8 Class NCERT History Summary Notes

This is a Public Notes, Anyone can

Circulate, No restrictions, Images Used

in This PDF are Reserved to their

owners, and Cover Page by Template

Lab

- UPSC IAS

8th Class NCERT History Summary Notes

www.ourstudycircle.in/upscpdf/

http://www.ourstudycircle.in/upscpdf/

UPSC IAS

This is a public Document, Notes from Different Sources

A Free Way to BECOME IAS

An Initiative by OUR STUDY CIRCLE

Join Telegram Channel For More: @upsc_iassquad

Visit: ourstudycircle.in/upscpdf/ | UPSC IAS – OUR STUDY CIRCLE

UPSC IAS

2

Chapter 01 – How, When and Where

How important are dates: (i) History is synonymous with dates. (ii) We compare the past with present. (iii) We continue to associate history with a string of dates.

Which Dates: (i) Selection of date depends on the story of past. (ii) Focusing on a particular set of events is important.

How do we Periodise: (i) James Mill divided the Indian history into three periods: Hindu, Muslim and

British. (ii) British rule represented all the forces of progress and civilization.

What is colonial: (i) Colonial refers to the British rule. (ii) British rule brought about changes in values and tastes, customs and practices.

How do we know Administration: (i) One important source is the official records of the British administration. (ii) The British felt all important documents and letters needed to be preserved. (iii) Specialized institutions like archieves and museums were established to

preserve important records. Surveys become important:

(i) The practice of surveying became commone under colonial administration.’ (ii) Surveys like botanical zoological, archaeological, anthropological and forest

survesys were in the list of British administration. What do Official Records not Tell:

(i) The official records do not tell about the needs of people of India. (ii) Many official records hide the truth and only show one aspect of the event.

Chapter 02 – From Trade to Territory

Auranangzeb was the last powerful Mughal ruler.

East India Company comes East:

(i) In 1600 royal charter granted to East India Company granting the sole right

to trade with the East.

(ii) East India Company bought goods at a cheap price and sold them at higher

price in Europe.

(iii) Cotton and silk produced in India had a big market in Europe.

(iv) Pepper, cloves, cardamom and cinnamon were in great demand.

East India Company begins Trade in Bengal:

(i) In 1651, the first English factory was set up on the banks of river Hugli.

(ii) Aurangzeb issued a farman granting the company the right to trade duty free.

(iii) The company tried to press for more concessions and manipulate existing

https://telegram.me/upsc_iassquad


https://ourstudycircle.in/upscpdf/




UPSC IAS

3

privileges.

How did Trade Lead to Battles:

(i) After the death of Aurangzeb, the Bengal Nawabs asserted their power and autonomy.

(ii) The Nawabs of Bengal refused to grant the company concessions.

The Battle of Plassey:

(i) On 23rd June 1757, Battle of Plassey was fought and was the first major

victory of English in India.

(ii) Alivardi Khan died in 1756 and Sirajuddaulah became the Nawab of Bengal.

(iii) In 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against Sirajuddulah at Plassey.

(iv) Main reason for defeat of the Nawab was that the forces led by Mir Jafar,

one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, never fought the battle.

(v) Mir Jafar was promised by Clive to be made Nawab after crushing Sirajuddaulah.

The Battle of Buxar:

(i) After the defeat at Plassey, Sirajuddaulah was assassinated and Mir Jafar

was made the Nawab.

(ii) Mir Jafar was just a puppet in the hands of Britishers.

(iii) In 1764, the battle of Buxar was fought between Britishers and Mir Qasim.

(iv) In 1765 Mir Jafar died.

(v) In 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the company as the Diwan of the

provinces of Bengal.

Company Officals became ‘Nabobs’:

(i) In 1764, Robert Clive was appointed Governor of Bengal.

(ii) ‘Nabobs’-an anglicized version of the Indian word Nawab.

Company Rule Expands:

(i) The process of annexation of Indian states by the East India Company from

1757 to 1857 brought forth some key aspects like the company rarely

launched a direct military attack on as unknown territory.

(ii) After battle of Buxar, the company appointed residents in Indian states.

(iii) The company forced the states into a ‘subsidiary alliance’.

(iv) The Nawab of Awadh and the Nizam of Hyderabad were forced to cede

territories and accept the subsidiary alliances.

Tipu Sultan-‘The Tiger of Mysore’:

(i) Tipu Sultan was the son of Haidar Ali, ruler of Mysore.

(ii) Tipu Sultan ruled Mysore from 1782 to 1799.

(iii) Four wars were fought between Britishers and Mysore and were known as

the Anglo- Mysore wars(1767-1769, 1780-84, 1790-92 and 1799).

(iv) In 1799, the Britishers won the battle of Seringapatam against Mysore.







UPSC IAS

4

(v) Tipu Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam.

Chapter 03 – Ruling the Country Side

On 12 August 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal.

As Diwan, the company became the chief financial administrator of the territory under its control.

The company came to colonise the countryside, organize revenue resources, redefine the rights of people and produce the crops it wanted.

Revenue for the Company: (i) The company gad become the Diwan, but still saw itself primarily as a trader. (ii) Before 1865, the company purchased goods in India by importing gold and

silver from Britain. Now the revenue collected in Bengal could financial the purchase of goods for exports.

(iii) Bengal economy was facing a deep crisis. (iv) In 1770, a terrible famine killed ten million people in Bengal.

The Need to Improve Agriculture: (i) The company introduced Permanent Settlement in 1793. (ii) The Rajas and taluqdars were recognized as Zamindars.

The Problem: (i) Numerous zamindaris were sold off at auctions organized by the company, as

anyone who failed to pay the revenue lost his zamindari. (ii) The zamindars were not interested in the important in the improvement of

land. A New System is Devised:

(i) By the early nineteenth century many of the company officials were convinced that the system of revenue had to be changed again.

(ii) An Englishman, Holt Machenzie devised the new system which came into effect in 1822. This system was called as Mahalwari settlement.

The Munro System: (i) In the Britain territories in the south, a new system was devised which was

known as ryotwar or ryotwari. (ii) Ryotwari ws intiated by Captain Alexander Read and developed by Thomas

Munro. This system was extended all over south India. All was Not Well:

(i) As they desired to increase the income from land, revenue officials fixed too high a revenue demand.

(ii) As peasants were unable to pay, ryots filed the countryside, and villages became deserted in many regions.

Crops for Europe: (i) By the late eighteenth century the company was trying to expand the

cultivation of opium ad indigo. (ii) The Britishers forced cultivators to produce jute, tea, sugarcane, wheat,







UPSC IAS

5

cotton and rice in various parts of India. Does Colour have a History:

(i) The rich blue colour was commonly called as Indigoo.

(ii) The blue dye used in the Morris prints in nineteenth-century Britain was manufactured from Indigo plants cultivated in India.

(iii) India was the biggest supplier of indigo in the world in 19th century. Why the Demand for Indian Indigo:

(i) By the thirteenth century Indian Indigo was being used by cloth manufacturers in Italy, France and Britain to dye cloth.

(ii) Indigo produce a rich blue colour whereas the dye from woad another plant was pale and dull.

(iii) Indigo plantations came up in many parts of North America. Britain turns to India:

(i) The company in India expanded the area under the indigo cultivation to meet the rising demand for indigo in Europe.

(ii) As the indigo trade grew commercial agents and officials of the company began investing in indigo production.

How was Indigo Cultivated: (i) There were two main system of Indigo cultivation: Nij and Ryoti. (ii) In Nij system, the planter produced indigo in lands that he directly controlled.

The Problem with Nij Cultivation: (i) The planters found difficulty to expand the area under Nij cultivation. (ii) Nij cultivation on a large scale required many ploughs and bullocks, investing

on purchase and maintenance of ploughs was a big problem. The planters were reluctant to expand the area under Nij cultivation.

Indigo on the Land of Ryots: (i) In Ryoti system, the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract an agreement

(satta). (ii) Those who signed the contract got cash advances from planters at low rates

of interest to produce indigo. (iii) The peasants got very low price for the indigo they produced and the cycle

of loans never ended. (iv) After an indigo harvest the land could not be sown with rice which the

peasants preferred. The ‘Blue Rebellion’ and after:

(i) In March 1859 thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo. (ii) As the rebellion spread, ryots refused to pay rents to the planters and

attacked indigo factories. (iii) Ryots swore they would no longer take advances to sow indigo nor be

bullied by the planters’ lathiyals. (iv) The government set up the indigo commission to enquire into the system

of indigo production. (v) It declared that indigo cultivation was not profitable for ryots. Hence they

could refuse to produce indigo in future. (vi) Afte the revolt, indigo production collapsed in Bengal. The planters now







UPSC IAS

6

produce.

shifted their operations to Bihar.

Chapter 04 – Tribals, Dikus and The Vision of A Golden Age

In mid-1870s Birsa was born in a family of Mundas-a tribal group that lived in Chhotanagpur.

The tribes had customs and rituals that were very different from those laid down by Brahmas.

How did Tribal Groups Live: By the 19th century, tribal people in different parts of India were involved in a variety of activities.

Some were Jhum Cultivators: (i) Jhum cultivation that is shifting cultivation was done on small patches of land,

mostly in forests. (ii) The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight to reach ground, and

burnt the vegetation on the land to clear it for cultivation. (iii) Once the crop was ready and harvested they moved to another field and left

that field fallow for several years. Some were Hunters and Gatherers:

(i) In many reg ions tribal groups lived by hunting animals and gathering forest (ii) In Khonds were hunters and gatherers living in the forests of Orrisa. (iii) They used many forest shrubs and herbs for medicinal purpose, and sold

forest produce in the local markets. (iv) Baigas of central India reluctant to do work for other. (v) Tribal groups often needed to buy and sell in order to be able to get the goods

that were not produced within the locality. This led to their dependence on traders and moneylenders.

Some Herded Animals: (i) Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals and gathering

forest produce. (ii) They were pastoralists who moved with their herds of cattle or sheep

according to the seasons. (iii) The Van Gujjars of Punjab hills and Labadis of Andhra Pradesh were cattle

herders. The Gaddis of Kulu were shepherds and the Bakarwals of Kashmir reared goats.

Some took to Settled Cultivation (i) Instead of moving from one place to another. They began to use the plough and

gradually got rights over the land they lived on. (ii) British officials saw settled tribal groups like the Gonds and Santhals as more

civilized than hunter-gatherers or shifting cultivators.

How did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal Lives: The lives of tribal groups changed during British rule.

What Happened to Tribal Chiefs:







UPSC IAS

7

(i) Before the arrival of the British, tribal chiefs enjoyed economic power, and had the right to administer and control their territories.

(ii) Under British rule, the functions and powers of the tribal chiefs changed as they were allowed to keep their land titles but were forced to follow laws made by British officials in India.

What Happened to the Shifting Cultivators: (i) The British were uncomfortable with the shifting cultivators. (ii) The British wanted to regular revenue source for the state and introduced

land settlements. (iii) The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not vey successful. (iv) After facing widespread protests, the British had to allow them the right to

carry on shifting cultivation in some parts of the forest. Forests Laws and Their Impact:

(i) The life of tribal groups was directly connected to the forest. (ii) The British extended their control over all forests and declared them as

state property. (iii) Reserved forests were for producing timber which the British wanted. (iv) In reserved forests people were not allowed to move freely or practice

jhum cultivation. (v) Many tribal groups reacted against the colonial forest laws and rose in an

open rebellion. The Problem with Trade:

(i) During the 19th century, tribal groups found the traders and moneylenders were coming into forests and offering cash loans to the tribal people and asking them to work for wages.

(ii) Indian silk was in demand in European markets during the 18th century. (iii) The Santhals of Hazaribagh reared cocoons. The traders spent in their agaents

who gave loans to the tribal people and collected the cocoons. (iv) The coconuts were exported to Burdwan or Gaya where they were sold at five

times the price. The Search for Work:

(i) The plight of the tribals who had to go far away from their homes in search of work was even worse.

(ii) The tribals were recruited in large numbers to work for tea plantations and coal mines through contractors low wages, and prevented them from returning home.

A Closer Look: The tribal groups rebelled in different of the country against the changes in laws, restrictions on their practices, the new taxes they had to pay and exploitation by traders and moneylenders.

Birsa Munda: (i) A movement began under the leadership of Birsa Munda. (ii) The British officials were worried as the political aim of the Birsa movement

was to drive out missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu landlords and the government and set up a Munda Raj with Birsa at its head.

(iii) In 1895, Birsa Munda was arrested.







UPSC IAS

8

(iv) He was released in 1897 and he toured the villages to gather support. He urged people to destroy ‘Ravana’ (dikus and the European), and establish a kingdom under his leadership.

(v) In 1900 Birsa died of cholera and the movement faded out.

Chapter 05 – When People Rebel: 1857 and After

Policies and the People: The policies of the East India Company affected different

people like kings, queens, peasants, landlords, tribals and soldiers in different ways.

Nawabs Lose their Power:

(i) Since the mid-eighteenth century. Nawabs and rajas had seen their power

erode. They lost their authority and honour.

(ii) In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh. The company began to

plan to bring an end to the Mughal dynasty.

The Peasants and the Sepoys:

(i) In the countryside peasants and zamindars resented the high taxes and the

rigid methods of revenue collection.

(ii) The Indian sepoys in the employement of the company were unhappy about

their pay, allowances and conditions of service.

(iii) Moreover, some new rules violated their religious sensibilities and beliefs.

Responses to Reforms:

(i) The British believed that Indian society had to be reformed.

(ii) Laws were passed to stop the practice of Sati and to encourage the

remarriage of windows.

Through the Eyes of the People: The English were determined to wipe out the

religions of Hindu and the Muslims.

A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion:

(i) In May 1857, a massive rebellion started against the company’s very

presence in India.

(ii) Sepoys multinied in several places beginning from Meerut and a large

number of people from different sections of society rose up in rebellion.

From Meerut to Delhi:

(i) On 29 March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a yound soldier was hanged to death for

attacking his officers in Barrackpore.

(ii) The response of the other Indian soldiers in Meerut was quite

extraordinary, they marched to the jail to Meerut and released the imprisoned

sepoys.

(iii) The sepoys rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi.

(iv) The regiments stationed in Delhi also rose up in rebellion and many British

officers were killed, arms and ammunition seized, buildings set on fire.







UPSC IAS

9

(v) The soldiers forcibly met Bahadur Shah Zafar and proclaimed him as their leader.

The Rebellion Spreads:

(i) After the British were routed from Delhi there was no uprising for almost a

week. Then a spurt of mutinies began.

(ii) Regiment after Regiment mutinied and took off to join other troops at nodal

points like Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow.

(iii) In this rebel Nana Saheb of Kanpur, Birjis Qadr of Lucknow and his mother

Begum Hazrat Mahal, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi took as active part in

organizing the uprising against the British. Rani Avantibai Lodhi of Ramgarh

raised and led the army agains the British who had taken over the

administration of her state.

The company Fights Back:

(i) Unnerved by the scale of the upheaval, the company decided to repress the

revolt with all its might.

(ii) Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces in September 1857.

(iii) The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and

sentenced to life imprisonment. He along his wife was spent to prison in

Rangoon.

(iv) People continued to resist and battle the British. The British had to fight for

two years to suppress the massive forces of popular rebellion.

Aftermath:

(i) Some important changes were introduced by the British after they regained

control by the end of 1859. The British Parliament passed a new Act 1858 and

transferred the power of the East India Company to the British crown in order

to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs.

(ii) All ruling chiefs of the country were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their

heirs, including the adopted sons.

Chapter 06 – Colonialism and the City: The Story of an Imperial Capital

What Happened to Cities Under Colonial Rule:

(i) In most part of the Western world modern cities emerged with industrialization.

(ii) In the late 18th century, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras rose in importance

as Presidency cities.

(iii) De-urbanisation took place in many cities in 19th century and those cities

were Machipatnam, Surat and Seringapatam.

How many ‘Delhis’ before New Delhi:







UPSC IAS

10

(i) Delhi has been the capital for more than a 1,000 years, although with some gaps.

(ii) Shah Jahan built the most splendid capital of all, Shahjahanabad had begun in 1639.

(iii) During Shah Jahan’s time Delhi was an important centre of Sufi culture.

(iv) There were sharp divisions between the rich and the poor.

The Makign of New Delhi: In 1803, the British gained control of Delhi after

defeating the Marathas and the modern Delhi developed after 1911 when it became

the capital of British India.

Demolishing a Past:

(i) In Delhi especially in the first half of the 19th century, the British lived along

with the wealthier Indians in the Walled city.

(ii) The British learned to enjoy Urdu Persian culture and poetry and participated

in local festivals.

(iii) The British wanted Delhi to forget its Mughal past. The areas around the

Fort were completely cleared of gardens, pavilions and mosques.

(iv) In 1870s the Western walls of Shahjahanabad were broken to establish the

railway and to allow the city to expand beyond the walls.

Planning a New Capital:

(i) After the revolt of 1857, many spectacular events were held there. In 1877,

Viceroy Lytton organized a Durbar to acknowledge Queen Victoria as the

Empress of India.

(ii) In 1911, when King George V was crowned in England, a Durbar was held in

Delhi to celebrate the occasion and the decision was taken to shift the capital

of India from Calcutta to Delhi.

(iii) Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker-architects were called on to desing New

Delhi and its buildings

Life in the Time of Partition:

(i) The partition of India in 1947 led to a massive transfer of populations on both

sides of the new border.

(ii) Days after Indian Independence and partition, fierce rioting began.

(iii) Over two-thirds of the Delhi muslims migrated almost 44,000 homes were

abandoned.

(iv) Partitions changed the lives and occupations of new migrants.

(v) The large migration from Punjab changed the social milieu of Delhi.

Inside the Old City:

(i) The excellent system of water supply and drainage was neglected in the 19th

century. The system of wells also broke down and channels to remove

household waste were damaged.

(ii) At the end of 19th century the Shahjahani drains were closed; a new system of







UPSC IAS

11

open surface drains was introduced.

The Decline of Havelis:

(i) The Mughal aristocracy in the 17th and 18th centuries lived in grand

mansions called havelis.

(ii) Havelis had large walled compounds with mansions, courtyards and

fountains and many families housed in it.

(iii) Many of the Mughal amirs were unable to maintain these havelies under

the conditions of British. As a result havelis began to be subdivided and sold.

The Municipality:

(i) The census of 1931 revealed that the walled city area was crowded with as

many as 90 persons per acre, while New Delhi had only about three persons

per acre.

(ii) The poor conditions in the walled city, did not stop it from expanding.

(iii) In 1888 and extension scheme called the Lahore Gate improvement Scheme

was planned by Robert Clarke for the Walled city residents.

(iv) The Delhi Improvement Trust was set up in 1936, and it build areas like

Darya Ganj South for wealthy Indians.

Chapter 07 – Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners

The crafts and industries of India during British rule focused on two industries-

textiles and iron and steel.

The industrialization of Britain had a close connection with the conquest and

colonization of India.

With the growth of industrial production, British industrialists began to see India as a

vast market for their industrial products, and over the years, manufactured goods

from Britain began flooding India.

Indian Textiles and the World Market:

(i) Around 1750, India was the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles.

(ii) Indian textile was renowned both for its fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship.

(iii) From the 16th century European traders began buying Indian textiles for sale

in Europe.

Words tell us Histories:

(i) Indian textiles were famous in western markets under different western

markets under different names such as ‘Muslin’ and ‘Calico’ (derived from

Calicut).

(ii) Printed cotton cloths called chintz (derived from chhint) and bandanna

(derived from ‘bandhna’ or tie and dye) were the pieces ordered in bulk.







UPSC IAS

12

Indian Textiles in European Markets:

(i) In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation banning the use of

printed cotton textiles-chintz in England.

(ii) Indian designs were imitated and printed in England on white Muslin or

plain unbleached Indian cloth.

(iii) Spinning Jenny was invented by John Kaye in 1764.

(iv) The invention of the steam engine by Richard Arkwright in 1786

revolutionised cotton textile weaving.

Who were the Weavers:

(i) Weavers belonged to communities that specialized in weaving.

(ii) Handloom weaving and the occupations associated with it provided

livelihood for millions of Indians.

The Decline of Indian Textiles:

(i) The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile producers in

India in many ways.

(ii) By the beginning of the 19th century, English-made cotton textiles successfully

ousted Indian goods from their traditional markets in Africa, America and

Europe.

(iii) English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods.

(iv) By the 1830s British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets. Thousands of rural

women who made a living by spinning cotton thread were rendered jobless.

(v) During the National movement, Mahatma Gandhi urged people to boycott

imported textiles and use handspun and hand woven cloth, Khadi became a

symbol of nationalism.

Cotton Mills Come up:

(i) In 1854, the first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay.

(ii) By 1900, over 84 mills started operating in Bombay.

(iii) The first major spurt in the development of cotton factory production in India,

was during the first World War when textile imports from Britain declined

and Indian factories were called upon to produce cloth for military supplies.

The Sword of Tipu Sultan and Wootz Steel:

(i) The quality of the sword came from a special type of high carbon steel called

Wootz which was produced all over South India.

(ii) Indian Wootz steel making fascinated European scientists.

(iii) The Wootz steel making process which was widely known in South-India, was

completely lost by the mid-nineteenth century.

(iv) The swords and armour making industry died with the conquest of India by

the British and imports of iron and steel from England displaced the iron and

steel produced by craftpeople in India.







UPSC IAS

13

Abondoned Furnaces in Villages:

(i) Production of Wootz steel required a highly specialized technique of refining iron.

(ii) By the late 19th century the craft of iron smelting was in decline.

(iii) Many people gave up their craft and looked for other means of livelihood.

(iv) By the early 20th century, the artisans producing iron and steel faced a

new competitions.

Iron and Steel Factories:

(i) In 1904, Charles Weld, an American geologist and Dorabji Tata, the eldest

son of Jamsetji Tata set up a modern iron and steel plant in India.

(ii) The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) came up in 1912 and began producing steel.

(iii) After 2 years of TISCO, in 1914 the First World War broke out, so imports of

British Steel into India declined and the Indian Railways turned to TISCO for

supply of rails.

(iv) Overtime TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the British empire.

Chapter 08 – Civilising the ‘Native’ Educating the Nation

British rule affected Rajas and Nawabs, peasants and tribals.

British felt that they had a cultural mission, they had to ‘civilise the natives’,

change their customs and values.

How the British saw Education-The Tradition of Orientation:

(i) In 1783, William Jones a linguist, ws appointed as a junior judge at the

Supreme Court that the company had set up.

(ii) William Jones started studying ancient Indians texte on law, philosophy,

religion, politics, morality, arithmetic, medicine and other sciences.

(iii) Englishmen like Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed were busy

discovering the ancient Indian heritage, mastering Indian languages and

translating Sanskrit and Persian works into English.

(iv) A Madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic,

Persian and Islamic law.

(v) In 1791, the Hindu College was established in Benaras to encourage the study

of ancient Sanskrit texts that would be useful for the administration of the

country.

‘Grave Errors of the East’:

(i) In early 19th century many British officials began to criticize the Orientalist

version of learning.

(ii) James Mill was one of those who attacked the Orientalists.







UPSC IAS

14

(iii) According to him, the aim of education ought to be teach what was useful and

practical. So, Indians should be made familiar with the scientific and technical

advances that the West had made, rather than with the poetry and sacred

literature of the Orient.

(iv) Thomas Babington Macaulay, another critic of Orientalists, saw India as an

uncivilized country that needed to be civilized.

(v) Macaulay emphasized the need to teach the English language. Following

Macaulay’s minute, the English Education Act of 1835 was introduced.

(vi) A decision was taken to make English the medium of instruction for higher

education and to stop the promotion of Oriental institutions.

Education for Commerce:

(i) In 1854, Wood’s Despatch, an educational dispatch, was sent to India.

Outlining the educational policy that was to be followed in India. It

emphasized on the practical benefits of the system of European learning.

(ii) Wood’s Despatch argued that European learning would improve the moral

character of Indians and make them truthful and honest and thus supply the

company with civil servants who could be trusted and depended upon.

What happened to the Local Schools:

(i) In the 1830s William Adam, a Scottish missionary toured the district of Bengal

and Bihar and was given charge by the company. To give report on the

progress of education in vernacular schools.

(ii) Adam found that the system of education was flexible and local schools were

known as pathshalas.

(iii) There were no fixed fee, no printed books, no separate school building, no

benches or chairs, no blackboards, no system of separate classes, no roll-call

registers, no annual examinations and no regular time-table.

(iv) Teaching process was oral and the guru decided what to teach , in accordance

with the needs of the students.

New Routines, New Rules:

(i) After 1854 the company decided to improve the system of vernacular

education by introducing order within the system, imposing routines,

establishing rules, ensuring regular inspections.

(ii) Company appointed a number of government pundits each in charge of

looking after four to five schools.

(iii) Teaching was now to be based on textbooks and learning was to be tested

through a system of annual examination.

(iv) Those Pathshalas which accepted the new rules were supported through

government grants.

The Agenda for a National Education:







UPSC IAS

15

(i) Some Indians impressed with the development in Europe felt that western

education would help to modernize India.

(ii) Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore reacted against western education.

English Educaiton has enslaved us:

(i) English Education has enslaved us.

(ii) Mahatma Gandhi urged that colonial education create a sense of

inferiority in the minds of Indians. It was sinful and it enslaved Indians, it cast

an evil spell on them.

(iii) Mahatma Gandhi wanted an education that could help Indians to recover

their sense or dignity and self-respect.

(iv) According to Mahatma Gandhi, Indian languages ought to be medium of

teaching and the means to develop a person’s mind and soul.

Tagore’s ‘Abode of Peace’:

(i) Rabindranath Tagore stated Shantiniketan in 1901.

(ii) According to him, creative learning be encouraged only within a natural

environment and hence set up his school 100 kilometres away from Calcutta in

a rural setting.

(iii) He emphasized the need to teach Science and technology at Shantiniketan

along with art, music and dance.

Chapter 09 – Women, Caste and Reform

About two hundred years ago things were very difficult in our society. There were so many restrictions imposed on women.

Widows were praised and called ‘satis’ meaning ‘virtous’ if they chose to by burning themselves on the funeral pyres of their husbands.

People were also divided along lines of caste. Brahmins and Kshatriyas considered themselves in upper caste, after them traders and moneylenders referred to as Vaishyas and the lower caste were Shudras and included peasants, artisans, weavers and potter.

Working Towards Change: (i) In early 19th century things changed because of the development of new

forms of communication. (ii) Social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy founded Brahmo Samaj in Calcutta. (iii) He wanted to spread the knowledge of western education and bring about

freedom and equality for women. Changing the Lives of Widows:

(i) Raja Rammohan Roy began a campaign agains the practice of sati. Many British officials criticized Indian traditions and customs. They supported him and in 1829, sati was banned.

(ii) Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar was one of the most famous reformers who suggested widow remarriage. In 1856, British officials passed the law







UPSC IAS

16

permitting widow remarriage. (iii) Swami Dyanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in 1875, and also

supported widow marriage. Girls begin Going to School:

(i) Many reformers felt that to improve the condition of women, educating the girls was necessary.

(ii) Many reformers in Bombay and Vidyasagar in Calcutta set up schools for girls. (iii) In aristocratic Muslim families in North India, women learnt to read the Koran

in Arabic. They were taught by women who came home to teach. Women write about Women:

(i) Muslim women like Begums of Bhopal promoted education among women and founded a primary school for girls at Aligarh.

(ii) Begum Rockeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta.

(iii) Indian women began to enter universities by 1880s. Some of them trained to be doctors and teachers.

(iv) Pandita Ramabal was a great scholar of Sanskrit, wrote a book about the miserable lives of upper-class Hindu women.

(v) She founded a widows’ home at Poona to provide shelter to widows who had been trated by their husbands’ relatives.

(vi) Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose gave their support to demands for greater equality and freedom for women.

Caste dn Social Reform:

(i) Social reformers criticized caste inequalities. Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 in Bombay to work for the abolition of caste.

(ii) Christians missionaries began setting up schools for the tribal groups and ‘lower’- caste children.

Demands for Equality and Justice: (i) By the second half of the 19th century people from within the ‘lower’ castes

began organizing movements against caste discrimination and demanded social equality and justice.

(ii) The Satnami movement jin Central India was founded by Ghasidas who came from a low caste.

(iii) In eastern Bengal, Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect worked among low caste Chandala cultivators. Haridas questioned Brahmanical texts that supported the caste system.

Gulamgiri: (i) Jyotirao Phule born in 1827 was known as one of the ‘low-caste’ leaders. (ii) He attacked the Brahmans claim that they were superior to other, since they

are Aryans. (iii) According to Phule, the ‘upper’ caste had no right to their land and power,

the land belonged to indigenous people who were called as low castes. (iv) Phule proposed that Shudras and Ati Shudras should unite to challenge

caste discrimination. (v) The Satyashodhak Samaj was founded by Phule to propagate caste equality.







UPSC IAS

17

(vi) In 20th century, the movement for caste reform was continued by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker.

Who Could enter Temples: (i) Ambedkar was born into a Mahar family. As a child he experienced what

caste prejudice meant in everyday life. (ii) In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple entry movement. His aim was to make

everyone see the power of caste prejudices within the society. The Non-Brahman Movement:

(i) The Non-Brahman Movement in the early 20th century was initiated by non-Brahman castes that had acquired access to education wealth and influence. They challenged Brahmanical claims to power.

(ii) E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, known as Periyar was from middle-class family. (iii) Periyar founded the Self Respect Movement. (iv) He inspired the untouchables and asked them to free themselves from all

religions in order to achieve social equality. (v) Periyar was an outspoken critic of Hindu scriptures. (vi) The forceful speeches, writings and movements of lowe caste leaders led to

rethink and self-criticism among upper caste nationalist leaders.

Chapter 10 – The Changing World of Visual Arts

Colonial rule introduced several now art forms, styles, materials and techniques which were creatively adapted by Indian artists for local patrons and markets, in both elite and and popular circles.

The changes were seen primarily on paintings and print making. New Forms of Imperial Art:

(i) In 18th century a stream of European artists came to India along with the British traders and rulers.

(ii) The artists brought with them new styles and new conventions of paintings. They began producing pictures which helped shape western perceptions of India.

(iii) The main feature of the European painting was realism, i.e., whate the artists produced was expected to look real and lifelike.

(iv) Oil painting was also introduced in India by the European artists. It enabled artists to produce images that looked real.

(v) Paintings were based on varied subjects. However, the European artists’ common intention was to emphasise the superiority of Britain, its culture, its people and its power.

Looking for the Picturesque: (i) Picturesque landscape painting, that depicted India as quaint land, to be

explored by travelling British artists, was one of the popular imperial traditions.

(ii) The most famous artists of this tradition were Thomas Daniell and his nephew William Daniell.

(iii) They produced paintings of newly acquired British territories.







UPSC IAS

18

(iv) In some of the images they showed the British rule bringing moder civilization to India, in others images depicting buildings reminding the glory of past and decaying ancient civilization.

(v) One of the image shows the modernizing influence of British rule, by emphasizing a picture of dramatic change.

Portraits of Authority: (i) Portrait painting was another tradition of art that became popular in colonial

India. (ii) The rich and powerful people, both Indian and British, were very fond of

self portraits. (iii) In colonial India, portraits were life size images that looked lifelike and real. (iv) The art of making portraits is known as ‘portraiture’ that served as an ideal

means of displaying the lavish lifestyles, wealth and status generated by British in India.

(v) European artists like Johann Zoffany visited India in search of profitable commissions.

(vi) He was born in Germany, migrated to England and came in India and stayed for five years.

(vii) He depicted the British as superior and imperious, flaunting their clothes, standing regally or sitting arrogantly and living a life of luxury while Indians were portrayed occupying a shadowy background in his paintings.

(viii) Many Indian Nawabs got their portraits painted by European painters.

(ix) Nawab Muhammad Ali Khan of Arcot commissioned two European artists Tilly Kettle and George Willison to paint his portraits and gifted these paintings to the king of England and the Directors of East India Company.

Painting History: (i) ‘History Painting’ was a third category of imperial art. These paintings

dramatized and recreated various episodes of British imperial history and enjoyed prestige and became very popular in the late 18th and early 19th century.

(ii) British and their victories in India served as rich material for history painters in Britain.

(iii) They painted the various wars, in which the colonial rule had defeated the Indians and British were celebrating their power, their victories and their supremacy.

(iv) The first painting of history was produced by Francis Hayman in 1762, when the British defeated the Indian army of Nawab Sirajuddaula in the Battle of Plassey and installed Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Murshidabad. The painting shows Mir Jafar welcoming Lord Clive.

(v) Robert Kerr Porter, painted the defeat of Tipu Sultan of Mysore in 1799 at the famous battle of Seringapatam. It is a painting full of action and energy, the paintng dramatizes the event and glorified the British triumph.

(vi) Imperial history paintings sought to create a public memory of imperial triumph to show that the British were invincible and all powerful.

What Happened to the Court Artists:







UPSC IAS

19

(i) These were different Indian traditions of Art in different courts. (ii) In Mysore, Tipu Sultan resisted the European art and continued to encourage

his tradition of mural paintings. (iii) The court of Murshidabad had different trend. The British had successfully

installed their puppet Nawabs on the throne; first Mir Zafar and then Mir Qasim after defeating Sirajuddaulah. The Nawab encouraged local miniature artists to absorb the tastes and artists style of British.

(iv) The local artists of Murshidabad began to adopt th elements of European realism. They used perspective, i.e., style of painting which creates a sense of distance between objects that are near and those at a distance. They used various shades to make the figures realistic.

(v) Local painters produced a vast number of images of local plants and animals, historical buildings and monuments, festivals, etc. and these pictures were collected by the East India Company officials and known as Company paintings.

The New Popular Indian Art: (i) A new world of popular art developed in 19th century in many of the cities of

India. (ii) Scroll painting was developed by local villagers called ‘patuas’ and ‘potters’. (iii) Kalighat in Bengal was exapanding as a commercial and administrative centre. (iv) Mythological themes were the main art forms for the scroll painters producing

images of gods and goddesses. (v) Kalighat painters began to use shading to give them a rounded form, to make

images look three dimensional but were not realistic and lifelike. (vi) Early Kalighat paintings use a bold deliberately non-realistic style depicting

large and powerful figures with a minimum of lines, detail and colours.

(vii) Many of the Kalighat pictures were printed in large numbers and sold in the market an the images were engraved in wooden blocks. In late 19th century, mechanical printing presses were set up in different parts of India, which helped in producing larger number of printings.

(viii) Calcutta Art Studio was set up in late 19th century in Calcutta and produced lifelike images of eminent Bengali personalities as well as mythological pictures.

(ix) With the spread of nationalism in the early 20th century, the studio produced popular prints with elements of nationalism. Some of them have Bharat Mata appearing as a goddess carrying the national flag or nationalist heroes sacrificing their head to Bharat Mata.

The Search for a National Art: (i) The impact of religions, culture and the spirit of nationalism on art was

strongly visible by the end of the 19th century. (ii) Many painters tried to develop a style that could be considered both modern

and Indian. The Art of Raja Ravi Varma:

(i) Raja Ravi Varma was one of the first artists who tried to intermingle modern and national style.

(ii) Raja Ravi Varma belonged to the family of the Maharaja of Travancore in Kerala.







UPSC IAS

20

(iii) He mastered the Western art of oil painting and realistic life study but painted themes from Indian mythology.

(iv) He mainly painted scenes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. (v) Raja Ravi Varma set up a picture production team and printing press on the

outskirts of Bombay. A Different Vision of National Art:

(i) A new group of nationalist artists in Bengal gathered around Abanindranath Tagore, the nephew of Rabindranath Tagore.

(ii) They opposed the art of Rabi Varma as imitative of western style and declared that western and modern art could not be used to depict the nation’s ancient myths and legends.

(iii) He wanted to revive and turned for inspiration to medieval Indian traditions of miniature painting and the ancient art of mural paintings in the Ajanta Caves.

(iv) He received inspiration from Rajput style of paintings. (v) His art was influenced by the Japanese paintings that can be seen in some of

the paintings.

Chapter 11 – The Making of the National Movement: 1870s-1947

The Emergence of Nationalism: (i) India was the people of India and all the people irrespective of class,

colour, caste, creed, language or gender are Indians. (ii) The awareness of being Indian and that its resources and systems were

meant for all of them led to see the trace nature and role of British in India. (iii) The political associations came into being in the 1870s and 1880s. (iv) Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and many such associations functioned in specific

parts of country their goals were stated as the goals of all the people of India. (v) They worked with the idea that the people should be sovereign – a modern

consciousness and a key feature of nationalism. (vi) The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing Indians from possessing arms. (vii) The Vernacular Act which allowed the government to confiscate the assets of

newspapers including their printing presses if the newpapers published anything that was found ‘objectionable’.

(viii) In 1883 Lord Ripon’s Law Member, Sir Courtenay llbert introduced a bill called llbert Bill.

(ix) The bill provided for the trail of British or European persons by Indians, and sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country.

(x) The bill caused widespread agitation among the Whites who strongl opposed the bill and forced the government to withdraw it.

(xi) The Indian National Congress was established in 1885. It included 72 delegates from different parts of the country which included leaders like DadaBhai Naoroji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Bannerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, Pherozeshah Mehta and Badruddin Tyabji.

A Nation in the Making:







UPSC IAS

21

(i) In the first twenty years Congress was ‘moderate’ in its objectives and methods. (ii) A greater voice for Indians in the government and in administration was their

demand. (iii) It demanded the separation of judiciary from the executive, the repeal of

Arms Act and freedom of speech and expression. (iv) It also demanded the separation of judiciary from the executive, the repeal of

Arms Act and freedom of speech and expression. (v) The early Congress raised a number of economic issues. It declared that

British rule had led to poverty and famines, increase in land revenue had impoverished peasants and Zamindars and there was food shortage because of exports and grains to Europe.

Freedom is Our Birth Right: (i) In Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab, leaders such as Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal

Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai popularly known as ‘Lal, Bal, Pal’, strongly criticized the policies of the colonial government.

(ii) They demanded ‘Swaraj’. Tilak declared, ‘Freedom is my birth right and I shall have it’.

(iii) In 1905, Viceroy Curzon announced the partition of the biggest province British of India, Bengal which included Bihar and parts of Orrisa.

(iv) The partition of Bengal infuriated people all over India. Both, the moderates and the radicals protested the partition.

(v) Large public meetings and demonstrations were organized and this led to be birth of Swadeshi Movement.

The Growth of Mass Nationalism: (i) After 1919 the struggle against Britain rule gradually became a mass

movement, involving peasants, tribals, students and women in large numbers and factory workers.

(ii) The first World War broke out in 1914 and altered the economic and political situation in India

(iii) India was dragged into the war and this led to a huge rise in defence expenditure of the government of India.

(iv) Increased military expenditure and the demands for war supplies led to a sharp rise in prices which create great difficulties for the common people.

(v) The war lead the British to expand their army. The government forced the villages in India to send their soldiers for an alien cause.

The Advent of Mahatma Gandhi: (i) Mahatma Gandhi was born on 2nd October 1869 at Porbandar in Gujarat. (ii) He studied law in England and went to South Africa to practice law and

stayed there for 20 years. (iii) He emerged as a mass leader of India. (iv) In South Africa, Gandhiji struggle for the Indians in non-violent marches

against racist restrictions and had earned great respect and popularity both at national and international level.

(v) Mahatma Gandhi spent his initial years in India travelling throughout the country, understanding the people, their needs and the overall situation.







UPSC IAS

22

(vi) Gandhiji launched local movements in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad in which he received success.

The Rowlatt Satyagraha: (i) In 1919, the government passe the Rowlatt Act and empowered the provincial

governmetns to search any place and arrest any person whom it suspected without a warrant.

(ii) Gandhiji launched a Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act which curbed the fundamental rights such as the freedom of expression and strengthened police powers.

(iii) Mahatma Gandhi and Mohammad Ali Jinnah criticized the act as ‘devilish’ and tyrannical.

(iv) In April 1919, a nation-wide hartal was launched and government used brutal measures to suppress them. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre inflicted by General Dyer in Amritsar on Baisakhi day was a part of this repression.

Khilafat Agitation and the Non-Cooperation Movement: (i) In 1920, the British imposed a harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan or Khalifa

and he was deprived of his political powers and authority. (ii) The Khilafat Movement was launched by Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali who

wished to initated a full-fledged Non-Cooperation Movement against the British under the leadership of Gandhiji and demanded Swaraj.

(iii) In 1921-22, the Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum, Thousands of students left government controlled schools and colleges. Many lawyers such as Moti Lal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and Asaf Ali gave up their practices.

(iv) British titles were surrendered and legislatures boycotted. People lit public bonfires of foreign cloth.

People’s Initiatives: (i) In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organized non-violent campaigns against

the high revenue demand of the British. (ii) In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed. (iii) In Bengal, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance gave enormous communal

unity and strength to the national movement. (iv) In Punjab, thhe Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants-

supported by the British from their gurudwaras. The People’s Mahatma:

(i) People thought of Gandhiji as a kind of messiah, as someone who could help them to overcome their misery and poverty.

(ii) Gandhiji wished to build class unity, not class conflict, still peasants could imagine that he could help them in their fight against zamindars and agricultural labourers believed he would provide them land.

The Happenings of 1922-29: (i) In February 1922 a crowd of peasants set fire to a police station in Chauri

Chaura, Gandhiji called off the Non-Cooperation Movement. (ii) Chittranjan Dass and Motilal Nehru argued that the party should fight

elections to the councils and enter them in order to influence government







UPSC IAS

23

policies. (iii) Civil disobedience Movement was launched in 1930 under the leadership of

Gandhiji. (iv) The formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the

Communist Party of India were the two important development of the mid-1920s.

(v) The Congress resolved to fight for ‘Purna Swaraj’ in 1929 under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru and 26 January 1930 was observed as ‘Independence Day’ all over the country.

The March to Dandi: (i) In 1930, Gandhiji started the march to break the Salt Law. According to this

law the state had a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt. (ii) Gandhiji and his followers marched from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal

town of Dandi where they broke the Salt law by gathering natural salt found on the sea-shore are boiling sea water to produce salt.

(iii) The combined struggles of the Indian people bore fruit when the Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy and the government announced election to the provincial legislature in 1937.

(iv) The Second World War broke out in September 1939. The Congress leaders were ready to support the British war effort. But in return they wanted that India be granted Independence after the war. The British refused to concede the demand and the Congress ministers resigned in protest.

Quit India and Later: (i) Mahatma Gandhi decided to initiate a new phase of movement against the

British in the middle of the Second World War which was Quit India Movement.

(ii) The first response of the British was severe repression and the end of 1943 over 90,000 people were arrested, and around 1,000 killed in police firing.

Towards Independence and Partition: (i) In 1940, the Muslim League had moved a resolution demanding ‘Independent

States’ for Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of the country. (ii) The provincial elections of 1937 seemed to have convinced the League that

Muslims were a minority, and they would always have to play second fiddle in any democratic structure.

(iii) The Congress’s rejection of the League’s desire to form a joint Congress-League government in the United Provinces in 1937 also annoyed the League.

(iv) In 1945, after the end of the war, the British opened negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the Independence of India. The talks failed because the league accelerated the demand for Pakistan.

(v) In Marc 1946 the British cabinet sent a three-member mission to Delhi to examine this demand. 16 August 1946 was declared as the ‘Direct Action Day’ by the league.

(vi) On 3 June 1947, the Partition Plan was announced and Pakistan came into existence. The joy of our country’s Independence from British rule came mixed with the pain and violence of Partition.







UPSC IAS

24

Chapter 11 – India After Independence

After Independence, India faced a series of very great challenges.

The problems of refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed immediately.

The new nation had to adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes and

expectations of its population.

India’s population in 1947 was large and was divided. Division between high castes

and low castes, between majority Hindu community and Indians who practiced other

faiths could be seen.

Famers and peasants were dependent on the monsoon for their survival.

A constitution is Written:

(i) The meetings of ‘Constituent Assembly’ were held in New Delhi and

representatives from all parts of India attended the meeting. These

discussions resulted in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which came into

effect on 26 January 1950.

(ii) One feature of the constitution was its adoption of Universal Adult Franchise.

All Indians above the age of 21 would be allowed to vote in state and national

elections.

(iii) The constitution guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens, regardless

of their caste or religious affiliation. This was Constitution’s second feature.

(iv) The third feature of the Constitution was that it offered special privileges for

the poorest and the most disadvantaged of Indians.

(v) The practice of untouchability was abolished. The Hindu temples were

thrown open to people of all castes.

(vi) Along with the former Untouchables, the adivasis or Scheduled Tribes were

also granted reservation in seats and jobs.

(vii) The constitution sought to strike a balance of power, between centre and

states by providing three lists of subjects which are Union list, State list and

Concurrent list.

(viii) The Union list has subjects like taxes, defence and foreign affairs which are the

responsibility of the Centres.

(ix) The State list has subjects like education and health, which would be taken

care of principally by the state.

(x) The Concurrent list comprises of forests, agriculture, etc. in which the centre

and the states would have joint responsibility.

(xi) Hindi was designated as the ‘Official language’ of India and English would be

used in the courts, the services and communications between one state and

another.







UPSC IAS

25

(xii) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who was the Chairman of the drafting committee and

under whose supervision the document was finalized played an important role

in framing the Indian Constitution.

How Were States to be Formed:

(i) In 1920s the Indian National Congress amended its constitution and

reorganized its regional branches on the basis of linguistic groups.

(ii) Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel were

against the creation of linguistic states.

(iii) In October 1952, a veteran Gandhian named Potti Sriramulu went on a hunger

strike demanding the formation of Andhra Pradesh to protect the interests of

Telegu speaking people.

(iv) On 15 December 1952, fifty eight days into his fast, Potti Sriramual died. His

death led to violence all over the state and central government was forced to

give in to the demand.

(v) On 1 October 1953, the new state of Andhra Pradesh was created.

Planning for Development:

(i) Among the major objectives of the new nation, lifting India and Indians out of

poverty and building a modern technical and industrial base were very strong.

(ii) In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help design and

execute suitable policies for economic development. It was agreed that India

would follow ‘Mixed Economy’ model where both public and private sectors

would co-exist for the economic development of the nation.

(iii) In 1956, the second five year plan was formulated which focused mainly on

the development of heavy industries in India such as steel, and on the building

of large dams.

The Nation, Sixty Year On:

(i) On 15 August 2007, India celebrated sixty years of its existence as a free nation.

(ii) In these sixty years India, has seen many achievements as well as failures.

(iii) Success during 60 years of India were-India is still a united and a democratic

country; There is unity in diversity; There is a free press and an independent

judiciary.

(iv) Failures during 60 years of India-Deep divisions persist; Despite

constitutional guarantees, the untouchables or the Dalits face violence and

discrimination; there are Clashes between different religious groups in many

states; The gulf between the rich and poor has widened over these years.

For All Classes Notes Join Telegram: Join Here






8 Class NCERT History Summary Notes

Documents

Transcript of 8 Class NCERT History Summary Notes