758_ibrahim(the Peobem of Deserfication in the Republic of the Sudan With Special Reference to...

7/27/2019 758_ibrahim(the Peobem of Deserfication in the Republic of the Sudan With Special Reference to Northern Dafur

1/60

MonographSeries No.

DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND RESEARCH CENTREFACULTY OF ECONOMIC & SOCIAL STUDIESUNIVERSITY OF KHARTOUM

The Problem of Desertificationin The Republic of The SudanWith Special Reference toNorthern Darfur Province

BY DR. FOUAD N. IBRAHIM

1978


2/60

MONOGRAPH SERIES Editor:and Sadig Rasheed

OCCASIONAL PAPERSAssistant Editors:Mustafa BabikerTaisier M. A. Ali

The MONOGRAPH SERIES and OCCASIONAL PAPERS areintended as platforms for the dissemination ofresearch findings in the interdisciplinary fieldof development studies by the staff of the DSRC,Faculty of Economic & Social Studies, the Univ-ersity of Khartoum, other research centres aswell as interested scholars elsewhere.Particular emphasis in these series will be paidto applied-oriented problems of development andissues of current interest.Other publications of the DSRC include SUDANDEVELOPMENT STUDIES REVIEW, (a bi-annual Review),DEVELOPMENT STUDIES BOOK SERIES and DISCUSSIONPAPERS.All correspondence and contributions should beaddressed to:The Editor, MONOGRAPH SERIES and OCCASIONALPAPERS, Development Studies & Research Centre,University of Khartoum, P. 0. Box 321.


3/60

THE PROBLEM OF DESERTIFICATIONIN THE RE PLB L iC d H IE

WITH SP EC IAL REFERENCE T{ j | ! , ,< , i r iPROVINCE

BY

DR. FOUAD N.

L W I V E R S I T Y OF HAMBURG


4/60

C O N T E N T S

AbstractIntroduction 5I Desertification as a result oftransgressing over the agronomicdry boundary 10II Fluctuations in precipitation and

their effects. 18III Desertification as a result of destroying

the vegetation of the savannah 23IV Problems of water supply. 35V The population of the zone affected

by desertification. 38VI Soil erosion and sand accumulation

as marphodynamic aspects ofdesertification in the Sudan. 40VII Measures to confoat desertification

in the Sudan. 42


5/60

A B S T R A C TIn th e Republic of the Sudan a some of 500000 km( which equals double the area of Great Britain) isd i r ec t ly affec ted by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . More than ha l f ofthe Sudanese population lives within this zone which isand always has been the most active economic region withthe largest towns of the country.Although desertification in the Sudan cannot beexplained sheerly by the word drought, the droughtperiod which ha s been going on fo r 11 years i n th eSahelian zone of the Sudan has greatly enhanced theprocesses of d e se r t i f ic a t i o n . The increa se ofpo pu latio n by 40$ in th e same span of time led t oexhaus t ing the l imi ted natura l potent ia l of the semi-a ri d zone of th e Sudan. Thus c u lt iv a ti o n has advancedby about 200 km no rth of the agronomic dry boundary ,i . e . t the c l im at ic a l ly con t ro l led border of cu l t i v a t io n .Although this climatically conditioned boundary of milletcu l t iva t ion l i es a t abou t the 500 mm - i sohyet the areasof dense m il le t c u lt iv a ti o n extend a s fa r a s th e 250 mm-iso hy et . B eside s , m il le t i s sp or ad ica l ly grown fa rdeep in to the semi- between 1960 and 1975. Thatth is decrease i s not necessar i ly corre la t ive wi th adecrease of p re c ip it a ti o n can be e a s il y shown bycomparing th e years 1963 and 1974 which have s im i la rp re c ip i ta t io n f igures bu t very d i f fe re n t y ie lds perhectare (630 kg and 370 kg respect ively) .


6/60

In the Sudan, as in the whole Sahelian zone, thehigh variability of rainfall, typical of the semiaridzone, affects a high vulnerability of the ecologicalsystems to the danger of desertification if the landis excessively used by man. This excessive utilizationof soil takes the form of overgrazing, overcultivationand deforestation. The uncontrolled cutting of treestakes unimaginative dimensions. It has been estiamtedthat 548 million acacias are being cut down or uprootedyearly as fire-wood for cooking purposes only. The treestock of the savannah is especially endangered by i ieexpansion of cultivation which is usually preceded bya complete clearing of the vegetation of the savannah.

Compared with the damages caused by the expansionof rainfed cultivation in areas of poor precipitationthe damages causal by nomadic pastoralism and partialovergrazing are relatively small.Through their high degree of mobility nomads have

a wide radius of action and therefore their exploitationof soil is much less intensive than the sedentarycultivators. Overgrazing demages are mostly limited towater holes and main cattle routes. Nevertheless, thenumber of aniroales has increased by fourfold in thelast few decades ( Fig. 1) alongside a simultaneousdegradation of the grazing possibilities.There exists a close connection between overgrazing,overcultivation, deforestation and the problems of watersupply for man and animal. In a zone of 8 - 10 aridmonths a year water supply takes usually place by meansof boreholes. Owing to the fact that the geologicalstructure does not always allow the forraation of aquifers,land use is concentrated in areas where they exist.

2


7/60

In the last 20 years, that is to say nearly sinceachieving independence, a large number of boreholes hasbeen dug. The seasonal grazing lands have thus beenturned into permanent pastures. This led to anirreversible destruction of palatable grasses at anearly stage of growth. Generally, the balance betweenwater supply and soil productivity has been disturbedthrough the erection of water yards. The surroundingareas have becomes so densely over-populated both byhumans and animals that the economic space has beennarrowed far under the existence minimum. As a resultof this, constant conflicts between the sedentary landcultivators and the nomadic cattle - breeders occurall over the zone. Through the sedentarisation of thenomads one hopes to attain an easier control. Oneshould not, however, forget that nomadism is the wayof living which is most suited to the natural conditionsprevailing in the Sahelian zone.Measures To Combat Desertification In The Sudan

For more than 30 years the Sudan has recognizedthe problem of desertification and tried to fight itscauses. The most recent programme to combatdesertification, which is still at the stage of planning,is the ll8udanls Desert Encroachment and RehabilitationProgramme11. The state hopes for financial and technicalhelp from friendly countries. Another project aims atestablishing a "College Of Veterinary, Natural Resourcesand Arid Zones Studies " in EL Fasher, the capital ofNothern Darfur Province. This college is beingsponsored by the United Nations University.

- 3 -


8/60

Other measures to stop the further encroachmentof the desert, could include s

a) Improving the central places on the margin ofthe Sahara to enhance and control animalnusbandary in the Northern Sahelian Zone.

b) Combined Millet / Acacia - Senegal -cultivation,c) Keeping fire wood plantations in thevicinity of settlements.d) Rotation of pastures by rotating the useof Water Pumping Stations.e) Improving the infrastructure.f} Establishing labour intensive factories onthe basis of agriculture and animal wealth.g) Organizing an enlightenment canpaign on thecauses and consequences of desertification.


9/60

I N T R O D U C T I O N

As the drought disaster of 1970 - 1973 in theSahelian zone occupied the headlines of the World press,very l i t t l e was known about the t h i r s t and hunger c r isesin the Sudan, although i t i s pa rt of the same zone. TheWorld Press mainly pre-occupied i t s e l f with the Sahelianzone of West Africa up to the borders of the Chad withthe Sudan. The lack of information about the affectedareas of the Sudan, especially in Darfur is due to someextent to the bad means of communication to and withinthe affected rig io n. I t i s a part of the country whichi s 1100 - 1700 km away from Khartoum. This desertdis tance with no paved roads and no railway in i t snorthern part imposes an economic iso la t ion . The truckjourney from Khartoum to EL Geneina (1700 km.), e.g.takes a fo rtnight in the dry season and about 4 weeksin the wet one, if the wadis are crossable a t a l l .The term "desert encroachment'1 is more currentthan the term "desertification1^ 1) in the Sudan. Thela t t e r term, however, has prevailed in te rnat iona llyand should gradually replace the term "desertencroachment" which i s somewhat misleading, because i tim plic its that nature (the dese rt) i s to blame forcrea ting the problem. The fact i s , however, th atman's misuse of semiarid lands in the real reason for"desert ification " or "d eser tis at ion" . The advance of

(1) One can tr ansla te i t in to Arabic with " ta sh ir " .


10/60

The desert through desertification is not a desertencroachment from north to south but is the expansionof man's destructive activities northwards into thearid and semiarid fringes of the Sahara. "Desertifica-tion is a process of the destruction of the ecologicalpotential of land use through incompatible utilizationof land in the desert marginal zones, which ultimatelyleads to desert extension through man himself" (i).

The problem of desertification in the Sudan isoften mixed up with other accompanying phenomena, suchas drought or sand accumulation. The problem-complexembraces far more than thirst or the formation of sanddunes on settlement sites. Drought is a typical partof tiie climatic pattern of semiarid regions, and sandaccumulations are part and parcel of the arid morpho-dynamic system. But desertification, i.e., thedegradation of vegetation and soil of the steppes andsavannah turning them into deserts in a short span oftime of few decades, is the work of man. Desertifica-tion leads to the destruction of vulnerable ecosystemwhich forms the basis of living for the inhabitantsof the semiarid zone. It is mainly caused by over-population.

Diagram 1 displays the rapid increase of theSudanese population since 1917. In 60 years thepopulation figures have risen fivefold. The animalstock increased even more rapidly : the number ofcattle became 16-fold, that of camels 10-fold, that ofsheep 9 - fold and of goats 8-fold. At the sametiraeprizing lands became narrower and less productive.1) H. Mensching and F. Ibrahim: Paper on the UnitedNations Desertification Conference,Nairobi 1977.

- 6 -


11/60

An exact quantification of the stock grazing in theSudan is not available so far. Animal census hasbeen mainly dependent on animal taxation registerswhich embrace only a small part of the actual numberof animals. A control sample in an area in Kordofanhas shown that the actual number of animals is 10 timesas high as the official figures. Similar results wereobtained in Northern Darfur through our investigationsthere. The diverging curves (Diagram 1} displayingthe development of stock figures and population ofanimals per person are always increasing.

- 7 -


12/60

16 M'.o

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

1OOo

18M(O

191? 1926 1936 1946 1955 1966 1977Diagram 1 : Increase of population and animal stock in theSudan 1917 - 1977.


13/60

Negative results of this trend are : - The space of living for man and animal isdiminishing.- Thus the nomads are obliged to go north intothe more arid zone.- Population and stock density leads to over-stocking, overcultivation and deforestation,which ultimately leads to the destruction ofthe basis of existence by man himself.The following proceedings aim at throwing lighton the causes and consequences of desertification inthe Sahelian zone of the Sudan, especially in theProvinces Darfur and Kordofan.

- 9 -


14/60

C H A P T E R 1DESERTIFICATION AS A RESULT OF

TRANSGRESSING OVER THE AGRONOMIC DRYBOUNDARY

The ac tual northern boundary of m il le t cult iv ationin the West of the Sudan has been pushed about 200 km.too fa r north. While the agronomic dry boundary ( i )fairly coincides with the 500 mm - isohyet, therelatively dense millet cultivation textends as far asthe 250 mm - isohyet (cF. Map 1). Farther no rth, wefind sporadic cul tiva tio n in wet ye ars. Besides, inedaphically favourable wadis, cultivation takes placeafter r a in fa ll on wadi fringes ('a ra ish or terus cult ivat ion ^.

Field study in West Sudan has convinced us thatthe transgression over the agronomic dry boundaries isthe main cause of dese rt if ic ation there . For the prepara-tion of the fi e ld s for m ill et cu lt ivat io n means the fe ll in gof all the trees and the extraction of all the fields.The so i l i s then loosened and made exposed to strong

1) Agronomic dry boundary = 4 humid months f withpre cip itati on sufficien t for cu ltiv atio n} ; about500 - 550 mm in zones of summer precipitation(Sudan) or about 350 mm in zones winterprecip i ta t ion .

- 10 -


15/60

deflation. The repetition of this process leadsfinally to an irreversible destruction of the naturalvegetation cover and enhances the erosion of fertiletopsoil. Soil degradation leads to the diminution ofproductivity. The land cultivator is thus obliged toshorten the rotation of cultivation and fallow, andultimately plants the land continuously. The soilbecomes gradually exhausted, because all plantnourishment is used up.

The following table (cf. also Diagram 7 )illustrates the decrease of millet yield per hectarefrom year to year :

- 11 -


16/60

Table 1 ; Decrease Of Millet Yields In The SudanFrom 1960 to 1975

AreaYear Cultivated1000 hectareTotal Yield PrecipitationYield Kg./ mm ( El1000 t hectare Obeid )

19601961196219631964196519561967196819691970

392334463609599603540605593626723

226204291374354353252269267385439

580650650630590580460440440610600

318447512316540359217267190164261

- 12 -


17/60

Year

1971197219731P-/A

AreaCultivation1000 hectare

873107011091110

TotalYield1000 t

441355281.100403

YieldKg./hectare

600333250370330

Precipitationmm (EL Obeid)

333' 332275HE?"

Reference : Yearbook of agricultural statistics,Khartoum 1974 1976.

- 13 -


18/60

The decrease of millet yield per hectare downby one half within the last 15 years and the increaseof population in the same span of time by about thesame percentage has necessarily led to tiie expansionof the area cultivated ( from 964,000 acres in 1960to 2,609,000 acres in 1975).

From tiie table it becomes clear that though thefluctuations of the crop obviously correlates withprecipitation, the amount of precipitation is not aloneresponsible for the decrease of crop. Soil degradationhere plays a significant role.The figures given in the table refer to the wholecountry. In the zone north of the 300 - mm isohyet,however, the yields lie far under the country's average.In dry years, which constitute 52$> of all years ( cf.Diagram 2 ) , the yield varies from 0.0 to 0.5 kg./acre .A great part of the population in the affected area issuffering under a permanent nutrition crisis. The

millet consumption of an average family of 6 members isabout 1,200 kg. (12 shiwal) yearly. The averagearea cultivated per family is about 10 acres yearly,mostly millet. According to these figures a family'scrop can cover its yearly needs only in the speciallyrainy years. But as the millet cultivator cannotforecast the rainfalls of the wet season he preparesthe fields as needed, sows the millet and hopes forsufficient rain. This speculative cultivation meansthat in dry years in which the millet crop failscompletely, the natural vegetation is also destroyed.

_ 14 -


19/60

1000ha

1200

1000

800

600

400

200! !

1 :

mm410

19 " 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 7? 73 74 75

Diagram 2 : Decrease of millet yields per hectare [ )accompanied by the inc reas e of area c ul tiv ate d inthe Sudan ( }. Columns : pr ec ip ita tio nin El Obcid (main area of m ill et c u lti v at io n ]


20/60

In especially dry years, with delayed rainfall, thefarmer clears and prepares double the usual area formillet cultivation thus hoping to cover his need thatyear. Hence, a large scale destruction of the naturalvegetation occurs particularly in the years in whichthe regeneration capability of vegetation is especiallyweak owing to the lack of rain. The loosened sandy soilof the cleared fields is irmnensely exposed to the eolianinfluence and so soil erosion is strongly enhanced.

The correlation between population growth,extension of the area cultivated with millet and eoliansoil erosion - which is apparent in the increase ofdust particles in the air is clearly displayed indiagram 3 which shows that the number of days ofpoor visibility range ( under 100 m ) is fairlyparallel to the increase of the area cultivated withmillet from year to year.

- 16 -


21/60

Number of dayswith visibility of


22/60

C H A P T E R I IFLUCTUATIONS I N PRECIPITATION

AND THEIR EFFECTSThe yearly divergence of p re cip ita tion from thelong - term annual mean amounts to 30}o in the semiaridzone of the Sudan. The diagram of the va riab i l i ty ofprecipita tion in EL Fasher (Diagram 4 ) shows amaximal fluctu ation of 12D>. Catastrophic conditionsprevail in land use and water supply when a run of dryyears occurr, such as in 1940 - 1944 and 1947 - 1949and also 19S6 - 1970. The l a s t eleven years haveseen a long persisting drought period with an annualmean of 220 mm and a precipita tion d e f ic i t of 24$>.Similar figu res have been regis te red in the l a s t elevenyears in most stations of this zone: 3Effa deficit inEl Obeid, 41/ d e f ic i t in M ellit , 22/o d e f ic i t in Kutumand 21/o de f ic i t in EL Geneina. During th is dry phasethe climatically controlled agronomic dry boundary hasbeen pushed by about 100 km southwards. As m illetcultivation does not stick to the agronomic dry boundary,but has already advanced about 200 km to the north,the effects of des er tif ic at io n are dis satro us withina broad b e l t of about 330 km which fa i r ly earrespondsto the zone between Sodri: and El Fula in Kordofan.

- 18 -


23/60

l

Ma


24/60

The disaster which lasted from 1970 to 1973 inthe major parts of the Sahelian zone is still going onin the Sudan up till now. Whether a wet period wouldfollow is uncertain. It is sure, however,that theecosystem of that zone is in dire need of rehabilitation,if the zone is not to fall irretrievably as a prey tothe desert. The consequences of the high rainfallvariability on millet cultivation will be analysed below :

Diagram 5 illustrates this connection. Threeclimate diagrams of the Kutum station are displayed.One represents the pentad annual mean; the second,represents the dry years of 1949; and the third, thewet year of 1950. Underneath the diagrams the rhythmof the millet cultivation period is projected. Thisperiod takes about 100 days. Sowing takes place afterthe first rich rainfalls in June/July. The main periodof growth lasts for more than 2 months between July andSeptember. Ripening time lies in September/ October.A shifting of rainfalls signifies great risks for themillet crop:

A] If the rain falls too early, in May or atthe beginning of June and then again onlylate in August, as happened in NorthernDarfur in 1976, the seeds do not sprout atall or the small sprouts withsr very soon.

- 20 -


25/60

\110-

00 -

9 0 -

8 0 -

7 0 -

60

5 0

4 0

3 0

2 0 >

10

0

/Vet ye amm

, 1950 560 mm

fl!ii

1

-

r

1in

nL.I M I Jr.-.-.-.-.y.-iiiiiiiiiiiiinnnfimnnSowing Growth Ripening

(PENTADE)Annu al mean 1931-1960 325 mm

io-I

M I J I J I A I S I OSowing Growtn Ripening

3 0

2 0 -

10 -

0 -

Dry year.mm

1949 137 mn

1 1 -

n f f "

-

i M i J i J i A i S i O i :-:-:-:-:iri i i i i i n i iSowing Interrupted Prematuregrowth ripening

Figure 5 - Variability of precipitation an d millet cultivation in northern Darfur(Station of Kutum, ti&om)

~ 21


26/60

b) " little precipitation, as in37mm) the growth of millet\ ssible or a premature ripenings place.

1.1 bethe


27/60

Natural vegetation of the zone affected bydeserti ficat ion forms the natural potentia l' forpastoralism and the supply of ena'gy ( firewood )Two vegetation zones run through tills affected belt :the thorn - scrub savannah and the dry savannah ( lowrainfall wool land savannah ) , The transition i>--*weenthe two zones fair ly concurs with the agronoro;!. Vyboundary (500 - SOD mm). A brief description t" theplant associations and their use Is given below.Reference i s specially nede to Dar-fur and Kordofan, theregions which are particularly affected bydesertification.1) The mr.jorp a s t e r i ! isr*,be found anil s-w e t s c a l a r , 1tJie diffrretT*" crQ~~aI n t o the f u l l defy t ,

norteds of t*ir> Kr'-nI n s t e n c p - , to wtt pd e s e r t , U D t~ ^.b e g l n r d n r p, 4 lJ i z u "TTtiPSPS ">rrf

t h e _ l i J , ."K J - .f "* ' 're p e r i r r e r . twat i casci alongr "4r~ i

Th~y c >, l * 'ji*. i T ia n . ' *" . i t- 1 . "

m o r e -r' - r Ti1" > ' ' .' *north o* 1 'i _r - l f |i rbs which grow In the dryof course, that some rainfallshave occurred In the "wet season". Thanks tothe water stored In the Jizu plants, ttie herdscan do without drinking water so long as theygraze on these plants.

2 3


28/60

In and along the wadis of Northern Darfur and NorthernKordofan there are dense stocks of Acacia raddianafSeyali, Acacia arabica fgarad). Acacia mellifera(kitirj, Acacia Senegal [hashabj. Acacia albida(haraz), Balanites aegyptiaca (hejlij or la'ub ) ,Maerua crassifolia (sareh), Boscia senegalensis(mukheit), Capparis declrius (tundub)and Zizi-phusspinachristi ( sidr ) . ~2) The goz vegetation: The stable old dune belt( goz ) is the main rain-ged cultivation zone inDarfur and Kordofan. Of great significance is

the capability of the sandy soil to store allrain water and make it accessible to the plants.The natural vegetation of the Goz is anassociation of Acacia Senegal and Cenchrusbiflorus (haskanTt) as a grass cover. Besides,there are stocks of Acacia Senegal which arepartially sown in connection with iie ecentafforestation measures. From Acacia Senegalarabic gum is being won. In 1970, the Sudanexported 70}d of the world production of arabicgum which comes maily from Kordofan and Darfur.Through excessive cultivation, overgrazing anddeforestation of the goz lands a secondarythornscrub vegetation is formed in which AcaciaSenegal has almost disappeared.For a better evaluation of the goz vegetationthe author surveyed the plant cover at differentsites. On a fallow fied, 3 km. north of ElFashir 51 bushes per hectare have been counted.

- 24 -


29/60

All bushes show deformation through animal bite, fireand wood cutting. The division into species was asfollows : -Species (Name)Acacia raddianaBalanites aegyptiacaZiziphey mauritianaColotropies proceraMaerua crassifoliaAcacia albida

Arabic NumberSeyalhejlijnabagiushersarehharaz

1812854451

On an area of one hectare which was grown with milletthe season before only 5 bushes were to be found : -Species ( Naae) Arabic Number

Balanites aegyptiacaAcacia raddianaMaerua crassifoliahejlijseyalsareh

311

Grass and herbs were sparse on both sites. However, onthe first field there were more grass species of theedible kinds, such as Cenchrus biflorus (haskanit ) ,Eragrostris tremula (banu) and Aristida species (gau,bayad). On the second, more degraded field grew cacia

- 25 -


30/60

acutifolia (sena sena ) Sesamum alaturn ( semsem eldjarnel ) and others (irgesi, adan el far , djubbein )which are not palatable for the animals.Another site surveyed near El Geneina revealeda huge proportion of Guiera senegalensis which islikewise unpalatable. The survey of one hectare gavethe following results :-

Species ( Name )Guiera senegalensisBoscia senegalensisAcacia SenegalCombertum cordofanumCalotropis proceraAcacia amaraBalanites aegyptiacaAcacia arabica

Arabic Numberobbeishmukheithashabhahilushar*aradhejlijgarad

5611845814111133845

Comparing these three surveys one can firmlyconclude that the tree stock of the thornscrub savannahof the Sudan has still the capability to regenerate itselfif effective conservation measures are taken. Relictsof Adansonia digitata (tabeldi ) still exist in areasranging between 300 mm and 400 mm precipitation, such asthe area of El Obeid and that south of Urn Kaddada. TheGoz sand is a favourable location for both grasses andtrees.

- 26 -


31/60

3 ) The Pediment Vegetation :On the mountain pediments, where merely a thinveil of sediments caver the stoney bedrock one finds

a thin tree stock, mostly rowed in the direction ofsurface run off. The species represented are commonlyAcacia mellifera ( Kitir], Acacia nubic ( laat) andAcacia raddiana (seyal). Grasses and herbs are sparse.Although some pediments are covered with sandsheets whiatahave been recently blown in, they do not carry anygrass cover owing to the lack of seeds in the freshsands.As pediments have shallow sceletical soils theydo not belong to the areas utilized for cultivation.For this reason the degree of the ecological damagethrough man is much less on them than on Goz areas.Here, too, measures for the conservation of soil andvegetation can be carried out less problematically,because these areas do not belong to the principalareas of human settlement. A regulated winning offirewood and controlled browsing rotation on thepediment areas could contribute to solving the problemof desertification.

4) The Mountain Vegetation :

Apart from the large mountains, such as JebelMarra and the Nuba mountains the highlands are coveredwith thin forests composed mainly of Commiphora andAcacia species. Cultivation and browsing are notcommonly practised on those highlands. Only on slopes,

- 27 -


32/60

which are covered with eolian and fluvial sands smallsettlements of the sedentary tribes are to be foundthere.Any future planning should take into considerationthat mountains are of limited natural resources.Evaluations and recommendations of big investments inthat respect, such as big agricultural projects inperipheral mountain regions should therefore be morecautious. Such areas could meet the needs of theirinhabitants only and could not produce also for themarkets in Khartoum and abroad. The transport costs

alone would go beyond the limits of rentability.5) The Deforestation Of Savannah;

In a country in which, apart from wood, thereis no other fuel and where the purchase power does notallow the use of imported fuel the deforestation of thetree stock reaches unimaginable dimensions. Not onlythe nomads and the villagers use wood daily for cookingbut also the urban population and even the town bakeries.In El Fasher, in Nyala, in El Obeid and other towns thedaily sight of nomads and villagers with camels anddonkeys heavily laden with wood and charcoal is quitecommon.

Investigations on wood consiMption in Darfur showthat the family*s average weekly consumption of wood isa donkey's load which amounts to a tree of middleheight. One also tends to underestimate the amounts ofwood which are used for building huts and enclosures.While a hut (gfcottia) has an average duration of 6years the enclosure lasts no more than one year on the

- 28 -


33/60

average, because the latter is not well built and ismore exposed to the encroachment of animals and theinfluence of winds. If a small tree or bush is requiredto build a metre's length of these enclosures, theannual need of each family of enclosure wood alonewill reach quite a few hundred bushes (cf. Table 2 ) .

Table 2 - Annual Consumption Of WoodPer Family In Northern Darfur

PurposeHut building (2huts require 16 treesin 6 years)Enclosure for the huts (80m)Enclosure for the field (600 m) for nearlyone third of the families, 600 : 3 =Fuel - wood ( 1 tree weekly )

Total

Tree orBush

80200523344

According to other estimations quoted by AliDarag Ali in his paper " The Sudan Experience in theField of Desert Encroachment Control and Rehabilitation"(Khartoum 1977). "The nomads uproot a minimum of 546million acacia scrubs per year just for cooking". Itwould be much less disastrous of those who uproot trasstried to plant some to make up for the loss. Therecent afforesterations undertaken in the Sudan so far

- 29 -


34/60

are of limited scope and are by no means intended tomeet the enormous traditional consumption of wood.For the great part ijney are conceived as a "greenbelt" to protect the major towns against sandaccumulations. Some afforestrations have beenundertaken to produce good timber, others, in Darfurand Kordofan plant Acacia senegal to get arabic gum*Although the Forestery Department forbids the cuttingdown of some species such as Acacia senegal and Acaciaalbida the population of the savannah does not followthese laws, especially because no suitable alternativeis being offered.

The reduction of the wood consumption of thepopulation is one of the most important measures tobe undertaken to combat desertification in theSudan. A rational use of wood could reduce consump-tion by two thirds. A better method of buildinganclosures could make them much druable. Fieldenclosures could be done without, if animals wereput under control. The problem of fire-wood israiier more difficult to solve. As long as thepopulation is able to get its firewood from thewadis and highland " for nothing", it will not buyany fuel, however, low the price may be.6) The .Degradation .Qf Vfgsta.tion "Pirauiii

The degradation of the natural vegetationthrough excessive grazing in the semiarid Sudandoes not affect the whole zone equally, but ratherselectively. The strongest irrpact is to be found in

- 30 -


35/60

the perimeta's of settlements and the surroundings ofwater yards and along ttie cattle routes. A rationalreorganisation of pastoralism aiming at an equal useof tiie available pastures is unthinkable withoutcontrolling the wells and the water pumping stations.

Range management can only be based on an exactknowledge of "Hie number of grazing animals and theproductivity of the available pastures. But it isobsolutely difficult to know the number of animalsgrazing in certain region. The cattle-breeders areusually disinclined to give the right number becausetiiey do not like to pay the due taxes. Besides, theyare superstitious and fear the danger of "evil eye ".For this reason, too, it becomes impossible to rely onthe registers of the water pumping stations. On theone hand , the keeper of the pumping station is hardlyallowed to count the animals, on the other handfriendly relations with the animals owner makes himfairly generous. Added to this, in wet years inwhich the number of animals increases rapidly andcontrol is of vital importance, the animals do notfrequent the water yards, because there is enoughsurface water in wadis and depressions and alsobecause the juicy plants contain auch ater then.

The degradation of vegetation on overstockedpastures takes place both quantitatively andqualitatively, Useful species disappear and arereplaced by unpalatable species. Thus} today, we findthat iie oisonous scrub calotropis procera (*ushar )hes spread everywhere on the exhausted soil. Unpalata-ble plants, such as Cacia acutifolia ( sena sena ) ,

- 31 -


36/60

Acanthospermum hispidum ( horab hausa ) and Guierasenegalensis ('obbeish) occupy vast areas andreplace former, palatable pasture grasses, such asGenchrus biflorus ( haskanit ) , Eragrostris speciesand Aristida species.

In Northern Darfur and Northern Kordofan thereprevails three forms of animal husbandary. Each hasits own particular impact on the processes ofdesertification :a) Keeping a small number of sheep, goats and

one or two donkeys which graze within thenarrow surroundings of the village. In orderto protect their animals for the night thevillagers build the abovementioned enclosures.These animals are kept mainly to supply thefamily- with milk. This type of animal husbandaryon a limited area is responsible for the factthat each settlement in Darfur and Kordofar issurrounded with a bright ring on the aerial andsatellite photos. These bare rings have beencompletely degraded through overgrazing andwood cutting.

b) Keeping of herds of a middle size, which grazewithin a farther ring surround?!n~ the settlement,making a one - or two - days Journey*. This isresponsible for the constant widening ofdesertified ring around the settlement.

- 32 -


37/60

c) Nomadic pstoralisrn. While in Northern Darfurand Northern Kordofan cartel breeding prevails,in Soutiiern Darfur and Southern Kordofan cattlebreeding is dominant. Camel nomadism is thesystem of land use which is oost uitable forthe climate of the north Sahel, A betterorganization of ills ould solve many standingproblems between the nomads and sedentarypopulation.Despite the great animal wealth of the Sudan itplays a relatively insignificant role in the market

circuit. Cattle breeding should be more commercialized.The traditional disposition towards cattle as a constantpossession and symbol of wealth should be departed from.The Sudan feeds 20 million cows and camels which play arelatively insignificant role in the market economy oftiie country. Meat production is extremely low and itsprice is very high compared with the purchase power ofthe peasants ( 1 kg. meat in El Fashir costs Ls.0.5while the daily wages of a land labour there is aboutLs.0.3). Meat production is about 0,3 million t,(1973). France, for instance produces 1.75 million t.of meat and has 24.7 million heads of cattle. Thelow production of meat and milk in the Sudan is notmerely due to the bad condition of the animals whichsuffer from lack of fodder and water and also fromdiseases but nairtly due to the unfavourable possibilitiesof marketing. Lack of planning and organisation in thefield of cattle marketing leads to high price fluctuation?from week to week so that the nomads has always the feelirthat he is selling under price. This explains thetraditional disposition of a "passive" possession of

- 33 -


38/60

cattle herds. Unless , one day, cattle marketing provesto be a lucrative business this conservative attitudewill not be liable to be changed. Likewise, thepreference of quantity (number of animals ) to quality( meat production) will not be changed unless marketprices are based on quality. This dependent on themeans of transport to the consumption areas. No cattlemerchant in El Geneina, for instance, would pay muchmoney for expensive cattle to drive them then to theconsumption market in Khartoum/ Omdurman, 1700 km.of desert route. The cows which have been bought fatand in good condition would reach destination completelymeagre. Cattle transport is therefore of great importance.Especially in drought periods there must be a way ofmarketing, transporting and canning great numbers ofcattle within a short time.

A further issue is the protection of theproducers ( cattle breeders ) from the monopoly of thecattle merchants ( gallaba). This has been effectedin the Sudan through encouraging the heads of thetribes to organize the transport and marketing of theiranimals by themselves.

- 34 -


39/60

C H A P T E R IVPROBLEMS OF WATER SUPPLY

Water deficit is the most serious problem in thearid and semiarid zone of the Sudan outside the NileValley. That is why the "Rural Water Corporation"isone of the bigest and most influencial institutionsin the West of the Sudan. Often there arises aconflict between politically based decisions (forinstances to quench the thirst of the inhabitants ofa certain area ) and hydrogeologjically based ones(showing the amount of water in the different aquifers).Although a great deal of hydrological survey has beenaccomplished in Darfur and Kordofan f cf, surveys byRarasis B. Salama and Wilson Iskandar) the major partof underground water in the Sudan has not yet beenmade accessible. "Some 1381 million cubic meters areestimated to recharge the major basis annually, only143 million cubic meters of this recharged water isused " (1).

The situation is especially critical in areasof the cristallin rock of the Basement Complex whichcontain no rich aquifers. Where the Basement Complexis covered with a layer of gozsands or alluvial deposits,aquifers are to be expected between the cristallin rock,

1) Salama, R.B. , Ground Water Resources of the Sudan,publ. by Rural Water Corporation, Khartoum, 1977.

- 35 -


40/60

and the deposit layer. These recharge slowly. Theymay suffice for the traditional wells but not for thewater pumping stations. Only if the deposit layers aresome 100 m. thick or if they lie at the foot of bigmountain messivs the aquifsrs can be of some significance.The layers of the Nubian sandstome series contain richaquifers and therefore play an important role in groundwater harvesting in western Sudan.

In the arid regions of the Sudan traditionalwater supply is mostly secured by a permanent well.In addition to it one uses seasonal run - offs whichgathers as lakes into natural despressions (rahads),parts of wadi beds (berka, fula ) or man-dug waterreservoirs ( hafir, khazzan).

In the last 20 years, a big number of boreholessupplied with kerosin - turned water pumping engineshave been contructed in the semiarid zone of the Sudan.During the dry season the population becomesconcentrated on the settlements, where water supply isfairly secured, so that the number of their inhabitantsbecomes much higher than in the wet season. In droughtperiod the population figures of the towns jump veryhigh. IMyala, for instance, grew from 12,000 inhabitantsin 1956 to 60,000 inhabitants in 1973. In El Fasher thewater supply broke down in spring 1977, when the waterreservoir (Khazzan Golo ) became empty. Over 70,000inhabitants were affected, added to about 100,000inhabitants of the surrounding villages, whose waterreserves had been already exhausted. With the help ofboreholes which were immediately drilled by the Rural

- 36 -


41/60


42/60

C H A P T E R VTHE POPULATION OF THE ZONE AFFECTED

BY DESERTIFICATIOND e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y2in th e a f fe c t ed zone was on ly 5 .8 inh ab i tan t /km in1974 ( D arfu r : 4 , Kordofan 8 . 5 , K ass ala and th e RedSeas : 5 . 5 ) one can speak of ov erp op ula t ion t h e r e .Two r e a so n s a r e r e sp o n s ib l e fo r t h i s : t h e one i st h e low s o i l p r o d u c t i v i t y , t h e o t h e r i s t h e c o n c e n t r a -t i o n of the po pu la t i on on se t t l e m en ts wi th permenan twa te r su p p ly . Th u s , t h e p o p u la t io n d e n s i ty i n t h e a r e aof El F as he r , fo r in s ta nc e . , has reached 70 in h a b i t a n t spe r krrr^ Th is po pu la t io n impact on t h i s ec o lo g ic a l lyv u ln e r ab le reg io n ( l e s s than 300 mm ) has led to th ese t t l e m e n t of many nomadic t r i b e d and t r i b a l f r a c t i o n s .Up t i l l t h e end of t h e 1 9 th . c e n t u r y , t h i s a r id t osem iar id zone was pop ula ted main ly by nomadic t r i b e s ,p a r t l y Arab and p a r t l y of non-Arab re g io n . Amongth o se mo b i le p o p u la t io n g rou p s th e r e l i v e d s e d e n ta ryt r i b e s , to o , which were more re p r es en ted in tine Southernb e l t o f t h a t zoe . Though the se de n ta ry t r i b e s havepopula ted the zone for a very long t ime, the fac t mustbe s t r e s s e d t h a t th e nomads have l i v ed th e re fo r manyc e n tu r i e s now. From th e sym bios is be tween nomadic c a t t l eb r e e d e r s and s e d e n t a r y c u l t i v a t o r s came f o r t h et r a n s i t i o n a l fo rms of t he seminomads and th e semi-s e t t l e r s . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t among t h e A rab n on sd s

- 38 -


43/60

of Darfur and Kordofan no group has changed completelyinto sedentary land cultivators. This would haveinvolved a great loss of prestige for them, whereasthey have so far enjoyed power and respect everywhere.Today, there is no enmity between the differenttribes of the Sudan. In drought periods, however, someconflicts arise especially on the issues of usage rightsof water and pastures. In many cases the encroachmentof nomadic herds into the freshly planted fields of thesettlers develop into open fights.

- 3D -


44/60

C H A P T E R V ISOIL EROSION AND SAND ACCUMULATION

AS yORPHODYNAMIG ASPECT Of J ^ g T I F I C A T I O N

In widespread fallacy concerning ** desertencroachment" i s the belief th at i t i s mainly causedby the encroachent of wind blown sands onto settlements,towns and f ie ld s . Though such sand accumulations aresigns of deser tifi ca tion they ac tually affec t only asmall percentage of de se rti fisd are as. In fac t theyserve more as indicators of desert if ic ation somewhereelse than as means of dese rt if ic ation . For thedestruction of vegetation in the surroundings of asettlement lays bare a vast area of sandy soil whichi s then exposed to strong deflation and are finallyaccumulated on the fringes of the settlement.

The morphodynamics of desertification i s to beinterpreted in terms of so il erosion. Deforestation!overgrazing and overcultivation ( a l l of ttiew are doneby man ) lead to the defla tion of the organic topsa ilthus leading to the deterioration of soil and thecreation of desertlike conditions. As ind icator ofsoil deflation is the increase of the amount of dustin the a i r year after year. Diagram 3 shows theincrease of the number of days with visibility under1000 m in El Fasher since 1961. V is ib il ity standsin inverse proportion with the amount of dust (winderoded topsoil) in the a i r . Fine dust part ic le sare transported for long dis tances and are detec ted ,

- 40 -


45/60

for instance, in the Atlantic Ocean, where many milliontons of dust are estimated to fall there yearly. Theheavier sand fractions are blown by the wind only fora short distance. In case of sands which have adistant origin the transport medium is primarily fluvialin Wadi beds. These sands are then blown by the wind toform dunes and sand sheets. Eolian accumulation takesplace wherever obstacles are : enclosures, buildings,hills and scrubs ( specially Ziziphus or Capparisdecidiua which gather small dunes : gantur, tugur ) .

Deforestation in the higher catchment areasof wadis has changed their hydrologic system andconsequently their aorpho-tfynatnicif he clearing ofthe woods led to a quicker drainage which means aconcentration of run-off in the wadis. This hasserious consequences for the terus cultivation ofsnuff ( tombaco ) in wadi beds. Added to this, thereis obvious change in the groundwater streams in thewadis. The change of run off in the higher catchmentareas, the increase of soil erosion and the consequentincrease of deposition at the lower courses of theaadis led to the diversion of the groundwater streamsin the lower courses of the wadis. Many wells becamedry, others got a higher recharge.

_ 41 -


46/60

C H A P T EMEASURES TO

DESERTIFICATION

H

IN

VIICOMBAT

THE SUDAN.1) Measures Undertaken So Far By The Sudan (1)

Already in 1942 the Sudan government built acommission to investigate desert encroachment on theirrigated lands on the Nile and rain-fed areas. Thecommission came to the following results :-

- Desert encroachraent has been caused by theimpact of man on arid and semiarid lands.- The desert marginal zone has expanded south-wards into the most active economic regionsof the Sudan.- Some indicators of this is diminishingproductivity of both cultivated land andpastures, the increasing desettlement ofpopulation and the increase of tribalconflicts on the issues of nomadic routesand the usage rights of water and land.

1) An abstract of the report given by El Sammani A.Yacoub at the United Nations University, Tokyo,in May , 1977.

_ 42 -


47/60

- The situation is enhanced by the people'smisuse of land in the form of overgrazing,mass cutting of woods for building purposesand fuel supply, overgrazing, savannah firesand shifting cultivation.

Some of the important measures taken by the Sudangovernment in the last 35 years to combat desertificationare being summed up : a) Legislations :

in 1944 the Land Use Law was issued to regulateland ternures and land use systems in order to securea rational use of land.In 1956, immediately after the independencethe "Rural Water Corporation" was legislativelyestablished to supply the population of rural areaswith water for human and animal use.Many other laws regulating cultivation andpastures have been issued both by the central and thelocal authorities.The establishemtn of the present Ministry ofAgriculture, Food and Natural Resources has institution-alized the task of conservation of soil, vegetation

and water.

_ 43 -


48/60

Recently, the law of the National Committee forman, Enviroment and Development has been issued.b) Studies And Surveys :

Many regional studies and surveys by national andforeign teams have been carried out all over semi-aridzone of the Sudan. A huge heap of reports and maps(geological, hydrological, soil, vegetation and land usemaps) is already available. A new plan of action againstdesertification should make a synthesis of this bulk ofwork from the new point of view.c) Training And Research :

In almost forth years the University of Khartoumhas graduated a huge number of experts on agriculture,veterinary sciences, geography, geology, hydrology,botany, topography. Meteorology, social sciences, etc..With little additional training of efficient staff ofexperts can be qualified to tackle the problems ofdesertification. It is advisable, however, to pay someattention to the training of unacademic field-workersto be send and stationed at smaller towns in theaffected zone.

Research work in the field of natural resourcesis very active in the Sudan. Many scientists at theUniversity of Khartoum are conducting research - workin the different regions of the Sudan. The Agricultural

- 44 -


49/60

Research Corporation is a well - equipped researchinstitution with about 15 outer stations in thedifferent vegetational zones. The National Councilfor Research Co-ordinates research in the whole country.It has adopted the latest programme of desertencroachment control.d) Pilot Projects :

- Town perimeters in selected rural areas havebeen established and controlled for the last20 years.- Green belts have been planted on the fringesof Khartoum and other towns. Experience wonthere can be made use of in similar projects.- Afforestation and sand dune fixation have beencarried out in different parts of the country.- A pilot farms has been established in Ghazala

Gawazat 17 years ago to test the relationshipbetween the ecosystem and its use by man andanimal.- Several areas in western Sudan have beenfenced for the conservation of naturalvegetation and to test the ability fornatural regeneration in the savannah zone.- Control of fire-wood and charcoal productionis the aim of combined projects between theForestry Department and the Ministry of Commerce.


50/60

Desert sheep pilot projects.- Firelines pilot projects.

e) The Most Recent Projects:The Desert Encroachment Control and Rehabilita-tion Programme ( DECARP ) . This project consists ofnine parts which would cost a total of about 26 millionUS $. Five subprojects aim at establishing provincialdevelopment centres in the provinces affected bydesertification: Northern Kordofan, Southern Kordofanj

Northern Darfur, Southern Darfur, Nile and NorthernProvinces. In addition to the general tasks each centrehas specific activities to carry out. Further sub-projects are : Evaluation and yapping of NaturalResources and Desert Encroachment Monitoring, StockRoute Improvement and Feasibility Study for theEstablishment of a Wildlife Reserve. The D E C A R Phas produced several documents on the problem ofdesertification and is supposed to start in 1973.

A further project which is being prepared incollaboration with the United Nations University isthe establishment of a "College of Veterinary,Natural Resources and Arid Zones Studies" in El Fasher.


51/60

2} Further Suggestions For ThePlan Of ActionTo Combat Desertification In The Sudan.The abovementioned endeavours of the SudanGovernment to fight desertification deserve the fullsupport of the industrial countries as well rich ones.As these measures are long-term programmes they couldbe accomplished only if their running expenditure issecured. The following suggestions should be givenpriority : -

a) Enlargening And Strengthening The Central PlacesOn The Southern Margin Of The SaharaThe small towns in the transitional zone betweenSahara and Savannah should become stations for launchinga wide campaign against desertification. Examples of

these towns are El Geneina, Kebkabiya, Kutum, El Fasher,Mellit, Urn Kaddada, En Nahud, Bara, Er Rahad andUrn Ruwaba. The functions of these central places shouldbe the following :- Cattle marketing Meat conservation- Veterinary service- Means of transport to the large consumptionareas.. Providing the mobile nomads with basic food-stuffs, essential commodities and capitalgoods.

- 47 -


52/60

- Education and information ( includingtechnical advice )- Medical care.- Water supply.- Land use planning.- Control of land misuse.

b) Working Out A General Plan For RationalLand Use.

Single measures taken on a provincial scalewould not be effective emough to combat desertification,The Sudan is one of the Sahel countries which is in ahappy position to master the problem because of itsexcellent agricultural resources. A general plan ofland use should , however be worked out to organizeagricultural practices in order to secure a utilisationwhich is compatible with the natural conditions of eachzone. This requires the regulation of agriculturalproduction and establishing an efficient network oftransport. Excessive land use in the semiarid zonewill thus be stopped. Food supply must then beguaranteed from the centres of production in otherregions of the country.c) Observing The Agronomic Dry Boundary :

It has been made clear, so far, that thetransgression of millet cultivation over the climaticallyset agronomic dry boundary is the main reason fordesertification in the desert marginal zone. Though this

- 48 -


53/60

boundary lies at about the 500 mm - isohyet, cultivationis actually practised up to the 250 mm - isohyet. Thezone between them, which is about 200 kmr9 broad, is thezone of strong desertification. The withdrawing of milletcultivation back to the agronomic dry boundary seemsunrealistic, but there is no other alrernative, ifdesertification is to be stopped. However, any lawforbidding cultivation in that zone should offer anacceptable alternative at the same time. Agriculturalproducts (mainly dukhon and durra) should then be madeavailable at prices which could be afforded by thepopulation. The affected zone itself should be left toa controlled animal husbandry. The productivity of thepastures should be estimated and the number of animalsshould be accordingly restricted. In some cases, partsof the population v/ould have to be moved and resettledin the more humid zone of the savannah. Moreover, thesurplus labour could be consumed in labour intensiveIndustries which could be established in places ofpopulation concentration.d) Millet Cultivation Combined With Acacia

Senegal (c^ 3The model of combined cultivation of millet andAcacia senega! aims at supplying the land cultivatorwith both millet and wood for the needs of his family.As explained before millet cultivation leads to acomplete destruction of the tree and grass vegetation.

_ 49


54/60

Year

1-5

6-10

Diagrame 6: Millet Cultivation Combined WithAcacia Senegal On The Sandy SoilOf The Goz In Western Sudan.40 acres10 acres

milletA. Senegal

fallow(pasture)

fallow(pasture)

fallow(pasture)

1

A. SenegalMillet

+A.senega!fallow(pasture)

fallow(pasture)

1

11-15 A.Senegal A.senega!MilletA.seneaal

1

fallow(pasture)

4

16-20

Woodcuttingfallow(pasture)

1A.senega!

2WoodCutting

A.Senegal3

MilletA.senegal4

- 50 -


55/60

This model tries to make millet cultivation lessdestructive. It could be practised in the goz beltwith precipitation between 300 mm and 400 mm. Thesystem become fully functioning after 15 years. Thefarmer is then able to harvest a wood stock of AcaciaSenegal ( arabic gum ) on an area of 10 acres. Witinit, he can fully satisfy the needs of his family offire-wood and building material. At the same timehe has 20 acres of land covered with Acacia Senegal fromwhich he wins arabic gum. Besides, he has 10 acresdevoted to millet cultivation to meet his yearly needs.The remaining 10 acres of fallow land are suitable aspasture for a limited number of goats and sheep.Through the rotation of millet cultivation every fiveyears after a period of five years fallow the soil isgiven a chance to regenerate. Millet is sown togetherwith seeds of Acacia Senegal. By the time the Acaciasare five years old they are left to grow alone whilemillet shifts to iie ext patch of 10 acres and so on.c^ Rotation Of Pastures ;

To ensure an equal grazing of land so as to avoidthe overgrazing of some areas while other areas are under-grazed a system of rotation of pastures should bepractised. Much has been said about overgrazing aroundwater points. A rotation of the use of water yards wouldbe a successful means of controlling the use of grazingareas. Through rotation a natural regeneration ofpastures could be obtained.

- 51


56/60

Experience has shown that water yards developvery quickly into permanent settlements. Once suchsettlements are created their closure brings aboutheavy social and political consequences. For thisreason, the rotation of the use of water pumpingstations can be carried out only if the establishmentof permanent settlements around these water paintsis not allowed. This means that these water pointswould be erected only for the nomads and their herds.f) Plantation Of Woods In The Vicinity

Of SettlementsIt is extremely important that each villageshould have Its own " wood" to secure its need offuel and building wood. This "wood" could also beused as a grazing area for a limited number of animals.Such woods need not be new plantations but can be wonfrom the savannah by fencing the area and conserving

its vegetation. The example of Burush (260 mm ) f atthe borders between Northern Darfur and Northern Kordofanshows that the regeneration of the tree stock of thethornscub savannah can take place relatively quickly.The conservation measures which have been taken by thevillagers themselves have produced astonishing resultsafter eight years. The decision to take such measuresand the observation of their execution is speciallyeasy in a region in which the traditional tribalsystem is still in function.

_ 52 -


57/60

g) Establishment J3f Labourjf>jggj;ygThrough the degradation of the land use potentialas a result of progressing desertification a largenumber of land labourers is always arriving in the townsin the affected zone and aggravating the problem ofunemployment there. To solve this problem severallabour intensive industries and manufactures should beestablished to absorb the unemployed land labourers.The factories should be based on the processing ofagrarian and animal raw materials, such as cereals,peanuts, sesame, arabic gum, wood, meat, milk, leather

and wool.h) Organisation Of An Enlightenment Campaign

Against DesertificationAll measures taken against desertification cannot

bring fortti the desirable results unless they are carriedout by the population consumed itself. Desertificationis the result of land misuse by man. The change forland use systems which are more suitable to the givenconditions requires a turn over from traditionalbehaviours which have been practised over long centuries.This demands a long process of unlearning and learning.

- 53 -


58/60

The organisation which may be able to carry outthis campaign on a large scale all over the desertmarginal zone is the Sudan Socialist Union with allits small units. The SSU is represented in all partsof the country and stands in good contact with tineheads of the different tribes. In any case, it is,always advantageous to involve the tribal chiefs inthe plan of action against desertification. Theeducation of the population to understand the causesof the problem and how to tackle it is the mostimportant issue in any plan of action.

- 54 -


59/60

" S U D A NZone of sLronrj desertificationAgronomic dry bounciary ( arid months in the

Plucttnt ion ru lV je of precipitation between freof 1^50 sn$'' the dry yaar o f 1973.

O TOO 20 0

Actual border of n i l l c l . cu.lt ivat3on.


60/60

The Development Studies and Re-search Centre was established in Sep-tember 1976 as a University bodywithin the Faculty of Economic &Social Studies. Its aim is to act as an,effective vehicle linking the Facultyand the University at large to theon-going developing effort through amission-oriented program me of >- post - graduate studies and training- applied research- consultation- publications and documentation.

The Centre will lay particularemphasis in its interdisciplinary pro -gramme on high - priority issues ofsoc io-ec on om ic development withview to leaving, whenever possible,direct impact on policy making andpolicy implementation.

758_ibrahim(the Peobem of Deserfication in the Republic of the Sudan With Special Reference to...

Documents

Transcript of 758_ibrahim(the Peobem of Deserfication in the Republic of the Sudan With Special Reference to...