particle size analysis 236 stereology methods 36

Quartz wedges 61 Quiescently crystallized films 6, 177

Rad (unit), definition of 64 Radial distribution function (RDF),

electron diffraction 48 Radiation doses

absorbed doses 64-5 incident dose 65 units of measurement 64-5

Radiation effects 62-71 crystallinity loss caused by

67-8 dimensional changes caused by

68-9 mass loss caused by 66-7 replicated specimens 126-8,128,

129 SEM/STEM/TEM images affected

by 66-9,211,270 Radiation sensitivity, definition of 30 Raman spectroscopy 12, 33,277,280 Ray velocity surface 59 Reaction injection molding (RIM)

205 Reflected light microscopy 12, 19

examples of use 83,216,221-2, 222

liquid crystalline polymers 243 specimen preparation method for

81,84 Refractive index

definition of 42 measurement of21

Regenerated cellulose, staining method for 106

Replication methods 115-21 double stage replicas 116, 119-20 extraction replicas 120-1 optical microscopy 116-17 practical details II 7-18, 120 scanning electron microscopy

117-18 single stage replicas 116, 118-19 transmission electron microscopy

118-121 Resolution 44-8

definition of 16 focus considerations of 46-8 limitations to 45 noise limited 69-70 optical microscopy 45-6, 48, 268 scanning electron microscopy 268,

269 transmission electron microscopy

46-8, 268, 269 Resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex (RFL)

adhesive 100,101,174,174,175, 175,238

Retardation definition of22, 58 measurement of 22, 60

Reverse osmosis (RO) membranes 184, 189-91

Rigid rod (liquid crystalline) polymers 240, 248-50

Rubber toughened polymers 11, 202-4,206-7

Rubbers ebonite method for 100-1, 175-6 staining methods for 95, 104, 108,

209,210 vulcanization of 3 see also Natural rubber

Ruthenium tetroxide staining method 104-6, 108

examples of use 105-6, 108,210, 211

literature review for 104-5 practical details 105 safety precautions required 105

Saddle field ion gun 122, 125 Safety precautions, staining methods

95, 101, 105, 107 Sample sizes 267 Scanning beam-specimen

interactions 55-7 backscattered electrons 55 secondary electrons 55-6, 55 STEM 56-7 x-rays 56

Index

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) advantages of 24, 270 artifacts in 274 characteristics of 13, 16, 266, 268,

269 for composites 215, 219, 220,221,

222-3,223,224,225,227 conductive coating deposition

methods for 123-6 depth-of-field maximization in 27 diagram of microscope 23 for fibers 159-60, 162, 164, 167 for films 183 fundamentals of22-7 heating effects in 66 imaging signals used 25-6 interpretation of images 270-1 for latexes 231-2, 235 limitations of270-1 for membranes 185-8 for multiphase polymers 204-7 optimization of 26-7 radiation-sensitive materials

affected by 31 replication methods for 117-18,

270 resolution maximization in 27 specimen preparation methods for

76,85-6,89-90,117-18,123-9, 141, 145, 146,270

staining methods for 100 suppliers of equipment 292

Scanning optics 53-5 Scanning transmission electron

microscopy (STEM) 28 advantages of28, 29, 271-2 characteristics ofl6, 269, 271 comparison with other EM

techniques 28-9, 269 disadvantages of272 forward scattered electrons in

56 fundamentals of28-9, 54 heating effects in 66 limitations of211, 270 nylon blend thick section 106 suppliers of equipment 292

Scattering contrast, 50-1 Scattering techniques 282 Scherzer focus 46-7, 47 Schlieren texture 241 Secondary electron emission 55-6, 55 Secondary electron imaging (SEI)

25-6,26 characteristics of267, 269 composites 220, 221, 224, 225

Index

Secondary electron imaging (SEI)-continued

conductively coated specimens 124, 125,127,128

fibers 86, 159,159,160,163,164, 167, 170, 174, 238

fractured specimens 134, 135, 136, 203, 206, 207

ion-etched specimens 112 liquid crystalline polymers 244,

246,249,256 molded specimens 197, 199 multiphase polymers 203, 206, 207,

208,213,214 plasma-etched specimens 111 replicated specimens 118

Seidel geometric aberrations 45 Selected area electron diffraction

(SAED) 29, 266, 267, 268 liquid crystalline polymers 250,

250,251 Self reinforcing composites 243

see also Liquid crystalline polymers Semicrystalline films 177-80 Semicrystalline polymers 4-7

crystallization under flow 6-7 crystallization under quiescent

conditions 5-6 molding of 10-11

Senarmont compensators 61 Shadowing techniques 123 Shear banding 4, 253 Shish kebab structure 6-7, 7, 128 Silver sulfide insertion method 106-7

examples of use 106, 107, 108,247 practical details 107

Single crystals 5, 79 formation methods 78 replication methods for 121

Skin-core morphology 10, 196, 197, 197,200,201,202

liquid crystalline polymers 243, 244

Small angle light scattering (SALS) technique 282

Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) technique 282

Small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) technique 266, 268, 277

examples of use 112, 139, 181,247, 277

Smectic crystals 240 Solution spinning 8 Solvent etching II 3-14

see also Chemical/solvent etching Sonicated LCP fibrils 247, 255

Specimen preparation methods 13-14,74-147

for composites 84, 215, 216, 228 conductive coating deposition

methods 121-9 drying methods 90, 140, 141-6 for emulsions 140-1, 230, 231,

232-3, 232, 233 etching methods 109-15

acid etching methods 114-15 plasma/ion etching methods

109-13 solventlchemical etching

methods 113-14 fracture studies 130-40 freezing methods 140-4, 146-7 for liquid crystalline polymers 85,

241 microtomy methods 85-93

cryomicrotomy 92-3 optical microscopy 86-9 peelback method for SEM 85-6 scanning electron microscopy

89-90 ultrathin sectioning 90-2

optical microscopy 75-6, 86-9, 116-17,269

polishing methods 81-5 replication methods 115-21 scanning electron microscopy 76,

85-6, 89-90, 100, 117-18, 123-9,141,145-6,270

selection of275 simple methods 75-81

optical microscopy 75-6 scanning electron microscopy 76 transmission electron microscopy

76-81 staining methods 93-109

chlorosulfonic acid 10 1-2, 108 ebonite 100-1, 108 iodine 107-9 mercuric trifluoroacetate 107,

108 osmium tetroxide 95-100, 108,

109 phosphotungstic acid 102-4, 108 ruthenium tetroxide 104-6, 108 silver sulfide 106-7, 108

transmission electron microscopy 76-81,90-110, 115, 116, 122-3, 138-9, 142-4, 146,271

Specimen support films, TEM specimen preparations 77

Spectroscopy techniques 279-81 Spherical aberration 46, 47, 54

301

Spherulites 5, 89,198,198,199,200, 201

characterization of282 microscopy techniques for size

determination 12 size of266 structure of 5, 6, 6

Spray spun nonwoven fabrics 164, 165

Sputter coaters 122, 123-5 advantages of, 123 examples of use, 124-5, 124, 125

Staining methods 93-109 action of 93-4 chlorosulfonic acid method 10 1-2 ebonite method 100-1 examples listed 108-9 iodine method 107-9 literature review for 94-5 mercuric trifluoroacetate method

107,108 negative staining 94 osmium tetroxide method 95-100 phosphotungstic acid method

102-4,108 polymers listed 108 positive staining 94 reasons for 31 ruthenium tetroxide method

104-6, 108 silver sulfide method 106-7,

108 timing of use 94-5 uranyl acetate method 101, 102,

108 Static electricity buildup 137 Stereo (optical) microscopes 19, 265,

266 Stereo logy 36 Sterically hindered bonds 64 Structural characterization

techniques, summarized 266 Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)

copolymer end uses listed 290 etching of 113, 116 staining methods for 106 tradename for 290

Styrene-butadiene latex, end uses listed 290

Styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) copolymers

staining methods for 96, 107, 109, 209,209, 210

tradename for 290 see also Kraton G

302

Suppliers listed electron microscopes 292 EM accessories 291 optical microscopes 292 x-ray microanalysis equipment

292 Supporting characterization

techniques 275-83 spectroscopy techniques 279-82 thermal analysis techniques 278-9 x-ray diffraction techniques 276-8

Syndiotactic polymers, definition of 3

Talc particles characterization of 217 as fillers 224

Temperature rise calculations 65-6 Textile fibers

birefring~nce studies 158-9 bulk study of 168-9 fiber assemblages 162, 164, 164,

165 fractography 160-2 optical observations of 156, 158-9,

166 scanning electron microscopy

studies 159-60, 162, 164 staining-inclusion method for

98-9, 168 surface study of 166 transmission electron microscopy

studies 164-6 wear studies 164

Thermal analysis techniques 278-9 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

278 Thermomechanical analysis (TMA)

278 Thermoplastics, definition of 2-3 Thermosets

definition 0[3 toughening of 206-7

Thermotropic liquid crystalline polymers 240

melt processing of243-5 Thin sections

cutting of 85-93 polishing of 84-5

Tin chloride stain 108, 172 Tire cords 100,101, 172, 174-6,174,

175 adhesion in 174, 176 fibers used 174, 289

Titanium dioxide pigment, fiber studies 168, 167-72

Toxicity, stain chemicals 95, 105, 107

Tradenames listed engineering plastics and resins

289-90 fibers 288 films 289-90

Transcrystallinity 198, 204, 204 Transmission electron microscopy

(TEM) advantages of 271 artifacts in 51, 274-5 characteristics of 16, 267, 268, 269 comparison with other microscopy

techniques 17, 28-9, 268, 269 conductive coating deposition

methods for 122-3 crazed specimens for 138-9 diffraction techniques 29-30 disadvantages of 271 for fibers 164-7, 169-75 for films 176-81, 183 fundamentals of 27-30 heating effects in 65-6 illumination systems for 52-3 imaging modes 27-9 for latexes 232-5 lattice imaging techniques 30 low dose techniques 31-3

increased contrast/signal 32-3 maximized specimen radiation

dose 32 for multiphase polymers 207-12

cast thin films 208 examples of 210-12 microtomed and stained sections

209-10 optics compared with optical

microscopy 17 phase contrast techniques 30 replication methods for 118-21 resolution in 46-8 sectioning of specimens for 89-90 specimen preparation methods

76-81,89-110,115,116, 118-21, 122-3, 138-9, 142-4, 146 disintegration techniques 79-80 dispersion techniques 77-8 single crystal formation 78 support films 77 thin film casting techniques 80 thin film drawing techniques

80-1 specimen preparation methods for

271 staining methods for 95-9 suppliers of equipment 292

Index

Transmitted light microscopy 12, 19 composites 218, 218

Triton X-IOO surfactant 137 Tube length, definition of 19-20

Ultrafiltration membranes 184, 190, 191

Ultramicrotomy 85, 90, 91-2 Ultrasonic cleaning 82, 84 Ultrathin cryosectioning 92-3

advantages/disadvantages of 93 equipment used 93 examples of use 92-3,228

Ultrathin sectioning 90-2 block trimming for 91 embedding media used 90-1 microtomes used 85, 90, 91-2 specimen drying for 90

Ultrathin window (UTW) detectors 34

Ultraviolet spectroscopy 12 Underfocusing technique 47

see also Defocus . . . Uniaxially oriented fibers 9 Uranyl acetate staining method 10 1,

102, 108

Video enhanced contrast-differential interference contrast microscopy (VED-ICM) 232

Wave velocity surface 59 Wavelength dispersive x-ray

spectrometer (WDS) technique 34,172,173

Wettability studies 237 Wide angle x-ray scattering (WAXS)

technique 268, 270, 276 Wool, staining method for 106 Woven fabrics 156, 162, 164, 164

X7G polymers 240,241,250,252 X-ray diffraction techniques 278-80 X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

spectroscopy 279 X-ray microanalysis 33-4, 33-5, 66

energy dispersive (EDS) technique 34, 172

metal loaded fibers 172, 173 multiphase polymers 213 SEM vs. AEM 35 suppliers of equipment 292 wavelength dispersive (WDS)

technique 34, 172 X-rays

characteristic 56

Index

x -rays-continued characteristic x-rays 33 continuum x-rays 33 scanning beam interactions 56

303

Xantopren Blue 117,118

Yielding, in situ deformation 136-7