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8888 Uprising

1st row: Protesters gathering at Sule Pagoda,central Rangoon.

2nd row: Protesters rallying in Mandalay;Aung San Suu Kyi addresses half a million of

protesters at central Yangon.3rd row: Soldiers about to open fire onprotesters; Two doctors carry a critically

wounded school girl.

Date 12 March 1988 – 21 September 1988

Location Burma (Nationwide)

CausesWithdrawal of currency noteswithout compensationEconomic mismanagementFailure of the Burmese Way toSocialismPolice brutalityCorruption

8888 UprisingFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"8888" redirects here. It is not to be confused with CSX 8888 incident.

The 8888 Nationwide Popular Pro-DemocracyProtests ; MLCTS: hrac le: lum: also known as thePeople Power Uprising[6]) was a series of marches,demonstrations, protests,[7] and riots[8] in Burma(Myanmar). Key events occurred on 8 August 1988, andtherefore it is known as the 8888 Uprising.[9]

Since 1962, the country had been ruled by the BurmaSocialist Programme Party regime as a one-party state,headed by General Ne Win. The catastrophic BurmeseWay to Socialism had turned Burma into one of theworld's most impoverished countries.[10][11][12] Manyfirms in the formal sector of the economy werenationalized and the government combined Soviet-stylecentral planning, although the process was ratherineffective, with Buddhist and superstitious beliefs.[12]

The 8888 uprising was started by students in Yangon(Rangoon) on 8 August 1988. Student protests spreadthroughout the country.[3][10] Hundreds of thousands ofochre-robed monks, children, youngsters, universitystudents, housewives, doctors and people from all walksof life demonstrated against the regime.[13][14] Theuprising ended on 18 September, after a bloody militarycoup by the State Law and Order Restoration Council(SLORC). Thousands of deaths have been attributed tothe military during this uprising,[3][4][5] while authoritiesin Myanmar put the figure at around 350 peoplekilled.[15][16]

During the crisis, Aung San Suu Kyi emerged as anational icon. When the military junta arranged anelection in 1990, her party, the National League forDemocracy, won 80% of the seats in the government(392 out of 492).[17] But the military junta suppressedeverything that could have developed from thesedemocratic achievements. Part of the strategy was toplace Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest. The StateLaw and Order Restoration Council would be a cosmeticchange from the Burma Socialist Programme Party.[13]

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Military dictatorship

Goals Democracy

MethodsCivil disobedienceCivil resistanceDemonstrationsRiotsStrike actions

Status Violently suppressed

Concessionsgiven Pledged elections (results were

not honored)Resignation of General Ne Win

Number

1 million protesters in Yangon

500,000 at Shwedagon Pagoda[1]

500,000 at Downtown Yangon

100,000 in Mandalay[2]

50,000 in Sittwe[2]

Unknown number countrywide

Casualties

Death(s)3,000-10,000 [3][4][5]

Tens of thousands of protestersfled to Thailand and joinedinsurgent groups, who werelater crushed by the army.

Injuries Unknown

Arrested Unknown

Suu Kyi's house arrest would be lifted no earlier than in2010 when worldwide attention for her peaked againduring the making of the biographical film The Lady.

Contents1 Background

1.1 Economic problems1.2 Early democracy protests1.3 Ne Win resigns

2 Main protests2.1 1–7 August2.2 8–12 August2.3 13–31 August2.4 September

3 SLORC "coup" and crackdown4 Aftermath5 Significance6 See also7 References

7.1 Bibliography8 Further reading9 External links

Background

Economic problems

Before the crisis, Burma had been ruled by the repressiveand isolated regime of General Ne Win since 1962. Thecountry had a national debt of $3.5 billion and currencyreserves of between $20 million and $35 million, withdebt service ratios standing at half of the nationalbudget.[18] In November 1985, students gathered andboycotted the government's decision to withdrawBurmese local currency notes. Economic problemscoupled with counter-insurgency required continuousinvolvement in the international market.[19]

On 5 September 1987, Ne Win announced the withdrawal of the newly replaced currency notes, 100, 75, 35and 25 kyats, leaving only 45 and 90 kyat notes, apparently because only the latter two are numbers divisibleby 9, considered lucky by Ne Win.[20] Students were particularly angry at the government's decision assavings for tuition fees were wiped out instantly.[21] Students from the Rangoon Institute of Technology(RIT) ran riot through Rangoon, smashing windows and traffic lights down Insein Road.[22] Universities in

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Rangoon closed and sent students home. Meanwhile, larger protests in Mandalay involved monks andworkers, with some burning government buildings and state businesses.[23] Burmese state media reportedlittle on the protests, but information quickly spread through the students.[23]

With the re-opening of schools in late October 1987, underground groups in Rangoon and Mandalayproduced dissident leaflets which culminated in bombs exploding in November.[23] Police later receivedthreatening letters from underground groups, who organised small protests around the university campus.[24]

After securing Least Developed Country status from the United Nations Economic and Social Council inDecember 1987, government policy requiring farmers to sell produce below market rates to create greaterrevenue for the government sparked several, violent rural protests.[25] The protests were fanned by publicletters to Ne Win by former second in command General Brigadier Aung Gyi from July 1987, remindinghim of the 1967 rice riots and condemning lack of economic reform, describing Burma as "almost a joke"compared to other Southeast Asian nations. He was later arrested.[19][26]

Early democracy protests

On 12 March 1988, students from the RIT were arguing with out-of-school youths inside the Sanda Win teashop about music playing on a sound system.[6][23] A drunken youth would not return a tape that the RITstudents favored.[27] A brawl followed in which one youth, who was the son of a BSPP official, was arrestedand later released for injuring a student.[23] Students protested at a local police department where 500 riotpolice were mobilized and in the ensuing clash, one student, Phone Maw, was shot and killed.[23] Theincident angered pro-democracy groups and the next day more students rallied at the RIT and spread to othercampuses.[28] The students, who had never protested before, increasingly saw themselves as activists.[23]

There was growing resentment towards military rule and there were no channels to address grievances,further exacerbated by police brutality, economic mismanagement and corruption within the government.[6]

By mid-March, several protests had occurred and there was open dissent in the army. Variousdemonstrations were broken up by using tear gas canisters to disperse crowds.[20] On 16 March, studentsdemanding an end to one party rule marched towards soldiers at Inya Lake when riot police stormed fromthe rear, clubbing several students to death and raping others.[29] Several students recalled the policeshouting, "Don't let them escape" and "Kill them!".[30] Stories, some of which were later found out to havebeen fabricated,[31] were circulating of the events of that day and quickly spread gaining popular support forthe movement. Unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led towidespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country.

Ne Win resigns

Following the latest protests, authorities announced the closure of universities for several months.[32] ByJune 1988, large demonstrations of students and sympathisers were a daily sight.[32] Many students,sympathisers and riot police died throughout the month as the protests spread throughout Burma fromRangoon. Large scale civil unrest was reported in Pegu, Mandalay, Tavoy, Toungoo, Sittwe, Pakokku,Mergui, Minbu and Myitkyina.[33] Demonstrators in larger numbers demanded multi-party democracy,

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Flag of the Burma SocialistProgramme Party, the sole legalpolitical party that ruled thecountry from 1962 to 1988.

The NLD Flag depicting a fightingpeacock became a symbol of theprotests on the streets of Burma.

which marked Ne Win's resignation on 23 July 1988.[32] In a valedictory address, on 23 July 1988 Winaffirmed that "When the army shoots, it shoots to kill."[20] He also promised a multi-party system, but hehad appointed the largely disliked Sein Lwin, known as the "Butcher of Rangoon"[34] to head a newgovernment.[26]

Main protests

1–7 August

Protests reached their peak in August 1988. Students planned for anationwide demonstration on 8 August 1988, an auspicious date basedon numerological significance.[2] News of the protest reached ruralareas and four days prior to the national protest, students across thecountry were denouncing Sein Lwin's regime and Tatmadaw troopswere being mobilized.[2] Pamphlets and posters appeared on the streetsof Rangoon bearing the fighting peacock insignia of the All-BurmaStudents Union.[35] Neighbourhood and strike committees were openlyformed on the advice of underground activists, many of which wereinfluenced by similar underground movements by workers and monks inthe 1980s.[35] Between 2 and 10 August, co-ordinated protests wereoccurring in most Burmese towns.[36]

During this period, dissident newspapers were freely publishing, fighting-peacock banners were unfurled,synchronised marches were held and rally speakers were protected.[35] In Rangoon, the first signs of themovement began around the Buddhist full moon of Waso at the Shwedagon Pagoda when studentdemonstrators emerged demanding support for the demonstrations.[37] Neighbourhood and strikecommittees barricaded and defended neighbourhoods and mobilised further demonstrations.[35] In someareas, committees built makeshift stages where speakers addressed the crowds and brought donations tosupport rallies.[38]

In the first few days of the Rangoon protests, activists contacted lawyersand monks[39] in Mandalay to encourage them to take part in theprotests.[38] The students were quickly joined by Burmese citizens fromall walks of life, including government workers, Buddhist monks, airforce and navy personnel, customs officers, teachers and hospital staff.The demonstrations in the streets of Rangoon became a focal point forother demonstrations, which spread to other states' capitals.[40] 10,000protesters alone demonstrated outside the Sule Pagoda in Rangoon,where demonstrators burned and buried effigies of Ne Win and SeinLwin in coffins decorated with demonetized bank notes.[20] Further

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“ Across Burma, peoplepoured out inthousands to join theprotests – not juststudents but alsoteachers, monks,children,professionals, andtrade unionists ofevery shade. It was onthis day, too, that thejunta made its firstdetermined attempt atrepression. Soldiersopened fire on thedemonstrators andhundreds of unarmedmarchers were killed.The killings continuedfor a week, but still thedemonstratorscontinued to flood thestreets. ”

— Amitav Ghosh (2001)[40]

protests took place around the country at stadiums and hospitals.[41] Monks at the Sule Pagoda reported thatthe Buddha's image had changed shape, with an image in the sky standing on its head.[20] On 3 August, theauthorities imposed martial law from 8 pm to 4 am and a ban on gatherings of more than five people.[41]

8–12 August

A general strike, as planned, began on 8 August 1988. Massdemonstrations were held across Burma as ethnic minorities,Buddhists, Muslims, students, workers and the young and old alldemonstrated.[20] The first procession circled Rangoon, stopping forpeople to speak. A stage was also erected.[38] Demonstrators fromthe Rangoon neighborhoods converged in downtown Rangoon. Onlyone casualty was reported at this point as a frightened trafficpoliceman fired into the crowd and fled.[38] (Such marches wouldoccur daily until 19 September.)[38] Protesters kissed the shoes ofsoldiers, in an attempt to persuade them to join the civilian protest,whilst some encircled military officers to protect them from thecrowd and earlier violence[42][43] Over the next four days thesedemonstrations continued; the government was surprised by thescale of the protests and stated that it promised to heed the demandsof the protesters "insofar as possible".[41] Lwin had brought in moresoldiers from insurgent areas to deal with the protesters.[44]

In Mandalay Division, a more organized strike committee washeaded by lawyers and discussion focused on multi-party democracyand human rights. Many participants in the protests arrived fromnearby towns and villages.[45] Farmers who were particularly angrywith the government's economic policies joined the protests inRangoon. In one village, 2,000 of the 5,000 people also went on strike.[45]

A short while later, the authorities opened fire on the protesters.[3][20] Ne Win ordered that "guns were not toshoot upwards," meaning that he was ordering the military to shoot directly at the demonstrators.[40]

Protesters responded by throwing Molotov cocktails, swords, knives, rocks, poisoned darts and bicyclespokes.[20] In one incident, protesters burned a police station and tore apart four fleeing officers.[43] On 10August, soldiers fired into Rangoon General Hospital, killing nurses and doctors tending to the wounded.[46]

State-run Radio Rangoon reported that 1,451 "looters and disturbance makers" had been arrested.[26]

Estimates of the number of casualties surrounding the 8-8-88 demonstrations range from hundreds to10,000;[3][4][5] military authorities put the figures at about 95 people killed and 240 wounded.[47]

13–31 August

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The Burmese Navy demonstrating

Lwin's sudden and unexplained resignation on 12 August left many protestors confused and jubilant.Security forces exercised greater caution with demonstrators, particularly in neighbourhoods that wereentirely controlled by demonstrators and committees.[43] On 19 August, under pressure to form a civiliangovernment, Ne Win's biographer, Dr. Maung Maung was appointed as head of government.[48] Maung wasa legal scholar and the only non-military individual to serve in the Burma Socialist Programme Party.[2] Theappointment of Maung briefly resulted in a subsidence of the shooting and protests.

Nationwide demonstrations resumed on 22 August 1988. InMandalay, 100,000 people protested, including Buddhistmonks and 50,000 demonstrated in Sittwe.[2] Large marchestook places from Taunggyi and Moulmein to distant ethnicstates (particularly where military campaigns had previouslytaken place),[49] where red, the symbolic colour for democracywas displayed on banners.[2] Two days later, doctors, monks,musicians, actors, lawyers, army veterans and governmentoffice workers joined the protests.[50] It became difficult forcommittees to control the protests. During this time,demonstrators became increasingly wary of "suspicious

looking" people and police and army officers. On one occasion, a local committee mistakenly beheaded acouple thought to have been carrying a bomb.[51] Incidents like these were not as common in Mandalay,where protests were more peaceful as they were organised by monks and lawyers.[51]

On 26 August, Aung San Suu Kyi, who had watched the demonstrations from her mother's bedside,[52]

entered the political arena by addressing half a million people at Shwedagon Pagoda.[50] It was at this pointthat she became a symbol for the struggle in Burma, particularly in the eyes of the Western world.[53] Kyi, asthe daughter of Aung San, who led the independence movement, appeared ready to lead the movement fordemocracy.[54] Kyi urged the crowd not to turn on the army but find peace through non-violent means.[55] Atthis point in time for many in Burma, the uprising was seen as similar to that of the People PowerRevolution in the Philippines in 1986.[26]

Around this time, former Prime Minister U Nu and retired Brigadier General Aung Gyi also re-emerged ontothe political scene in what was described as a "democracy summer" when many former democracy leadersreturned.[33] Despite the gains made by the democracy movement, Ne Win remained in the background.

September

During the September congress of 1988, 90% of party delegates (968 out of 1080) voted for a multi-partysystem of government.[50] The BSPP announced they would be organising an election, but the oppositionparties called for their immediate resignation from government, allowing an interim government to organiseelections. After the BSPP rejected both demands, protesters again took to the streets on 12 September1988.[50] Nu promised elections within a month, proclaiming a provisional government. Meanwhile, thepolice and army began fraternizing with the protesters.[56] The movement had reached an impasse relying on

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Aung San Suu Kyi, 22 September1988.[56]

three hopes: daily demonstrations in order to force the regime to respond to their demands, encouragingsoldiers to defect and appealing to an international audience in the hope that United Nations or United Statestroops would arrive.[57] Some Tatmadaw did defect, but only in limited numbers, mostly from the Navy.[58]

Stephen Solarz who had experienced the recent democracy protests in the Philippines and South Koreaarrived in Burma in September encouraging the regime to reform, which echoed the policy of the UnitedStates government towards Burma.[59]

By mid-September, the protests grew more violent and lawless, with soldiers deliberately leading protestersinto skirmishes that the army easily won.[60] Protesters demanded more immediate change, and distrustedsteps for incremental reform.[61]

SLORC "coup" and crackdown

“If the army shoots, it has no tradition of shooting into the air. It shoots straight to kill.

” —  Ne Win[62][63]

On 18 September 1988, the military retook power in the country. General Saw Maung repealed the 1974constitution and established the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), "imposing moreDraconian measures than Ne Win had imposed."[64] After Maung had imposed martial law, the protests wereviolently broken up. The government announced on the state-run radio that the military had assumed powerin the peoples interest, "in order to bring a timely halt to the deteriorating conditions on all sides all over thecountry."[65] Tatmadaw troops went through cities throughout Burma, indiscriminately firing onprotestors.[66] Within the first week of securing power, 1,000 students, monks and schoolchildren werekilled, and another 500 were killed whilst protesting outside the United States embassy[46] – footage caughtby a cameraman nearby who distributed the footage to the world's media.[67] Maung described the dead as"looters".[67] Protestors were pursued into the jungle and some students took up training on the country'sborders with Thailand.[60]

By the end of September, there were around 3,000 estimated deathsand unknown number of injured,[60] with 1,000 deaths in Rangoonalone.[66] At this point in time, Aung San Suu Kyi appealed forhelp.[56] On 21 September, the government had regained control of thecountry,[66] with the movement effectively collapsing in October.[56]

By the end of 1988, it was estimated that 10,000 people – includingprotesters and soldiers, had been killed. Many others were missing.[5]

Aftermath

"I would like every country in theworld to recognize the fact that thepeople of Burma are being shotdown for no reason at all."

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Continuous anniversary observances of the1988 uprising take place around the world.

Many in Burma believed that the regime would have collapsed had the United Nations and neighbouringcountries refused recognition to the coup.[68] Westerngovernments and Japan cut aid to the country.[67] AmongBurma's neighbours, India was most critical; condemning thesuppression, closing borders and setting up refugee camps alongits border with Burma.[69] By 1989, 6,000 NLD supporters weredetained in custody and those who fled to the ethnic borderareas, such as Kawthoolei, formed groups with those whowished for greater self-determination.[70] It was estimated10,000 had fled to mountains controlled by ethnic insurgentssuch as the Karen National Liberation Army, and many latertrained to become soldiers.[71][72]

After the uprising, the SLORC embarked on "clumsypropaganda" towards those who organised the protests.[73] Intelligence Chief Khin Nyunt, gave English-language press conferences aimed at providing an account favourable to the SLORC towards foreigndiplomats and media.[73][74] The Burmese media underwent further restriction during this period, afterreporting relatively freely at the peak of the protests. In the conferences, he detailed a conspiracy of the rightacting with "subversive foreigners" of plotting to overthrow the regime and a conspiracy of the left acting tooverthrow the State.[73] Despite the conferences, few believed the government's theory.[73] While theseconferences were ongoing, the SLORC was secretly negotiating with mutineers.[74]

Between 1988 and 2000, the Burmese government established 20 museums detailing the military's centralrole throughout Burma's history and increased its numbers from 180,000 to 400,000.[56] Schools anduniversities remained closed to prevent any further uprisings.[56] Aung San Suu Kyi, U Tin Oo and AungGyi initially publicly rejected the SLORC's offer to hold elections the following year, claiming that theycould not be held freely under military rule.[75]

SignificanceToday, the uprising is remembered and honoured by many Burmese expatriates and citizens alike. There isalso support for the movement amongst students in Thailand, which is commemorated every 8 Augustsince.[76] On the 20th anniversary of the uprising, 48 activists in Burma were arrested for commemoratingthe event.[77] The event garnened much support for the Burmese people internationally. Poems(http://www3.soros.org/burma/Voices88/poems88.html) were written by students who participated in theprotests. The 1995 film Beyond Rangoon is based on a true story that took place during the uprising.

Many activists who joined the movement played a role 19 years later during the 2007 Burmese anti-government protests. The 88 Generation Students Group, named for the events of 8-8-88, helped to againorganize protests during this uprising, leading to lengthy prison sentences for such prominent figures as MinKo Naing, Ko Mya Aye, Htay Kywe, Mie Mie, Ko Ko Gyi, and Nilar Thein.[78] Though not an 88Generation Students Group member, later solo protester Ohn Than also joined the democracy movementthrough the 8888 Uprising.[79]

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See alsoEDSA People Power Revolution (1986)Tiananmen Square protests of 1989

References

1. Neeraj Gautam (2009). Buddha, his life & teachings. Mahavir & Sons Publisher. ISBN 81-8377-247-1. External linkin |title= (help)

2. Fong (2008), pp. 1493. Ferrara (2003), pp. 3134. Fogarty, Phillipa (7 August 2008). Was Burma's 1988 uprising worth it? (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-

pacific/7543347.stm). BBC News.5. Wintle (2007)6. Yawnghwe (1995), pp. 1707. Ferrara 302–38. "Hunger for food, leadership sparked Burma riots". Houston Chronicle. 11 August 1988.9. Tweedie, Penny. (2008). Junta oppression remembered (http://www.reuters.com/news/video?

videoId=88623&videoChannel=1). Reuters.10. Burma Watcher (1989)11. *Tallentire, Mark (28 September 2007). The Burma road to ruin

(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/sep/28/burma.uk). The Guardian.12. Woodsome, Kate. (7 October 2007). 'Burmese Way to Socialism' Drives Country into Poverty

(http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-10/2007-10-04-voa10.cfm?CFID=117290760&CFTOKEN=64840153&jsessionid=6630167e8fd1b43b9eef18506362225e1f2d). Voice ofAmerica.

13. Steinberg (2002)14. Aung-Thwin, Maureen. (1989). Burmese Days (http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19890301faessay5952/maureen-aung-

thwin/burmese-days.html). Foreign Affairs.15. Ottawa Citizen. 24 September 1988. pg. A.1616. Associated Press. Chicago Tribune. 26 September 1988.17. Wintle, p. 338.18. Lintner (1989), pp. 94–95.19. Boudreau (2004), pp. 19220. Tucker (2001), pp. 22821. Fong (2008), pp. 14622. Lwin (1992)23. Boudreau (2004), pp. 19324. Lintner (1989), pp. 95–97.25. Yitri (1989)26. Yawnghwe (1995), pp. 17127. Fong (2008), pp. 14728. Smith (1999), pp. 1–1429. Fong (2008) pp. 147–148.30. Fink (2001), pp. 5131. Hlaing (1996) interviewed some students from the March 1988 incident who spoke to foreign media, and later

testified that some of the stories were made up as part of an underground movement to increase support for theoverthrow of the regime.

32. Fong (2008), pp. 14833. Smith (1999)34. Fong (2008). In 1962, Lwin had ordered troops to fire on student protestors, killing dozens, and ordered the Union

Building at Rangoon University to be blown up.

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Building at Rangoon University to be blown up.35. Boudreau (2004), pp. 20236. Lintner (1989), pp. 12637. Lintner (1989)38. Boudreau (2004), pp. 20339. Boudreau (2004) Two groups considered to have large underground and internal support networks40. Ghosh (2001)41. Mydans, Seth. (12 August 1988). Uprising in Burma: The Old Regime Under Siege

(http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE2D6133AF931A2575BC0A96E948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all). The New York Times.

42. Williams Jr., Nick. (10 August 1988). "36 Killed in Burma Protests of Military Rule." Los Angeles Times.43. Boudreau (2004), pp. 20544. Callahan (2001)45. Boudreau (2004), pp. 20446. Burma Watcher (1989), pp. 179.47. The Vancouver Sun 17 Aug 1988. pg. A.548. Fink (2001)49. Fink (2001), pp. 5850. Fong (2008), pp. 15051. Boudreau (2004), pp. 20852. Clements (1992)53. Smith (1999), pp. 954. Silverstein (1996)55. Fink (2001), pp. 6056. Tucker (2001), pp. 229.57. Boudreau (2004), pp. 212.58. Callahan (1999), pp. 1.59. United States State Department, 198860. Boudreau (2004), pp. 210.61. Maung (1999)62. Yeni. "Twenty Years of Marking Time". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved November 20, 2011.63. Kyi May Kaung (8 August 2008). "Burma: waiting for the dawn". Open Democracy. Retrieved 21 November 2011.64. Delang (2000)65. Ferrara (2003), pp. 313–4.66. Ferrara (2003), pp. 314.67. Fong (2008), pp. 15168. Yawnghwe (1995), pp. 172.69. Europa Publications Staff (2002), pp. 87270. Fong (2008), pp.152.71. Smith (1999), pp. 371.72. Smith (1999), pp. 17.73. Boudreau (2004), pp. 19074. Lintner (1990), pp. 5275. Mydans, Seth. (23 September 1988). Burma Crackdown: Army in Charge

(http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE6D61F3CF930A1575AC0A96E948260). The New YorkTimes.

76. The Nation. (9 August 1997). Burmese exiles mark protest (http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Av4JAAAAIBAJ&sjid=AjIDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6445,3383710&dq=). The Nation (Thailand).

77. *Tun, Aung Hla. (8 August 2008). Myanmar arrests "8-8-88" anniversary marchers(http://www.iht.com/articles/reuters/2008/08/08/asia/OUKWD-UK-MYANMAR.php). International Herald Tribune.

78. Jonathan Head (11 November 2008). "Harsh sentences for Burma rebels". BBC News. Archived from the original on11 May 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

79. "A former political prisoner was arrested for protesting alone in front of the United Nations office in Rangoon".Assistance Association for Political Prisoners. 23 September 2004. Archived from the original on 2 June 2011.Retrieved 15 May 2011.

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Bibliography

Books and journals

Boudreau, Vincent. (2004). Resisting Dictatorship: Repression and Protest in Southeast Asia. Cambridge UniversityPress. ISBN 978-0-521-83989-1.Burma Watcher. (1989). Burma in 1988: There Came a Whirlwind. Asian Survey, 29(2). A Survey of Asia in 1988:Part II pp. 174–180.Callahan, Mary. (1999). Civil-military relations in Burma: Soldiers as state-builders in the postcolonial era.Preparation for the State and the Soldier in Asia Conference.Callahan, Mary. (2001). Burma: Soldiers as State Builders. ch. 17. cited in Alagappa, Muthiah. (2001). Coercion andGovernance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4227-6Clements, Ann. (1992). Burma: The Next Killing Fields? Odonian Press. ISBN 978-1-878825-21-6Delang, Claudio. (2000). Suffering in Silence, the Human Rights Nightmare of the Karen People of Burma. Parkland:Universal Press.Europa Publications Staff. (2002). The Far East and Australasia 2003. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85743-133-9.Ferrara, Federico. (2003). Why Regimes Create Disorder: Hobbes's Dilemma during a Rangoon Summer. TheJournal of Conflict Resolution, 47(3), pp. 302–325.Fink, Christina. (2001). Living Silence: Burma Under Military Rule. Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-85649-926-2Fong, Jack. (2008). Revolution as Development: The Karen Self-determination Struggle Against Ethnocracy (1949–2004). Universal-Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59942-994-6Ghosh, Amitav. (2001). The Kenyon Review, New Series. Cultures of Creativity: The Centennial Celebration of theNobel Prizes. 23(2), pp. 158–165.Hlaing, Kyaw Yin. (1996). Skirting the regime's rules.Lintner, Bertil. (1989). Outrage: Burma's Struggle for Democracy. Hong Kong: Review Publishing Co.Lintner, Bertil. (1990). The Rise and Fall of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB). SEAP Publications. ISBN 978-0-87727-123-9.Lwin, Nyi Nyi. (1992). Refugee Student Interviews. A Burma-India Situation Report.Maung, Maung. (1999). The 1988 Uprising in Burma. Yale University Southeast Asia Studies. ISBN 978-0-938692-71-3Silverstein, Josef. (1996). The Idea of Freedom in Burma and the Political Thought of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi.Pacific Affairs, 69(2), pp. 211–228.Smith, Martin. (1999). Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-85649-660-5Steinberg, David. (2002). Burma: State of Myanmar. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-0-87840-893-1Tucker, Shelby. (2001). Burma: The Curse of Independence. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-1541-6Wintle, Justin. (2007). Perfect Hostage: a life of Aung San Suu Kyi, Burma’s prisoner of conscience. New York:Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-0-09-179681-5Yawnghwe, Chao-Tzang. Burma: Depoliticization of the Political. cited in Alagappa, Muthiah. (1995). PoliticalLegitimacy in Southeast Asia: The Quest for Moral Authority. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2560-6Yitri, Moksha. (1989). The Crisis in Burma: Back from the Heart of Darkness? University of California Press.

Further readingAP. (1988). Burma Imposes Martial Law In the Capital After a Protest (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE2DA103BF937A3575BC0A96E948260), New York Times, 4 August 1988.AP. (1988). Road To Upheaval In Politics For Burmese (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEEDE163AF932A2575AC0A96E948260), New York Times, 11 September 1988.

Retrieved 15 May 2011.

9/28/15, 11:31 AM8888 Uprising - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Cumming-Bruce, Nick. (1988). Burma's new leader imposes martial law(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/1988/aug/04/burma.fromthearchive), The Guardian, 4 August 1988.Faulder, Dominic. (2008). Memories of 8 August 1988 (http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=13758&page=1) The Irrawaddy, August 2008.Kamm, Henry. (1988). Tension Reported High In Burma After Clashes (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEFD7143FF931A35754C0A96E948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all), New York Times, 2 July 1988.Mydans, Seth. (1988). A Burmese Power Shift; Though Government Schedules Election, Decision Rests WithPeople in the Streets (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEFDB173DF931A2575AC0A96E948260), New York Times, 12 September 1988.Mydans, Seth. (1988). Defections Strain Burmese Military (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE6DC1339F933A2575AC0A96E948260), New York Times, 10 September 1988.Mydans, Seth. (1988). Many in Burma Say Ne Win Continues to Pull the Strings(http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEFD6153FF930A2575AC0A96E948260), New York Times, 13September 1988.Richburg, Keith. (1988). Youths, Monks Fight Troops in Burma; Post-Coup Deaths Reported in Hundreds.Washington Post, 20 September 1988.Stewart, William. (1988). Burma The Armed Forces Seize Power(http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968501,00.html?promoid=googlep), TIME, 26 September 1988.Protests mark Burma anniversary (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3134123.stm), BBC News, 8 August 2003.Burma's 1988 Protests (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7012158.stm), BBC News, 25 September 2007.Partial list of 8888 Uprising victims (http://www.irrawaddy.org/research_show.php?art_id=441), The Irrawaddy, 1January 2003.

External linksVoices of '88 (http://www3.soros.org/burma/Voices88/catalogue_index.html), Soros.Video – 8888s anniversary activity in London Burmese' Embassy and Downing street, and Ms SuuKyi's Birthday, calling for democratic reform in Burma (http://video.google.co.uk/videoplay?docid=161804047838441062&hl=en-GB)8888 Photos (http://www.badasf.org/8888/photos.htm), Burmese American Democratic Alliance.

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Categories: Revolutions of 1989 Internal conflict in Myanmar Conflicts in 1988Burmese democracy movements History of Myanmar Massacres in Myanmar Politics of MyanmarPolitical repression Rebellions in Asia 1988 in Burma Protests in Myanmar 20th-century rebellionsAung San Suu Kyi

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