VAG MANAGEMENT SERVICES Centre Code No. : 2005

A PROJECT REPORT ON

THE PSYCHOMETRIC TOOL KIT OF HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT

By: Harish Chander KhanduriRoll No. :510734148

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Business Administration of Sikkim Manipal University, India

Sikkim-Manipal university of Health, Medical and technological sciences.Distance education wingSyndicate houseManipal-576104

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Introductory page                                                                                                

Acknowledgement                                                                                                  

 Chapter 1

1.1 Executive summary

1.2 Objectives of study   

1.3 Literature review

1.4 Research Methodology   

 Chapter 2

2.1 Psychometric testing: Myths and Realities

2.2 The big five personality dimensions

2.3 Firo-B: Fundamental Interpersonal Relationship Orientation-Behavior

2.4 MBTI: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

2 . 5 T h e D i S C p e r s o n a l i t y m o d e l

2.6 16PF®

2.7 Johari window

2.8 The Belbin team roles inventory

2.9 Aptitude and Ability Tests

2.10 Speed and Power Tests

2.11 Verbal Ability Tests

2.12 Verbal Reasoning Questions

2.13 Numerical Ability Tests

2.14 Numerical Critical Reasoning

  

      

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 Chapter 3

3.1 Data Analysis & Interpretation

3.2 Findings  3.3 Conclusion

3.4 Limitations                 

Chapter 4

 4.1 References                                                                                                 

4.2    Annexure                                                                                                         

        (A) Questionnaire used

        (B) Some filled questionnaires

(C) MBTI questionnaire

 

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I here by declare that the project report entitled

A PROJECT REPORT ONTHE PSYCHOMETRIC TOOL KIT OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofMasters of business Administration to Sikkim-Manipal University, India, is my original work and not submitted for the award of any other degree, diploma, fellowship, or any other similar title or prizes

Place : New Delhi Harish Chander KhanduriDate : Roll No.-510734148

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The project report of

Harish Chander Khanduri

A PROJECT REPORT ONTHE PSYCHOMETRIC TOOL KIT OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Is approved and is acceptable in quality and form

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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This is to certify that the project report entitled

A PROJECT REPORT ONTHE PSYCHOMETRIC TOOL KIT OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters Of Businees Administration of Sikkim-Manipal University of Health, Medical & Tecnological Sciences

Harish Chander Khanduri has worked under my supervision and guidance and that no pat of this report has been submitted for the award of any other degrre, diploma, fellowship or other similar titles or prizes and that the work has not been publihed in any journal or Magazine.

Reg. No.- 510734148 CertifiedNeeti Raj Sharma (MBA)Assistant Manager- Human Resource

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Psychometric testing today is employed in a wide variety of setting, from educational to industrial

organizations, for a diverse range of purposes. Especially from the HR point of view, its uses

have increased manifold over the last few years.

The term “Psychometric Testing” evokes different reactions in different people. Some people

think of it as an enigmatic thing, some other treat it as recent fade and still others tend to think of

it as something fearsome. By and large, a negative perception has been woven around

psychometric tests.

A psychological test in reality is essentially an objective and standardized measure of a sample

of behavior. Psychological tests are like the tests in any other science, insofar as observations

are made on a small but carefully chosen sample of an individual's behavior. An important point

to notice here is that psychometric tests include both personality tests as well as the aptitude

tests like verbal ability, numerical reasoning etc.

Keeping in mind the growing use of these psychometric tests by HR professionals all over the

world, this topic for the project was chosen The scope of the project and the activities carried out

were divided into the following four stages:

STAGE-I: Readings for having a basic understanding of the project

The first stage involved extensive reading of various magazines, books, internet websites etc. to

have an idea about the chosen topic of interest that is ‘the psychometric tools used by the

organizations.’ Various magazines like HRM Review, books on psychological testing etc. were

read for the asid purpose.

STAGE-II: Collecting data relating to psychometric testing

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This stage involved a collecting data with respect to the chosen topic of interest. Secondary data

for this purpose was collected from various sources such as Human resource books, books on

psychometric testing, magazines, journals, internet etc.

STAGE-III: Questionnaire designing and primary data collection

In this stage a questionnaire was under the guidance of our faculty, to collect data relating to the

topic from human resource personnel working in different organizations. This questionnaire was

then circulated through internet and was uploaded at citehr.com so that relevant data could be

collected.

STAGE-IV: Data analysis and conclusions.

In the final stage of the project the data so gathered was interpreted and analyzed. Upon

analysis of data conclusions were drawn and the findings were finally added to the project

report.

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OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The objectives of this project report have been manifolds. In general the purpose of the project is

to have in-depth analysis and knowledge about the chosen topic of interest. In a larger

perspective the project aimed at finding out and studying the various psychometric tools that are

being used today by the human resource managers and department all the world. A number of

psychometric tools are being used by companies across industries. The project aims at studying

these psychometric tools and their importance in the current scenario. The following have been

the main objectives behind this study:

To understand what is psychometric testing and study the various types of tests.

To understand Principles of psychometric testing

To study some of the most commonly used psychometric tools in the tool kit of human

resource managers and departments.

To study the application and use of these psychometric tools in various processes of

human resources.

To understand the ethical issues involved in the use of these psychometric tools by the

human resources department.

To have an idea of how many companies in India are actually using these tests/tools.

To find out in what all areas of HR are the human resource professionals using these

psychometric tests

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LITERATURE REVIEW

What is a psychological test?

A psychological test is essentially an objective and standardized measure of a sample of

behavior. Psychological tests are like the tests in any other science, insofar as observations are

made on a small but carefully chosen sample of an individual's behavior. In this respect, the

psychologist proceeds in much the same way as the biochemist that tests a patient's blood or a

community’s water supply by analyzing one or more samples of it.

The diagnostic or predictive value of a psychological test depends on the degree to which it

serves as an indicator of a relatively broad and significant area of behavior.

Measurement of the behavior sample directly covered by the test is rarely, if ever, the goal of

psychological testing. The child's knowledge of the word list of 50 words is not, in itself, of great

interest. Nor is the job applicant's performance on a specific set of 20 arithmetic problems of

much importance. If, however, it can be demonstrated that there is a close correspondence

between and his total mastery of vocabulary, or between the applicant's score on the arithmetic

problems and her computational performance on the job then the tests are serving their

purpose.

The degree of similarity between the test sample and the predicted behavior may vary widely.

At one extreme, the test may coincide completely with a part of the behavior to be predicted.

Rorschach inkblot test, in which an attempt is made to predict from the respondent's associate’s

to inkblots how he or she will react to other people, to emotionally toned stimuli, and to other

complex, everyday-life situations. Despite their superficial differences, all these tests consist of

samples of the individual's behavior. And each must prove its worth by an empirically

demonstrated correspondence between the examinee’s performance on the test and in other

situations.

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Psychometric tests aim to measure aspects of your mental ability or your personality.

They have been used since the early part of the 20th century and were originally developed for

use in educational psychology. These days, outside of education, you are most likely to

encounter psychometric testing as part of the recruitment or selection process. Tests of this sort

are devised by occupational psychologists and their aim is to provide employers with a reliable

method of selecting the most suitable job applicants or candidates for promotion.

Psychometric tests aim to measure attributes like intelligence, aptitude and personality,

providing a potential employer with an insight into how well you work with other people, how well

you handle stress, and whether you will be able to cope with the intellectual demands of the job.

Most of the established psychometric tests used in recruitment and selection make no attempt to

analyze your emotional or psychological stability.

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90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

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% age of companies using Psychometric testing

Psychometric testing is now used by over 80% of the Fortune 500 companies in the USA and by

over 75% of the Times Top 100 companies in the UK. Information technology' companies,

financial institutions, management consultancies, local authorities, the civil service, police forces,

fire services and the armed forces all make extensive use of use psychometric testing.

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Psychometric tests

Selection & Recruitment

Career Progression

US Fortune 500 UK

Times Top 100

As an indicator of your personality, preferences and abilities, psychometric tests can help

prospective employers to find the best match of individual to occupation and working

environment. As a recruitment and selection tool, these tests can be applied in a straightforward

way at the early stages of selection to screen-out candidates who are likely to be unsuitable for

the job or, using a more sophisticated approach, to provide guidance on career progression to

existing employees. Because the results of psychometric tests are used to influence such

important personnel decisions it is vital that the tests themselves are known to produce accurate

results based on standardized methods and statistical principles.

A psychometric test should be:

• Objective: The score must not affected by the testers' beliefs or values

• Standardized: It must be administered under controlled conditions

• Reliable: It must minimize and quantify any intrinsic errors

• Predictive: It must make an accurate prediction of performance

• Non Discriminatory: It must not disadvantage any group on the basis of gender, culture,

ethnicity, etc.

PRINCIPLES OF PSYCOMETRIC TEST

Standardization

Standardization implies uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring the test. If the

scores obtained by different persons are to be comparable, testing conditions must obviously be

the same for all.

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In order to secure uniformity of testing conditions, the test constructor provides detailed

directions for administering each newly developed test. The formulation of directions is a major

part of the standardization of a new test. Such standardization extends to the exact materials

employed, time limits, oral instructions, preliminary demonstrations, ways of handling queries

from test takers, and every other detail of the testing situation.

Objective measurement

Some aspects of the objectivity of psychological tests have already been touched on in the

discussion of standardization. Thus, the administration, scoring, and interpretation of scores are

objective insofar as they are independent of the subjective judgment of the particular examiner.

Anyone test taker should theoretically obtain the identical score on a test regardless of who

happens to be the examiner. This is not entirely so, of course, because perfect standardization

and objectivity have not been attained in practice. But at least such objectivity is the goal of test

construction and has been achieved to a reasonably high degree in most tests.

There are other major ways in which psychological tests can be properly described as objective.

The determination of the difficulty level of an item or of a whole test is based on objective,

empirical procedures.

Reliability

How good is this test? Does it really work? These questions could-and occasionally do-result in

long hours of futile discussion. Subjective opinions, hunches, and personal biases may lead, on

the one hand, to extravagant claims regarding what a particular test can accomplish and, on the

other hand, to stubborn rejection. The only way questions such as these can be conclusively

answered are by empirical trial. The objective evaluation of psychological tests involves primarily

the determination of the reliability and the validity of the test in specified situations.

As used in psychometrics, the term "reliability" basically means consistency. Test reliability is the

consistency of scores obtained by the same persons when retested with the identical test or with

an equivalent form of the test. Reliability may be checked by comparing the scores obtained by

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the same test takers at different times, with different sets of items, with different examiners or

scorers, or under any other relevant testing condition.

Types of reliability

Test retest reliability: The most obvious method for finding the reliability of test scores is by

repeating the identical test on a second occasion. The reliability

Alternate-form reliability: One way of avoiding the difficulties encountered in test-retest

reliability is through the use of alternate forms of the test. The same persons can thus be tested

with one form on the first occasion and with another, equivalent form on the second. The

correlation between the scores obtained on the two forms represents the reliability coefficient of

the test.

Split half reliability: From a single administration of one form of a test it is possible to arrive at

a measure of reliability by various split-half procedures. In such a way, two scores are obtained

for each person by dividing the test into equivalent halves. It is apparent that split-half reliability

provides a measure of consistency with regard to content sampling. Temporal stability of the

scores does not enter into such reliability, because only one test session is involved. This type of

reliability coefficient is sometimes called a coefficient of internal consistency, since only a single

administration of a single form is required.

Validity

The degree to which the test actually measures what it purports to measure. Validity provides a

direct check on how well the test fulfills its function. The determination of validity usually requires

independent, external criteria of whatever the test is designed to measure. For example, if a

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medical aptitude test is to be used in selecting promising applicants for medical school, ultimate

success in medical school would be a criterion.

Such a composite measure constitutes the criterion with which each student’s initial test-score is

to be correlated. A high correlation, or validity coefficient, would signify that those individuals

who scored high on the test had been relatively successful in medical schools, whereas those

scoring low on the test had done poorly in medical school.

The validity coefficient enables us to determine how closely the criterion performance could

have been predicted from the test scores.

In a similar manner, tests designed for other purposes can be validated against appropriate

criteria. A vocational aptitude test, for example, can be validated against on-the-job success of a

trial group of new employees. A pilot aptitude battery can be validated against achievement in

flight training.

Tests designed for broader and more varied uses are validated against a number of

independently obtained behavioral indices; and their validity can be established only by the

gradual accumulation of data from many different kinds of investigations.

The scores of these persons are not themselves employed for operational purposes but serve

only in the process of testing the test. If the test proves valid by this method, it can then be used

on other samples in absence of criterion measures. Validity tells us more than the degree to

which the test is fulfilling its function. It actually tells us what the test is measuring. By studying

the validation data, we can objectively determine what the test is measuring. It would thus be

more accurate to define validity as the extent to which we know what the test measures.

Ethical and Social Considerations in Testing

In both their research and the practical applications of their procedures, psychologists have long

been concerned with questions of professional ethics. A concrete example of this concern is the

systematic empirical program followed in the early 1950s to develop the first formal code of

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ethics for the profession. This extensive undertaking resulted in the preparation of a set of

standards that was officially adopted by the American Psychological Association (APA) and first

published in 1953. These standards undergo continual review and refinement, leading to the

periodic publication of revised editions. The current version, Ethical Principles of Psychologists

and Code of Conduct (APA, 1992), 1 comprises preamble and six general principles designed to

guide psychologists toward the highest ideals of the profession. It also provides eight ethical

standards with enforceable rules for psychologists functioning within diverse contexts.

User qualification and professional competence

The Ethics Code principle on competence states that psychologists "provide those services and

use only those techniques for which they are qualified by education, training, or experience."

Thus, a relatively long period of intensive training and supervised experience is required for the

proper of individual intelligence tests and most personality tests.

This is important because well-trained examiners choose tests that are appropriate for both the

particular purpose for which they are testing and the persons to be examined. They are also

cognizant of the available research literature on the chosen test and able to evaluate its

technical merits with regard to such characteristics as norms, reliability, and validity. In

administering the test, they are sensitive to the many conditions that may affect test

performance.

Responsibilities of test publishers

The purchase of tests is generally restricted to persons who meet certain minimal qualifications.

The catalogs of major test publishers specify requirements that ill be met by purchasers. Usually,

individuals with a master's degree in psychologist equivalent qualify. Some publishers classify

their tests into levels with reference to user qualifications, ranging from educational achievement

and vocational proficiency tests, through group intelligence tests and interest inventories, to

such clinical instruments as individual intelligence tests and most personality .Distinctions are

also made between individual purchasers and authorized intuitional purchasers of appropriate

tests.

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Efforts to restrict the distribution of tests have a dual objective: security of the test materials and

prevention of misuse.

Another professional responsibility pertains to the marketing of psychological tests by authors

and publishers. Tests should not be released prematurely for general use. Nor should any

claims be made regarding the merits of a test in the absence of sufficient objective evidence.

When a test is distributed early for research purposes only, this condition should be clearly

specified and the distribution of the test restricted accordingly. The test manual should provide

adequate data to permit an evaluation of the test itself as well as full information regarding

administration, scoring, and norms.

Protection of privacy

A question arising particularly in connection with personality tests is that of invasion of privacy. In

a report entitled Privacy and Behavioral Research (1967), the right to privacy is defined as the

right to decide for oneself how much one will share with others one's thoughts, feelings, and

facts about one's personal life; this right is further characterized as "essential to insure freedom

and self-determination." Insofar as some tests of emotional, motivational, or attitudinal traits are

necessarily disguised, the examinee may reveal characteristics in the course of such a test

without realizing that he or she is so doing. For purposes of testing effectiveness, it may be

necessary to keep the examinee in ignorance of the specific ways in which the responses to

anyone test are to be interpreted. Nevertheless, a person should not be subjected to any testing

program under false pretenses. Of primary importance in this connection is the obligation to

have a clear understanding with the examinee regarding the use that will be made of test

results.

Confidentiality

Like the protection of privacy, to which it is related, the problem of confidentiality of test data is

multifaceted. The fundamental question is: Who shall have access to test results? Several

considerations influence the answer in particular situations. Among them are the security of test

content, the hazards of misunderstanding test scores, and the need for various persons to know

the results.

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There has been a growing awareness of the right of individuals to have access to the findings in

their own test reports. The test taker should also have the opportunity to comment on the

contents of the report and, if necessary, to clarify or correct factual information. Counselors are

now trying more and more to involve clients as active participants in their own assessment. For

these purposes, test results should be presented in a form that is readily understandable, free

from technological jargon or labels, and oriented toward the immediate objective of the testing.

Proper safeguards must be observed against misuse and misinterpretation of findings.

Discussions of the confidentiality of test records have usually dealt with accessibility to a third

person, other than the individual tested (or parent of a minor) and the examiner. The underlying

principle is that such records should not be released without the knowledge and consent of the

test taker, unless such a release is mandated by law or permitted by law for valid purposes.

Another problem pertains to the retention of records in institutions. On the one hand, longitudinal

records on individuals can be very valuable.

On the other hand, the availability of old records opens the way for such misuses as incorrect

inferences from obsolete data and unauthorized access for other than the original testing

purpose. Similarly, when records are retained for many years, there is danger that they may be

used for purposes that the test taker (or the test taker's parents) never anticipated and would not

have approved. To prevent such misuses, when records are retained either for legitimate

longitudinal use in the interest of the individual or for acceptable research purposes, access to

them should be subject to unusually stringent controls.

Communicating test results

In recent years, psychologists have begun to give more thought to the communication of test

results in a form that will be meaningful and useful to the recipient. Certainly, the information

should not be transmitted routinely, but should provide appropriate interpretive explanations.

Broad levels of performance and qualitative descriptions in simple terms are to be preferred over

specific numerical scores, except when communicating with adequately trained professionals.

In all test-related communication, it is desirable to take into account the characteristics of the

person who is to receive the information. This applies not only to that person's general education

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and her or his knowledge about psychology and testing, but also to her or his anticipated

emotional response to the information. The consideration of emotional reactions to test

information is especially important when persons are learning about their own assets and

shortcomings. When an individual is given her or his test results, not only should the data be

interpreted by a properly qualified person, but facilities should also be available for counseling

anyone who may become emotionally disturbed by such information.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In order to understand and achieve the objectives of the project and to have an

in-depth knowledge about the chosen topic of interest i t was important to gather

the relevant data from various sources.

 

To accomplish the objective of any research project, data can be collected from

two main sources:

 DATA COLLECTION SOURCES 

1) Primary Sources of Data

Primary data are those that are collected by the    researcher himself. Primary data collection is

necessary when a researcher cannot find the data needed in secondary sources.  Market

researchers are interested in primary data about demographic / socioeconomic characteristics,

attitudes/opinions/interests, awareness/knowledge, intentions, motivation, and behavior.  Three

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basic means of obtaining primary data are observation, surveys, and experiments.  The choice

is influenced by the nature of the problem and by the availability of time and money.

 

2) Secondary Sources of Data

Secondary data are the data that are collected by others and is to be "re-used" by the

researcher. The most common sources of secondary data today are books, research journals,

internet etc.

 

To accomplish the objectives of this research work , both primary as well as secondary sources of data collection were used .

For the purpose of this project some primary data was collected by using questionnaires. This

eleven questions long questionnaire was designed with the help of expertise of our human

resource and marketing faculty.

To collect the data, these questionnaires were then circulated on internet, sent to various

companies by e-mails and were uploaded on citehr.com a community of HR practioners and

professionals. The purpose was to f ind the practical application, use and

satisfaction derived by the organizations from using these psychometric tools.

Apart from that i t was important to collect data from various secondary sources

as well. The various sources from which secondary data was gathered included

various books by eminent authors of human resource and psychology, a number

of journals, research papers and the internet search engines, magazines etc.

 

 

 

 

 

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PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING

Myths and Realities

Psychometric testing today is employed in a wide variety of setting, from educational to industrial

organizations, for a diverse range of purposes. Especially from the HR point of view, its uses

have increased manifold over the last few years.

The term “Psychometric Testing” evokes different reactions in different people. Some people

think of it as an enigmatic thing, some other treat it as recent fade and still others tend to think of

it as something fearsome. By and large, a negative perception has been woven around

psychometric tests.

In reality, it’s none of the thing mentioned above. Psychometric testing is simply standardized,

objective measure of a sample of behavior. It is standardized because the procedure of

administrating the test, the environment in which the test is taken, and the method of calculating

the individual score are uniformly applied. It is called objective because a good test measures

the individual differences in an unbiased, scientific manner without the interference of

extraneous factors.

A psychometric test typically is designed to produce a quantitative assessment of one or more

psychological attributes. It includes ability tests that measure achievement, aptitude, intelligence,

etc; and personality tests that measure different dimensions of an individual’s personality.

Some of the popular psychometric tests being used today by corporates the world over are 16 PF, MBTI. OPQ32, Thomas Personal Profiling system, Gordon’s Personal Profile Inventory, Rorschach Ink-Blot Test, FIRO-B, Picture Frustration Test and TAT

One particular problem with many of the psychometric tests has been that they are too lengthy

and it requires a lot of time to administer, score, interpret and analyze the same. This particular

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problem has been reduced to a great extent with advances in computer science and information

technology.

Now, it’s possible to obtain the software versions of most of the popular and standardized tests.

Besides, several impendent testing agencies also offer online testing services where

assessment can be done online and report sent through e-mail.

All said and done, now there are no two opinions about the fact that psychometric testing can

really be a very powerful tool for a variety of HR functions such as selection, placement,

potential appraisal, career planning and counseling.

From the industry perspective, it is to be borne in mind that psychometric tests can only aid and

inform a decision, they cannot provide a definitive answer. There cannot be a substitute for

experience. Therefore, the psychometric tests should ideally be used in conjunction with a

thorough interview by experienced and trained individuals.

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Advantages of psychometric testing

Properly developed psychometric tests and questionnaires, when used by competent and

appropriately qualified individuals, have the following advantages:

They lead to judgments that are likely to be more valid than judgments made by other

means. This is the most important advantage of psychometric assessment.

They are relatively cheap and easy to administer when compared to other approaches.

For example, although it may seem relatively expensive for a company to pay for its staff

to become qualified in psychometric assessment and then on top of this to pay for the

cost of the testing itself, these costs pale into insignificance when one considers just how

long it would take to obtain the same information about a person. At the risk of putting it

simplistically, it could be argued that the information obtained from a good personality

questionnaire might take several months of knowing and working with a person to obtain

by other means.

They are likely to lead to considerable cost-benefits in the long term. Whether it is for

selection of new staff or development of existing staff, the expenses involved in

psychometric assessment are minimal when compared with the costs of high-turn over,

under-performance or misemployment of staff.

Disadvantages of psychometric testing

There are numerous tests and questionnaires on the market which purport to be

'psychometric instruments' but which are not. Unfortunately, it is very difficult for untrained

people to distinguish these from good psychometric instruments. In many cases, these

tests and questionnaires have been put together by people with no background in

psychometrics and they have very little actual utility and value for the purposes for which

they are marketed.

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Lack of correct training is also a significant danger in the use of psychometric testing.

Although there exists in the UK a training qualification system developed by the British

Psychological Society, it is not uncommon for tests to be used by people who are not

adequately trained to use them. Indeed, even attendance at a recognized training course

is no guarantee that a person will at all times use tests and questionnaires correctly since

some instruments, particularly personality questionnaires, require considerable

experience and the possibility of misinterpretation or inappropriate interpretation of results

is ever-present.

It is the use of personality questionnaires to try to assess a person's ability or skill in a

particular area. eg, if a person scores highly on a personality dimension called

'Leadership', this does not mean that he or she will actually possess a high level of

leadership skill. Rather it means that the person has the basic personality characteristics

that are commonly found amongst effective leaders and, with sufficient experience and

given the development of certain necessary skills, has the potential to become an

effective leader. Unfortunately however, scores on scales such as this are often taken to

imply that the person already has all the necessary skills and is already capable of

performing at a high level in the area in question.

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THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS

Introduction

Since the days of Plato, scholars have been trying to develop lists of personality traits. About

100 years ago, a few personality experts tried to catalogue and condense the many personality

traits that had been described over the years. They found thousands of words in Roget’s

Thesaurus and Webster’s Dictionary that represented personality traits. They aggregated these

words into 171 clusters, and then further shrunk them down to five abstract personality

dimensions. Using more sophist acted techniques, recent investigations identified the same five

dimensions known as BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS.

Some scholarly works refer to the Big Five as the Five-Factor Model. These factors are also

referred to as the OCEAN or CANOE models of personality because of the acronym composed

of their initial letters. When scored for individual feedback, they are frequently presented as

percentile scores, with the median at 50%. For example, a Conscientiousness rating in the 80th

percentile indicates a relatively strong sense of responsibility and orderliness, whereas an

Extraversion rating in the 5th percentile indicates an exceptional need for solitude and quiet.

The personality traits used in the 5 factor model are Extraversion, Agreeableness,

Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to experience. It is important to ignore the

positive or negative associations that these words have in everyday language. For example,

Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for achieving and maintaining popularity. Agreeable

people are better liked than disagreeable people. On the other hand, agreeableness is not

useful in situations that require tough or totally objective decisions. Disagreeable people can

make excellent scientists, critics, or soldiers.

None of the five traits is in themselves positive or negative; they are simply characteristics that

individuals exhibit to a greater or lesser extent.

Each of these 5 personality traits describes, relative to other people, the frequency or intensity of

a person's feelings, thoughts, or behaviors. Everyone possesses all 5 of these traits to a greater

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or lesser degree. For example, two individuals could be described as 'agreeable' (agreeable

people value getting along with others). But there could be significant variation in the degree to

which they are both agreeable. In other words, all 5 personality traits exist on a continuum (see

diagram) rather than as attributes that a person does or does not have.

-ve +ve

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Neuroticism

Openness to

experience

Extraversion

Extraversion is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy

being with people, are full of energy, and often experience positive emotions. They tend to be

enthusiastic, action-oriented, individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to

opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to

themselves. Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They tend

to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and disengaged from the social world. Their lack of social

involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; the introvert simply needs less

stimulation than an extravert and prefers to be alone. The independence and reserve of the

introvert is sometimes mistaken as unfriendliness or arrogance. In reality, an introvert who

scores high on the agreeableness dimension will not seek others out but will be quite pleasant

when approached.

Agreeableness

Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and social harmony.

Agreeable individual’s value getting along with others. They are therefore considerate, friendly,

generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others'. Agreeable people also

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have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent, and

trustworthy. Disagreeable individuals place self interest above getting along with others. They

are generally unconcerned with others' well-being, and therefore are unlikely to extend

themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others' motives causes them to

be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative. Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for

attaining and maintaining popularity. Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable

people. On the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or

absolute objective decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or

soldiers.

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses.

Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time constraints require a snap decision, and

acting on our first impulse can be an effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work,

acting spontaneously and. impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be seen by others

as colorful, fun-to-be-with, and zany. Nonetheless, acting on impulse can lead to trouble in a

number of ways. Some impulses are antisocial. Uncontrolled antisocial acts not only harm other

members of society, but also can result in retribution toward the perpetrator of such impulsive

acts. Another problem with impulsive acts is that they often produce immediate rewards but

undesirable, long-term consequences.

Examples include excessive socializing that leads to being fired from one's job, hurling an insult

that causes the break up of an important relationship, or using pleasure inducing drugs that

eventually destroy one's health. Impulsive behavior, even when not seriously destructive,

diminishes a person's effectiveness in significant ways. Acting impulsively disallows

contemplating alternative courses of action, some of which would have been wiser than the

impulsive choice. Impulsivity also sidetracks people during projects that require organized

sequences of steps or stages. Accomplishments of an impulsive person are therefore small,

scattered, and inconsistent.

A hallmark of intelligence, what potentially separates human beings from earlier life forms, is the

ability to think about future consequences before acting on an impulse. Intelligent activity

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involves contemplation of long-range goals, organizing and planning routes to these goals, and

persisting toward one's goals in the face of short-lived impulses to the contrary. The idea that

intelligence involves impulse control is nicely captured by the term prudence, an alternative label

for the Conscientiousness domain. Prudent means both wise and cautious. Persons who score

high on the Conscientiousness scale are in fact, perceived by others as intelligent the benefits of

high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals avoid trouble and achieve high

levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence. They are also positively

regarded by others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be compulsive

perfectionists and workaholics. Furthermore, extremely conscientious individuals might be

regarded as stuffy and boring. Unconscientiously people may be criticized for their unreliability,

lack of ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they will experience many short-lived

pleasures and they will never be called stuffy.

Neuroticism

Freud originally used the term neurosis to describe a condition marked by mental distress,

emotional suffering, and an inability to cope effectively with the normal demands of life. He

suggested that everyone shows some signs of neurosis, but that we differ in our degree of

suffering and our specific symptoms of distress. Today neuroticism refers to the tendency to

experience negative feelings. Those who score high on Neuroticism may experience primarily

one specific negative feeling such as anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to experience

several of these emotions. People high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive. They respond

emotionally to events that would not affect most people, and their reactions tend to be more

intense than normal. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and

minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for

unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in

emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope

effectively with stress. At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are

less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable,

and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that

low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a component

of the Extraversion domain.

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Openness to experience

Openness to Experience describes a dimension of cognitive style that distinguishes imaginative,

creative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. Open people are intellectually curious,

appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more

aware of their feelings. They tend to think and act in individualistic and nonconforming ways.

Intellectuals typically score high on Openness to Experience; consequently, this factor has also

been called Culture or Intellect. Nonetheless, Intellect is probably best regarded as one aspect

of openness to experience. Scores on Openness to Experience are only modestly related to

years of education and scores on standard intelligent tests. Another characteristic of the open

cognitive style is a facility for thinking in symbols and abstractions far removed from concrete

experience. Depending on the individual's specific intellectual abilities, this symbolic cognition

may take the form of mathematical, logical, or geometric thinking, artistic and metaphorical use

of language, music composition, or performance, or one of the many visual or performing arts.

People with low scores on openness to experience tend to have narrow, common interests.

They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle.

They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these endeavors as abstruse

or of no practical use. Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and

resistant to change.

Openness is often presented as healthier or more mature by psychologists, who are often

themselves open to experience. However, open and closed styles of thinking are useful in

different environments. The intellectual style of the open person may serve a professor well, but

research has shown that closed thinking is related to superior job performance in police work,

sales, and a number of service occupations.

Subordinate Personality Traits or Facets

Each of the big 5 personality traits is made up of 6 facets or sub traits. These can be assessed

independently of the trait that they belong to.

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Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness to

experience

Friendliness Trust Self efficacy Anxiety Imagination

Gregariousness Morality Orderliness Anger Artistic

interest

Assertiveness Altruism Dutifulness Depression Emotionality

Activity level Cooperation Achievement

striving

Self

consciousness

Adventures

ness

Excitement

seeking

modesty Self discipline immoderation Intellect

cheerfulness sympathy cautiousness vulnerability liberalism

It is possible, although unusual, to score high in one or more facets of a personality trait and low

in other facets of the same trait. For example, you could score highly in Imagination, Artistic

Interests, Emotionality and Adventurousness, but score low in Intellect and Liberalism. It is

important to understand that personality questionnaires which measure more than five traits or

factors are not measuring the big 5 traits plus others. They are simply choosing to classify one or

more of the 30 facets shown above as a trait or factor.

FIRO-B: FUNDAMENTAL INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP ORIENTATION-BEHAVIOUR

  

About the instrument

 FIRO-B is a unique, world-leading indicator of interpersonal style. Developed in the 1950s it is

now one of the most widely used tools for helping people to understand themselves and their

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relationships with others better. It is a personality inventory that measures interpersonal style -

how you behave toward others, and what you expect from others in their behavior toward you.

The FIRO-B questionnaire was devised by American psychologist, Will Schutz, in the 1950's

when he studied the relationships within small teams of submariners. This research was then

extended to look at how people in general interact with one another and what the drivers is that

generate or inhibit certain behaviors.

The Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B) is a highly valid and

reliable tool that assesses how an individual's personal needs affect that person's behavior

towards other individuals.  This highly valid and reliable self-report instrument offers insight into

an individual's compatibility with other people, as well as providing insight into that person's own

individual characteristics.

The FIRO-B questionnaire is based on Will Schutzs wish to provide an understanding of the

fundamental differences between people and how these impact on relationships. It can

dramatically increase an individual's understanding of areas such as how they come across to

others, how and why conflict can develop and how to understand and manage their own needs

when interacting with others. It measures how a person typically behaves towards others and

how that person would like others to behave towards them.

Underlying FIRO is the assumption that preferences, as well as behavior, can be changed (at

will). Thus FIRO is not a theory of inherent, immutable personality traits. Rather, it provides

material for development efforts.

Individuals should be allowed around 2 hours in total to complete the 54 questions long

questionnaire and discuss the results. For teams, the FIRO-B questionnaire is best used within a

half-day or full-day team-building event.

FIRO describes interpersonal behavior in terms of three primary dimensions:

1.  Need for Inclusion: This relates to whether one wants to be "in" or "out" of a

particular group. A person's need for recognition, belongingness, and participation.

Someone with high need for inclusion will make an effort to include others in his/her

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activities. He/she will try to belong to or join social groups; basically will try to be with

people as much as possible (expressed behavior). Such a person would also expect

or want others to invite him join them and would like people to notice him/her (wanted

behavior).

2. Need for Control: need for control relates to whether one wants to be "up" or "down",

super ordinate, subordinate while working with others or in a group. It relates to a

person's desire for influencing others, leading others and responsibility. Such a person

shall try to exert control and influence over things. He/she would enjoy organizing

things and directing others (expressed behavior). Such a person will feel most

comfortable working in well defined situations and would like to get clear expectations

and instructions from others (wanted behavior).

3.  Need for Affection:  need for affection relates to whether a person wants to be "close"

or "distant" to/from others. Closeness, warmth, and sensitiveness characterize such

people. This person shall make an effort to get close to people and would be

comfortable expressing his/her personal feelings and will try to be supportive of others

(expressed behavior). This person would also want others to act warmly towards

him/her and will enjoy when people share their feelings with them and would love it

when people encourage him and appreciate his efforts (wanted behavior).

 

These dimensions are fundamental to all human social organisms, whether an infant in the early

stages of child development, small groups, or organizations.

 FIRO-B measures these three dimensions from two perspectives:

1. Expressed behavior: It is the behavior one feels most comfortable showing, what a

person prefers to do, and how much that person wants to initiate action.

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2. Wanted behavior: It is the behavior one wants to be shown by others, how much a

person wants others to initiate action, and how much that person wants to be the

recipient.

APPLICATION OF FIRO-B

FIRO-B is a highly reliable self-report instrument that offers insight into an individual's

compatibility with other people, as well as providing insight into that person's own individual

characteristics. The underlying assumption of FIRO-B is that preferences, as well as behavior,

can be changed at will. The instrument can be used in one-to-one, team or group situations. The

qualified user has a range of applications at their disposal, providing the versatility demanded in

contemporary workplace environments. This highly reliable and practical instrument has vast

applications such as:

Team building and team development

FIRO-B can help in Identifying likely sources of compatibility or tension between people working

in a group or team. By improved communication, openness and trust it can help to resolve

conflicts and create better understanding amongst team players. The instrument can hence be

effectively used in team building and team development.

 

Individual development and executive coaching

FIRO-B is a powerful tool and can be used in executive coaching or self development. It helps

individuals to increase their self-awareness and interpersonal effectiveness, by identifying and

understanding their interpersonal style. Since the instrument increase self-awareness and

interpersonal effectiveness it can surely assist in individual development. It can also be used for

identifying leadership style. It can be used as part of a coaching process, or for career

development or personal growth of people.

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Conflict resolution

Identifying the real cause of conflict is pre-requisite to effective management of conflict. By

effectively assisting in Identifying the likely causes of conflict between people this instrument can

help in effectively dealing with various types of conflicts that may be present in a group.

Selection and placement

FIRO-B can also be used in combination with other assessment techniques. This can help to

structure interviews and assess likely team roles or interpersonal behavior.

Management and leadership development

The instrument is ideal to use with new and experienced managers; it will enable them to

understand their natural style and what impact this has on the way they communicate, to involve

others in decision-making and to delegate responsibility.

Relationship counseling

These days FIRO-B instrument is also being used in relationship counseling by identifying

possible sources of incompatibility and dissatisfaction between partners.

Others

The FIRO-B is an ideal tool to use for interpersonal behavior measurement and assessment,

including:

Management and supervisor development

Leadership development (used with MBTI as part of the Leadership report )  

Identifying leadership preferred operating styles

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Employee development

Team building and explaining team roles

Improving team effectiveness

Sensitivity training

Advancing career development

BENEFITS OF USING FIRO-B

FIRO-B is a unique instrument especially because most personality instruments examine

individual characteristics but not relationship styles.

It is a practical tool that offers insights into interpersonal needs and behaviors, the FIRO-

B questionnaire gives practical suggestions for improving relationships or increasing

effectiveness

This tool can be easily combined with others, such as the MBTI ® instrument, to present

a comprehensive view of personal style for use in self- and group development.

It is based on a comprehensive and powerful theory of interpersonal behavior

The instrument has been revised, rewritten and redesigned so that all materials are now

clearer, more comprehensive and easier to use. The current edition is based on British

norms, increasing its relevance to European English users

It has more detailed norms. These are subdivided by gender, age, educational level,

occupational level and industry sector and enable precise comparison with individual

scores.     

The tool can be introduced easily to existing HR practices for greater effectiveness. For

example, when used in coaching, the FIRO-B instrument will help an individual to

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understand their motivation, choices and flexibility in working with others. When used as

part of a team program, undertaking the FIRO-B assessment enables the team to open

up, giving them an objective, practical framework that can be used to overcome barriers

to effective team operation and communication.

MBTI: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator  

About the Instrument

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-report questionnaire and is the world's leading

personality assessment instrument.  The authors of the MBTI, Katherine Cook Briggs and her

daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, were astute observers of human personality differences.  They

studied and elaborated on the theories of Swiss psychiatrist Carl G. Jung (a contemporary of

Sigmund Freud and a leading exponent of Gestalt personality theory) and applied these theories

to acquiring a better understanding of people and their preferences for communicating with

others.  The waste of human potential in World War II sparked the development of the MBTI by

Myers, and gave rise to her desire to give a wide range of individual's access to the benefits

found in understanding human differences as they relate to various psychological types. The

MBTI provides information about people's preferences for communicating and dealing with

information. 

The MBTI personality instrument, which evolved from Jung's personality types, was developed

among non-clinical populations to assess normal individual differences, unlike inventories of

psychological adjustment (or maladjustment).

In her studies of people and extensive reading of Jung's theories, Myers concluded there were

four primary ways people differed from one another. She labeled these differences "preferences"

- drawing a similarity to "hand preferences" to illustrate that although we all use both of our

hands, most of us have a preference for one over the other and "it" takes the lead in many of the

activities in which we use our hands.

The MBTI personality instrument consists of four bipolar dimensions.

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Sensing –Intuition (SN) Thinking – Feeling (TF)

Extraversion-Introversion (E-I) Judging-Perceiving (J-P)

Myers Briggs Type Indicator is based on a personality framework that helps individuals explore:

Where they prefer to focus their attention (Extraversion or Introversion)

The way they prefer to take in information (Sensing or Intuition)

The way they prefer to make decisions (Thinking or Feeling)

How they orientate themselves to the external world (Judging or Perceiving.

It provides information about individuals preferred style of working and interacting with others.

There is no right or wrong answers and a key feature of the MBTI is its focus on likely strengths

and positive qualities of different personality styles and thus the feedback people receive is

always constructive.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) describes an individual's personality preferences. The

MBTI questionnaire is the most widely used personality questionnaire worldwide. More than

3.5m questionnaires are completed worldwide every year and there are over 13,000 qualified

users in Europe. It is based on over 50 years research and development and is available in 19

languages. Over 600 dissertations have been written on the MBTI and there are well over 1,000

articles and dozens of books. An average of 2 million people in the United States takes the MBTI

each year and it has been translated into more than 30 languages.

The MBTI is a registered trademark of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust and is published by

CPP, Inc (formerly Consulting Psychologist Press) who also distributes the Inventory. The MBTI

is available from CPP and its licensees in approximately 20 foreign languages. In addition,

alternate versions of the inventory have been scientifically customized and validated for other

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languages and cultures for which a straight translation of English language terms would yield

inaccurate results.

The Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT) is a non-profit educational

organization founded by Myers and psychologist Mary McCaulley to promote continued research

into psychological type and application of psychological type to foster enhanced personal

development, increased human understanding, and improved management of human conflict.

Another non-profit organization, The Association for Psychological Type (APT) is an international

member education and certifying organization for professionals who use type in their

occupations and professional practices. Membership is also open to lay persons who want to

enrich their understanding and application of type.

The Basic Model of MBTI proposes two kinds of Mental Processes and two kinds of Mental Orientations.

 TWO KINDS OF MENTAL PROCESSES ARE

1.      Sensing –Intuition (SN)

2.      Thinking – Feeling (TF)

 TWO KINDS OF MENTAL ORIENTATIONS ARE

1.      Extraversion-Introversion (E-I)

2.      Judging-Perceiving (J-P)

THE TWO KINDS OF MENTAL PROCESSES ARE

SENSING - INTUITUION

The first set of mental preferences relates to how people "Perceive" or take in information. It

distinguishes a predisposition for gathering data directly through the senses as facts, details,

and precedents (Sensing) versus indirectly as relationships, patterns, and possibilities (Intuition).

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A sensing personality prefers to focus on information gained from the five senses and on

practical applications whereas intuition prefers to focus on patterns, connections and possible

meanings. Hence those who prefer Sensing Perception favor clear, tangible data and

information that fits in well with their direct here-and-now experience. In contrast, those who

prefer Intuition Perception are drawn to information that is more abstract, conceptual, big-

picture, and represents imaginative possibilities for the future.

THINKING – FEELING 

 The second set of mental preferences identifies how people form "Judgments" or make

decisions. It distinguishes a preference for deciding via objective, impersonal logic (Thinking)

versus subjective, person-centered values (Feeling).

A thinking personality prefers to base decisions on logic and objective analysis of cause and

effect on the other hand feeling prefers to base decisions on a valuing process, considering what

is important to people. Those who prefer Thinking Judgment have a natural preference for

making decisions in an objective, logical, and analytical manner with an emphasis on tasks and

results to be accomplished. Those whose preference is for Feeling Judgment make their

decisions in a somewhat global, visceral, harmony and value-oriented way, paying particular

attention to the impact of decisions and actions on other people. Judging likes a planned,

organized approach to life, and prefers to have things decided but perceiving likes a flexible,

spontaneous approach and prefers to keep options open.

One of the practical applications of the MBTI and understanding these preferences is in

supporting better Teamwork. Differences in these mental preferences lead to quite different

value structures and communication styles, which can hamper mutual understanding and

cooperation.

For example, people who share Sensing and Thinking preferences find they are naturally on the

same wavelength; they easily understand one another, making good teammates and partners.

Likewise, people who share Intuition and Feeling have a similar kinship among them. However,

in the "real" world, it is more likely that you'll find a mixed bag of people, a variety of types, in the

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same work group. While this diversity can be a useful strength, contributing to greater depth and

breadth of team competence, there will be natural communication barriers within the team due to

their natural mental language differences.

Such differences can be overcome, and the communication gap bridged, with mutual respect

and practice learning to "talk" and "think" in a second or third language. A MBTI workshop can

be seen as an introduction to learning the language, habits and culture of other types.

 TWO KINDS OF MENTAL ORIENTATIONS ARE

1.      Extraversion-Introversion (E-I)

2.      Judging-Perceiving (J-P)

There are two other mental preferences that are part of the Myers-Briggs model: Energy

Orientation and Outer World Orientation. The first one is the dimension of personality discovered

by Carl Jung that became widely adopted by general psychology: Extraversion-Introversion. The

second is the dimension of personality that is Myers' unique contribution to Jung's theory, an

element she inferred from Jung's work but was not clearly addressed as an essential component

of his theory of types. This is the style or orientation one uses in dealing with the external world:

Judging or Perceiving. Energy Orientation pertains to the two forms of Energy Consciousness

each of us experiences on a daily basis. We occupy two mental worlds: one is inwardly turned,

the other is outward. One of these worlds is our elemental source of energy; the other

secondary.

EXTROVERSION-INTROVERSION

It distinguishes a preference for focusing attention on, and drawing energy from, the outer world

of people and things versus the inner world of ideas and impressions. Those who prefer

Introversion draw their primary energy from the inner world of information, thoughts, ideas, and

other reflections. When circumstances require an excessive amount of attention spent in the

"outside" world, those preferring Introversion find the need to retreat to a more private setting as

if to recharge their drained batteries. In contrast, those who prefer Extraversion are drawn to the

outside world as their elemental source of energy. Rarely, if ever, do extraverted preference

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people feel their energy batteries are "drained" by excessive amounts of interaction with the

outside world. They must engage the things, people, places and activities going on in the

outside world for their life force. Hence an introvert prefers to draw energy from the outer world

of activity, people and things; an extrovert on the other hand prefers to draw energy from the

inner world of reflections, feelings and ideas.

While the E-I dimension was Jung's gift to general psychology, unfortunately it has been widely

distorted into a well-unwell scale with characteristics of Introversion being cast in a negative light

and conversely characteristics of Extraversion cast in a positive light. This cultural bias

frequently leads natural introverted types to mis-identify their primary preference as

Extraversion.

Extraverted Orientation relates to which mental preference one relies upon in dealing

with/relating with the Outside World. It is the mental function that takes the lead in the

extraverted portion of a person's personality. When this leading function is one of the two

Judging mental preferences, then this orientation is called Judging. When this leading function is

one of the two Perceiving mental preferences, then this orientation is called Perceiving

JUDGING – PERCEIVING

It distinguishes an outward preference for having things planned and organized (Judging) versus

a flexible style based more on staying open to options than deciding (Perceiving). Those who

prefer Judging rely upon either their T or F preference to manage their outer life. This typically

leads to a style oriented towards closure, organization, planning, or in some fashion managing

the things and or people found in the external environment. The drive is to order the outside

world. While some people employ an assertive manner, others "ordering touches" - with respect

to people - may be light.

Those who prefer Perceiving rely upon either their S or N preference to run their outer life. This

typically results in an open, adaptable, flexible style of relating to the things and people found in

the outside world. The drive is to experience the outside world rather than order it; in general

lack of closure is easily tolerated.

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For person's whose Energy Orientation preference is E, the Extraverted Orientation (J or P)

points to their dominant function, ergo "what you see is what you get." But for those whose

Energy Orientation favors I, their Extraverted Orientation (J or P) is opposite their dominant

function. Thus the four IxxJ types - whose extraverted style is judging - are actually Perceiving

types on the inside! Thus their extraverted "personality" can mask their primary nature. Likewise

the four IxxP types - whose extraverted style is Perceiving and thus tend to have an open style -

are actually on the inside Judging oriented.

Differences in Energy Orientation and/or Extraverted Orientation can produce conflicts for people and life management problems.

Extraverted types who work best by thinking out loud and considering matters in dialogue can be

frustrated by introverted types whose best work on thinking and considering is done internally

and detached from active interaction. "Why doesn't she want to tell me what she is thinking; why

won't she shares her concerns; what is he hiding?" Likewise introverted types can be harassed

by the natural style of extraverted types. "If he'd just shut up, I'd be able to think about what he

said; Why do we have to decide right now; I can’t give you a good answer unless I have some

time to reflect on it!" Introverted types used to reflecting before they speak are frustrated by

extraverted types who frequently seem to change their mind and change course (because they

reflect out loud, may think or talk about it later, and then finally conclude - something different).

Types with an extraverted Judging orientation are frequently put off by extraverted Perceiving

types disorderly attention to things and people around them - their failures to properly plan,

organize, manage, and finish affairs. Perceiving types can be seen as "flakes" who constantly

put things off til the absolute last minute. Types with an extraverted Perceiving orientation often

see their opposite number as control freaks and imperceptive draft horses with blinders on - and

even then they sometimes miss things that are right in front of their noses! Extraverted Judging

types are naturally drawn to management positions; Extraverted Perceiving types naturally resist

being managed!

The mellowing process of aging sometimes produces similar mellowing of the J and P

orientations. Extraverted Perceiving types discover a need and an appreciation for a greater

degree of order in their external affairs and Extraverted Judging types discover a need and an

appreciation for a greater degree of openness and discovery in their external life.

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The Type Code for the 16 Types

The permutations of these four preference dichotomies result in the 16 personality types that form the

basis of Myers' model and the MBTI inventory.

E or I Which is your most favored Energy Source?

S or N Which your most favored Perceiving Mental Process?

T or F Which is your most favored Judging Mental Process?

J or P Which kind of mental process leads your Outside World Orientation?

The sixteen personality types of MBTI result from the cross-products of these four dimensions

and are shown in the following figure. Each of these is associated with a unique set of

behavioral characteristics and values. These provide a useful starting point for individual

feedback, self-exploration and group discussion.

The Sixteen Types at a Glance ( By Charles Martin, Ph.D.)

ISTJ

For ISTJs the dominant quality in their lives is an abiding sense of responsibility for doing what

needs to be done in the here-and-now. Their realism, organizing abilities, and command of the

facts lead to their completing tasks thoroughly and with great attention to detail. Logical

pragmatists at heart, ISTJs make decisions based on their experience and with an eye to

efficiency in all things. ISTJs are intensely committed to people and to the organizations of which

they are a part; they take their work seriously and believe others should do so as well.

ISFJ

For ISFJs the dominant quality in their lives is an abiding respect and sense of personal

responsibility for doing what needs to be done in the here-and-now. Actions that are of practical

help to others are of particular importance to ISFJs. Their realism, organizing abilities, and

command of the facts lead to their thorough attention in completing tasks. ISFJs bring an aura of

quiet warmth, caring, and dependability to all that they do; they take their work seriously and

believe others should do so as well.

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INFJ

For INFJs the dominant quality in their lives is their attention to the inner world of possibilities,

ideas, and symbols. Knowing by way of insight is paramount for INFJs, and they often manifest

a deep concern for people and relationships as well. INFJs often have deep interests in creative

expression as well as issues of spirituality and human development. While the energy and

attention of INFJs are naturally drawn to the inner world of ideas and insights, what people often

first encounter with INFJs is their drive for closure and for the application of their ideas to

people's concerns.

INTJ

For INTJs the dominant force in their lives is their attention to the inner world of possibilities,

symbols, abstractions, images, and thoughts. Insight in conjunction with logical analysis is the

essence of their approach to the world; they think systemically. Ideas are the substance of life

for INTJs and they have a driving need to understand, to know, and to demonstrate competence

in their areas of interest. INTJs inherently trust their insights, and with their task-orientation will

work intensely to make their visions into realities.

ISTP

For ISTPs the driving force in their lives is to understand how things and phenomena in the real

world work so they can make the best and most effective use of them. ISTPs are logical and

realistic people, and they are natural troubleshooters. When not actively solving a problem,

ISTPs are quiet and analytical observers of their environment, and they naturally look for the

underlying sense to any facts they have gathered. ISTPs do often pursue variety and even

excitement in their hands-on experiences. Although they do have a spontaneous, even playful

side, what people often first encounter with them is their detached pragmatism.

ISFP

For ISFPs the dominant quality in their lives is a deep-felt caring for living things, combined with

a quietly playful and sometimes adventurous approach to life and all its experiences. ISFPs

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typically show their caring in very practical ways, since they often prefer action to words. Their

warmth and concern are generally not expressed openly, and what people often first encounter

with ISFPs is their quiet adaptability, realism, and "free spirit" spontaneity.

INFP

For INFPs the dominant quality in their lives is a deep-felt caring and idealism about people.

They experience this intense caring most often in their relationships with others, but they may

also experience it around ideas, projects, or any involvement they see as important. INFPs are

often skilled communicators, and they are naturally drawn to ideas that embody a concern for

human potential. INFPs live in the inner world of values and ideals, but what people often first

encounter with the INFP in the outer world is their adaptability and concern for possibilities.

INTP

For INTPs the driving force in their lives is to understand whatever phenomenon is the focus of

their attention. They want to make sense of the world -- as a concept -- and they often enjoy

opportunities to be creative. INTPs are logical, analytical, and detached in their approach to the

world; they naturally question and critique ideas and events as they strive for understanding.

INTPs usually have little need to control the outer world, or to bring order to it, and they often

appear very flexible and adaptable in their lifestyle.

ESTP

For ESTPs the dominant quality in their lives is their enthusiastic attention to the outer world of

hands-on and real-life experiences. ESTPs are excited by continuous involvement in new

activities and in the pursuit of new challenges. ESTPs tend to be logical and analytical in their

approach to life, and they have an acute sense of how objects, events, and people in the world

work. ESTPs are typically energetic and adaptable realists, who prefer to experience and accept

life rather than to judge or organize it.

ESFP

For ESFPs the dominant quality in their lives is their enthusiastic attention to the outer world of

hands-on and real-life experiences. ESFPs are excited by continuous involvement in new

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activities and new relationships. ESFPs also have a deep concern for people, and they show

their caring in warm and pragmatic gestures of helping. ESFPs are typically energetic and

adaptable realists, who prefer to experience and accept life rather than to judge or organize it.

ENFP

For ENFPs the dominant quality in their lives is their attention to the outer world of possibilities;

they are excited by continuous involvement in anything new, whether it be new ideas, new

people, or new activities. Though ENFPs thrive on what is possible and what is new, they also

experience a deep concern for people as well. Thus, they are especially interested in

possibilities for people. ENFPs are typically energetic, enthusiastic people who lead

spontaneous and adaptable lives.

ENTP

For ENTPs the driving quality in their lives is their attention to the outer world of possibilities;

they are excited by continuous involvement in anything new, whether it be new ideas, new

people, or new activities. They look for patterns and meaning in the world, and they often have a

deep need to analyze, to understand, and to know the nature of things. ENTPs are typically

energetic, enthusiastic people who lead spontaneous and adaptable lives.

ESTJ

For ESTJs the driving force in their lives is their need to analyze and bring into logical order the

outer world of events, people, and things. ESTJs like to organize anything that comes into their

domain, and they will work energetically to complete tasks so they can quickly move from one to

the next. Sensing orients their thinking to current facts and realities, and thus gives their thinking

a pragmatic quality. ESTJs take their responsibilities seriously and believe others should do so

as well.

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ESFJ

For ESFJs the dominant quality in their lives is an active and intense caring about people and a

strong desire to bring harmony into their relationships. ESFJs bring an aura of warmth to all that

they do, and they naturally move into action to help others, to organize the world around them,

and to get things done. Sensing orients their feeling to current facts and realities, and thus gives

their feeling a hands-on pragmatic quality. ESFJs take their work seriously and believe others

should as well.

ENFJ

For ENFJs the dominant quality in their lives is an active and intense caring about people and a

strong desire to bring harmony into their relationships. ENFJs are openly expressive and

empathic people who bring an aura of warmth to all that they do. Intuition orients their feeling to

the new and to the possible, thus ENFJs often enjoy working to manifest a humanitarian vision,

or helping others develop their potential. ENFJs naturally and conscientiously move into action

to care for others, to organize the world around them, and to get things done.

ENTJ

For ENTJs the driving force in their lives is their need to analyze and bring into logical order the

outer world of events, people, and things. ENTJs are natural leaders who build conceptual

models that serve as plans for strategic action. Intuition orients their thinking to the future, and

gives their thinking an abstract quality. ENTJs will actively pursue and direct others in the pursuit

of goals they have set, and they prefer a world that is structured and organized.

APPLICTAION

Many people believe trait instrumentation, such as the MBTI, provides leverage in predicting

behavior in social groups. MBTI's four dimensions were found to be correlated with four of the

Big Five robust personality dimensions.

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Organizational consultants may use the MBTI to encourage a better fit between personalities

and roles. Because the basic assumption under-girding the MBTI is that the types it identifies are

immutable in nature, the consultant's mission has more to do with enhanced articulation of

individual differences and organizational responsibilities than with behavior change.

Some research has indicated that the distribution of MBTI types is highly skewed in the working

population. Sundstrom and associates found that nearly three-quarters of their sample of

managers in business were Thinking-Judging types. Perhaps business settings are self-

selecting in this regard, hiring Thinking-Judging types over other types (Thinking-Perceiving

personalities and all Feeling types). Or, it may be that Feeling types, in general, are less inclined

to seek managerial positions.

Individual development

Understand preferred working style and how to develop this to be more effective.

Management and leadership development

Help managers and leaders to appreciate the impact of their personal style on others. Identify

their strengths and any areas which they may need to develop to become more effective. Can

be used as part of an executive coaching programme

Team building and development

Increase awareness of the team's working style. Through this, improve team communication,

enhance problem solving, encourage appreciation of diversity and resolve conflict

Organizational change

Understand why people react differently to change and how to support them though the process

Improving communication

Help people to understand how to communicate effectively with different people and develop

influencing and persuading skills

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It is also used for: Education and career counseling

Identify learning styles and motivations, improve teaching and training methods and provide

career guidance.

 Relationship counseling

Improve the quality of relationships and interactions by understanding and valuing differences.

Benefits of Using the MBTI

Benefits to the Individual

Increased self-awareness and better self-management

Develop and appreciation and value for differences

Improved communication § Increased interpersonal skills

Can lead to motivated behavior

Provides a guideline of how to be a more effective leader, manager, teacher, learner, and

team member

Help discover how your individual personality can help you be successful or how your

personality can get in your way

Benefits to the Team

Improved communication

Can provide an effective avenue for conflict resolution

Increased problem resolution

Better understanding of the decision making process

Facilitates team building

Assists in diagnosing cultural and organizational issues.

Identify leadership style

 

 Other benefits Easy to use, score and explain plus Short and quick to complete.

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People enjoy working with the questionnaire and find the results helpful

Revised and updated in 1998, increasing its accuracy, ease of use and relevance to

European English users.

Provides a powerful conceptual framework, allowing you to deepen your knowledge and

apply it in many situations.

Promotes a constructive approach to individual differences.

The D ISC Persona l i ty Mode l About the Instrument

DISC is an acronym for Direct, Influencing, Steady and Compliant behaviors.

DISC is the four quadrant behavioral model based on the work of William Moulton Marston Ph.D.

(1893 - 1947) to examine the behavior of individuals in their environment or within a specific

situation. DISC looks at behavioral styles and behavioral preferences. Marston, the father of the

DISC, was a graduate of Harvard University.

DiSC is a model of human behavior that helps to understand "why people do what they do." The

dimensions of Dominance, influencing, Steadiness, and Conscientiousness make up the model

and interact with other factors to describe human behavior.

It was Marston’s 1928 “Emotions of Normal People”, which introduced DISC theory to the public.

He defined four categories of human behavioral styles, types or temperament, now know as "D"

for Dominance-Drive-Direct, "I" for Influence (Marston chose the term inducement, "S" for

Steadiness or Stability (Marston used submission) and "C" for Compliant, Conscientious, or

Cautious, (Marston used compliance). Interestingly enough Marston never developed his

D.I.S.C. theory into the present four quadrant model, yet now a days DISC has become one of

the most popular and user friendly four quadrant models for understanding behavioral styles and

personality types, with various companies offering models with quadrants, circles, wheels, and

diamonds to graphically represent the positioning of these behavioral and personality styles and

types.

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A DISC Profile is a personality testing technique that uses a simple questionnaire as a basis for

revealing insights into a person's behavior. Recruiters around the world have been using this

personality test technique for decades

DISC lies somewhere between two poles. While it isn't a full 'personality test' in the strict

technical sense, it provides an insight into an individual style that is more than adequate to

predict the likely trends of their behavior in the future. It does this by evaluating four key factors

in an individual style, rather than the sixteen or more that are often seen in full personality tests

(for example, DISC makes no attempt to measure such factors as intelligence).

This confers the advantage of greater accessibility: while a full test battery will often contain

literally hundreds of questions, and take hours to complete, a DISC personality profile

questionnaire contains only twenty-four, and can be usually be performed in fifteen minutes or

less. This also provides advantages in the area of interpretation; while the interpretation of

results from a full test remains in the province of experts, DISC results are sufficiently well-

defined that their interpretation can be almost completely automated.

At its most basic level, DISC measures four factors of an individual's behavior: Dominance,

Influence, Steadiness and Compliance. These are fairly complex constructs, and aren't easily

expressed in single words, but they can be characterized as assertiveness, communication,

patience and structure.

The real power of DISC, though, comes from its ability to interpret the relations between these

factors. For example where a highly Dominant person has an equally high level of Influence,

they will behave quite differently to an equally Dominant individual without that Influence. The

factors combine like this to provide (theoretically) around one million different 'profiles' (that is,

combinations of the four factors).

Using this information, a DISC profile can be used to describe a person's general approach,

including their motivations and dislikes, strengths and weaknesses, and some of the basic

assumptions they make about other people. It can also go far in helping to predict how a person

will react to a specific set of circumstances.

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The D.I.S.C. personality model was developed by William Moulton Marston and influenced by

Carl Jung, profiles four primary behavioral styles, each with a very distinct and predictable

pattern of observable behavior. Applied in corporate, business and personal situations the DISC

inventory can lead to professional and personal insights. 

Understanding the DISC patterns has empowered millions internationally to better understand

themselves and others. The results of the online disc profile report are designed to provide

targeted insights and strategies for interpersonal success through more effective

communication, understanding and tolerance. DISC is used for personal growth and

development, training, coaching and managing of individuals, groups, teams, and organizations.

The DISC Profile is a nonjudgmental tool for understanding behavioral types and personality

styles. The DISC Personality behavioral model looks at one's behavior based on their

personality and the situations one finds them in.  DiSC is a nonjudgmental assessment

developed through research and repeated validation with the purpose of helping people with the

skills to their and others' understanding behavioral styles and personality types.

DiSC describes how people behave as they respond to their environment.  It gives valuable

insight into one's own behavior as well as the behavior of others. It is one of the most successful

and widely used personal and professional development instruments providing the leading edge

approach to improve self-awareness, relationships, performance, productivity, communication,

teamwork, and leadership. 

DiSC Profile Products and the DiSC Personality Tests are based on the 1928 publication of

psychologist William Moulton Marston, The Emotions of Normal People. 

He classified four categories of human behavioral type, style or temperament-- Dominance,

Influence (Marston chose the term inducement), Steadiness or Stability (originally submission)

and Compliant, Conscientious, or Cautious, (originally compliance). It should be noted that

Marston never developed his D.I.S.C. model into a four quadrant model though now a days

DISC has become one of the modest popular four quadrant models, with various companies

using quadrants, circles, wheels, and diamonds to graphically represent the positioning of

behavioral and personality styles and types. The D.I.S.C. model looks at behavioral styles and

behavioral preferences

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DiSC uses a four quadrant model that looks at your primary dimensions:

Dominance

Influence  Steadiness

Conscientiousness

Dominance: Direct and Decisive

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These people tend to be independent and results driven. They are strong-willed people who

enjoy challenges, taking action, and immediate results.  The bottom line is their focus tends to

be on the bottom line and results. Dominance: People who score high in the intensity of the 'D'

styles factor are very active in dealing with problems and challenges, while low D scores are

people who want to do more research before committing to a decision. High "D" people are

described as demanding, forceful, egocentric, strong willed, driving, determined, ambitious,

aggressive, and pioneering. Low D scores describe those who are conservative, low keyed,

cooperative, calculating, undemanding, cautious, mild, agreeable, modest and peaceful.

 Influence: Outgoing and Optimistic. These individuals tend to be very social and out going.

They prefer participating on teams, sharing thoughts, and entertaining and energizing others.

People with High I scores influence others through talking and activity and tend to be emotional.

They are described as convincing, magnetic, political, enthusiastic, persuasive, warm,

demonstrative, trusting, and optimistic. Those with Low I scores influence more by data and

facts, and not with feelings. They are described as reflective, factual, calculating, skeptical,

logical, suspicious, matter of fact, pessimistic, and critical.

 

Steadiness: Stability and Status Quo. These people tend to be your team players and are

supportive, cooperative and helpful to others.  They prefer being behind the scene, working in

consistent and predictable ways. They are often good listeners and avoid change and conflict.

People with High S styles scores want a steady pace, security, and don't like sudden change.

Low S intensity scores are those who like change and variety. High S persons are calm, relaxed,

patient, possessive, predictable, deliberate, stable, consistent, and tend to be unemotional and

poker faced. People with Low S scores are described as restless, demonstrative, impatient,

eager, or even impulsive.

Conscientiousness: Cautious. These people are often focused on details and quality. They

plan ahead; constantly check for accuracy, and what to know "how" and "why". Persons with

High C styles adhere to rules, regulations, and structure. They like to do quality work and do it

right the first time. High C people are careful, cautious, exacting, neat, systematic, diplomatic,

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accurate, and tactful. Those with Low C scores challenge the rules and want independence and

are described as self-willed, stubborn, opinionated, unsystematic, arbitrary, and careless with

details.

DISC applications

The DISC Profile: a learning tool

The DISC Profile, as a learning tool can be used to create rapid rapport and connection with

people is fundamental in selling, managing, and leadership. Understanding behavioral styles

benefits personal and professional relationships by improving communication skills and reducing

conflict. Imagine being able to better understand what motivates people and being able to

recognize how to effectively deal with others. 

Career Development

In its simplest terms, using personality testing for career development is a very similar process to

that seen in recruitment or assessment scenarios. A person's DISC profile series is compared

against an ideal Job Profile for a particular career, and the closeness of the match between the

two styles will give an indication of how well that individual's style is suited to the career area in

question. However it must be noted that there are a multitude of factors that must affect the

decisions a person takes about their career. DISC personality testing alone cannot provide a

definitive conclusion, but it is able to provide guidance in deciding whether a particular career

path is suited to an individual or not. We should also point out that DISC personality profile

results tend to be less reliable for young people under the age of twenty or so, because before

this age the personal style tends to be in something of a state of flux. The precise age at which

the behavioral type reaches a stable form will vary from individual to individual, of course.

Once a career decision has been made, DISC personality testing can also help in preparing

application letters and curricula vitæ or resumés. DISC personality profiles help to highlight the

particular areas of strength within a person's behavior, and these can be included in

applications. Because so many organizations use DISC personality tests, it may even be

plausible to include a full printed DISC personality profile with a job application.

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Training and employee development, coaching and mentoring

The DISC personality assessment is available to individuals, business, organizations and

corporations. DISC personality behavioral profiles are research based and designed to help you

understanding behavioral styles and personality types. Applied in corporate, business and

personal situations "DISC" can lead to understanding, better communication and heightened

positive attitude.

The DISC is most often used for training and employee development, coaching and mentoring

or employees and sometimes as a part of a hiring process (though it is not designed as a hiring

tool). The DISC personality assessment is available to individuals, business, organizations and

corporations. DISC personality behavioral profiles are research based and designed to help you

understanding behavioral styles and personality types through our online disc questionnaire

format. The D.I.S.C. model, developed by William Moulton Marston and influence by Carl Jung,

profiles four primary behavioral styles, each with a distinct and predictable pattern of observable

behavior. Applied in corporate, business and personal situations "DISC" can lead to

understanding, better communication and heightened positive attitude. Insights into the DISC

patterns have empowered millions internationally to better understand themselves and others.

This online disc profile report is designed to provide targeted strategies and insights for

interpersonal success through effective communication, understanding and tolerance. These

insights have been utilized for personal growth and development, training,

coaching and managing of individuals, groups, teams, and organizations.

Understanding your DISC profile gives you insight for rapid rapport and connection with people a

fundamental skill in selling, managing, and leadership. Understanding behavioral styles

benefits personal and professional relationships by improving communication skills, attitude,

thus reducing conflict and stress. Imagine being able to better understand what motivates

people and being able to recognize how to effectively deal with.

Individuals and organizations worldwide have used DiSC Profile test for organizational development and performance that deliver results by:

improving internal communication

job interview/hiring process enhancement  

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helping sales and customer service professionals:

o create and maintain relationship based sales and customer service

o identify customers' DiSC styles and how to adapt their sales

or support styles accordingly

o stay focused on customer needs

o manage difficult customer situations

enhancing individual and team performance

reducing workplace tension, conflict, and violence

promoting a greater understanding of one's own behavior and the behavior of others

promoting understanding and appreciation of differences

improving management effectiveness

Irony Marston developed the D.I.S.C. model but he never copyrighted his disc profile test. Yet,

today, 75 years after the publication of his book, over 5 million people have taken various forms

of the DISC profile throughout the world. Marston's original work continues to be enhanced by

ongoing behavioral research and profiles can be found in than 50 languages by various

publishers of the disc assessment.  With this evolution of various versions of the DISC of varying

quantity and validity.

16PF®

About the Instrument

16 PF is the standard abbreviation for the 16 Personality Factors multivariate-derived by

psychologist Raymond Cattell. The Cattell 16PF (16 Personality Factor) model is probably the

most-widely used system for categorizing and defining personality. 

The 16 PF is based on the 16 "source traits" put forth by Raymond B. Cattell in the 1940's.

Cattell was what we call a trait theorist. Using a fancy statistical technique called Multiple

Abstract Variance Analysis (MAVA), Cattell identified clusters of "surface traits," consistent

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behavioral responses, and "temperament and ability source traits," underlying variables that

determine the surface traits. The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire based on Cattell's

theories was first published in 1949 and is now in its fifth edition; it is published in 40 languages.

In 1946 Raymond Cattell used the emerging technology of computers to analyse the Allport-

Odbert list. He organized the list into 181 clusters and asked subjects to rate people whom they

knew by the adjectives on the list. Using factor analysis Cattell generated twelve factors, and

then included four factors which he thought ought to appear. The result was the hypothesis that

individuals describe themselves and each other according to sixteen different, independent

factors.

With these sixteen factors as a basis, Cattell went on to construct the 16PF Personality

Questionnaire, which remains in use by universities and businesses for research, personnel

selection and the like. Although subsequent research has failed to replicate his results, and it

has been shown that he retained too many factors, the current 16PF takes these findings into

account and is considered to be a very good test.

In 1963, W.T. Norman replicated Cattell’s work and suggested that five factors would be

sufficient.

The 16 primary factors are each weighted and combined with other relevant factors into global

factors.

Unlike other common personal profiling tools such as Myers Briggs or Belbin, the 16PF defines

our basic, underlying personality, without regard to how we apply it or the environment in which

we apply it.  A simple analogy would be to think of the human being as a personal computer.  

Personality profiles such as 16PF measure the basic features of the PC such as the size of the

hard disk, RAM, processing speed and so on.  They're relatively unchanging features of the PC

that strongly influence its performance, but which we don't normally see.  Intelligence Quotient

(IQ) is a indication of the breadth and complexity of the software loaded on the PC, which it uses

to process ideas and information.  But the way in which the PC performs is mainly influenced by

its environment - as represented by the user who gives it information and asks it to perform

tasks.

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So our underlying personality is there all the time, but the way we see it is affected by our

intelligence, and by our upbringing and education, which may have taught us either to

emphasize or suppress aspects of our personality.  However, if you can understand what your

personality is, you can then make better use of the strengths it gives you, and make allowances

for the resultant weaknesses.  Because personality is relatively unchanging through adult life,

this understanding will be of long-term value to you.

THE 16 PERSONALITY FACTORS

Each factor can be measured on a scale, determined by completing a questionnaire, and the word pairs

below indicate the extremes of each scale.  The letter codes were ascribed to each scale as a shorthand

notation.

Factor Descriptors

AWarmth ReservedOutgoing

BReasoning Less IntelligentMore Intelligent

CEmotional Stability Affected by feelingsEmotionally stable

EDominance HumbleAssertive

FLiveliness SoberHappy-go-lucky

GRule Consciousness

ExpedientConscientious

HSocial Boldness ShyVenturesome

ISensitivity Tough-mindedTender-minded

LVigilance TrustingSuspicious

MAbstractedness Practical Imaginative

NPrivateness StraightforwardShrewd

OApprehension Self-AssuredApprehensive

Q1Openness to Change

ConservativeExperimenting

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Q2Self-Reliance Group-dependent Self-sufficient

Q3Perfectionism Self-conflictSelf-control

Q4Tension RelaxedTense

The sixteen factors of the instrument are as follows.

Factor A (Warmth)

It measures a person's emotional orientation toward others - the degree to which contact with

others is sought and found rewarding as an end in it. This is sometimes known as a person's

"affinitive tendency".

High scorers like and need to be with others. They rarely like to be alone, and may indicate that

spending large amounts of time alone is very difficult or demotivating for them. They need and

want high levels of interpersonal contact and have a "the more, the merrier" approach to life.

Low scorers are more interested in tasks or ideas than in people-interaction. They may like and

value other people, but don't enjoy "small talk" or superficial social interactions. They are more

prone to spend longer periods of time in solitary activities and to enjoy that. They may or may

not be shy, but simply don't tend to find social interaction rewarding.

All of us have needs for both sociability and solitude, but a high A person has a large "sociability

bucket" and a small "solitude bucket"; the reverse is true of a low A person. High A types

quickly become bored or lonely when alone; low A types tend to enjoy private or solitary

activities, but can feel "lonely in a crowd". High A types are often strongly motivated by social

rewards, while low A types tend not to respond to such rewards.

Factor B (Reasoning)

It measures a person's way of thinking and reasoning. It is correlated with what we

conventionally think of as intelligence or problem-solving ability, but low scorers should not be

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thought of as lacking in intelligence. It's better to think of them as having a different kind or

style of intelligence - as being "street smart" as opposed to "book smart".

High scorers are mentally quick and absorb new information rapidly and efficiently. As a result,

they are often easily bored by mundane or routine tasks and often have a high need for

intellectual challenge. They often enjoy mental complexity or difficulty. They may enjoy formal

or academic learning contexts.

Low scorers are most comfortable with familiar, well-known tasks in which they can draw heavily

on past experience and can utilize a concrete style of learning by doing. They may be very

effective hands-on learners but often need more time to assimilate and adjust to new

information. They may find mental complexity aversive or unpleasant. They may prefer

practical, experiential learning contexts.

Factor C (Emotional Stability)

It measures a person's proneness to mood swings or "ups and downs" in the emotional life.

High scorers are less likely to experience wide variations in mood, and are more emotionally

stable or "steady as she goes" in their emotional experience. Low scorers more

characteristically experience a wider range of emotional fluctations - peaks and valleys on the

"roller coaster" of life.

As a result, high scorers are usually better able to manage stress in a positive, proactive way - to

remain solution-focused under stress or to "keep their cool" in a crisis. However, for the same

reason, some others may experience or perceive them as unduly stoic or "above it all" in a

fashion that could be seen as either reassuring or annoying, depending on the perceiver's own

personality and needs.

Low scorers typically struggle more with stress, yet may also experience a richer and fuller

emotional life (the bitter as well as the sweet). In some cases, low scorers can be strong

advocates for others because of their capacity to empathize with the "underdog" - they know

from experience what it means to struggle. (A high proportion of effective counselors score on

the low side of factor C for this reason.)

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Factor C is sometimes called "ego strength" because it is associated with a person's ability to

tolerate stresses and difficulties without becoming emotionally overwhelmed. However, factor C

is not a measure of mental health or neuroticism. Both high and low scores are normal variants

of personality.

Factor E (Dominance)

It measures a person's place on the "pecking order" of interpersonal assertiveness. It is a

measure of dominance versus submissiveness in an interpersonal context. It is also a measure

of the extent to which a person likes to be in control of situations involving other people.

High scorers enjoy being in control and value power. They are often seen as "natural leaders"

by others (but may, if scores are excessive, strike others as domineering or autocratic if their

control orientation is not moderated by other factors). It is common for high scorers to use

competitive terms like "mastering" a subject or "conquering" a problem; a positive correlate is

tenacity and force of will. High scorers tend to like competition and to think of interpersonal

situations in primarily competitive terms.

Low scorers make few demands on others and instead like to accommodate the needs and

wishes of other people, sometimes making insufficient room for their own to be expressed. They

dislike conflict, enjoy pleasing others, and like cooperativeness and harmony-seeking. They

may not enjoy or seek leadership roles, and if placed in such roles, may not be seen as

"conventional" or "strong" leaders; they lead, not by the force of their will or personality, but by

other traits such as positional authority and responsibility.

While high scorers need to be careful not to overwhelm others with excessive assertiveness (or

aggressiveness), low scorers can profit from learning how to be more direct and assertive. High

scorers can benefit from learning how to be more cooperative and conciliatory, while low scorers

can productively gain by learning how to be more competitive and positively confronting.

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Factor F (Liveliness)

It measures a person's natural exuberance or energy level. Thinking of the same factor in a

different way, it provides a measure of deliberateness and caution (low scores) versus

impulsivity and lack of inhibition (high scores).

High scorers are usually uninhibited, playful, adventurous types who enjoy being the center of

attention. They may become bored easily and like to jump from one thing to another. As a

result, they are at their best in "generalist" work roles that allow them to wear many different hats

and to move from one activity to another without investing too deeply in any one of them. As a

result, they need to watch their tendency to overgeneralize ("jack of all trades, master of none")

and may need to strengthen their ability to maintain interest and attention in the face of difficulty

or complexity. "Variety is the spice of life" is a high F slogan. In extreme cases, high F types

can be seen as rather fickle, self-focused, or superficial by others who have a different pattern of

traits.

Low scorers are usually deliberate, cautious, careful, focused, and serious-minded types. Their

sense of humor is more of the wry, subtle form, and even if they have a dry wit, others are likely

to perceive them as sober, serious, even perhaps rather dour people. They usually like to "dig

deep" into what interests them, having longer attention spans than high F types, and so are at

their best in "specialist" work roles that allow them to become technical experts in a chosen field

of endeavor. However, they need to watch their tendency to overspecialize ("learning more and

more about less and less") and may need to strengthen their ability to deal well with more

casual, superficial interactions and roles. In extreme cases, low F cases can be seen as rather

dull, plodding, or one-sided (monomanically devoted to a single cause, issue, value, or role) by

others who have a different pattern of traits.

Factor G (Rule Consciousness)

It measures a person's orientation to rules, procedures, and social expectations. To a

considerable extent, it is a measure of ethical and moral responsibility and dutifulness. High

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scorers are usually highly ethically driven and responsible, although the reverse is not always

the case: low scorers are not necessarily irresponsible or unethical, but are, at a minimum,

prone to think of ethics in unconventional terms. High scorers are more rule- or principle-

governed, while low scorers are more results-governed.

Thus, a high scorer is likely to stick to the rules even if this means that a desired result cannot be

obtained. "I'd rather be right than President" is a high G dictum. High scorers' dutifulness and

moral conventionality make them desirable in the eyes of most employers, which is why factor G

correlates with employer ratings of workers to a stronger degree than any other personality

factor. However, very high scorers may become unnecessarily rigid or unbending about the

rules - a "Regulation Charlie" (or Charlene).

Low scorers are prone to think that rules are made to be broken (or at least bent) if this is what it

takes to achieve a desired result. This does not necessarily translate into unethical behavior

(though very low scorers are statistically likely to strike others as ethically challenged or, in the

extreme case, even rather conscienceless), but it does suggest a different kind of focus - on in

which outcomes, not rules, are the major emphasis.

Factor H (Social Boldness)

It measures social initiative taking and, to a lesser extent, a general orientation toward risk taking

of any sort. "Shyness" versus "social boldness" is one way to think of this factor. However,

other kinds of risks besides social risks are also in view in this factor.

High scorers are social initiative takers who are comfortable with such activities as networking,

self-marketing, introducing themselves to others, small talk, and "schmoozing". As a result,

nearly all sales and marketing professionals are high H types. High H types show more

"courage", social and otherwise, and in the extreme show a high need for thrill seeking or "living

on the edge". Most people who engage in "extreme sports", for instance, are high H types.

Low scorers are more likely to be shy and to find social initiative taking aversive and difficult.

They prefer a small number of close relationships to a large number of more superficial ones

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and probably do not enjoy meeting new people in large group contexts. They may show a more

general pattern of risk aversion and timidity, and probably enjoy quieter, "safe" pursuits.

Factor I (Sensitivity)

It is a complex factor that is difficult to summarize in a single phrase. It has to do with two

related qualities: objectivity versus subjectivity, and tough-mindedness versus tender-

mindedness.

High scorers are generally emotionally sensitive, empathic, aware of feelings, and prone to

make decisions on a more personal or subjective basis (focused on personal values or the

needs of others). As a result, they do well in roles that call for interpersonal sensitivities and an

emphasis on "feeling" issues. However, they may, especially in the extreme, lack objectivity,

and may have a difficult time seeing the dark side of something about which they care deeply.

Others may see them as "thin-skinned" or "wearing their heart on their sleeve."

Low scorers are generally objective, analytical, logical, and prone to make decisions on a more

impersonal basis (focused on cause and effect or rational consequences). As a result, they do

well in roles that call for analytical logic or impersonal objective reasoning (which are more likely

to involve working with things, ideas, or data rather than with human beings and their needs and

problems). However, they may, especially in the extreme, lack sensitivity, and may seem to

have an "emotional blind spot" - lacking an emotional vocabulary or the ability to sense their own

needs and feelings as well as those of others. Others may see them as "armor-plated" or

"having ice in their veins".

Factor L (Vigilance)

It has to do with the balance between trust and skepticism.

High scorers are more careful, vigilant, wary, or skeptical about trusting others and are less likely

to assume that others' motivations are trustworthy or benign. They are more likely to "read

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between the lines" in evaluating others - which means that they are less likely to be taken in by

those who have a hidden agenda, but also that they are more likely to imagine a hidden agenda

when, in fact, none exists. Very high scores are associated with a tendency to blame or suspect

others in unnecessary ways. However, moderately high scores simply mean a cautious stance

that says, “I will trust those who earn my trust.”

Low scorers are more prone to take others at face value and to trust others' motivations,

sometimes in excessive or unrealistic ways. The positive side of low scores is a natural

tendency to feel a sense of "connectedness" with others and to "give others the benefit of the

doubt" in dealings with them. The negative side, especially with extreme scores, is a certain

naivete or gullibility in dealing with others - a tendency to be taken in by those who are not

worthy of trust.

Some professions require higher L scores than others: those which require skepticism or an

ability to read between the lines. Examples of professions that reward higher than average L

scores are IRS auditors, police detectives, and insurance underwriters.

Factor M (Abstractedness)

It has to do with practicality versus creativity, or a literal detail orientation versus an imaginative

big picture orientation. Think of a camera with two different lenses: a close-up lens that reveals

fine details, and a telephoto lens that shows how elements in a scene are associated with one

another. Low scores are like the close-up view, high scores are like the wide-angle view.

High scorers are generally creative, imaginative, and insightful. Often, they are abstract or

theoretical in orientation (focused on ideas, not their practical implementation). Their focus is

generally strategic (the "thousand-year view"). However, in their ideophoria, they can miss or

underattend to details and can lack practicality. The absent-minded professor is that of a very

high M person.

Low scorers are very much in touch with practical realities, live by them, make decisions on a

literal and factual basis. They tend to be focused on here-and-now results and outcomes, and

ask "how", not "why". Their focus is generally tactical (this hour, this day, this week). However,

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they can be blind to wider meanings and implications, can be overly literal or even nitpicky about

details, and generally can miss the forest for the trees.

According to psychiatrist David Keirsey, this factor is the biggest "psychological divide" between

persons, especially in the workplace: those who focus on what is (low M) tend not to understand

those who focus on what could or might be (high M), and vice versa. As a result, the world of

work is strongly segregated along these lines: people seek work that provides them either with

a steady stream of facts and details (low M) or a steady stream of ideas and possibilities (high

M). Neither would be happy in the other role. In the extreme, low M people can see high M

types as having their head in the clouds, and high M types can see low M people as having their

feet stuck in the mud.

Factor N (Privateness)

It has to do with self-disclosure, and consequently, how easy a person is to get to know, as well

as how well s/he keeps private matters confidential. Low scorers are more forthright; high

scorers are more discreet.

High scorers are careful and selective about self-disclosure (when, where, and with whom they

share information). They are slower to open up to others and, as a result, may strike others as

hard to get to know. "I respect her/him, but I really don't know her/him" is something that others

may often say about high N types. These people tend to do well in roles that require caution

about the disclosure of information (such as a diplomat, a payroll clerk, or a human resource

professional) or that require political "savvy".

Low scorers are "what you see is what you get" or "shoot from the lip" types who are quick to

disclose information and are much less selective about when, where, and with whom they share.

They strike others as more open and forthright, but may be more politically naïve or may not

keep secrets well. People usually know exactly where they stand, but may not trust them with

confidential or private information.

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Note that low scorers strike others as more "artless" while high scorers can come across as

"shrewd", although high N types are not inherently manipulative; they are simply careful about

sharing information. "Loose lips sink ships" is a high N motto.

Factor O (Apprehension)

It has to do with apprehension in two senses. One is a general proneness to worry. The other

is a propensity to self-doubt and self-blame (intrapunitiveness): being hard on oneself, selling

oneself short, treating oneself stringently or harshly.

High O persons tend to be merciless self-critics. While this suggests high performance

standards (and, indeed, high O types are often also high on factor G and, to a lesser extent,

Q3), it also suggests a general tendency toward self-blame that is not necessarily productive.

High scorers are also prone to experience such states as worry and guilt.

Low O persons are self-assured, self-confident, and rarely worry about themselves. They are

certain of their capabilities and invest little energy in introspection of a self-evaluative sort.

However, with very low scores, these positive traits can turn into complacency, blindness to

areas of needful self-improvement, arrogance, or even denial of one's true faults (so-called

"anxiety binding").

In general, low O persons might profitably learn to be a bit harder on them, and high O persons

might learn to cut themselves some slack.

Factor Q1 (Openness to Change)

It has to do with a person's orientation to change, novelty, and innovation. The Chinese word for

change literally means "dangerous opportunity" - low scorers are more attuned to the danger

side (and hence tend to resist change), while high scorers are more oriented to the side of

opportunity (and hence tend to seek out change).

High scorers like change, respond positively to change, seek change, and want to "boldly go

where no one has gone before". They are quick to jump on the change bandwagon and tend to

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become bored, frustrated, or demoralized by situations that provide insufficient change. In the

extreme, they can be "change junkies" who see change for change's sake, who needlessly

reinvent the wheel, or who are intolerant or dismissive of tradition, convention, and stability.

Low scorers like the known, the tried and true, and the time-tested. At least initially, they tend to

be skeptical of change or to respond negatively to it, avoid needless change, like things as they

are, and say, "if it ain't broke, don't fix it". They are guardians of stability and constancy and tend

to be threatened, frustrated, or demoralized by situations that provide excessive change. In the

extreme, they can drag their feet about change or can seem reactionary to others.

Factor Q2 (Self Reliance)

It has to do with a propensity to seek group support - or to strike out on one's own. Nicholas

Lore divides the vocational world into "tribals" (those who like to be "a bee in the hive") and "lone

wolves" (those who like to do be a one-man or one-woman show). This captures factor Q2 well.

High scorers like to solve problems on their own - in the extreme, they "ask for help when the

request is pried out from between their cold, dead fingers" - and prize self-reliance. They like to

act independently and may be attracted to entrepreneurial roles or to individual contributor roles

for this reason. They may find it hard to delegate or may run the risk of overly isolating

themselves, being seen as "not a team player" in a culture that may consist of more low Q2

types.

Low scorers like group support and group consensus, think in terms of collaborative, team-

based action, and may have a hard time acting alone or independently. They may be attracted

to "corporate" roles in which there are high levels of social support for what they do and in which

team outcomes, not individual outcomes, are emphasized.

There is some evidence that high scorers gravitate to smaller companies (including the ultimate

in smallness, solo practitiones roles as self-employed individuals), while low scorers gravitate to

larger companies. Cultures that emphasize individual activity and achievement attract high Q2

types; those that emphasize teamwork and collaboration, low Q2 people.

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Factor Q3 (Perfectionism)

It is another complex factor that encompasses more than one core element. Part of the factor

has to do with "task orientation" versus "process orientation". Another has to do with a "structure

seeking" versus "structure avoidant" tendency. A third has to do with image management.

Think of a person driving cross-country. One person might have a goal of getting to the

destination as quickly and efficiently as possible (the high Q3 style). Another might have a goal

of enjoying the trip, taking the scenic route, stopping along the way whenever the mood struck

them (the low Q3 style). Thus, the idea of "the destination versus the journey" is one way to

differentiate high versus low scorers.

High scorers are more organized, systematic, methodical, goal oriented, focused on

conventional achievement (including outward status markers of success and image), like high

levels of structure, and tend to have steady work habits oriented around starting tasks promptly,

working first and playing second, and taking deadlines seriously. When taken to excess, these

traits may degenerate into rigidity, inflexibility, and an inability to handle the unexpected or to

stop and smell the roses. High scorers lose efficiency as the amount of environmental structure

decreases.

Low scorers are more flexible, adaptable, spontaneous, emergent, and process oriented. They

are often less focused on achievement as an end in itself, and may care less about what "the

Joneses" think. They are better starters than finishers and tend to work in "feast or famine"

spurts, mixing work and play and treating deadlines flexibly. When taken to excess, these traits

may degenerate into procrastinating, drifting, waffling, and an inability to hold oneself

accountable. Low scorers lose efficiency as the amount of environmental structure decreases.

Factor Q4 (Tension)

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It is about patience or impatience in response to environmental delays, stresses, and demands.

A good informal test for a person's Q4 score is to watch their behavior in a crowded grocery

store when the "express lane" is crawling along at molasses-in-February speed.

High scorers are "always on the go", "fidgety", constantly busy, efficiency-minded, and driven to

make things happen. Delays frustrate them, producing impatience, tension, and irritability.

However, they also get things done.

Low scorers are patient, relaxed, placid - "don't worry, be happy". They take life in stride, which

means less stress, but also less of a sense of internal urgency, hence less done.

High scorers (especially if also high on Q3) tend to "somatize" stress (ulcers, migraine

headaches, and hypertension). Low scorers are less likely to express stress in physiological

ways.

Using all 16 Factors, and a more comprehensive set of descriptions than we've given here, you

can create a pretty accurate picture of someone's personality.  Combinations of factors also give

a more detailed picture, and with the help of a competent adviser, you can begin to recognize

the "real you" that lies beneath the outward self created by your upbringing and environment.

However, absorbing the data from all 16 factors can get complicated, and in recent years a

variation of 16PF called 16PF5 has become more commonplace.

THE 16PF5 MODEL

16PF5 takes the 16 Factors of 16PF and groups them together into 5 overall themes (hence the

name).  Clearly there is some overlap between the 16 Factors, but narrowing them down to 5

Factors give a much sharper picture of the underlying personality.  If you want to know what's

behind any one of the 5 Factors you can "zoom in" on the relevant 16 Factors to see what the

drivers are.  Some of the 16 appear in more than one of the 5 themes, by the way. The Five

Global Factors are

Extraversion

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Anxiety

Will

Independence

Self control

5 Factors Descriptors

EXTRAVERSIONIntroverted, socially

inhibited

Extroverted, socially

participative

ANXIETY Low anxiety, unperturbedEasily worried and

generally tense

WILLOpen minded, receptive

to ideasResolute and determined

INDEPENDENCEAccommodating and

selfless

Independent and

persuasive

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SELF CONTROLFree-thinking and

impulsiveStructured and inhibited

Business applications

Selection

The 16PF factors can be mapped against the competencies required to be successful in a

particular role. When used as part of a structured selection process, the questionnaire results

can highlight areas to explore further during interview, eliciting a more comprehensive picture of

each candidate’s strengths and development needs. This makes the selection process more

effective. For successful candidates, the 16PF questionnaire can be used to create individual

development plans.

Development

The questionnaire can assess the management/leadership potential and style of an individual,

which can then be used to formulate an effective development plan.

Executive coaching

The questionnaire can be used in combination with additional tools (such as the 360 degree

feedback tool, Benchmarks®) to provide senior-level management with an essential

understanding of their own behavior and an objective assessment of how their style impacts on

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others. The individual can then be coached, building on this platform to establish clear

development objectives.

Teambuilding

Building a team profile using the 16PF instrument will highlight areas that may add to or detract

from team effectiveness, allowing key areas for team development to be identified. Each

individual will also be able to build an appreciation of other team members’ strengths, promoting

increased productivity and understanding.

Other applications include career guidance and counseling.

Other uses of the 16PF include:

Facilitating self-understanding and an appreciation of diversity

Providing a platform for career planning and career self-management

Enhancing effective communication, conflict resolution, problem solving, and decision

making

BENEFITS

Quick and easy to complete

Can be completed on paper, or electronically

Available in UK English and many European languages

Easy to score, interpret and feed back

Proven reliability and validity

Norm data is available for the UK population

The fifth edition is based on over 50 years of research and testing

JOHARI WONDOW

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About the Instrument

A Johari window is a metaphorical tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955 in the

United States, as a model for mapping personality awareness, used to help people better

understand their interpersonal communication and relationships. It is used primarily in self-help

groups and corporate settings as a heuristic exercise.

When performing the exercise, the subject is given a list of 55 adjectives and picks five or six

that they feel describe their own personality. Peers of the subject are then given the same list,

and each pick five or six adjectives that describe the subject.

Adjectives selected by both the participant and his or her peers are placed into the Arena

quadrant. This quadrant represents traits of the participant of which both they and their peers

are aware.

Adjectives selected only by the participant, but not by any of their peers, are placed into the

Façade quadrant, representing information about the participant of which their peers are

unaware. It is then up to the participant whether or not to disclose this information.

Adjectives that are not selected by the participant but only by their peers are placed into the

Blind Spot quadrant. These represent information of which the participant is not aware, but

others are, and they can decide whether and how to inform the individual about these "blind

spots".

Adjectives which were not selected by either the participant or their peers remain in the

Unknown quadrant, representing the participant's behaviors or motives which were not

recognized by anyone participating. This may be because they do not apply, or because there is

collective ignorance of the existence of that trait.

The 55adjectives are as follows:

Able Accepting Adaptable Bold Brave

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CalmCaring

Cheerful Clever Complex

Confident Dependable Dignified Energetic Extroverted

Friendly Giving Happy Helpful Idealistic

Independent Ingenious Intelligent Introverted Kind

Knowledgeable Logical LovingMature

Modest

Nervous Observant Organised Patient Powerful

Proud Quiet Reflective Relaxed Religious

Responsive Searching Self-assertive Self-conscious Sensible

Sentimental Shy Silly Spontaneous Sympathetic

Tense Trustworthy Warm Wise Witty

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A JOHARI WINDOW

The Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham,

is one of the most useful models describing the process of human interaction. A four paned

"window," as illustrated above, divides personal awareness into four different types, as

represented by its four quadrants: open, hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines dividing the four

panes are like window shades, which can move as an interaction progresses.

In this model, each person is represented by their own window

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JOHARI QUADRANT 1 - 'OPEN SELF/AREA' OR 'FREE AREA' OR 'PUBLIC AREA', OR 'ARENA'

Johari region 1 is also known as the 'area of free activity'. This is the information about the

person - behavior, attitude, feelings, emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc - known

by the person ('the self') and known by the group ('others').

For example in my case the "open" quadrant represents things that both I know about myself,

and that you know about me. For example, I know my name. The knowledge that the window

represents, can include not only factual information, but my feelings, motives, behaviors, wants,

needs and desires... indeed, any information describing who I am. When I first meet a new

person, the size of the opening of this first quadrant is not very large, since there has been little

time to exchange information.

The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' for every person, because

when we work in this area with others we are at our most effective and productive and the group

is at its most productive too. The open free area, or 'the arena', can be seen as the space where

good communications and cooperation occur, free from distractions, mistrust, confusion, conflict

and misunderstanding.

Established team members logically tend to have larger open areas than new team members.

New team members start with relatively small open areas because relatively little knowledge

about the new team member is shared. The size of the open area can be expanded horizontally

into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other group members.

This process is known as 'feedback solicitation'. Also, other group members can help a team

member expand their open area by offering feedback, sensitively of course. The size of the open

area can also be expanded vertically downwards into the hidden or avoided space by the

person's disclosure of information, feelings, etc about him/herself to the group and group

members. Also, group members can help a person expand their open area into the hidden area

by asking the person about him/herself. Managers and team leaders can play an important role

in facilitating feedback and disclosure among group members, and in directly giving feedback to

individuals about their own blind areas. Leaders also have a big responsibility to promote a

culture and expectation for open, honest, positive, helpful, constructive, sensitive

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communications, and the sharing of knowledge throughout their organization. Top performing

groups, departments, companies and organizations always tend to have a culture of open

positive communication, so encouraging the positive development of the 'open area' or 'open

self' for everyone is a simple yet fundamental aspect of effective leadership

JOHARI QUADRANT 2 - 'BLIND SELF' OR 'BLIND AREA' OR 'BLIND SPOT'

Johari region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the group, but is unknown by the

person him/herself. For example in my case the "blind" quadrant represents things that you

know about me, but that I am unaware of. For example, perhaps in our ongoing conversation,

you may notice that eye contact seems to be lacking. You may not say anything, since you may

not want to embarrass me, or you may draw your own inferences that perhaps I am being

insincere. Then the problem is how I can get this information out in the open.

By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should be to reduce this area and thereby

to increase the open area ie, to increase self-awareness. This blind area is not an effective or

productive space for individuals or groups. This blind area could also be referred to as ignorance

about oneself, or issues in which one is deluded. A blind area could also include issues that

others are deliberately withholding from a person. We all know how difficult it is to work well

when kept in the dark. No-one works well when subject to 'mushroom management'. People who

are 'thick-skinned' tend to have a large 'blind area'.

Group members and managers can take some responsibility for helping an individual to reduce

their blind area - in turn increasing the open area - by giving sensitive feedback and encouraging

disclosure. Managers should promote a climate of non-judgmental feedback, and group

response to individual disclosure, which reduces fear and therefore encourages both processes

to happen. The extent to which an individual seeks feedback, and the issues on which feedback

is sought, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more resilient than

others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset.

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JOHARI QUADRANT 3 - 'HIDDEN SELF' OR 'HIDDEN AREA' OR 'AVOIDED SELF/AREA' OR 'FACADE'

Johari region 3 is what is known to us but kept hidden from, and therefore unknown, to others.

This hidden or avoided self represents information, feelings, etc, anything that a person knows

about him/self, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden from others. The hidden area could

also include sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions, and secrets - anything

that a person knows but does not reveal, for whatever reason. It's natural for very personal and

private information and feelings to remain hidden, indeed, certain information, feelings and

experiences have no bearing on work, and so can and should remain hidden. However,

typically, a lot of hidden information is not very personal, it is work- or performance-related, and

so is better positioned in the open area.

Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the open area through the

process of 'disclosure'. The aim should be to disclose and expose relevant information and

feelings - hence the Johari Window terminology 'self-disclosure' and 'exposure process', thereby

increasing the open area. By telling others how we feel and other information about ourselves

we reduce the hidden area, and increase the open area, which enables better understanding,

cooperation, trust, team-working effectiveness and productivity. Reducing hidden areas also

reduces the potential for confusion, misunderstanding, poor communication, etc, which all

distract from and undermine team effectiveness.

Organizational culture and working atmosphere have a major influence on group members'

preparedness to disclose their hidden selves. Most people fear judgment or vulnerability and

therefore hold back hidden information and feelings, etc, that if moved into the open area, ie

known by the group as well, would enhance mutual understanding, and thereby improve group

awareness, enabling better individual performance and group effectiveness.

The extent to which an individual discloses personal feelings and information, and the issues

which are disclosed, and to whom, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some

people are more keen and able than others to disclose. People should disclose at a pace and

depth that they find personally comfortable. As with feedback, some people are more resilient

than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset.

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JOHARI QUADRANT 4 - 'UNKNOWN SELF' OR 'AREA OF UNKNOWN ACTIVITY' OR 'UNKNOWN AREA'

Johari region 4 contains information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc, that are

unknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group. These unknown issues

take a variety of forms: they can be feelings, behaviors, attitudes, capabilities, aptitudes, which

can be quite close to the surface, and which can be positive and useful, or they can be deeper

aspects of a person's personality, influencing his/her behavior to various degrees. Large

unknown areas would typically be expected in younger people, and people who lack experience

or self-belief.

Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is particularly relevant and

common, especially in typical organizations and teams:

an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of opportunity, encouragement,

confidence or training

a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realize they possess

a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have

an unknown illness

repressed or subconscious feelings

conditioned behavior or attitudes from childhood

The processes by which this information and knowledge can be uncovered are various, and can

be prompted through self-discovery or observation by others, or in certain situations through

collective or mutual discovery, of the sort of discovery experienced on outward bound courses or

other deep or intensive group work. Counseling can also uncover unknown issues, but this

would then be known to the person and by one other, rather than by a group.

Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or open area depends

on who discovers it and what they do with the knowledge, notably whether it is then given as

feedback, or disclosed.

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Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self discovery is a sensitive one.

The extent and depth to which an individual is able to seek out discover their unknown feelings

must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than

others to do this.

Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be confused with

developing the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect of developing the unknown area, and is

not so sensitive as unknown feelings. Providing people with the opportunity to try new things,

with no great pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown abilities, and

thereby reduce the unknown area.

Managers and leaders can help by creating an environment that encourages self-discovery, and

to promote the processes of self discovery, constructive observation and feedback among team

members. It is a widely accepted industrial fact that the majority of staff in any organization are

at any time working well within their potential. Creating a culture, climate and expectation for

self-discovery helps people to fulfil more of their potential and thereby to achieve more, and to

contribute more to organizational performance.

A note of caution about Johari region 4: The unknown area could also include repressed or

subconscious feelings rooted in formative events and traumatic past experiences, which can

stay unknown for a lifetime. In a work or organizational context the Johari Window should not be

used to address issues of a clinical nature.

Much, much more has been written on the Johari window model of human interaction. The

process of enlarging the open quadrant is called self-disclosure, a give and take process

between me and the people I interact with. Typically, as I share something about myself (moving

information from my hidden quadrant into the open) and if the other party is interested in getting

to know me, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing information in their hidden quadrant.

Thus, an interaction between two parties can be modeled dynamically as two active Johari

windows. For example, you may respond to my disclosure that I like "Cherry Garcia" by letting

me know what your favorite ice cream is, or where a new ice cream shop is being built, kinds of

information in your hidden quadrant. Incidentally, it is fattening, so be careful on how much you

eat!

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We believe disclosure to be healthy, at least that's the impression one gets after reading Freud.

However, Anita Kelly recently wrote that self-disclosure of personal secrets has its dangers. We

are often better off not telling secrets regarding our sexual behavior, mental health problems or

large-scale failures. "If you give people information about yourself, you give them power over

you," she says. Monica Lewinsky's disclosure to Linda Tripp and the ensuing scandal that

enveloped President Clinton is a case in point. Be forewarned that most secrets get passed

along to at least two more parties. People also misjudge how others respond to secrets.

Sometimes you get negative feedback. For example, women who reveal that she was raped

may be seen in the future as a victim or by men as damaged goods. Now, if you must tell your

secret to someone, chose that person very carefully. Chose someone whose response will give

you some insight into your problem. Unfortunately, such a person is often hard to find. So if you

cannot find anyone appropriate, consider this: that keeping secrets is healthy and tasteful,

because it is a way of managing your identity, and indicates you are secure and have self-

control. But it takes energy, because you have to be on constant guard not to accidentally reveal

something that is potentially damaging.

As ones level of confidence and self esteem develops, one may actively invite others to

comment on one's blind spots. A teacher may seek feedback from students on the quality of a

particular lecture, with the desire of improving the presentation. Active listening skills are helpful

in this endeavor. On the other hand, we all have defenses, protecting the parts of ourselves that

we feel vulnerable. Remember, the blind quadrant contains behavior, feelings and motivations

not accessible to the person, but which others can see. Feelings of inadequacy, incompetence,

impotence, unworthiness, rejection, guilt, dependency, ambivalence for loved ones, needs to

control and manipulate, are all difficult to face, and yet can be seen by others. To forcibly reveal

what another wishes not to see, is "psychological rape," and can be traumatic. Fortunately,

nature has provided us with a variety of defense mechanisms to cope with such events, such as

denial, ignoring.

The Johari window, essentially being a model for communication, can also reveal difficulties in

this area. In Johari terms, two people attempt to communicate via the open quadrants. On the

simplest level, difficulties may arise due to a lack of clarity in the interaction, such as poor

grammar or choice of words, unorganized thoughts, faulty logic etc. This induces the receiver to

criticize you, the sender, by revealing something that was in your blind quadrant. Then, if the

feedback works, you correct it immediately or perhaps on a more long term approach take a

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course in reading and writing. On a deeper level, you may be in a group meeting, and while you

secretly sympathize with the minority viewpoint, you voted with the majority. However, blind to

you, you actually may be communicating this information via body language, in conflict with your

verbal message. On an even deeper level, you in an interaction with others may always put on a

smiling, happy face, hiding all negative feelings. By withholding negative feelings, you may be

signaling to your friends to withhold also, and keep their distance. Thus, your communication

style may seem bland or distant.

Application and Importance

A team which understands itself - that is, each person having a strong mutual understanding

with the team - is far more effective than a team which does not understand each other- that is,

whose members have large hidden, blind, and/or unknown areas.

Team members - and leaders - should always be striving to increase their open free areas, and

to reduce their blind, hidden and unknown areas.

A person represented by the Johari Window example below will not perform to their best

potential, and the team will fail to make full use of the team's potential and the person's potential

too. Effort should generally be made by the person to increase his/her open free area, by

disclosing information about his/her feelings, experience, views, motivation, etc, which will

reduce the size of the hidden area, and increase the open free area.

Seeking feedback about the blind area will reduce the blind area, and will increase the open free

area. Discovery through sensitive communications, active listening and experience, will reduce

the unknown area, transferring in part to the blind, hidden areas, depending on who knows what,

or better still if known by the person and others, to the open free area.

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BELBIN TEAM ROLE INVENTORY

About the instrument

The Belbin Team Inventory, also called the Belbin Self-Perception Inventory or the Belbin Team

Role Inventory, is a test used to gain insight into an individual's personality type. It was

developed by Dr. Meredith Belbin after studying teams at Henley Management College.

During a period of over nine years, Meredith Belbin and his team of researchers based at

Henley Management College, England, studied the behavior of managers from all over the

world. Managers taking part in the study were given a battery of psychometric tests and put into

teams of varying composition, while they were engaged in a complex management exercise.

Their different core personality traits, intellectual styles and behaviors were assessed during the

exercise. As time progressed different clusters of behavior were identified as underlying the

success of the teams. These were named "Team Roles".

Dr Meredith Belbin defines a Team Role as "Our tendency to behave, contribute and interrelate

with others in a particular way." Although the original research and most people's association

with the Team Role model relates to teams there is strong evidence to support the view that

these natural tendencies exist in workplace activities outside the formal team.

These are:

Action-oriented roles Shaper, Implementer, and Completer Finisher

People-oriented roles Co-coordinator, Team worker and Resource Investigator

Cerebral roles Plant, Monitor Evaluator and Specialist

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THE BELBIN TEAM ROLES

The Belbin Model is a robust and highly effective concept on teamwork that is the product of

many years of research. British psychologist Dr Meredith Belbin has worked to achieve a

coherent and accurate system that explains individual behavior and its influence on team

success. These behavioral patterns are called "Team Roles" and these nine roles cover the

types of individual behavior at work in a team.

Developed from observations of over 200 teams, Belbin’s Team Roles have become part of

standard assessment and HR practice. Belbin’s framework can be used both to predict the

performance of existing teams and to construct teams around desired outcomes. It also gives

valuable insights for teambuilding and conflict management.

Co-coordinator Resource Investigator Team Worker

Shaper Company Worker/ Implementer Completer finisher

Plant Monitor/Evaluator Specialist

Co-coordinator

Characteristics: The co-coordinator is a person-oriented leader.

This person trusts, accepting, dominant and is committed to

team goals and objectives. The co-coordinator is a positive

thinker who approves of goal attainment, struggle and effort in

others. The co-coordinator is someone tolerant enough always

to listen to others, but strong enough to reject their advice.

Weakness: The co-

coordinator may not stand

out in a team and usually

does not have a sharp

intellect.

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Shaper

Characteristics: The shaper is a task-focused leader who abounds

in nervous energy, who has a high motivation to achieve and for

whom winning is the name of the game. The shaper is committed

to achieving ends and will ‘shape’ others into achieving the aims

of the team.

Weakness: He or she will

challenge, argue or disagree

and will display aggression in

the pursuit of goal

achievement. Two or three

shapers in a group, according

to Belbin, can lead to conflict,

aggravation and in-fighting.

Resource Investigator

Characteristics: The resource investigator is the executive who is

never in his room, and if he is, he is on the telephone. The

resource investigator is someone who explores opportunities

and develops contacts. Resource investigators are good

negotiators who probe others for information and support and

pick up other’s ideas and develop them. They are characterized

by sociability and enthusiasm and are good at liaison work and

exploring resources outside the group.

Weakness: Weaknesses are

a tendency to lose interest

after initial fascination with an

idea, and they are not usually

the source of original ideas.

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Plant

Characteristics: The plant is a specialist idea maker characterized

by high IQ and introversion while also being dominant and original.

The plant tends to take radical approaches to team functioning and

problems. Plants are more concerned with major issues than with

details.

Weakness: Weaknesses are a

tendency to disregard practical

details and

argumentativeness.

Company worker/ implementer

Characteristics: Implementers are aware of external

obligations and are disciplined, conscientious and have a

good self-image. They tend to be tough-minded and practical,

trusting and tolerant, respecting established traditions. They

are characterized by low anxiety and tend to work for the team

in a practical, realistic way. Implementers figure prominently in

positions of responsibility in larger organizations. They tend to

do the jobs that others do not want to do and do them well: for

example, disciplining employees.

Weakness: Implementers

are conservative, inflexible

and slow to respond to new

possibilities.

Specialist

Characteristics:The specialist provides knowledge and

technical skills which are in rare supply within the team. They

are often highly introverted and anxious and tend to be self-

starting, dedicated and committed.

Weakness: Their

weaknesses are single-

mindedness and a lack of

interest in other peoples’

subjects

Monitor evaluator

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Characteristics: According to the model, this is a judicious,

prudent, intelligent person with a low need to achieve. Monitor

evaluators contribute particularly at times of crucial decision

making because they are capable of evaluating competing

proposals. The monitor evaluator is not deflected by emotional

arguments, is serious minded, tends to be slow in coming to a

decision because of a need to think things over and takes pride

in never being wrong.

Weakness: Weaknesses are

that they may appear dry

and boring or even over-

critical. They are not good at

inspiring others. Those in

high level appointments are

often monitor evaluators.

Team worker

Characteristics: Team workers make helpful interventions to

avert potential friction and enable difficult characters within the

team to use their skills to positive ends. They tend to keep

team spirit up and allow other members to contribute

effectively. Their diplomatic skills together with their sense of

humor are assets to a team. They tend to have skills in

listening, coping with awkward people and to be sociable.

Sensitive and people oriented.

Weakness: They tend to be

indecisive in moments of

crisis and reluctant to do

things that might hurt others.

Completer finishers

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Characteristics: The completer finisher dots the it’s and crosses

the t’s. He or she gives attention to detail, aims to complete and

to do so thoroughly. They make steady effort and are

consistent in their work. They are not so interested in the

glamour of spectacular success.

Weakness: Weaknesses,

according to Belbin, are that

they tend to be over anxious

and have difficulty letting go

and delegating work.

Balanced teams

Teams work best when there is a balance of primary roles and when team members know

their roles, work to their strengths and actively manage weaknesses.

To achieve the best balance, there should be:

One Co-coordinator or Shaper (not both) for leader

A Plant to stimulate ideas

A Monitor/evaluator to maintain honesty and clarity

One or more Implementer, Team worker, Resource investigator or Completer/finisher to

make things happen

Why use team role profiles

Individual Belbin profiles can offer tremendous insight into individual and team operating

methods.

An inventory of Team Role skills, strengths and allowable weaknesses can be used to add value

to everything from a stand-alone experiential simulation to the composition of management and

project teams.

Each individual invariably brings different skills and behaviors to a team. The Belbin Model offers

us a unique and highly effective way to blend these elements to build the perfect team. In

Belbin's words "Nobody is perfect - but a team can be". By using the Belbin profiles people can

better understand teams and the contributions of the individuals around them.

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Practical Implications

Based on Belbin's model of 9 team roles, managers or organizations building working teams

would be advised to ensure that each of the roles can be performed by a team member. Some

roles are compatible and can be more easily fulfilled by the same person; some are less

compatible and are likely to be done well by people with different behavioral clusters. This

means that a team need not be as many as 9 people, but perhaps should be at least 3 or 4.

Aptitude and Ability Tests

Aptitude and ability tests are designed to assess ones logical reasoning or thinking performance.

They consist of multiple choice questions and are administered under exam conditions. They are

strictly timed and a typical test might allow 30 minutes for 30 or so questions.

There are at least 5000 aptitude and ability tests on the market the most common ones can be classified

as follows:

Multiple choice

question

Exam conditions

Strictly timed

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Aptitude and ability test

Verbal Ability Tests - Includes spelling, grammar, and ability to understand analogies and

follow detailed written instructions.

Numeric Ability Tests - Includes basic arithmetic, number sequences and simple mathematics.

In more complex numerical critical reasoning questions, blocks of information are provided that

require interpretation.

Abstract Reasoning Tests - Measures ones ability to identify the underlying logic of a pattern

and then determine the solution. They are deliberately designed so that the visual problem-

solving strategy will work better than any other approach.

Spatial Ability Tests - Measures ones ability to manipulate shapes in two dimensions or to

visualize three-dimensional objects presented as two-dimensional pictures.

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Mechanical Aptitude Tests - Designed to assess ones knowledge of physical and mechanical

principles.

Data Checking Tests - Measure how quickly and accurately errors can be detected in data and

is used to select candidates for clerical and data input jobs.

Work Sample Tests - Involves a sample of the work that one will be expected do. These types

of test can be very broad ranging. They may involve exercises using a word processor or

spreadsheet if the job is administrative or they may include giving a presentation or in-tray

exercises if the job is management or supervisory level.

Question Types and Scoring

One may be asked to answer the questions either on paper or using a PCor palm-top, as online

testing is becoming increasingly popular. The advantage of online testing is that once the test is

completed, an analysis of the results can be calculated straight away.

This means that the organization can continue with the selection process with the results 'in

hand' rather than keep one waiting or send one home and call one back in at a later date.

Another advantage is that one can take the test at a recruitment agency or even in ones own

home. Online testing is particularly suitable for initial screening as it is very cost-effective. Some

of the advantages of online testing are:

• . Increased cost-savings - no printed material is needed.

• . Increased security - test data can be easily encrypted.

• . Increased speed - scoring and interpretation are done immediately.

• . Increased standardization - question presentation is uniform.

Whichever type of test one is given; the questions are almost always presented in multiple-

choice format and have definite correct and incorrect answers. As one proceed through the test,

the questions may become more difficult and one will usually find that there are more questions

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than one can comfortably complete in the time allowed. Very few people manage to finish these

tests and the object is simply to give as many correct answers as one can.

Ideally, ones score should then be compared with the results of a control group, which has taken

the tests in the past. This control group could consist of other graduates, current job holders or a

sample of the population as a whole. Ones reasoning skills can then be assessed in relation to

this control group and judgments made about ones ability. This does happen sometimes. Often

however, ones score is simply compared to the other candidates. After all, the control group is

not applying for the job.

Speed and Power Tests

The types of question one can expect will depend on which aptitudes and abilities that are

needed in the job one are applying for. Aptitude and ability tests are classified as maximum

performance tests as they test what one can achieve when one are making maximum effort.

There are two different styles of maximum performance test; speed tests and power tests.

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Aptitude and ability

test

Power test

Speed test

In a speed test, the scope of the questions is limited and the methods one need to use to

answer them clear. Taken individually, the questions appear relatively straightforward.

Speed test are concerned with how many questions one can answer correctly in the allotted

time.

Server January February March

units value units value units value

ZXC43 32 480 40 600 48 720

ZXC53 45 585 45 585 45 585

ZXC63 12 240 14 280 18 340

For example:

Q. 139 + 235 =

A) 372 B) 374 C) 376 D) 437

A power test on the other hand will present a smaller number of more complex questions. The

methods one need to use to answer these questions are not obvious, and working out how to

answer the question is the difficult part. Once one have determined this, arriving at the correct

answer is usually relatively straightforward.

For example:

Below are the sales figures for 3 different types of network server over 3 months.

Q. In which month was the sales value highest?

A) January B) February C) March

Q. What is the unit cost of server type ZXC53?

A) 12 B) 13 C) 14

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In summary, speed tests contain more items than power tests although they have the same

approximate time limit. Speed tests tend to be used in selection at the administrative and clerical

level. Power tests tend to be used at the graduate, professional or managerial level. Although,

this is not always the case, as speed tests do give an accurate indication of performance in

power tests. In other words, if one does well in speed tests then one will do well in power tests.

Verbal Ability Tests

These tests usually involve grammar, analogies, and following detailed written instructions. They

can also include spelling, sentence completion and comprehension. Because they depend on

understanding the precise meaning of words, idioms and the structure of the language they

discriminate very heavily towards native speakers of the language in which the test has been

developed. If one speaks English as a second language, even if this is at a high standard, one

will be significantly disadvantaged.

One will usually find questions on all of the following:

Spelling

• Grammar

• Sentence Completion

• Analogies

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• Word Groups

• Instructions

• Critical Reasoning

• Verbal Deductions

These tests are widely used since most jobs require one either to understand and make

decisions based on verbal or written information or to pass this type of information to others. In

practice, the more straightforward types of question (spelling, grammar and instructions) tend to

be more applicable to administrative roles and the reasoning and deduction type of questions to

management roles.

Spelling Questions

Questions where one has to identify incorrectly spelt words are common in all levels of verbal

ability tests. The test designer needs to choose words which are fairly common and in regular

usage but which are often spelt incorrectly. There would be little point in using obscure words

which only a small percentage of candidates could be expected to know. This means that one

will almost certainly have heard of the word and know its meaning. This requirement to use

words which are in everyday use but which are commonly miss-spelt means that the test

designer has a relatively restricted list of words to choose from. This makes improving ones

performance on these spelling questions relatively straightforward.

Example Questions

Which of the following words are incorrectly spelt?

A) separate B) ordnance C) obviously D) sucess E) none of these

2. Choose the pair of words that best completes the sentence

The --------of the timetable caused some __n _

A) rivision B) revision C) revission D) revition

A) inconvenience B) inconvenince C) inconveneince D)inconveniance

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3. The following list of 20 words contains 10 that are incorrectly spelt. Write the letter

That corresponds to each incorrectly spelt word in the answer box

A) occurence I) dispair Q) independent

B) dissipate J) irritable R) insistant

C) weird K) accidently 5) excede

0) accommodate L) liaison T) privilege

E) embarrassment M) memento Answers

F) ecstacy N) millenium 1. 0

C) repetition 0) yield 2. B 0

H) batallion P) existance 3. A E F H I K N P R 5

In most cases the longer that one have been out of the education system the more ones spelling

will have deteriorated. Most people now use word processors with inbuilt spellchecking software

and it is very easy to forget how words are spelt as we don't physically write them down and

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often rely on the software to correct them for us. Many people find it quite embarrassing when

they realize how much their spelling has deteriorated – this is one area where remedial action is

straightforward and is guaranteed to produce positive results.

Missing Word Questions

These questions are designed to measure ones vocabulary, specifically ones understanding of

precise word meanings. One will usually be offered a choice of four or five words, any of which

could complete the sentence.

Example Questions

4. Which of these words completes the sentence in the way that makes most sense?

A spirit-level should be used to ensure that the surface is n _

A) straight B) flat C) horizontal D) parallel E)aligned

5. Which of these words completes the sentence in the way that makes most sense?

He avoided m because he was m _

A) redundency B) indispensable C) redundancy D) indispensible

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6. Which of these words completes the sentence in the way that makes most sense?

The plan must be m to make the project mm

A) feasible B) revised C) rivised D) feasible

Answers 4. C 5. C B 6. B A

These questions are relatively straightforward but because more than one of the options will

complete the sentence satisfactorily one must read it carefully and choose the best word. Note

also that some of these questions are testing one spelling ability and some are testing one

understanding of precise word meanings.

Related Word Questions

To answer these questions one need to understanding of precise meaning of the words in the

question and establish what exactly the relationship is between them. One should then look at

the answer options and decide which one is the most appropriate.

These questions test one reasoning ability as well as one vocabulary.

Example Questions

7. Which of these is the missing word? kick, m __ mm, walk

A) throw B) toes C) shin D) feet E)hand

8. Which of these is the missing word? key, n n_m, walk

A) lock B) stand C) board D) fob E)stone

9. Which of these is the missing word? water, m __ m , over

A) ice B) drive C) wet D) flow E)fall

Answers

7. D - Feet are used for both kicking 9and walking.

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8. C - Board forms the words 'keyboard' and 'boardwalk'

. E- Fall forms 'waterfall' and 'fall over'

There will usually be more than one possible answer, so it is important to read the question

carefully and pick the best option.

Synonym and Antonym Questions

These are words which have either the same or opposite meanings. Once again, these

questions test ones vocabulary - one need to know the precise meaning of the words given in

order to select the appropriate synonym (same meaning) or antonym (opposite meaning).

Example Questions

10. Which of two of these words are opposite in meaning?

A) lose B)winner C) victor D) loser E)vanquish

11. Which of these words is the odd one out?

A) swindle B) harass C) provoke D) annoy E) pester

12. Which of these words is the odd one out?

A) verify B) authenticate C) confirm D) ask E) substantiate

Answers

10. BD - are exact opposites.

11. A - The others are synonyms

12. D - The others are synonyms

Word Pair Questions

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These questions take the form A is to Bas X is to Y. Firstly, one need to establish the

relationship between the 'A is to B' words before one can arrive at the answer. One may find it

helpful to mentally express the relationship before one look at the answer options. This can short

circuit the process of considering and rejecting each option because one know in advance

exactly what one are looking for.

Example Questions

13. Dog is to canine as wolf is to umuu

A) vulpine B) ursine C) piscine D) bovine E) lupine

14. Sadness is to happiness as defeat is to mum_

A) joy B)victory C) tears D) victor E)none of these

15. Paper is to timber as mm is to hide

A) tree B) seek C) ox D) animal E) leather

Answers

13. E- lupine means 'relating to the characteristics of wolves'

14. B- The word pairs are opposites

15. E- Paper is made from timber, leather is made from hide

Comprehension Questions

These questions consist of a short passage and some related questions. They will often be

about a topic which is unfamiliar to one, but this is an advantage rather than a disadvantage

because one need to answer the questions based only on the information that one are given -

not using any knowledge that YOI,I already have. Most people find that the best way to tackle

these questions is to scan the text fairly quickly to get the general idea and then to attempt each

question in turn, referring back to the appropriate part of the text.

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Example Question16. Read the following short passage and say whether or not the statements are true. There are

seven species of deer living wild in Britain. The Red Deer and the Roe Deer are native species.

Fallow Deer were introduced by the Romans and, since the seventeenth century, have been

joined by three other non-native species: Sika, Muntjac and Chinese Water Deer which have

escaped from parks. In addition, a herd of Reindeer was established in Scotland in 1952. Most

of the Red Deer in Britain are found in Scotland, but there are significant wild populations in

south-west and northwest England, East Anglia and the north Midlands. Red deer can

interbreed with the introduced Japanese Sika deer and in some areas, hybrids are common.

16a. All of the Red Deer in Britain are found in Scotland.

A) true B)false C) can't say

16b. Red Deer can interbreed with Fallow Deer.

A) true B) false C) can't say

16c. The Fallow Deer is not native to Britain.

A) true B)false C) can't say

16d. There are no Reindeer in England.

A) true B)false C) can't say

Answers

16a. B

16b.C*

16c. A

16d.C

*Note that one must answer the questions using only the information supplied. Red Deer cannot

interbreed with Fallow Deer but, because this is not stated in the text, one must answer 'can't

say' even if one know that the statement is technically false.

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Verbal Reasoning Questions

These questions are not concerned with measuring ones facility with English. They are designed

to test ones ability to take a series of facts expressed in words and to understand and

manipulate the information to solve a specific problem. These questions are usually restricted to

graduate and management level tests.

Example Question

17. Working together, Tom, Dick and Harry need 9 hours to paint a 400-metre long fence.

Working alone, Tom could complete the task in 18 hours. Dick can not work as fast and needs

36 hours to paint the fence by himself. If Tom and Dick take the day off, how long will it take

Harry to paint the fence by himself?

A) 9 B) 12 C) 18 D) 36

Answer

17. 0 - In 9 hours Tom would have painted half of the fence and Dick would have painted one

quarter of it. This leaves one quarter to be painted by Harry who must therefore work at the

same speed as Dick.

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SUMMARY

Verbal Ability

Verbal ability tests can be divided into tests of simple verbal ability, for example; spelling,

grammar, synonyms and antonyms etc. These tests usually consist of 30 to 40 questions which

need to be completed in 15 to 20 minutes. They are speed tests in that they don't require very

much reasoning ability. One either know the answer or one don't.

Verbal reasoning tests, on the other hand, are designed to measure ones problem solving

abilities. These questions may take the form of comprehension exercises, which are

straightforward (as long as one remember to read the relevant part of the text carefully) or more

complex statements where the best tactic is to make notes about what one can deduce from

each part of the text.

These tests usually consist of 10 to 15 questions, which need to be completed in 20 to 30

minutes and are designed to test one reasoning ability rather than one facility with the language.

Verbal Reasoning questions assess one ability to use words in a logical way. The questions

measure one understanding of vocabulary, class membership and the relationships between

words. Some questions measure ones ability to perceive and understand concepts and ideas

expressed verbally. While these questions are designed to measure reasoning ability rather than

educational achievement, it is generally recognized that one verbal reasoning test score will be

influenced by one educational and cultural background.

Numerical Ability Tests

The first type of numerical ability test covers basic arithmetic (addition, subtraction multiplication

and division), number sequences and simple mathematics (percentages, powers, fractions, etc).

This type of test can be categorized as a speed test and is used to determine one basic

numeric. Obviously one will not be allowed to use a calculator.

Arithmetic Questions

1. 139 + 235 =

A) 372 B) 374 C) 376 D) 437

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2.139 - 235 =

A) -69 B) 96 C) 98 D) -96

3.5 x 16 =

A) 80 B) 86 C) 88 D) 78

4.45/9=

A) 4.5 B) 4 C) 5 D) 6

5. 15% of 300 =

A) 20 B) 45 C) 40 D) 35 D) 35

Answersl. B

2.0

3. A

4. C

5. B

These questions are directly applicable to many administrative and clerical jobs but can also

appear as a component of graduate and managerial tests. The speed at which one can answer

these questions is the critical measure, as most people could achieve a high score given

unlimited time in which to answer. One can therefore expect 25-35questions in 20-30 minutes.

Number Sequences

These questions require one to find the missing number in a sequence of numbers. This missing

number may be at the beginning or middle but is usually at the end.

7. Find the next number in the series 4 8 16 32 --

8. Find the next number in the series 4 8 12 20 --

9. Find the missing number in the series 54 49 -- 39 34

10. Find the first number in the series-- 1923 29 31-

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A) 48 B) 64 C) 40 D) 46

A) 32 B) 34 C) 36 D) 38

A) 47 B) 44 C) 45 D) 46

A) 12 B) 15 C) 16 D) 17

These number sequences can be quite simple like the examples above. However, one will often

see more complex questions where it is the interval between the numbers that is the key to the

sequence.

11. Find the next number in the series 3 6 11 18 n A) 30 B) 22 C) 27 D) 29

12. Find the next number in the series 4 8 46 42 38 -- A) 32 B) 30 C) 33 D) 34

These simple number sequences usually consist of four visible numbers plus one missing

number. This is because the test designer needs to produce a sequence into which only one

number will fit. The need to avoid any ambiguity means that if the number sequence relies on a

more complex pattern then there will need to be more visible numbers. For example;

13. Find the missing number in the series 4 3 5 9 12 17 -- A) 32 B) 30 C) 24

14. Find the missing numbers in the series 5 6 7 8 10 11 14 -- -- A) 19 B) 17

15. Find the missing numbers in the series 1 -- 4 7 7 8 10 9 -- A) 6 B) 3 C) 11

Answers

7. B - The numbers double each time

8. A - Each number is the sum of the previous two numbers

9. B - The numbers decrease by 5 each time

10. 0 - The numbers are primes (divisible only by 1 and themselves)

11. C - The interval, beginning with 3, increases by 2 each time

12. B - The interval, beginning with 2, doubles and is subtracted each time

13. 0 - Each number is the sum of the previous and the number 3 places to the left

14. C A - There are 2 simple interleaved sequences 5, 7,10,14,19 and 6, 8, 11

15. AD - There are 2 simple interleaved sequences J, 4, 7, 10, 13 and 6,7,8,9

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To solve these number sequence questions efficiently, one should first check the relationship

between the numbers themselves looking for some simple arithmetic relationship. Then look at

the intervals between the numbers and see if there is a relationship there. If not, and particularly

if there are more than 4 numbers visible, then there may be two number sequences interleaved.

One will occasionally find multiplication, division, or powers used in these sequences, but test

designers tend to avoid them as these operations soon lead to large numbers which are difficult

to work out without a calculator.

Letters of the Alphabet as Numbers

Another type of sequence question, which appears in these tests, involves the substitution of

letters of the alphabet for numbers. For example A=1, B=2 etc. It may seem strange to consider

these as numerical reasoning questions but they actually work in the same way once one have

changed them back into numbers.

16. Find the next letter in the series B EH K –

A) L B)M C) N D) 0

17. Find the next letter in the series A Z BY –

A) C B)X C) D D) Y

18. Find the next letter in the series T V X Z –

A) Y B) B C) A D)W

Answers

16. C - There are two letters missing between each one, so N is next 17. A - There are 2

interleaved sequences A, B, C and Z, Y, so C is next 18. B - Miss a letter each time and 'loop'

back, so B is next because arithmetic operations cannot be performed on letters there is less

room for ambiguity in these questions. This means that interleaved sequences can be used with

fewer visible letters than in questions that use numbers.

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Question 17 for example can use 2 interleaved sequences even though only four letters are

visible. This would be very difficult to achieve with numbers. It· is implicit in these 'alphabetic

sequence' questions that the sequence 'loops' back around and starts again.

See question 18. It is important to recognize this as it is not usually stated explicitly one are just

expected to know it.

If one sees more than one of these questions in a test then it is almost certainly worth taking the

time to write out the letters of the alphabet with their ordinal numbers underneath. One can then

treat these questions in a similar way to number sequence questions. This can save a lot of time

overall and avoids simple mistakes.

ABC D £ F G HI) K L M N 0 P Q R 5 T V V VI:Z Y Z

1 2 3 .4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Numerical Critical Reasoning

Information is provided that requires one to interpret it and then apply the appropriate logic to

answer the questions. Sometimes the questions are designed to approximate the type of

reasoning required in the workplace. The questions will often use very specific illustrations, for

example the question may present financial data or use information technology jargon. However,

an understanding of these areas is not required to answer the question.

19. Below are the sales figures for 3 different types of network server over 3 months.

19a. in which month was the sales value highest? January B) February C) March

19b. What is the unit cost of server type ZXC53

A)12 B) 13 C) 14

19c. how many ZXC43 units could be expected to sell in April?

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A)56 B) 58 C) 60

19d. Which server had its unit price changed in Mar.ch

A)ZXCA43 B)ZXC53 C) ZXC63

DATA ANANLYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

After the collection of primary data relating to the use of psychometric tools by human resource

personnel in various organizations, the data so collected was analyzed and interpretations were

drawn.

Q.No.-1) Are you aware of the use of psychometric tools / tests for various HR functions, by HR personnel all over the world?

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Analysis:

The graph clearly shows that the Human Resource professionals of all the organizations that

were surveyed are aware of the use of various psychometric tools and tests that are being used

by HR professional in organizations all over the world. This means that whether these

organizations are using these tests and tools or not, at least there is awareness about the

existence and use of such tests by human resource professional for various human resource

functions.

Q.No.2) Is your Organization using any psychometric test for any HR function?

Analysis:

The survey clearly indicates that only one fifth of the organizations are actually using

psychometric tools for some or the other human resource functions. Our previous graph

indicates an absolute awareness about these tools still only 20% of the organizations are putting

to use these psychometric tests. Psychometric testing in India hence is a relatively unexplored

area of human resource.

On the basis of secondary data if we compare with the organizations in US or UK as many as

70-80 % of the top companies are using psychometric testing for various HR functions.

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Hence it may be concluded that the use of psychometric testing in India is in its nascent stage ie.

The human resource professionals in India have just started to use these psychometric tools.

Q.No.3) If no, do you plan to use any psychometric tool / test in future?

Analysis:

The HR professionals in the organizations which were not using any type of psychometric tools

were asked if they were planning to do so in near future. Only as much as one third of the

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respondent organizations said they might use these psychometric tools in near future. As much

as 60% of the respondents had no idea whether their organizations might be interested in using

these tests and tools. However there were 10% of the organizations that said a clear no to a

possibility of their future use. It was a BPO Genpact, the reason provided was “The number of

people being hired runs in thousands on a monthly basis. Cannot afford the time and cost

behind a psychometric tool.”

What is interesting here is that the organizations and the human resource personnel in only 10%

of the organizations have said a clear No to the use of psychometric tools. In the previous graph

we concluded that psychometric testing is in its nascent stage in India, in this graph hence we

may conclude that maybe the HR professionals in India have some reservations over using

these tools because they either do not have the knowledge of the benefits derived from the use

of these psychometric tools or are unsure of how well these tests will fare in India.

Since only one respondent out of the total sample has said a clear ‘No’, it can be said that

educating the HR professionals about the benefits derived from the use of these tools and tests

may push the use of psychometric testing in India further.

The reason may again be attributed to the fact that psychometric testing is a relatively new

concept in India and there are hardly any companies or bodies in India which are promoting the

use of these tests and tools and to whom the whole process of psychometric testing can be

outsourced.

Q.No.4) \If yes, which tool/s is/are being used by your organization?

The organizations and human resource professionals were found to be using various

psychometric tools like:

Belbin Team roles inventory,

MBTI and number of other tests

A large number of aptitude tests

Behavior tests

Personality tests

FIRO-B

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Q.No.5) For which HR function is your organization using these psychometric tests?

In the data collection exercise it was found that these psychometric tools and tests are being

used for a whole gamut of human resource functions. This included for human resource

processes like:

Recruitment and selection,

Training and development

Counseling,

Feedbacks,

Appraisals,

Behavior analysis,

Competency mapping

For building career paths of employees

Talent Development

Q.No.6) Is your organization satisfied with the result generated by using these tools/tests?

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Analysis:

Of the organizations that were surveyed and which were using psychometric tools it was asked if

they were satisfied with the use of these psychometric tools and tests. Almost two third of the

organizations surveyed said that they were satisfied with the results generated by these

psychometric tools and tests. And there were only 33% other organizations that were unsure of

the results generated by the use of these psychometric tests. An important point to note here is

that not even a single organization that is using these tools has shown any kind of

dissatisfaction. Hence there is a general level of satisfaction derived from the use of these

psychometric tools.

Q.No.7) /Do you plan to use any other psychometric tool/test in near future?

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Analysis:

The organizations that were already using these psychometric tests and tools were then

asked if they were planning to use any other type of psychometric tool or test. Here only

thirty three percent of the human resource professionals have said that they are open to

trying more psychometric tools and as much as 67% respondents have said that they are not

sure about it. Again no one has said no, hence it can be said that human resource

professionals in these organizations are open to trying a few more tools, they may have

some reservations though.

Q.No.8) At what level do you usually use these psychometric tests (managerial, supervisory etc.)

Analysis:

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The graph clearly indicates that the organizations that are using psychometric tools and tests

for not just top level management but also are exploiting their use at lower levels as well. As

many as 67% of the organizations using these tests and tools said, that they use these tests

and tools at all levels of management for various human resource functions.

In one of our previous analysis we established the fact that psychometric testing is new to

India still here we can see that the organizations that are pioneering the use of these tests

are actually trying to use these test at various levels, this shows that the human resource

professionals are actually willing to explore new opportunities and their focus today is not just

the white collared professionals but also employees working lower down the corporate

ladder.

Q.No.9) /How do you ensure standardization and objectivity in your tests?

Standardization implies uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring the test. Eg. For

scores to be comparable, testing conditions must be same for all. Objectivity implies that the

administration scoring and interpretation of scores are objective insofar as they are independent

of the subjective judgment of the practical examiner.

An interesting fact found here was that the human resource professional in the organizations

using these tests did not point out any particular manner in which they ensure standardization

and objectivity in their tests. At best organizations are trying to be objective and trying to ensure

standardization by making the use of these psychometric tools a very common phenomenon. It

may be said that concentration is more on learning by trial and error method rather than trying to

find out actual ways in which issues like objectivity and standardization can be addressed.

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Q.No.10) Is your organization aware of the various ethical issues involved in the use of psychometric testing?

Analysis:

All the human resource professionals surveyed were asked whether they are aware of the

various ethical and social issues involved in the use of psychometric testing.

It is interesting to know that even though only 25% of the organizations surveyed are actually

using these test still as many as 75% of the human resources professionals in all the

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organization surveyed are aware of the various ethical issues involved in the use of

psychometric tools and tests. This shows the level of interest these psychometric tools have

generated in the minds of human resource professionals and also that human resource

professionals in India are aware of the latest trends in human resource field of study.

Q.No.12) Do you have qualified professionals for administering and generating results from these tools or you have outsourced the process?

Analysis:

The organizations that are using psychometric tests and tools were then asked whether they

have in-house expertise to use and generate the results from these tools and test or have they

outsourced the whole process.

The graph clearly shows that only one third of the organizations have outsourced the whole

process. It is interesting to know that two third of the organizations using these tools actually

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have in-house professionals to administer and use these tests for various human resource

functions. This shows the level of interest of these organizations in the usr of psychometric tools.

FINDINGS

All the data that was gathered from various human resource professionals was then analyzed

and interpretations were made. On the basis of these interpretations the following broad

conclusions were drawn about the use of psychometric tools by the organizations:

It was found that there is an enormous amount of awareness in the human resource

professionals about the presence and use of psychometric tests and tools by the

organizations all over the world for various human resource processes.

The survey clearly indicated that approximately only one fourth of the organizations in

India are actually using psychometric tools for some or the other human resource

functions as against 70-80 % organizations in US and UK. it was hence safely concluded

that psychometric testing in India is in its nascent stage ie. The human resource

professionals in India have just started to use these psychometric tools.

Only one of the organizations that were surveyed and which were not using any

psychometric tools clearly denied using these psychometric tools and tests in future. It

was hence concluded that the HR professional in India just have some reservations in

using these tools and tests because they either do not have the knowledge of the benefits

derived from the use of these psychometric tools or are unsure of how well these tests will

fare in India. It can be said that educating the HR professionals about the benefits derived

from the use of these tools and tests may push the use of psychometric testing in India

further.

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It was also found that as many as half the organizations that were surveyed and were

found to be using these tools and tests are satisfied with the use of these psychometric

tests. And are also planning to explore and exploit more psychometric tools in the best

interest of the organizations they are working for.

The Survey results clearly indicate that the organizations are using psychometric tools

and tests for not just top level management but are using these tools and tests at lower

levels as well. As many as 75% of the organizations using these tests and tools said, that

they are using them at all levels of management for various human resource functions.

CONCLUSION

Keeping in mind the interpretations drawn from the survey and the findings there from, it is

concluded that use of psychometric tools by human resource professionals in India is a relatively

new phenomenon as compared to the countries in the west like US & UK.

However what is interesting is that there is an absolute awareness among human resource

professionals in India regarding the fact that these psychometric tools and tests can be and are

being used by human resource professionals all over the world. In fact here is a lot of awareness

about the ethical issues involved in the use of these psychometric tools and tests as well.

Hence it maybe concluded that the human resource professionals in India do have the

theoretical knowledge about these tools and test but are either not enough enterprising in

exploring new field of study in HR or else they have reservations over using these tools and

tests because they are unsure of the practical implications and benefits of these tests.

It is also important to mention here that there are few organizations that are using these

psychometric tools and tests and are extremely satisfied with the result generated and are not

only ready and willing to explore more psychometric tools but are actually using these tests and

tools at not just the top managerial level but also at lower levels down the corporate hierarchy.

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Use of psychometric tests in India hence remains an unexplored area of human resource

however it must also be kept in mind that the human resource professionals are willing to use

these test in future. It is hence the responsibility of human resource academicians to explore this

area of HR and gain some expertise on use of these tests in order to further promote the use of

psychometric testing in India.

RECOMMENDATIONS

On the basis of my research I would like to recommend to the human resource personnel in

India that they must be more enterprising in exploring the untouched and upcoming areas of

human resources. Psychometric testing in India for example is a relatively new phenomenon.

The human resource professionals must keep in constant touch with the latest trends and fads

in the human resource field of study. These professionals must also understand that in today’s

scenario; just having the theoretical knowledge is useless if you cannot put that knowledge to

practical use.

Apart from this it would be extremely beneficial for the human resource fraternity in India on the

whole, if the organizations and HR professionals that are actually using psychometric tests and

tools must come forward to share their views and experiences with other organizations which

may not be that strong financially to experiment with such things. Human resource personnel

working in foreign multinational companies must specially participate in activities that can

introduce new tools and techniques to their fellow human resource professionals.

More corporate level seminars and workshops must be organized where human resource

professionals from various organizations can forward to share their views, experiences and

knowledge. This would be beneficial for everyone on the whole. In fact it is about time when

human resource professionals in India form a national level forum that can conduct such

seminars and workshops to take human resource in India to higher levels.

As said by a great speaker “ In 21st century those who can read and write shall not be illiterate

but it would be those who cannot learn, unlearn and relearn” keeping this in mind I would just

like to recommend to the human resource fraternity to be more enterprising and look forward to

out of the box thinking .

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LIMITATIONS

A sincere attempt has been made to keep the project away from any kind of

redundancies, biases or errors, yet the readers may find certain l imitation in the

project, which may be because of one or more of the fol lowing reasons:

The validity and correctness of information relating the various tests and

tools are subject to the data gathered from various websites on the internet.

The sample size for the survey is only 12 this. This is because only one HR

person per organizations could be used to represent their respective

organizations and human resource departments fi l l the questionnaire.

The validity of data is subject to the views expressed by the respondents

working as human resource professionals in various organizations.

The number of psychometric tools included in this project is only inclusive

and not exhaustive because it is practically impossible to include all the

psychometric tools from the toolkit of HR

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REFERENCES  BOOKS 

Anastasi Anne, Urbina Susana

Psychological Testing,

Pearson Education, 2003.

Mcshane S, Glinow A M, Sharma R,

Introduction to Organization Behavior,

Tata McGraw Hills, 2006.

E-Books

D.Constantine-Simms,

Everything you need to know to pass psychometric tests.

Magazines

HRM Review February 2007

Search EnginesGoogle

Websites

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http://www.teamfocus.co.uk/different_types_of_psychometric_tests.htm

http://changingminds.org/disciplines/hr/selection/psychometric.htm

http://www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.html

http://en.wikipedia.org

www.humanmetrics.com

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