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Merrow, John; And OthersThe Urban School Superintendent of the Future.Southeastern Foundation, Durant, Okla.Office of Education (DREW), Washington, D.C.;Southeastern State Coil., Durant, Okla.74137p.; Portions of this book have appeared in thefollowing journals: Phi Delta Kappan; EducationalLeadership, National Elementary Principal, and theSchool AdministratorSoutheastern Foundation of Durant, Oklahoma (Pricenot quoted)

MF-50.76 BC Not Available from EDRS. PLUS POSTAGEAdministrative Policy; Administrator Background;Administrator Characteristics; *AdministratorEducation; Administrator Role; EducationalAdministration; *Educational Change; EducationalPolicy; Graduate Study; Public Schools; *SchoolSuperintendents; *Superintendent Role; *UrbanSchools

ABSTRACTThe argument of this book is that "educational

reform" will remain an impossible dream until the relationshipbetween the public schools and the larger society undergoes a basicreadjustment. We Americans need to recognize their interdependence,and we need to consider just how long we can ask the public schoolsto change the social order in ways which we as a people apparentlyfind unpalatable. The wisdom of changing the social order is not theissue, only the unrealistic expectation that schools can do the jobalong. We begin this book with an examination of the social role ofthe modern public school in the larger society. Chapters 3 and 4examine superintendents and their training, respectively. Chapter 5enters the closed circle of graduate training. Chapter 6 explains howthe discontent with graduate training developed into a special kindof training, which we call Superintendents' Network and PROJECT OPEN,and Chapter 7 examines a "typical" networking session. We see theSuperintendents' Network as something of a prototype for a nationalnetwork of educational reform, which would involve mayors, civicleaders, educators, and representatives of all the organizations thatimpinge on the public schools and make them what they are. Chapter 8looks ahead to the day when interdependence is recognized.(Author/JR)

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The Urban SchoolSuperintendentof the Future SCOPE OF INTEREST NOTICE

The ERIC Facility has assignedthis document for toocessingTO

In our ludgentent, this documentmats° of :newest to the cleating.houses noted to the nen, Indertleg theuid reflect thee specialpaints of view.

ByJohn Merrow, Richard Foster, and Nolan Estes

II DI AIITME NT OF HEALTHno( ATION d Air SPARE

NAT ONAE NSTsTUTE OFEDUCATION.- f 4 1.I s,,.

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7-3 Published by theSOUTHEASTERN FOUNDATION

of Durant, Oklahoma

2

Copyright © 1974By the SOUTHEASTERN FOUNDATION

of Durant, Oklahoma

Copyright is claimed until 1979.Thereafter all portions of thiswork covered by this copyrightwill he in the public domain.

This work was developed under a grant from the United StatesOffice of Education, Department of Health, Education, andWelfare. However, the content does not necessarily reflect theposition or policy of that Agency, and noofficial endorsementof these materials should be inferred.

Manufactured in the United States of America

ii

To Marcus Foster

4

iii

PREFACEThe event. [radii Ig tit the writing and publication of this book beganwith the involvement of two of the author-, Nolan and RichardFoster, in the development of an approach fa re-education. or self-training. for urban superintendents. Roth are experienced school ad-minitrators. As the book itself makes clear. the motlern superintend-ent.. requires till attention. often more hours than there arc in the day.The responsibility fur explaining the Superintendents' \etwork andPROJECT OPE \ was given to John Nterrow. a writer on educationwhose doctoral dissetatioon examined the role of the r.S. Office ofEducation in teacher training. including the TTT (Training forTeacher Trainerst Program. a ft orerunner of the systematized interac-tion of the Superintendents' Network.

Without the assistance of Dr. Eugene E. Slaughter. Director of theOklahma-Texa ITT Project at Southeastern State College, Durant.Oklahoma. this l ook could not have been written. We have benefitedfrom the editorial suggestions of Harold Cohen. Jack Culbertson,Norman Warbler. [.. D. ['askew. Harold Howe U. George Kaplan. H.Thomas James. William I.. Smith. Dustin Wilson and especially A.Bruce Gaarder. J. N. Hook. Richard W. lid. and Seymour Sarason.

Research fur this book was made possible by a grant from Southeast-ern State College Researeh Foundation.

Portions of this book have appeared in .Vational Elementary Princi-pe!, Phi Delta kappan. Educational Leadership. and The SchoolAdministrator.

5iv

H EWOR DInoue IL Sarasors

This is an important book for att% one who 1. interested in newditei ions in education or concerned about the disease of proles-.1m:distil. It. inipiOrtatiet tr%itit Hilt only in its tt pies or substance butin the tact that two of its author -. Richard Foster and `.filan ste..have been among the most et intro% ersial. trlttcevative. and sitret.slttiselifooktwe'litttetiefettts I have k.,own. an opinion shared by practicallyev ery one who has known or Aliced with them. They have beencicutiov ersi al preeiselv because the% have been innovative and ciut-.1s.keti. and the% hav e been street...lut because they have been able nopow or their clear ci meetot natl....Mime.. and explicit values with courage.intrei stenal skills. and an unusual degree of fairness and administra-tiv soplitiat The are' not Wissietur) zealots or muckrakingintnidieheads who. espousing the latest version of virtue and truth.Wattage' to heighten polaritation and turn battles into wars. They arerealists w ithout being (11116,1111i:4s. leaders who lead rather than publicopioilm pone!, seeking to know what public nit lod they should f'llow.

when two people like these. together with a younger. veryknow ledgeable educator. John Merrow. describe the present scene, itis not surprising that we get a book remarkable for its candor andrecommendations which. I should hastily add, reflect an on-going"program" based on the concept of "networking." Most simply stated(and deseribe.1 in detail in later chapters of this book) networking isbased ,in the tart that schools interrelate with other social systems andeommunity forces. and on the value that educational policy and prac-tice must involve these different groups indeed to "co-opt" them forthe purpose of broadening the base of community support for theunproventent of everyone's educational experience.

It Hlws from these considerations that a superintendent ofschools can no longer think only in terms if his school system. i.e., thathe ha. much in common with other superintendents and that to theextent they ran learn to share with each other their problems, dilem-mas, and taetis they increase the chanceF that their problem solvingefforts will be more productive. The aim is not. God forbid, to produceanother guild but rather to use their "network" to implement moreeffectively agreed-upon values. It is for mutual education. not formutual protection or for feathering the professional nest. As the firstpart of this book makes clear, and gives such force to the second part,today's education the superintendency is irrelevant to what thatrole is in "real life." Someone once said that the Beethoven violin

eertg, was not for the' violin. it was against it. Similarly, education ortraining for the superintendency is against rather than for effectiveperformance. We should be grateful that this irrelevancy has beendescribed and analyzed by our authors in a systematic fashion.

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T %IMF: OF CON'rENTS

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Fon o%. sot h% I.

CILIptri One: In tntteulurtifett

; ',Lipton 1 Nu: I Ito I. \oot in the Ci.t..tolottit

t :kiloton I ht ve: F.% Th. a% - AA anted toknow about shoid 21

ritaptet 1:out: Reforming Admitti.trator Training:The F.unidation. ..i%e It it 29

Chapter Fie: \eithr Wi.el% \or Too Well

:Itapter siv The Suprintendent.. \rtNeerk andpRoJEcr (N.:\ 53

C /Lila rt. St. eft: Networking Se..ion

Chapter Eight: Imagining the Future 91

Appendix Some Reform Attempt. 107

pprtiii. It: The Superintendent.. Network:Selected Situation* 119

.Appendi. (:: The 1)e.ign aad Information Centerof PROJECT OPE 1\ 125

Bibliography 127

viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION I

Imagine or so ehool supel intr:dents in a room. What are theyhat are the talking alstulf The answer depetiii% nil the

o t, lttItl. ett iN: if the% Are at a elm% enhem. the tall% nia% be of gull.thflienit ihcri imard ,thrall % andahM. If the happen tohe y11144641 ih an i,l.st 1%irr a.... the Ma% be talking about theinstructor's foibles. or the tita be swapping tables about their ;ownaradnn it.v.t. When the. finver..ati., turn- to pnit'ep.sif 'nal matters.

%rho oul .ninfint inav th%th,os of spending lessice. n% Win e ik . of %% (irking w jib militant teacher organizations. orof measuring ednational progress.

Those '25 or so sellout superintendents will be a fairly hornogene-ems group. %lost will be white males. angst will be between 40 and 50%ears old..nol most till ha e served as teachers and principals. Few ofthe 25 will have been in their present positions for more than six orseven sears. and all will be. vividly aware of their tenuous hold on thejob.

In fart. -ins is at ...Hell getting tired um/ doing a good jobwill be apopular topic of el en% at Pti as the superintendents swap storiesabout niller khee halve Mu% ed Off It been movecit elsewhere. Whathappc-us when a superintendent leaves his job? Most likely. he goesfolder and perhaps a bit wiseri to another sUperinteneteney. If he isapproaching retirement age. he may go to a nearby college of educa-tion and teach others how to superintend.

There. is a missing thread in the make-believe ,but nonethelessrealm t,nvrsation that takes place in that room full of superintendents.What is missing is a dynamic organizing principle, a meehanisin tostimulate personal and professional growth and to permit the de-velopment of what ought to be called "survival skills... Neither eon-Venthots nor conventional in-servire training fill the vacuum.

Vr e think "networking- can provide that missing thread. Wethink "networking- can provide that essential developmental process(which we call. for want of a better word. training,. And we think that"networking- is a stepperhaps not a big step. but nonetheless animportant oneInward the recognition of the interdependence ofschool and society that must precede meaningful educational reform.

'the argument of this hook is that "educational reform" willremain an impossible dream until the relationship between the publicschools and the larger society undergoes a bask readjustment. WeAmerans need to recognize their interdependence. and we need toconsider just how long we can ask the public schools tee change thesocial order in ways which we as a people apparently find unpalatable.The wisdom of changing the social order is not the hiSne, only theunrealistic expectation that schools can do the job alone.

10

2 The 1:rhan School Superintendent of the Future

Faced with inconsistent yet insistent demands. school superin-tendents cannot long survive. the hook also argues. unless they bandtogether in some way. and learn to look for answers to their problemsoutside the closed eirle of professional training. Trainingthe warditself and all that it implies k part of the problem. Rarely (foesprofessional training in'ttlaily prepare. people for the job: they learn onthe it di itself. or perhaps in an internship or apprenticeship. (We arewriting about school administrators here. but the oservatit probablyholds fur doctoN. lawyers. journalists. and plumbers., The schoolsuperintendent who recognites the inadequacy of his training invari-ably looks for better training. Reform is usually planned in terms of"better- training. Roth processes amount to rhasing one's tail.

-My training wasn't adequate: please give me better training." iswishful thinking despite its apparent Ingle. While many claim to knowa good superintendent of schools when they see tine, no one has yetdry ised a training process to produce the model. The intervening stepse.maksis of the characteristics of good superintendents and then re-cruitment and training to produce those c haracteristicsi befuddle thewell - intentioned kce*sl.

Ambitious reform programs end up with narrow amts preciselybecause those aims are achievable. and even if the programs achievetheir aims. the products are not de facto better superintendents. Areform aimed at upgrading major departments of educational ad-ministration ran do just that. a program to turn capable non-educatorsinto educators ran be successful. and a campaign to get minorities andwomen into the superintendeney ran achieve its goalsbut none ofthem will necessarily be turning out better trained superintendents.The reformers ha% rill escaped from the dosed box ed. training.

Neither have we. by the way. When we talk about training. we areusing the word in the usual sense. But we are not proposing a "better"way of training in this book. We are talking instead about a "self-help"process Of re-education that begins when superintendents band to-gether. Perhaps in our next book we will have escaped that rinsedcircle. Ilere we recognize the inadequacy of reforming what is notappmriate. and we are groping toward daylight.

Superintendents must band together. but that is not enough.(Every superintendent already belongs to a number of official organi-zations anti unofficial networks.1 They must also find a way to re-edueate themselves. because graduate schools. in-service courses.and professional workshops simply do not provide We skills thatmodern 'whiled telministrators must have just to survive.

The assassination of Oakland Schnol Superintendent MarcusFoster illustrates tragically the truth of our thesis: the modern urban

1 I

Introduction 3

.ailletintndynt what anitotint% ter a "no-win- situation. 1kis politicallv v and pubbelv .n but not politicallverred: schfiiiis are asked terd.r Mt t than the% ba% e the vowel tit di,. and\Ilprirttndent ha% not been trained for the political responsibilitiesthat .111 urban alpetitendene% EVll a highl% capable city-t lt tiperilittndent hirh Marc u hster wasis fighting a hold-ing action against e...ndition el- which he and tla. school sv -tem havno flints& ert'. . crime. drugs. "white fligk! ." urban decay. Intline-ipai tecrrinitth and rchled ttVntls. Inereaed dtnand% ac-clittntahiiit% and rising teacher and school lotard militancy put newpressures on the superintendent. who. since he wears the ringmaster'silsattilte, might at least to have the figurative equivalents of whip andpitil!. hi fart. the whip and pistol seem to be in other hands. the. circustent is on fire. and the audience is demanding at new ringmaster.

metaphor can make the point as clearly as did the events ofTue,dav \.1% ember 6. 1973. in C hekland. California. when Dr. MarcusFoster Wa% he death bV Mntber of the S1112biutiese LiiPetatiultArmy. Deputy Superintendent Robert Blackburn was seriouslywounded in thesame attack. Their assailants. who were- armed withshotguns and pitel loaded with yanide bullets. later wrote to a localnewspaper and radio station: -Target Dr. Marcus Foster and RobertBlackburn. Warrant Order: ewcutin ley cyanide bullet."

The elynami and talented Foster had been in Oakland for threeyears. during which time racial violence in the schools had all butdisappeared. Before coming to Oakland. Foster. who was Mack. hadbeen an assistant superintendent in Philadelphia.

Why was Mareti Foster murdered? Later statements from theSymbionse liberation Arms indicate that Foster had incurred theSIA enmity by his ',tippler, of at photo-idntifiation card sy stem furthe Oakland Schools. ID card, would help police and sbool officialskeep non-students out of the schools. and non-students are often thedrug dealers. It may be that a climate of violence had been created inOakland rand elsewhere, by white. -romantics'. amusing schools of"veitties against hildren.- by black revolutionaries and a facile equa-tion of ballots and bullets, and by our nation's misadventures inSoutheast Asia. According to this theory. Niaey., Foster had made abargain with the ruling elass and was no longer helping his people.

Whatever the tortured logic of assassins. Marcus Foster was notbargaining with the devil. 1k was working hard to make Oaklandpublic schools safe for students and teachers. and hospitable furgrowth and learning. But Marcus Foster went int the struggle an.armed. or at least relatively so. At best. ID cards are a stopgapmaneuver. Drugs are a social problem that the schools can never solve,

e,41.41,

4 The Urban School Superintendent of the Future

not by ID cards or drug education courses rang other step. unless theworld outside is willing to take other, more forceful steps against thedrugs themselves and the conditions that encourage them.

Tit, romantic and revolutionary rhetoric is a product of our na-tional over-dependence upon schools as agents of social reform. %slong as we ask our schools to solve the social problems convenientlylumped under the heading "disadvantaged." the rhetoric will beheard. Schools simply cannot. as presently vnstituted, do all that theyare asked to do.

We begin this book with an examination of the social role of themodern public school in the larger society. The modern public schoolis as much a social service agency as an educational one. We Ameri-cans hope that through the schools we can tackle our major socialproblems: hunger. disease. social maladjustment. misuse of drugs andalcohol. and inequality of opportunity.

We also hold schools to an unrealistic standard of decorum, andwe tend not to weep, conflict as normal human behavior. Finally, wewant quality education but are unwilling to pay for it.

The superintendent is squarely in the middle of all this, nominallyin charge of a world he does not control. Quite literally, the dailybusiness of running a school system requires all his attention andenergy. les called "putting out brush fires," in the trade. and only therare superintendent has the time and energy. whatever his mandate,for reforestation.

But who are the modern urban school superintendents? Are theyall ex-football coaches and physical education teachers? Are thesuperintendents in the cities different from those in rural America?What kind of training has prepared them for the modern urban schoolsuperintendency? Chaptris three and four examine superintendentsaml their training. respectively. and both subjects are important to ourcase.

We contend that most superintendents are not prepared, eitherby previous experience or training, for the responsibilities of themodern superintendency. Almost every American schoolsuperintendent came up the career ladder: teacher, principal, ad-ministrator and superintendent, and it is highly debatable whether anyof these roles can be considered training for the next higher post. As itworks now, performing well in one position leads to eligibility fur thenext. but eligibility should not necessarily be equated with prepara-tion. Seymour Sarason has observed that there is nothing in theisolated setting or responsibilities of the classroom teacher that can becalled preparation for the principalship. That observation holds truefor higher positions on the career ladder.

111

Introduction 5

available training in educational administration doesn't seemto be much help either. Almost all training is pro% Wed by ex-sclioolatintinitrator. turned professors. Chapter tour also focuses on 20ears of refrnt ttrp (anti money t and what those years have meant

to must of 350-odd departments* of educational administration. In aword. growth.

Chapter five enters the closed circle of 1.hraduate training. Thatchapter's evidence alone. in our judgment. proves the need fin' a neworrintitatn in for the re-education of superintendents. The depart-ments ,4* educational administration except the very best ofthemturn inward by design. Ex-superintendents become professorsand proveed to turn ambitious fritn and teachers into certified.emplov able school superintendent* Anti. as the data show. almosteverodyprul.!..or, and superintendents alikehas been satisfiedwith the

A teW wete not satisfied. though. Chapter Six explain: how thediscontent bubbled to the surface and developed into a special kind oftraining. which we call the Superintendents' Network and PROJECTMIA. and (:haptr Seven examine: a "typical- networking session.These two chapters are central to the book., because we see theSuperintendents' Network as something of a zirototype fin. a NationalNetwork of Educational Reform. which would involve mayors. civicleaders. educators. and representatives of all the organizations thatimpinge upon the piddle schools and make them what they are.

Our central thesis is that no worthwhile. significant school reformis possible until it is generally recognized that the schools are con-trolled by and interdependent with other social systems. Shook ranbe changed only through the intensive involvement of those othersystems. Further. superintendents must equip themselves for theirnewly politicized positions. and the governing systems whose actionsaffect the sehools. direetly and indirectly. must allow the schools toparticipate in their councils of power. It is not enough for a superin-tendent to be capable. it the municipal decision-making process doesnot give him the power to bring about change.

Social and school problem: are not amenable to solution by onlythe school board and the school :superintendent. Nor will the additionof courses to the curriculum solve great soda! problems, although thatis pre-6,4.4 what has been attempted in an effort to reduce trafficdeaths. divorce.. and drug abuse. Courses in driver education, mar-riage and the family, and drug abuse education are small monuments

"MP% grP Or .641461. depending Vitieth; tin their 1,w andindependence.

14


to the insufficiency of our political leadership. or perhaps to ourgeneral unwillingness to accept the interrelatedness of our socialsystem. We think the Superintendents' Network and PROJECTOPEN are steps toward the re-education of school administrators anda readjustment of the relationship among the schools and other socialsystems.

Chapter Eight looks ahead to the day when interdependence isrecognized. In that chapter. we discuss a direction for theSuperintendents' Network and PROJECT OPEN, we present somemodels for preparing administrators. and we speculate on the urbansuperintendent of the future. We call that final chapter *Imagining theFuture." and not "Predictions." because there are constraints thatcannot be dismissed or overcome by a book. The larger problem is theAmerican attitude toward public schodds. The immediate ptoblem itthe survival of the superintendents. Just td: survive. he must overcomehis limited experience and inadequate training (plus a few other hand-icaps). Even before beginning that struggle. he must discover howpervasive the problems are, and he must learn that many othersuperintendents also feel the agony of trying to cope with insurmount-able problems and contradictory pressures. We hope this hook ranmove superintendents and good citizens everyWhere toward aware-ness. and we hope. too, that it will contribute to the dialogue aboutpublic education in the United States.

it

CHAPTER TWO: 7THE CRISIS IS NOT IN THE CLASSROOM

. . . schodds are not modest. single-purpose orgtanilationsaimed at inculcating specific skills. The are increasinglyambitious organizations with complex and often conflictingfunctions: they are supposed to inculcate civic virtue, toteach basic skills universally. to keep the streets clear witihomes happy by keeping children occupied six or sevenhours a day. and to recognize merit and promote equality.'

We Americans cling to certain beliefs about our public schools.We like to !ogle% e that public schools are preparing our children for abetter day, but we won't allow much deviation from yesterday. "Whatwas good enough for me," we say. We like to think that schools areneutral and above politics. although they are neither. We imagineschools as preparation for life. but we don't want our children to holdopinions and beliefs that contradict our own. We Americans want ourchildren to live in and perpetuate our democratic society, but wehardly mind that most schools deny their inhabitants the basicprivileges of the Hill of Rights. And we use our schools as entry pointsfor correcting the ills of the larger society, while insisting that schoolsremain conflict-free. Asked to be the single most important vehicle fordesegregation of society, schools are also expected to "keep the lidon ": a fistfight on the school grounds often becomes a major racialclash in the newspapers and in the mind of the public.

The social cost of these contradictions is high and it includes agreat toll from the schools themselves, and ultimately from our ownfaith in public schooling. We expect schools to be neutral, non-political, unchanging. modern, and quiet, all the while educating ouryoung anti correcting our social wrongs. We use our public schools tomake the present disorder finite. allowing us to imagine an orderly.less complex future for our young. How deep the roots of these con-tradictions are is not clear. What is clear to schoolmen is that the roleof the public school is difficult, and its future uncertain.

The superintendent is caught in the middle. He is brought upthrtmgh the ranks: assistant principal. principal. and central officeadministrator. Often he is exposed! to inadequate and outdated train-ing: yesterday's courses in curriculum development, school adminis-tration theory. budgeting. counseling, and staff relations. He maystudy "conflict management." but he won't discover until he becomesa superintendent that conflict management actually means the sup-pression and elimination of trouble, as far as the general public isconcerned. Only when he becomes a superintendent will he know justhow "political- he must he, and how non-political he must appear tobe.

Is


The preservation of social stability has also been assigned to theschools. kindergarten. (.4 fin pulsoni education. and other reforms werenot `4intply a beneficence showered upon the multitude; they were alsoinsurance that the country and the labor market would not be overrunby a horde of illiterates, as mm-English-speaking immigrants and thepoor were often presumed to be. The reforms of the 1960's weredifferent in degree in that they involved more children, and weredifferent in kind in that the federal government took the initiative, paidmost of the bills, and often trit d to call the shots. Nonetheless, theywere aimed at stabilizing the society, at reducing social conflict, and atsocial control.

Schools came under extreme pressure in the 1960's. The pressurebegan when the Brown decision of 1954 began to be implemented"with all deliberate speed." and it increased with the flight of Sputnik.t That clamor for improved education was mistranslated into retrainingfor teachers and curricular refiirm.) The rediscovery of poverty pre-cipitated a flood tide of largely federal pressures to improve the lot ofthose who weft !abelled "tiisadvantaged.- Schools became the majorvehicle for social reform, and the major strategy. irrespective of therhetoric. was to adapt the children to the schools, not the schools to thechildren.

The schooling experience has not changed drastically over theyears. Today's fourth-graders are experiencing much the same struc-ture that their parents and grandparents did: one teacher. 25-35 kids.recess. the Pledge of Allegiance, and the reinforcement of approvedbehavior patterns. Some things inside the school have changed. butthe drastic changes have been outside the school. What goes on in theclassroom is the school's reaction to the publics contradictory de-mands and its response to crisis. These outside changes are translatedand neutralized and thus made safe before they are admitted tothe classroom. Schools react to clamor for change just as moss system!'do: by trying to behave as if nothing were happening.

This is not to dismiss all reform efforts: some genuine desegrega-tion is occurring. some curricular reforms are making schools morechallenging. and in some places students have a degree of freedom antiresponsibility at least approximating those provided in the Bill ofRights. Nor are we saying that schools are hopelessly inflexible, au-thoritarian. racist institutions. The clichi. that "the more thingschange. the more they remain the same" applies to the public schoolsbecause the pressure bewilders the schools. They don't understandthe language, and they don't know how to cope with the suddenresponsibility for leadership.

The CHAP& Is Not In The Classroom 9

The Example of Memphis

in the last six Years. the school system of one major American cityhas been buffeted by the assassination of a major political figure, acrippling municipal strike. a federal court order requiring massivebusing of school children. large scale "white flight" to the outlyingsuburbs. racial confrontation. and a rising crime rate. The city isNlemphis. Tennessee; the murdered leader. Dr. Martin Luther King,Jr. It could have been Los Angeles. New York. or Oakland, whereRobert F. Kennedy, Malcolm X. and Marcus Foster were gunneddown. But, more tip the point. most major American cities lack only thetragedy of assassination to fit the description.

Desegregation, murder. crime. decay and the flight of the middle(lass define the major American cities in the public consciousnessand. often. in reality. Those forces are also part of the reality of urbanpublic school systems. which feet the same forces, but are even lessequipped for life in the maelstrom.

Although no Memphis student fired the shot that killed Dr. King,and although it was sanitation workers and not teachers who were onstrike, the school system was shaken by those events. So, too, do"white flight." drugs. and crime shake and shape the public school.The obvious point that outside events affect the school is recognized inindividual psychology and in civics class. Teachers and guidancecounselors are trained to look for the effects of domestic trouble, andso forth, on strident behavior. Weergate. Southeast Asia. the resigna-tion of Vice-President Agnew. and impeachment are discussion topicsin Secondary schools across the United States.

But they are topics for discussion, not calls for action. because ofthe schools` facility for cooling off urgent topics. The non-political/educational stance serves the classroom teacher well: stu-dents can discuss and debate so-called "relevant" topics. but actionand commitment are reserved for outside the school. The truth of thegeneralization is proved by the exceptions: students and teacherswhose political action disrupt school meet severe disapproval. Publicschools are not perceived by anyone as properly holding an institu-tional (or classroom by classroom) position on controversy, if disrup-tion of the school is a consequence.

Schools also perpetuate the individualization and personificationof events and frces. In mock elections students might express opin-ions on Presidential candidates. but never on the school board electionor the mayoralty race. Guidance counselors discuss Mom's drinkingproblem or Dad`s philandering. but not the frequency or causes ofalcoholic mothers and unfaithful husbands.

18

10 The 1. rburt ;eIun Superintendent of the Future

The easy cone Inion is that schools are irrelevant. but the safetyk al% e for drat w hat it is ett holding real and reley ant problems ata distance Ina not deserye its present bad name. Students ha% elimited power t,p rip Prtn cttupaigit financing or end a War. and it nta bethat no one is -,ryed by acting as if the el Mt Cary Were trite.

The relevance of public schools is not the issue. whit is. instead.the school's apparent inability to provide its constituents with the.urn iv al skills of reading. riting.. and manipulation of numbers. Yet itis a Italy e 'perception that -.clip pills are "no !gingr able to teach.- forwhen failure to read brcimes endemic uis it is nowt. it ran no longer betreated a the disease. It must be considered a symptom of an illnesswhich lies outside the shoo! "mantels and is largely beyond theschool's conttol.

The Burden on the Schoolclimatt- has lir% el encouraged direct intery entii

whiph %%mild mean tepid for the bungr . medical care for the sick. andmoney for the 'pupa-. as the appropriate vehicle 'ter righting socialw'reettg.. Indirect harry entippn threpugh the school ling ago becamepublic policy. The goal was "equal educational opportunity.- whichtranslated into an equal Charter at the starting line in the race toachiey e the .American Dream. The fact that schools are but a weakreflection of the society which controls them was largely overlooked.

That public policy meant a dot.le burden on American publicehools: a large corrective lintel Pn ("breaking the poverty cycl -1 andthe challenge to make 'Lewd em the generally accepted assertion thatschooling was correlated with adult success. E'qualit of I.: ductal until(Ipperrttrrtitt and Irrequellit * have tried to jar the country out of thecomfortable belief that school perfi 'nuance correlates highly and posi-tively with adult success. And the money to provide the correctivefunction e.g.. a Head Start and A Better Chance has nevermatched the promises of politicians and policy-makers.

Our convert) here is not with the extravagant promises. nor withthe conclusions of Coleman and Jencks. but rather with the changedpolitical position of the public schools and their superintendents. Themyth of the non-political public school is shattered: schools are notabove politics but are in the middle of eontroversy. and no one isserv..el by pretending otherwise.

The reek of *feria! change agency. despite the evidence thatschooling cannot change suc'ial patterns. has thrust schools and

Th tmr ceoiall called the Coleman Report atter principal author Jame- M.Coleman. Inequechtt :hre.topitr Jnek- et al. See Ilitplippomphy.

19

The Criis I. Not In The Clappereent I I

schoolmen onto center stage. The Brown decision of 1954 and subse-quent Supt tone Court &visins ;met Sputnik in 1957 put tmaueus-turned pressure on the shools. Less obvious but equally real is theimpact of daily. almost routine events anti decisions of governmentand individual citizens. "White flight." for example. often relatesdirectly to parental perception of school quality. Quality is often a codeword for rare 1-qualit schools" are predominantly whiter. but it mayreflect genuine concern about disturbances and disruptions. Deseg-regation invariab4 leads to tension (at least temporarily( betweenraciai groups. and e% en isolated incidents are enough to make somewhites abandon the public schools. Perhaps the kids are sent to privateschool: more often the family -escapes to the suburbs."

Only lately are Americans discovering that the suburbs aren'tmuch of an escape. and now some fatnilies are moving back into thecities. But the point is that the school situation and the publicperception of the situation was and is causally related to whitemovement away from the cities and to the withdrawal of white supportfrom urban public schools.

it is unfair to say that desegregation caused the problems. be-cause desegregation is just one piece of the puzzle. But court-ordereddesegregation of the sehot 'Is has not been accompanied by comparablepressure on other agencies that determine the conditions of municipalliving. [lusing patterns and zoning laws have been scrutinized andcriticized, while schools have been summarily ordered to changedirection anti lead the country. kicking and screaming, into to-mot row's world.

The eteect of these steps-out-of-step has not been what the propo-nents of desegregation expected. Schools are not prepared to exercisesocial leadership. nor have other public agencies displayed muchwillingness to follow. In some places the public schools have becomeresegregated by race and class, because middle-class black:. are leav-ing the cities and the public schools, too.

We are not concerned here with the merits anti demerits ofdesegregation. but with the schools and their role in the policy. Indeegrevation matters the schools have been made instruments ofnational policy. Schools are also shaped by the decisions and actionson the local government level. by budget decisions, police hiring.construction permits, and so forth. Nonetheless, school systems existon the periphery of power: they are more decided about than deciding.They should be partners in the decisions that affect urban living.because those decisions affect the schools. School conditions pre-sented by spokesmen for the schools ought to influence the decisionprocess.

12 The I. Oran School Superintendent of the Future

Schools are political institutions, which doesn't mean thatschoolmen are "playing politics" with the children. The decisionsaffecting schools are political decisions. although they are often notexplicitly concerned with schools. and they almost never affect onlythe schools. That point needs some explanation: many parents areaware of the educational issues and the important decisions maderegularly about the schools the budget. a bond issue. teachers'contracts. the superintendency. Few ci!izens, we suspect. have re-flected on the significance of non-educational decisions for the publicschools. When the city council votes money to create an anti-drugstrike hove. that decision will affect the schools. if the new policegroup is successful in the streets but has not made the schools anae tip e partner in the planning. the dealers in drugs may be driven intothe schools. with predictable results. That is a simple case, and theokious lesson is for city council-school cooperation. The lesson iseas to draw. but hard to follow.

Sometimes the lesson is not so easy to draw because the connec-titm is not clear. Consider bus transportation. When the bus companysets its routes. it does so with maximum awareness of passenger travelpatterns. There are more buses during rush hours than there areduring the mid-aftrto on hours. The bus schedule also determineswhen and by often people ran travel. Children generally travel hischool hoses. while the non-school buses generally carry people towork. Suppose both parent work and the father leaves early in themorning. by car. if the school bus arrives after the nonschool bus hastaken the mother off to work, some of the children (on some of the daysmay decide not tee get on the school bus. That is .tot an unreasonabledecision. especially since the child knows that neither parent is athome tee answer the phone. Every time that happens. Outs; childrenand the schools miss an opportunity, and the school systm loses stateaid, which is based on daily attendance figures.

We use the example to make a point: it is not ahttiy easy toidentify "school decisions" except the obvious ones: the i.olget.teachers' contracts. et cetera. Municipal action against drugs, thescheduling of bit :es. and a host of other seemingly non-school-relateddecisions and - lions the affect the schools. The safest assumption isthat municipal decisions, large and small, will affect the public schoolsystem. and the safest course is to try to determine what the effectswill be. before the decisions are made. The observation holds true,though less so. for state and federal actions.

Some readers might conclude from this that, in order to cope withthis complexity, the superintendent of schools must be a tirelesslobbyist for the schools' interests. We draw a somewhat different

21

The Crisis is Not In The Classroom 13

runcht,inn: the sulrintendent must he able to stand on an cqualfootin4 the leadet tet the community : he must educate the. eu-nintnt% Ott the interrelatedness of municipal decisions. while. he d-fnds the. interests eel the school \ .testa.

( :lead% . that situation dosnt obtain today . Totlav's urban schoolsuperintendent is nutlet tire from all directions. Ile cannot functioneither as poor cou..in or dim. distant relative. Schee/els are in the vortex.,anti fu be effeeli%e a ftnittlintendent niu-.t possess an extratirdittarycombittatit en of politieal. managerial. communicative. and interper-sonal skills. Intl he must have the power to influence municipaldecisions and actions that will affect the schools.

Consider Memphis again: 40 far. the' superintendent of sehoolsritti has weathered a rash of crises. Other superintendents havefaced -.midi,' problems but have failed to survive. liars ey Serihner in\ ew Ytprk t :ity . \lark Shedd in Philadelphia. Thomas Shaheen in SanFranciscte. and neigh Scott in Washington. 1).C. are cases in point.Each case is different. but there is one part ieularly valid generaliratieenabout urban ...cloud superintendents: they don't last brig. The averagetenure. (tithe superintendents in districts with more than 25.000 pupilswas less than live years in 1970. and it is getting shorter.2 After leavingPhiladelphia. Shedd observed that a superintendent needed four yearsbe "make an impart.'' darts don't get that mud) time. Length el tenureis not to be equated with success. but it is a reasonable condition. It isdifficult to demonstrate leadership if yu'v to sent parking.

Survival and SuccessWhat determines survival and success in the leadership of an

urban public school system? What. for that matter, is suceess? Thelatter ought to gee belowd negative' definition: it is not merely keepingthe lit! on or the avoalance of racial confront at ieen. We think sueess iresome measure of stability and some evidence eel public support of andfaith in the public. schools. Stability can be measured in test scores.vandalism post s. aleelnee and dropout figures. teacher turnover.racial enrollment figures. or etenstituents. attitudes toward theschools. The stability index might justifiably include attendance atfootball and basketball games. adult empletyment data. anti so forth:the more numbers the better. Windy tee get away from the temptation tojudge school stability by a single measurement.

The determinants of a superintendent's survival and successtiointly. not separately t include an uncertain mix of talent, training.and serendipity. If we knew the recipe. we would be writing about that.If we knew that John Freeman of Memphis. for example. tor some othersuperintendent. was the prototype, we would be writing about him.

0444.0

I t The Urban School Superintendent of the Future

%e don't know those thins s. we are writing about talent.training. and luck. and about an approach to re-training, that mightcompensate fur deficiencies in training and talent. Srendipitx is bydefinition helmetl control.

survival. merely sating on the. j.ito. is not reallx an indication ofan thing. although some consider it evidenc of success and otherstake it a proof of failure. The administrated. who stays may be aceone..[dishing great things. or he max be a rubber stamp for a school boardw hick tuav be torogressi% e. reactionarx . or neither. \or should failure,tee stir% ive be thought of as a badge of honor. Nirt every fired superin-tendent represents the limps of won! brought low (temporarily) by thedark power- of regression and racism. Some administrators lose theirtitles because the are not elfin petent. eeatiNe they are unsuited to theparticular situation. or because a "no-win situation demands ascapegoat. Some administrators fail to last because their training forthe. tole and soviet Cs perception of the job are both Out of harmony withthe realit. Corti al is not a rcliabl indicated ref capabilit. but it is anecessan 41,11,116m for select."...

Talent. traitang. and serendipit are the major variables. butw here and he ew can they be. manipulated? Serendipity we else Ito iSely tieindicate es ems outside the. influence of the school system and superin-tendent. V e do not sav "ens iromnent because that term possesses

e.it kss preitiejtV and eertainly less color. Serendipity is a factor insue eess and survival. but it atmot he manipulated. notwithstandingthe old coaching (bruin) about making your own luck. One can only beprepared for chance occurrences. But if chance cannot be etentnAnellneither can it explain stir v is al anti success: there are rrtain necessaryskills. although they ire not solely administrative ones.

Talent is something of a catch-all term. to cover characteristicswhich are not thought of as being aeptired through professional train-ing. such as leadership ability. intelligence. courage. vision. and integ-rity. Essentially. talent is our term for the clay of which we are allfashioned. It can Ine manipulated most easily in the selection prou ess.when schools of education choose anteing candidates for admission andwhen school boards pick superintendents and either administrators. Alinters!: insuring more informed judgments about those entering train-ing has long been one goal of reformers. as we shall see. A w.611001board's willingness to select fier superintenclenies those whose mettlehas been tested elsewhere (that is. in settings unrelated to education)is an important and intriguing possibility. but it is of little value tocrisis-beset urban school districts.

23

The Crisis Is Not In The Classroom IS

Does Training Make the Difference?

it' serendipity is beyond our control. and if' m;mipulation of thetalent variable promises no sloot-term leenefits. that lea% es onlytraining-- meaning professional preparation. Our own experience is

that Mari) professional training in educational administration ka it r ably is in every field front law to chemical engineer-

ing to pchotherap. SUMP prefesi.enal training is probably counter-roductiv e. learning that must be. -unlearned- on the job. But trainingis in fact the only significant entry point ner influencing the behavior ofthe school superintendents now on the job. Better training mightincrease the superintndent's chances for survival and success.

I'reeb.ssional 'preparation is usually eategorized by time and place.The: is pre-ry ire training, at the university or college of education.and there' is in- service training. available at institutions of higherlearning and a member of other places. We will have a gofiti deal to sayAmin the re-service training of administrators. The gist of the argu-ment is that pre-service training ought not to harden the clay of whichwe are termed --but it does. in most cases. Colleges of education havea near me nil OPUI em the professional preparation of administrators. butwe have some modest antitrust action in mind.

In-servie training is neelody' meentilaely. There are categories by

time and type. and there are ventures which defy categorization.Training van mean the exporoure to new knowledge. the practice of new

behaviors based on new knowledge. or something akin to reading.reflectionPit and self-examination. In-service training can occupy a sab-batical year or a few weekends, the summer months or one evening aweek. Correspondence courses are not unheard of, and school dis-tricts give c'oursrs during releilsrd time. The structure of the experi-ence varies. too: lecture, seminar. workshop. reading at home, and-hands on- training.

In-service training has at least its share of charlatans and fools..Administrative responsibilities leave little free time leer serious. sus-tained in-service training or for reflection, and the hypocrisy of thecareer laelder in teaching encourages breezy. inconsequential in-service courses. As long as salary increments depend upon in-servicecredits. Gresham's law will apply: the easy courses will fill up withteachers eyeing that one opening in administration. institutions will beled to offer more easy courses, and the more challenging courses aredriven out as surely as bad money drives out good.

ir.nrkshnp, the common term tee describe in-service training foradministrators. defies strict definition. Its form is probably limited bythe constraints of working conditions tmeanie.g weekend workshops

24

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The E:risi% Is, Not In The Ciamront 17

charts, or mne% ing differentiated staffing. and the trainees regurgi-tate whit they ha.. learned. The course does not ask them it' 10111%-edifferently, and the teaehing method reinfrues the custe unary be-hay leers.

1, e think a more appropriate model should approximate diges-tion, not ingestion-regurgitation. A r think that the learning process iscentral to the re-education of superintendents. Learning always takesplace in a social setting and in the heads of those involved. For learningtl, I oectli there must be interaction among those different people in thesoc ial setting and within each head.

Three ariablew People, Information, and Pathway!,

Ve Lind three variable. in the learning situation. and each issusceptible to manipulation. The first variable is the people tactually.the systems) involved, called. in the language of general systemstheory'. the "nodes" of "terminals. Between those terminals flowinformation. facts. feelings. and data. which are the second variable..The. third variable is the linkages. pathways along which the infrma-tion flows. Traditional schooling ensists of a one-way flow of dataalong the traditional pathway. which we might call "brain tee brain.-More titan that happens. of course: professors are aware of students,ennotitnt's are involved. and more than data is transmitted. The tradi-tional model itself is not structured for two-way. three-way and ti-wayeeltattges. for the accommodation of feelings and leereptions, or forIttK pathways.

< 14 in-service training for superintendents should not tell themonly what infortaation they need. The learning process of the trainingis more important than mere information. because the proves,. canlead in and better interaction altlePtIg more nodes. That translatesto mean that superintendents will end up in networks with each otherand with mayors. police chiefs. city councils. and citizens.

It all sounds a bit sticky. because although neither networks norpr,pee...s are n% idea.. ',mei.".s is a divide by now. popularized andbastardized. To some it may mean totteb-and-feel sessions. and theabsence of substance. but its importance is well known anddocumented in the field of organization development. We are sayingthat how superintendents interact, and with whom. are factors crucialto their stir% ival and success.

The term "tette eta %then applied to individuals and organizations iseasy. tee understand. We are all invoked in networks of different kinds:neighbors are connected by common interests in children, safestreets. garbage colltion. and fences. Business connections are

25

18 The [Than School Superintendent of the Future

another network. as are old school ties and political interest groups.Net works ma% be formal or informal, temporary or relatively perma-nent. They facilitate the flow of infiination. help keep us adjusted toothers. and generally serve to stabilize our lives. "Networking.- itturns out. is basically old wine' in new !Pottle. in the sense that it meansmore interaction and more information xchan. But networking. aswe mean to use. the term here, also calls for systematized, moreefficient interactions. which implies fitql* behavior on the part of thesuperintendent. Self-conscious networking b, not the same as neigh-bors united by garbage'. for the latter does not require' new behavior.

Superintendents already belong to networks, of course. ['thanschool superintendents are likely to know each other and to keep intouch thiough the ( :mina of Great City Schools and the AASA annualmeeting: they sometimes meet when testifying before congressionalcommittee . We take the position that a school superintendents' net-work of the kind described in this book can provide the significant.continuous in-servic "training- that is beyond the -.rope of the train-ing now available.

We have' come to this conclusion inductively, gradually, evenpainfully. The' negative observation that present professional trainingis inadequate only make's the void palpable: it does not fill it. Fillingthat void requires a new understanding of the school system's in-volvement in the political system. new interactions with the outsideforces that impinge upon the schools, and. ultimately, a new role forthe superintendent as a political figure. We have become convincedthat there is a kine! ere wess for superintendents that can enable themto bring about a readjustment of the relationship between publiceducation and the larger society. That. in the long run. will amount to"educational reffn.-

For over a year now process - oriented training sessions of this sorthave been conducted under the auspices of what we call the Superin-tendents' Network, which has federal support without federal three,tion. Of course. federal support of education is not new. but it isnowhere near as widespread as most people imagine. The federalshare of educational expenditures in 1972 and again in 1973 amountedto little more than eight per cent: that is. over 90 per cent of the moneyspent on public education came from state and local sources. TheSuperintendents' Network, which is under the umbrella of a modestexperiment in educational reform called PROJECT OPEN. accountsfor but five-one thousandths (.005 of one per cent of the federal eightper cent. It is built on a healthy tension between Washington and thesuperinte nefents: the money is federal. but the decisions are Weal. The

The (:riftif. 1% Not In The Classroom, 19

Office of Educaticni pros ides the horse, but the reinsand. therefore.the d st in the hand of the superintendents.

Earlier f feral attempts to bring about edurational reforms weremore ambitious. Dividing up the plower ("maximum feasible participa-tion') and creating new power groups were often important items onthe federal agenda. Not so in the Superintendents' Network. whichenlists people with power in peer-group relationships. There is norequirement for "maximum feasible- anything.

The social context huh made something like the Superinten-dents' Network necessary is art historical accident. Americans expectthe impossible from their public schools. and the superintendent isheld accountable when the impossible does not happen. As the rate ofsocial rhattge accelertite!,, social systems and individuals IlitlAt alsochange. The natural tendency. however. is toward "dynamicconsert atkm." the active factually reactive) efforts of individualsand systems to resist change and its effects. Public schools. graduateschools of education, and superintendents themselves resist change.of course. and often the handful of people working for change find theirreform attempts subverted. In effect. the more necessary change is.the harder it may be to achieve. Superintendents. locked as they are inthe closed circle of educational administration. are part of the prob-lem.

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CHAPTER THREE: 21

EVERYTHING YOU ALWAYS WANTED TOKNOW ABOUT SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS

Recently the supe. intendlent of schools in a large American citywas called out of an important meeting. lie' explained that nut one butthree urgent prolde-m had arisen. One concerned developments in alawsuit in which a ph%sical education teacher had been charged withhomicide for allegedil% forcing a student who couldn't swim to remainin the swimming pool. The tudent drowned. The superintendentnoted that the case was 0'6 one of over 10 in which he' was then adefendant.

The sect problem in% ttl% et! a sin tot ing at one of the high !win polsthat day . At %et another high school, the police had just seized a largequantit% of heroin.

I. mho' tardily that was not one of the sulperintendent's better days,nor was it t% pical. But hardily a ciao goes by in an urban school systemwithout some significant upheaval. and every superintendent knowsthat the only certainty is that problems will occur. sooner or later.

flow do superintendents cope with a world in which violence,drugs. and lawsuits are inevitable? Can they foster learning andgrowth amidst the disorder that is so prevalent in themodern urbanschool system? What ran they do in the face of the knowledge that thedisorder is beyond their control?

flow. for that matter. does one get to be a school superintendent?What does a superintendent look like. in terms of a statistical profile?What is his background. and what kind of academic training hasprepared him for the chaotic microcosm that is the modern urbanst.Itt to! stem.'

Mdst of the bask information on the background, training. be-lief. anti attitudes of the approximately 15.000 school superintend-ent ran be reduced to a chart or two. and we have done just that. The"chart or two" is actually one table. found on the following pages. Wehave some information that doesn't lend itself to charts and some otherinformation that we would rather trust to our prose.

The thrust of this chapter is that. while urban superintendents aredifferent from their non-urban colleagues, both groups come up shortwhen grasping for answers to the complex problems of running aschool district. whatever its size. Both groups need help.

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There is no single piint in the continuum of school district sizewhere urban begins and non-urban ends. The c Lifework,: overlap. butthey are distinct ettottgli for our purposes. A superintendent with20.000 pupils nizo be great4 concerned about sfio-cultural fermentwhereas another school superintendent with 35.000 pupils may beoblivitp, to the issue. Size does not explain ferment. or the school

31.

Eserthing Ion %twins Wanted To Know 23

superintr.ndent's concern or unconcern. But it remains generall anddramaticall% itIllfrate that -ire esirrefat. with some issues, not withother s. t titan schools art' different. awl their superintendents know it.

Some Similarities

There arc ottl - light diffr.retres among urban and tion-ttrbattschool superintendents in seral categories. The 0.m-wilt-lining ma-lora% tit all superintendents rote - rift's sh.tol finance the major issuet.ti jug public educatilm. 98.7 per rent of the school superintendentsare w hitt. males. t her 7: per cent front each category were coaches.contradicting Griffiths' t19601 finding that only 23 per cent hallroached.s

-chi is.1 superintendents moved into administration fasterthan their non-urban counterparts. but followed a more complexcareer line and wen. (older when they attained the superintendency.Getterall. urban superintendents -pent fewer years teaching (5.3tthan the non -urban superintendent (close to seven Hearst. But anearlier -tart in administration did not necessarily meat `.at earliersuperintendency. because the career lathier has more rungs in anurban district. Few non-urban school suirerintendents have served asassistant superintendents or directors. because the positions either donot exist or are not significant in smaller districts. By contrast. almosthalf (f the urban school superintendents served as teachers. principalsand workers in central office positions before becoming superinten-dents. Ord% 20 per cent of the ruin-urban school superintendentsfr.11wed the teacher-principal-central office ladder to the top.

Frban school superintendents tend to have longer contracts. Infact. the smaller the district. the greater the likelihood of a one-yearr4 int rart. The converse lurids true: the larger the district. the longerthe contract is likely to be. Over half of the urban school superinten-dents have at least a four-year contract. while .1.6 per cent of thenon -urban school superintendents have one- or two-year contracts.Vorer silt of five superintendents have' held more than one superinten-dency. but fewer than one in ten has served in more than one state.Only rarely do school superintendents change categoriex. .1n urbanschool superintendent is likely to move to another urban system whenIre changes job.. Non-urban *Chimid !giperintrlifentI tin riot becomeurban schriol superintendents. The sehool superintendent from a dis-trict with more than 100.000 students is far more likely to move out ofthe state. because few states have more than one distriet with 100.000pupil


Richard 0. Carlson's distinction between "place-boundsuper intendent' and eareer-bemner superintendents may be usefulhere.° Place-bound superintendents are those who stay in the district,as teachers and principals. Career-bound superintendents are notwedded to a distriet. or. if they are. they practice serial monogamy.Career-bound ,i4Itool superintendents move when their goals are ac-complished. when a better opportunity comes along, or perhaps for ahost of other reasons. But when they move, they most likely move to asimilar district, from one town to another or from one city to another.Unless they move from one large dist ri o another. they probably staywithin the state. Retirement plans are a factor here, as are job oppor-tunities. It seems probable that any network for non-urban schoolsuperintendents is local rather than national: the superintendent inMilwaukee is likely to know his counterpart in Jacksonville or Louis-ville, but the school superintendet.t in Gardiner. Massachusetts,probably does not know the school superintendent in Turner. Ohio, orMagnolia. Mississippi. Retirement plans are usually statewide. andthe absence of a national system makes it very difficult, even risky. forsuperintendents to move out of state. We will return to this problem inour finale hapter.

Some Challenges Facing The Superintendency

Most superintendents generally approve of their graduate train-ing. Urban and non-urban school superintendents identified similarweaknesses but differed somewhat on the strengths. The major weak-ness suggested was in the course offerings. Nearly half cited the pooror irrelevant course offerings; another 30 per cent pointed out the poorquality of specific educational administration courses. Their retro-.spertive evaluations require a caveat, which is that some of the pro-grams may no longer exist. Those that are still around are probablydifferent. Without asking different questions of the data, we cannottell whether school supetintendents who studied in 1940 feel differ-ently about their training than do recent graduates.

The basic statistics show that urban school superintendents workmore hours, make more money. change jobs more often, have longercontracts, and follow a different career ladder. But urban and nem-urbait school superintendents are similar in many ways: they begin asteachers, serve as principals, work long hours. t.-nd to stay in the samesize district and often in the same state, and approve of their graduatetraining. In fact, it is the subjective data that reveal the most distinctdifferences between urban and non -urban school superintendents.

33

14:%er, thing 1 u tiwo.s Wanted To Know 25

The AV': sur% asked superintendents to identify the impor-tant ksews. to indicate what issues might make them leave the field.and to identil Imams inhibiting their effectiveness. The data bear outour earlier ohsen ation that city superintendents are a breed apart.

The most 4triking contrast is in the superintendents' ranking ofsovi-cultural issue: such as race relations. integration. and segrega-tion. Urban school superintendents ranked that in a tit- for third:school superintendents from the other two groups ranked it seventhand tw elith. The issue of race is actually the first major difference ofopinion. because cry group ranked "school finance" and "demandsfor new ways of teaching or operating the educational programs" firstand second. That racial issues should rank so high among city schoolNtiPerintrildrnt% is no great surprise: cities are increasingly black andbrown. and tl racial blocs are insisting on being heard. Racialconflict is no anger to city schools, and such conflicts receive moreattention in the media when they occur in New York or Houstoninstead of a -mall town somewhere.

The larger the district. the more concerned the superintendent islikely tee be about teacher militancy and school staff relations. Thatissue tied for third among urban school superintendents and amongschool superintendents of districts with 3.000-24.999 pupils). butranked sixth with school superintendents from the small districts.Again, it may well be that the city is slightly ahead of the rest of theentienr. Teachers haven't smirk very often in Middletown (or hadn'tw hen the sun ey was conducted in 196940): they have in Philadelphia.Detroit. New York Cit., San Francisco. Houston. Kansas City. andkaltinrore'.

Urban school superintendents are also more concerned aboutstudent activism. That issue aas ranked tenth by the urban sholsuperintendents but nationally it ranked seventeenth or next to last.Again the inference is that in the city the. future is at hand. and thatsome years from innv nn-urban school superintendents will alsoworry about underground newspapers an,1 student sirikes.

The notion that the future has already arrived for urban schoolsuperintendents seems to be borne out by the rest of the data. Urbansuperintendents are no longer as concerned about thesuperintendent's greater visibility. the growing federal involvement ineducati.m. rapidly increasing enrollments. or changes in values andbehavioral norms. What can be inferred is that tut an school superin-tendents are adjusting to the greater visibility and the federal involve-ment that non-urban superintendents find disturbing. Not surpris-ingly. urban superintendents are unmot-ed by "reorganization of small

34

26 liter I. rhatt School Superintendent of the Future

districts into larger units of administration.- an issue which ranksthird among school superintendents w it It dist ricts of 300-2.999

School superint;ulnts from non-urban districts are isnest fearfulof personal attacks and problems w it h the teaching staff. At least thoseare the issues which the'', identified a "most likely to cause them toleaye the profession.- Neither issue ranked high with superintendentsfront urban areas. The. gravest rncern for the latter is sorio-eulturalferment. a catch-all which ranked low on the list of concern of non-urban superintendents.

It i. speculation to suggest that non-urban school superintendentswill be concerned tomorrow about issues which bother urban superin-tendnt today. What is not speculation k the contrast between urbanand non -urban school superintendents they live in different worldsand they perceive issues differently.. Social change. racial turmoil. andthe like are primarily urban issues. at least insofar as the schools are(oicereted. Consequently, urban sego Poi superintendents feelthreateueil ley 4wift-enitliral ferment and are comparatively blase.about "attacks on superintendents.- They know they must live in thepublic spotlight.

Another explanation for the urban ,4tiperintenflett* low rankingof the issue of attacks on sullerintendents has come to the surfacesince the assassination of Marcus Foster. It is Simply that superinten-dent (101).1 want to talk about attacks for fear that talk will only lead tomore. Former Tulsa superintendent Cordon Cawelti said. "You don'thear much about this because of the remote likelihood that it mightgive some crackpot an idea." In general few big city superintendentshave fun-time protection. although special measures are taken forspecific events that have a high potential for violence.

.4 Roomful of SuperintendentsWe do not want to draw a picture of two distinctly different

gruttps. Put together in one noun. urban and non-urban schoolsuperintendents would find plenty to talk about and to agree on.School finance might dominate the conversation. since urban andnon-urban school sup, rintemlents eonsider it themost pressing issue.They would generally agree. too, on the "demand for new ways ofteaching or operating the educational program.- In short. the conver-sation would be' abiut money: how to get it, and how to spend it moreslmly and more effectively. That roomful of school superintendentswould also agree that their training had been satisfactory. according tothe data.

Ur take exception: neither past training nor twe fear, currenttraining prepares school superintendents for the position of school

35

Ever, thing Ion Aiwa.% Wanted To Know 27

administrator. It may well he that no training is ever adequate and thatmust learning takes place on the job. but good training prepares forlearning: it keeps that day of which we are formed from hardening tooearly. It appears to us, however. that good training has not been thenormal experience: we simply do not believe that the superintendentssatisfaction with their training is justified.

The earlier data suggest that school superintendents. particularlythe urban m's, are aware of their troubles. but judging from theiranswers to another set of questions, they don't know where to turn.Asked to identify the types of specialists needed to improve perfor-mance levels. 42.4 per cent of the urban school superintendents sin-gled out public relations specialists, as if to say that a better imagewouid impro% e school performance. Even the most optimistic in-terpretation of this response that the public doesn't know the goodside of ,whontsl has a certain unreality. a suggestion that problems areonly skin deep. Only curriculum and instructional specialists were ingreater demand. Asked to identify skills they needed to maintain theirown effectiveness (as opposed to specialists needed in the district),school superintendents gave a barely discernible nod in the directionof skills in conflict resolution! That ranked eighth nationally, seventhamong urban school superintendents. leading the AASA Report toremark:

at the bottom of the list were such skills as those needed inconflict resolution . . In view of the amount of conflictcurrently swirling about education one would have ex-pecte,! a greater need to he voiced for conflict resolutionskills and insights.°

As will become obvious. we agree with the AASA. Skills inconflict resolution will not solve the problems facing school superin-tendents today. but they are a damn sight better than merely reachingfor a better public image.

One more topic that's bound to come up in a roomful of .schoolsuperintendents: getting fired. The average length of time in an urbanschool superintendency is less than five years. The pressures in amodern school system are intense, and the superintendent gets mostof the heat. It's a rare (and perhaps foolish) superintendent who takes aposition today with the notion of going into retirement front it. If hedoe,- get his gold watch, it will likely be sooner than he anticipates.

The AASA report ends on a high note. Over 70 per cent of the' superintendents would choose to be school superintendents if

they were given the chance to start over again, which the AASAinterpreted as evidence of satisfaction. Perhaps. But none of us canstart over again. The best anyone can do is reflect on the past in order

as

28 The t than Sehi Superintendent of the Future

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6?

30 Omen Sefton, Superintendent of the Future

spent over S10 million on the Cooperative Program in Edneatiottaldminitrat t( .1% ii. ( began with fh e univeitis* in 1950.grew inuttdiatly to eight and to 30. There were eight regionalrenters. with staff and funds: the latter were used for conferences.research. .upport of promising dissertations. and other such pur-pose..

t :PE Vs effort led to the formation of two new organizations. alsosupported! hi% Kellogg. In 1955. when the original grants were used up.Kellogg accepted proposal. to (Ivan the (:enninitter for the Advance-ment of School .Xdmittistration (CASA F and the University Connell onEduratinal Xelminitration (MEAL As part of the AASA. CASAexamined and catalogued Material about training, then published 35goals tor the profession in Something to Steer /it .2 CASA also pro-moted the are eptanee of the National Council for the Accreditation ofTeacher Education a \CATE/ as the accrediting ageny for depart-ments of educational administration. and CASA encouraged the two-

ar graduate study requirement for new members of the A ASA.:El is a more direct sucessor of f :PEA. Proposed in 1955 by

Teachers College tan original member of (TEA). UCEA was en-visined as a cdoperative organization of universities (not individualpreilessors1 concerned with improving training programs for eduea-tional administrators. The original UCEA had 32 members and wasquartered at Columbia University. Now there are 53 members. and theorganization is run from Ohio State. It sponsors research, publishesand circulates reports. and "tries to keep the profession abreast of thetimes.- according to Dr. Jack Culbertson. its 1.,xecutive Director.

It might be helpful te. summarize. before the gaggle of initialsbecomes overwhelming. Until 1955. Kellogg supported CPEA wide!tconsisted of eight regional centers and about 3O university-basedprojects. Alter 1955. Kellogg underwrote CASA. a committee of theA.AS X. CAS.% pushed for higher standards within the profession. TheU.EA also rereived Kellogg money. It urges Mettiher uniVet Aid's teemine itt directions they may not want to take by supporting or creatingtraining material. and Id. keeping them aware of changing conditions;n the

Analysis of the reform thrust lends itself easily to Mlinmary: IF theprofession toughened its standards. lacinger training and an estab-lished accreditation procedure and agency probably enhanced theprestige of educational administrators; 21 the leading departments ofeducational administration reegnized the value of cooperation in

411,11%,srd. tjuapp; Tailpf 1.4e.ge. Pabook College; atii thetrIvr.it%

39

Reforming %4Imini%trator Training: 3

art :r; 3t ckfitt change.% %er Mitti in the c sullen! of educationalaslirrini-tiition prow ant -: and to olticational adminitreition tt a. pro-motd a. a "owiciice.-

The -po-t.1 ellogg- pet loci E 1%0 it thy lert llt Mitre

Chittlg at the litli% rt-kit% IV% recruitment. curriculum, and (Ili-the- eeph ciairmig rinterikhipr. Job placement after graduation wal. aconcern of com nett program' . Recruitment into the ',milt of educa.ttsetLtl ashitini.tt Onion ILI lie% YE I we'll .t III ;tie It C111144'1 ft tot. %Otte( el% eel

Yettir3tis in. lent another Nat. thy road tee becoming, a stbool ...uprin-tendnt r Nell known and tank Cs 1M. entismal: the -ot -tem it.elf ha.enough inducement tier the bright young man. and the graduate.loccol hat e rolt had to stet .h reaching snit. B and large. it hannein.

Nat: thy bright and capable titig nun! k promoted from hi.teaching pooir'con riiiallt in .coonclart .c.lissol.1 tee ao..istant principal.lit begin gratin ;re work in eehn adttntiftration if he has notalreadt done .t P. 1k become,. a principal. do,. more graduate workII" hal". "II a Iva% e-E of-all..ence 1 and become. a fulls certified admitti.-trator. Irrot et et-% practicing .chool .uprititndrtit ha- bollowedChi. -arm. rout.3

Nat tq tt* e etly who .1.1 ,Mt tee be a .chscol admini.trator make. it.of corir. and not % Y11, betettls of o.uperintenclent. For% ttiploed .uperintendent. there are at least ten like him (err-

titles!. %bite inale..o who hate Hut fecund rat i% e ositiono4. Thatten-to-one ratio i. ut er:union.. In New York State' there were 203opening for principal in l9h4-70. and 15.000 certified qualified per-rot11114. 11Er. its New York tits have accepted a contrail callingfor more w I irk dit% with, cut additional pa bau, a, a union leaderolkcrt eel. it' the% had rime on strike. there would have Ewen 1(k)teacher. willing :tail bilk -I-reified to take set sr each upervi.or

A Farm Sy.tem for AtIministratortirThe abundance of certified locr.coml strik Nome a. a faun

%tetti worth% set the 1.1e .%trgele% 1)(Edgr.. a latter day vrElent ofI tilt % itti.111 tutu, iti %elect joy), But whether the fitte-t !.ttr% eor mot tam!

os mil...at that rani -in. cronyin. and men trepotkin play a big role inKomori ion-.E. ther b. rampant overproduction cet certified admittistra-i i% e tot...mm(4. anti set erieriethict encouraged 4 the peculiarcareer fOifelet el public education. 1 teacher. lei) 1. generally dter-mined fit length of r% ice omit ittniticr of credit hour..

A Ink 110 Ott an ha.tett the pa...age set year.. anyone eau .Per tee.chau,I. and man% teacher. do. Education emir"... are generally cm-fortable. not too diffieult. at ailable, and likely tee be filled with

40

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The t Onus school Superintendent of the Future

rriteriotl, or rather. the riteri, was often redefined to include thoseactikc in c,ial action illonlelit... -People who are wise and experi-enced ill the kva It the ronntnilone- %elf 18%. %ehok inav makegood sho,1 administtators." according to Edward J. Meade. Jr..Office-in-Charge of the Public Education Program at the Fordontolati,m.4

in 1970., the Hoe n keielier Folliniatiqi began a program that all butv pa - -e- the departments of educational administration to recruit

minority grenip members into the superintendency. The programsoil.- this way: Thtough a eemlex lectiet proeNs. the Foundationidentifies prionising mid-level minority school administrators eassist.ant principal- and principal.!. Those selected. called RockefellerIntern -. -prod a year learning about every aspet of the superintend-ency from -the best sho,d superintendents in America.- according 1,8Bruce A illiams. the Rockefeller Foundation officer-in-charge. Eachintern divide- hi- year between two superintendents. is paid at hisprevious %ear% salary level plus certain ol*b... and bertMeS a freeagent at the end of the year. Rockefeller insisted upon the free agentclan-e. Williams said. so that earl' intern would be free to more into aleadership poition.

Since 1970. the Rockefeller hmeolation has made a re unmitmentof $1.9 million. and bv the end of the 1973-74 school year. 39 internswill has e "graduated.' Of the 2.9 w ho have completed the program.three are now superintendents. and at lea-. ten are associate. assist-ant. or area assistant superintendents. Five have taken pOSitionS inuniversities or with foundations. about which Williams notes. -Anytime an intik Huai de ,esn't -tab in the public schools it is somewhat of adisappeinttnent.-5

1311t the armiemh pre 'gram itself (as OppOSed to recruitment into itha- been the major concern of other refiormers, who apparently on-luded that there was Ito point to putting new pfple on the same old

treadmill. flow tel avoid the treadmill became the goal. A popular waswas to dip into the resources of the whole university. NrEifs rhetoric.capture- the spirit.

NPF.I. departs from traditional programs in many respects.It draws upon the nation zis its training pilot. both forrecruitment and for instruction: it features individual pro-gramming. fashioned around the partieular needs of earl'tlident . . the program exists apart from universities.but is. at the same time. dependent on them . . . An

infinite. array of opportunities will be available.6

43

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38 The I, Omit School Superintendent of the Future

romputtent of the standard administration training program for thedoctorate: New York University created the model in 1931 ttwo yearsref ours work Id 'flow ed f an internshipt. and 1110,4 programs arecopies or variations. The reformers wanted to make the internship acentral part of training. Too often. trade said. the internship was tooshort or was disconnected from the rest of the training. After tirStwork came, an internship. during which the student rarely communi-cated with either his advisor or anyone else in ti.e department. Theexperiene was reported and perhaps anal zed in isolation: the stu-dent graduated and went to work. perhaps for the system in which heinterned. Despite widespread dissatisfaction with the internship.changes have been of the tinkering variety. Some schools are experi-menting with short internships and "field stations." in which a groupof interns is placed in different parts of a single system. These studentsthen discuss and compare experiences.

Staying Within the Systemit ought to be dear that the single thread running through these

reforms is the sanctity of the existing system. Reform from within ledto expansion of the sclodddis of education. The reformers supported byfonnelatidms and the Office of Education tin the ease of NPEI..) urgeduse of the university's total resources. Nee one argued for trainingoutside the university's control: few worried about in-service trainingfor those already on the job.

Reformer: outside the school of education were doubt Inf. or evencontemptuous. of the ability of the schools of education to train schooladministrators for a rapidly changing world. Howe wrote in 1962"those welbentr nehed professors of education who are devoted tee theover-analysis of the obviedtPd."I4 The reformers believed then (andcontinue to believet in the ability of the major universities to do the job.Meade believes that the original Seven University Consortium Projectwould have been more successful if the programs had been the respon-sibility of the total university: "We should have re-emphasized thatidea. especially with the university administration. instead' of expect-ing the schools of education to carry such a message and mission:15

The task of reforming training for educational admir:..trators fellto the academie community by default. The practicing administratorsand their organizations never had the dominant influence. and debatehas been between the "within - education- school" faction and the"within-university" faction. There was never any question of trainingoutside the boundaries of the universities.

47

Reforming tilmintrator Training: 39

It was as if there has been an unspoken agreement among thereformers in the 1'(O that only thee administrators of the future wouldbe experimented with. Professional influence the superintendents'reluctance may have been a factor: more than likely it was thereformers' cemvition that a fresh start with young people was possible-and better. Their bias was that most superintendents ouldn't really beretrained anyway. The argument goes this way: "11 reform has to risethe education schools. bad as they are. then at least reform ought :40begin with unpolluted minds.- The Ford Foundation was interested inreforming training programs and not in retraining those already on thejob. according to Meade. who helped design the Seven UniversityProgram:

We had two options: help the university reform its programfor educational administrators, or create new and separateprograms. We picked the first option. Such a strategy didnits mesh with retraining those on-the-job. but if we hadgone that route it would have required a different strategy.Further. it was an issue that was of little or no interest touniversities at the time we started."'

The impact of these reforms is difficult but not impossible tomeasure. Educational administration is now spoken of by some as ascience. and the commonalities of administrative behavior in all sortsof areas (including schools are being studied. Superintendents nowhave more training than their predecessors. and the administrativehierarchy has many new positions between principal and superinten-dent.

The graduate training. however. may not be essentially differenttoday from what it was years ago. Despite all the discussion of interdis-ciplinary programs. only Harvard's Administrative Career Programand a few ((titer ha% e dropped the requirements for a formal disserta-tion and have substituted a project and internship. ContradictingNtikhis' observation. a 1971 study concluded that the doctorate pro-grams established since 19.59 were actually less adventurous thanprograms in the older schools of education.

It was hoped that marked differences might emerge be-tween the it/ and new institutions indicating new trends inpreparation of students embarking upon doctoral study ineducation. Such %as not the-case. It has often been felt thatnew institutions are afforded opportunities to experiment

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Reforming Admini%trator Training: 41

eet one-year programs had to expand to survive, for no prospectiveadministrator would want to attend a graduate progrer that did notenable him to earn his credentials. There was an ilitV ktitt RH thecxpansinte. ac rording to the t 'CEA. a sun of "keeping up with thejoneses- logic. The' department with a one-year graduate programwent to a two-year program. Schnell. which already had a twee-yearprogram began doctoral programs, and those already awarding de-grees in educatinn branched into educational administratinn, at onegraduate level or another.

One ran ...peculate and we intend to about the quality oftraining available to educational administrators. but there can be nomistake. about the quantity. There are ton many certified adminis-tratnrs, and the graduate schools of educational administration areproducing noire each year. The market is already gititted, and perhapswe will see wholesale "refeerm- forced by economic necessity ofschneels ref education and their depart ments of educational administra-tion. If this surplus and its attendant consequences are the majorimpact of the' relearn movement. that ought to be irony enough forans one'. Perhaps reform from outside (and largely leer reasons of value)ne%er has much impart when the institutions being reformed holddifferent values and really do not feel the need to reform. That may bewhat has been occurring.

The progressive forces wanted to change the departments ofeducatiemal administration. The result: the number of programs tri-pled. the period of study for certification lengthened, and the numberof graduate degrees jumped. Just what effect the refurms have had onthse who teach eduratiemal admihistration, and how they teach it, isthe subject elf the next chapter.

hi-teat :ins{ sec. f {talk, %. Wean.. Jr.. Tits. I:mittens in Vittlitti-ts.silf eft. tilitritttit tut 't Mtn e^ WWI t.fhtf tat WM! itiffittft sit flitter. 1).ettit.tE.r Ili-Apt, 191.1. tap.

2 lattetif .eta hatitate #t :.4.11114at alialiala-ardafat.. 1938.

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4 Vet Itlier t. WV% .V14 ,..arty-watadvaare. ink. 197{..tin{ Januar', 19;1.

Trieptlstie intt Decettellr. let73.

"

so

42 The Oran School Superintendent of the Future

Ft ErNOTE:14 :amt.)

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51

CHAPTER FIVE 43NEITHER WISELY NOR TOO WELL

The prev ions chapter took a generally dim k iew of the attemptsmade during 1950-72 to reform the training of rdueatitpnal adminis-trators. That examination led to our assertion that the greatest changewas quantitative. There are three times as many departments ofeducational administration now as there were in 1940. and twice asman% professors as there were in 1960.

The quality of the post-reform training is difficult to gauge. Only afew of the new institutions have been adventurous. and there havebeen few sharp changes in the programs of older institutions. We knowthat administrators now go to silo ollonger. but more is not necessarilybetter.

There is another way to evaluate the training, and that is byexamining the facilities of educational administration. Who teachesthe future administrators? What issues concern them deeply? What istheir own training and barkground. and hem- different are the profes-srs now. after dear. of pressure leer reform?

This chapter w.f.. data from several sources' to provide a profileorate full-time and part-time faculty members. The chapter concludeswith our :peculation about what lies in store for departments of educa-tional adm Mist rat ie o,:w that the demand for principals and superin-tendents is decreaing and money to support the departments isscarce.

It is conventional wisdom among prominent professors and schol-ars of educational administration that "[there] appears to be a rapidlygrowing training capability. on the one hand. and diminishing trainingneeds for traditionally defined populations of educational ad-ministrators." Translated, that means that schools of education anddepartments of educational administration are turning out would-beadministrators in increasing numbers but there simply aren't enoughjobs.

School superintendents. principals, and other currently em-ploed administrators react to this ttews in different ways. no doubt.Some visualize a hoick of ambitious. hungry young talent crying forjobs. Other incumbents see a larger pool from which tee draw talentedassistant superintendents. principals. and specialists.

There is another perspective from which to examine the cntinu-ing surplus of educational administrators. That is that despite theclamor for change. educational administrators are by and large beingtrained in the same was by the same people. only in greater numbers.

52

4.1 The t Hum School Superintendent of the Future

Where Do ProfmmorN Conte Front?

The cliche. that superintendents come from the rank,. of coachesand 1,-411 education teacher- has some. saliebtt. Se% enty-five percent of today 's superintendents Niainel along, the was but that doesnot Mean ci rat +lug is a preeving ground or a recruiting center. In fart, agreat many teachers serve as coarhes during their careers withoutever risking promotion tee administration. and probably without evenwanting it.

A comparable cliche . about preelesseers of educational administra-tion. that they are' former superintendents. contains more- truth. itt a

department. over 90 per cent of the- full-time and part-tfaceths are former administrators. In thre -quarters of the depart-ment. r's et V far tilt member was once a school 4.1eintinistrator.

-Fortner administrator- does not Mean that everyone reachedretirement age in the administrative ositieen and then retreated to theunit ersits . but the data on age suggest that this was the ease fi r quite afew. The as etage age for full-titne facility menthe!. 47.6 y eats. OnlyI? of the 949 full-tim faculty starve% ed by the A.%S.% we-re under 30 in1969-70. and fewer than 25 per cent were under 40; 355 we -re over 50,and almost 15 per cent were at least 60. The oldest was over 80.

We. are not using age as an indiratiun eel unwisduni cur ineumpe.tenet.. However. the figure.. do support the conventional views ofprofessors 11(1,dt:rational administration: mot spent t;,,:r first careersin icitninistratiun. and teaching is their seeond career. The infrma-tion on age give. the lie to the view that till prciessurs are retiredadminkt rate,: : if that were true. the average age would be (-loser 11,60.fleet But the data tin age (he support the observation that kw Inspirit-juin the faculty at an early age.

The WelM11 career- is a popular notion among !whim! superin-tencients. and judging front (Inn erSa1i4MP. overheard and participatedin. the' professorship is thought of as a sinecure-, a well-deserved restfrom the storm. of public *chose! administration. I'mlouletedly it is aquieter life. but whth -tae ents gain from the arrangement is opentittestion. It is not a sell-evident truth that -those who can do can alsoteach.- tee turn that old saw on its head.

It could he that superintendents lack the habit of reflection sooften found in xce-Ilent teacher*. Superintendents on the job hardlyhave time to reflect. Perhaps f Miter superintendents are best suited toteach the' "nut, and butt," courses on running a sc'heeeel or a district. buttheme e precisely the courses that must lee- -unlearned- on the jot e.aferding to a former superintendent and (thief state school of in amllion- Eastern State. "Just teach students to re-ad. write. and think

53

Neither tt isei Nor Tin. %en .15

cleatl% hr -.rid. er% eii.t 641 alreath ha. :t .,-tetn. and that'w bete. the 'nut and bolt.' ought to he learned.- erha. the cliche-.

%hi, att.1 flit. to ,IVIC dill. Mutt ju-t ucnl It.head. -till-tit inv. -Simi,. flu. .turn' teach, and ...u. lets' ran tintenth...

Professors and superintendents: The Eeho Effertlea-ic tart - about thir-e who teach elln ilittal admini.t ration

rntarkald liks the' de.criptinti of toda%..%Itneu-t all are white. Pride. ..tam. and I)entlerathe Irk pohti'aipreferetice. .!f per l'eqtt are' freun urban area. and Anent half were'retied in the Mid% e.t. %till th are fait well paid: evr 75 per rente..m..' at lea-t I3.0HNt1 It)() -'O flat:nand the aerage. %Aar%

S17.9r). %Inte d half are lull and alm.t 80 per rent areat la-t a - -of idle pt ofire..1 or% and are lentil eol.3

'nte. 2.100 full -tint.' and part - titter lead) in 360 depart-u nlit. ranging in -lie him; 2: to one prult,.e-. Nin% per cent 1,1 the.

delta! tnlent- are accredited IN nue agent.% or initialer. There are.25.000 - trident- I If relticatiipital admini-ttatiein 11%9-70 figure.). iettl1.200 of w Itnttl atte.ftlt

Like the lactilt% (and like. practicing .uperititettelent.. fur thatmatter). the. -tudent holy prdiemitiantl mate 010 per refill. and the.1 it age age. k 33. ( htl 35 per rent hope. to be .nperintendents mune-*la% . acrid-ding feu departmental rur& and e.timate... but nut alt titthe.e. will make it. There. are ord. atinitt 15.000 ftliperintendent. in theentire. iiiiritr%. an I the' upe.rintendene re.emle. a reveilAing diner:Inoo-t ill the re.centl-ele.arted .uperintendnt. go bark inanother That tic %it the. rate of exit freem the Keefe...inn notfrith .1 ./11.1ifir ;Idl i. miteeh t11416 to aroommenhtte all nspirant.

hat kind of training do the 25.000 .teteletit. eel velue.atieeteal ad-tetieekttietimi receice? The. .tuele.nt hat metre toner'. to choose fromthan a decade age, loeratt-e altnekt e.e.r% departtnent Ira. adeled'win-V.. %earl% three-quarter ruf the iti.titutionN rpotteling to the

%%4 A ipte.r% -aid that th had adeled new rentr.e..inve M0-61.01142t) per rent reported deletion -. The trallitimial tenure'. are .011 themo-t ritmaisti: 25 pet rent of the laellit! report teaching the introdue.-bit-% iiittr-e each tear.

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50 The t han school Superintendent of the Future

-.ett'iti% it to sewn' ittthalattee arid distortion in their own institutions.Reform must ligin at home. which -rem. to mean that it is unrealisticto expect most dparttn ttt.. frt ethICational administration to providehigh qualitv training tor other, tor some time to come. Even thoseprol.sors w ho Were once good superintendent, in large school dis-trict, mav not now understand In iw condition, have changed. and howthe superintendent' Tole has changed. Nowhere does the l( :F.A or.111% one else argue mphaticallv for new directions to inert the needs ofunequipped or underequiptied pnblic school administrators. Insteadthe tl'Uritimic ca-e i. made: get 11114D rontbutnng education and othernew markets. ter shut di cwn the plant.*

Scipio 'se the tutiver.itie. get into the business of continuing edu-cation. A hat then'.' Can the departments of educational administra-tion -rise to the I wca,iint.- as one pamphlet put the question? Itansw er. '.tr .- because financial realities will force them to.6 W e are'!lilt 4 optiinttir . Though. recommendatic tits and financial exigencies

itwithstanding. the' new initiative, are likely to be directed bv thesame parochial. complacent. personally ambitious. well-paid. whitemen. We ran hope that the faculty climber- will accept the c hangesurged ,,putt them It' economic circumstane es and future-minded lead-ers. That hope. however. will not dispel the fear that by and large thedepartment. of educational administration are simply unable tochange that much.

It is not at all certain that departments have clearly defined thetask. A e see it as training the school superintendent to ripe with acontintiou,lv changing env irontnent in which he (and someday soon.

recogniied to,liti:..11 figure. in the best sense of the term, whouticl.-tands that ,chccol problems are. smaller. distorted versions of,ccc;etv's iroblents. A- an example.. iolence in ?when Dip. often invoe,. a..e114 II tow It graduate, and drop-outs. The school system may bring inthe police or hire it- own security' force (New York City tripled itsseem iiv guard force in 1973c. Fences may be built, with guarded gatesand II) cards issued to students and school personnel. But calling thee op- is not our idea of interaction with the larger society.

The problem lies out-ides the sr hoof. The school superintendentmust be .titl totee nisi % e With eae anti ePtitt pi met' amt tug thos Who callatItehorate the ituatiem. That ttlan r. civic leadn-. the business stab-lishttient. -tate pttlitiratl figure. even Congressmen. Violence in theschool is but a -' ktm oldie larger social problems of unemployment

111.. -tatertield. ipintripaki and edict practicing adionnk-trati.r- tate Wide littcrent -ittialn.n- than were prciat ittl th, Were prepard.(CuIbrt-"n. p..tOr

59

Neither Vt isel, Nor ete Well 51

and alienation. Litetup leev mem is the main cause. even though it ruashe the least amenable to se elm ion. Kids with meaningful job -; don't havethe time (thugh thv tuav ha% e the inclination, to disrupt schools.

e want to make the point that iniality training may met resultfrent more credit he pun-. meme specialized courses, and an internship.if the faculty i. left (ever front an earlier era. Continuing education is anobvious necessity. but who will first re-educate the faculty of eduea-titin.tl administ ratieenf

Our long-range view is slightly more hopeful. Siqu schools ofeducation hale changed their recruiting practices. More black.brown. and female people are entering training. Such qualities ascourage and ability to deal with conflict are considered in the selectionprocess. And the relatively high salaries of administrators and as-sociatd specialists should. over the long haul. attract more capablecandidates.

What Will Adaptation Mean?Over that .ante long haul many departments of educational ad-

mininatin till adapt."' IhiN Ilie adapting already? The nrsEigi-

fit I Cf ...A-affiliated departments have led the way in pro,hicingspecialists in the theoret kill aspects oladmittistration and in designingspecialized curricula vi it h broad choices for students intent onspecializing. The. 3:3 UCEA ittt1liatrs graduated 52 would-be prcifessc orsin 1973. 39 with doctorate.. 58 of the 81 pre espect ive professors tee comeout of these institutions in the past two ye , have had specializedtraining in administrative theeery.

The advice institutions are getting is to specialize further. toprovide narrow training with an emphasis on requisite skills...8 Wewonder aloud whether in-service training might not be a more appro-priate time for such narrow specialization. leaving the pre-servicetraining period to build a firm. broad foundation in the' liberal arts andthe sciences. But that's not what Efluelitiiul Futurixin 1985 predicts:

School systems will bectne exceedingly complex.Specialization in position and role will rontinue with sig-nificant increase in the litinier cef SpeeialiZtitionS requiredto form Itmetie mai administrative teams. Many. if not most.of these specializations will require specific and rathernarrow training with an emphasis on requisite skills. Thetraditional t7,1ogy a buildings. buses. and bonds togetherwith -,iteh new areas of administrative concern as comput-er. community action, and collective bargaining requiresstaff with intensive but spevialized training.9

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t riao school Superintendent of the Future

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'XIS /13.1,(IVII:)

36 The rimat Sim°, Superintendent of the Future

)11% lit'earilt oute.. from the interaction ofpeople' in specific cit cum-lance-. and through

(Iv% that calltitil lt

In the ^e*"1 teacher training program.. the auraut .titql.!..% was produced by the .tipend and fellow-hipmime% fi.r participant. and by the etra prgrant upportmom.% bir fault% act ;% itie... When the fund...topped. the'program. -topped: when the fellow.hip. and uninter.tipertd. w ere' w it hilt awn. any real effort at .eritt. changew a. eliminated.

Thete i. a gt lug a% et...jun at all kt'l.. fltlr %(Wietto pre..(iptiliti .. ea directive.. from alto% or from outiele

and a growing de.ire at all le.% el. tin. tnavimunt participa-tom ill deriding tale.% liAVtl (and I Inv..: e1Kit iti.tittitiffit'%Ilate.

The. ( Hike of Eduatiim'. and foundatisms. ..trati.g% /1

funding the "gmiii t take up cudgel agant-.1 the"bad %nteriratt u'zttisiii ctprrlcuok. the itte.cap-able interdependence of both those groups.1

Ile major funding agencies c oncentrated their .trength otteach of their program..eparately, si%erloorking nut uni the'

ulenuperatiutt but al.o the interdepentlenee. of all part. ofan .ocial equation. Examples of them runtrailiction. altimund:the di% i.lun educatir in into "higher'' and -lower- institutin.:the .eparati, in of scholarship front teaching. a. if they were twodifferent ati% itie.: and the 1111a1 relegat lull of te'au training Isdepartment- and .e.hols of education. There wa. little morethan lip .e.r% ire to cIrrnmunit% outteils. and no vale. tWeitthriallr.11 the. curt.. tried to deal openly with tho.e. tw cm in.epara-ble.. education and polities.

l'rogrampe and Policy: Which (:ontes First?it 'm.o lie that programmatie sow.ifieratism% always outweigh

(int,tion,. of polier. and it may be that program admini.trators always11% awa% from politics. But our pre..ent deckions are' inevitably.haped b% the pa-t a. well a- our imaginings of the' future'. andairtl brtte'r polic i* thttSt, ill ittiWr art' con-

aWare of the' effect. of pa.t decisions.Bige.h.w. a fl Winer hitor' pride...in-. is in fact a bureaucrat with art

eve on the past. In his view, the significant bill was the' National

Vi

The Superintendents' Network 57

Defense Education Act of 19581\DEA one ocesequene of which. he..1%..

. . . w.as that tile Office tit. Education came tally alie forthe first time in the twentieth entury. This oceurreel notonly because of the greatly increased amounts of monethat were Matte :tailable to it. intt dime because the Officefilled 3 %Arlin!!! in American education. While it never hadthe prestige tit the Fe.rel heuttelation or of the NatiecnalScience. Ft emulation . . it etutelid them in eV'er tether

it was imeelt eel in issues of great etetl*etillettee antiwas mai% aled in importance.2

The trhai.....ahe was not only fiscal. although that was dramatic..In 19:37, the title,. had 364 employees and a budget of $273 million. By1966, the budget had increased tee $3.34 billion. and there were 2.093employee.. The biggest chunk of the increase was for the Elementaryand Seceentlary Education Act 4,1.1965 el.:SEA I. for which the Ctettgressappropriated $1.13 Whim in 1966 and $1.34 billion in 1967. but NI_WAwas the forerunner.

\talents about large-scale national social engineering were asimportant as the money. l'oliy was the storm center, and federalcontrol Of education was a common fear. Those fears pretty muchexplain the "Defense.' in the Act's name: tying the legislation tonational defense. foreed the Congress to choose between two of itsconcerns: protecting the country front "godless communism- and-preserving local control of schools.- After Sputnik. the choice (be-tween non-isuese was an easy one. NDEA passed.

Bigelow... early experience in OE was with the summer institutesauthorited icy N DEA. Primarily for secondary school teaelters, thoseinstitutes were dis ipline-oriented: English. history, math. and soforth. From that experience. an important lesson emerged: summerinstitutes could change hd% iclual teachers but they didn't changeschools very much. Nor were the latter munch influenced by twosubsequent 1l )EA fellowship programs which Bigelow administered.Like the institutes. the fellowship programs were people-oriented.built on the notion that since people were the budding blocks ofinstitutions, those institutions could be improved if the blocks knewmore and were "better- people.

That philosophy of change had great currency in the early andmid -60's: the ideas sound simplistic. now, and perhaps they were then,but they were early and tentative steps in educational engineering.The congressional and local concern for local control meant that

LP

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The Superintendents' Network 63

Some Reformers' Assumptionssatason's obser% ations can be applied generally to many federal

programs. Ife,pit their noire complex cli%noninent this is Altonschi it and teachers. a relatively closed en% ire nment t..An ESEA hasas its goal social reform a just sviet% and equal educational oppor-tunities. The geneal idea wity that the poor would be' aide' tee compete.the ete gi% en a better edin.ation. which tsstatites that vompetithin r.fife ever%,,ne and that oducatii in can be gi% en. Equal results in eithereducation or lift. weie not the' go d. . old% that the' schold emnieettsittefor the disadv :images of loivrt%. malnutrition. and perhapsriken hone. Mune% would suppitsedl% enable the signs/is te provide

the net -essar% compensatory education for the' disadvantaged. ,chidttrie t we emiceted tci .4pend the money nit the disadvantaged. butthere were to, teeth in this requirement.

Neither, apparently. was there an understanding of the' school'.or -chooi dktrict*, own regularities: spend as equally as necessary tutmiddle c lass and pout. but treat the middle class inure equally. Furreason- that have a 14 ti (hi With eiNt 'Ms POlitirid 411111(.1We. arid theMiddle class backgri aunts of -.01001 administrators. mune% and cum-forts hat e generall% been noire readily a% allable to middle classschocil and their students. S.% expected to redress the imbalaneeand to pr«.% Pture flr the whiff, but tile law Made no provision flrcushioning ad mittistrators from the' angry cries of middle class parents

ho felt their children we're being discriminated against. no provisionto help a cotnniunit% understand its own discriminatory patterns. nopro% Won for helping a district bre tk away from its own spendingpattern -.

In fact. ESE A and other reforms tend to "blame the vitim.- Art -tech a contruct. with nt, explanation of the' rain41-s

p,% other than heck idual delleiene . The poor can escape theircondition through ambition. hard work. education, and so forth. Sci-ety prim% ides the' 4.016irtunit v. and if the rector do not jump at the' chance.that their personal failure of judgment. will. or liaracter. -Blamingthe' joint- -tand. in the WO of understanding the contrlexity of thepre anti in the wax tif a c6unititinitx "s acceptance of the changes itwill hat e to make in its own behavior. The architects of ESE.1 assumedthat there' would be no insurinteuntable barriers to spending extratneene on the' pieta% w hen in fart even that required changing theexisting regularities of thinking about (and spending money tin the'poor. Because there was no preparation for these changes, they oftendidn't *went'. ESE dollars often went for services equally available toall - thou! children. and in some eases for gouda; and St-TVit-s availableott4 to non-poor. or for administrative functions.

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The Superintendents' Net%ork 65

A he, were %flu c.merned about administrators?

think it w a- right feet the( Wire to ignore them. andwanted to ail% afire' the' idea that my war. fleet

tank er.it% -oriented. e.or%cute seemed to think tthevwere lirebably right. tlunight.

What happened?

e and Er.ts agreed. and we u.eol the mne bin acnnferne Eo discus '' hat OE should do for chol-opetintetuienis.- We spent the nteettei to carry (nu some

tb .tiggestions ttnstl at the' ttni%ersitt level. by theWit% c. The, weren't very suc'c'e'ssf'ul. in my judgment. be-rm-e, the' universities simply didn't know what to do with....hool superintendents. When we tried to get proposalsfrom the tinker-Ais for -re-tooling- superintendents. wehet a dry well. But there was an important spin-off.

A hat was the spin-off?

The Educatitm Professit ins Development Act was in theworks then. and we designed the Educational Leadershipprogram. That program gave fellowships at salary level to-chool administrators. Later the' program established therational Progrant in Educational Leadership INPEt.t. toattract new. alread successful people into school ad-minitratii. That program got the. Office invedved in re-form of administrator training just about the same time theFord Foundation was designing its Seven t niversity Pro-gram.

That pre.gram also the beginning of Bigelow' ittvotvement intraining for school administrators. a first step toward the Superintend-ents' Network. Ili,- experience in ITT was a second step. his divisionwas wrestling with the idea of parity and finding it all but impossible toachieve. Of the four groups !university. school education. eommu-nitv. and puli schl!. the public schools were' the most difficult toie)%ole.e. Bigelow mentnmed tl.e problem to Richard Foster. the' Berke-ley. California. superintendent of schools. and suggested that FosterMeet with Estes. who had left OE to !Wcome superintendent of schoolsin Dans. Estes was alreadv running a ITT-sponsored 'training com-plex- for teachers. which was designed to minimize the weight of the

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1...th wit tIttt1 -1 anti vs slirviti 4 thr wadi, intere.t IS

89

72 The I than Schou! Superintendent of the. Future.

1. 04 OTN1ITI, ttont.1

the' "WO 111/0, loiii its 3/1 mid .tkthit. i /Wen 1.-n r .1. .t11% it .1 et. MA the pt..peret% .4ri -Niel I mai% .e eft-t .tgawati.te .t litil11 -rek r.Ilttkekicmeet arid t.. pt., prtehite etlt

Pit( ( /PE \ has tile gtelgt!.111.4...4 helping ets.tet envoi. and%.1., r.-p.cri.1 rug tc. theet rest it kith e.tet nal atecl enter teal

%hat maintain: Hr. etletito.. abe ated rm.% if tics...Pitt fit I 0111-. \ ntiattamtg. th.:t tine itteIt tetttti And rit-ustacetileg,teleIs ut dit sisq Mated! fitttt tin lit 11041 it d .% tril ".1 it u.111 11-nIrener the it.Wile e an.f s h.itatanl twill. .11 purl 11t wfurh eleelted et

I hr . lit e .4 the PR( tjH WI. \ Rattle% is that flaw minute Mid (Iu t! cafe

pe...f tic r tlrK kip II .1111,11:vtiltit %/itch ate. it1 vi 1. ittirftlnt Mt-

ptgri Litt' c ritOji:( t PITA utici. cm the low% and reertin tit

pat t el epatet- mei 11.11 11. Waling ttetilitliMP. ..it cal often% dtigneti illt -I till-t.ntt- I.. Mit Utt ettg.tgetiiittt. Mid I.. .1.-titt trittatt..

PHI tif.t 1 I WF. -el% r- a linkpm. Ottrattallt gad.... mg data humpatte. epatet.1.1.et thr.r .lata I.. rtialge the patteripaelt tii then..inn i'1111.rtitilettf. the!! 1w in lestttliteills. JIM then 11%n pet trill Ps in Mete

pftati. ti% Nit IhP tInBr- IIII t, nut to II WIWI Mit. .it lite.11111 g",11 but I" ildthe'r Mel pt..' .- data ell.. ant b. the -petit.. pail ell.

t.. lard% the e-.... tc. be I ..tett.int IA. mill N. facilitate the- elegagretereet.and trite - -t. Nun-

NU P.R.( .1 t III: t.ct ti. pat t erepatet .lipetett....1

itIgtar.1 titifilbrt IelbthItits to - ttppitt Ile% els cpattelit womb'

I eke ate the two...I:lent.

%Pt Illaonnt ii. ...Al ffie Lai r r. .f h.,/ al. Pt iddrtri .f Chung,. tiim-tort:\thee sift f Hai cm. N:1 p. hi.

I" I Ire tne.tile is ..turtle,,} %OE; 1110.1..%

it Itott.ef.t ivlt. firm ,rd vs.. %tedy ....fate i\e% 1 .4 \ tt, NI. 1.1140.

'A tre -.dial Intl-it 13.

" 11.1.1

'1 .1.1%.eietagr the -t rural flyhtlett 11 ill' to pat ff.' tine platettitem.pt..tee h ha1 been 110,..1% I itt.trt.. theelitittire-t an.; We..1

t ran in 1/1.1% tift.4 $7.dett fist I 1"1 atm it% erlatril tc. lam1 lepre intern!.thew v. a. Sr:mg Kt fli pa% t..t planning.

" !Teeming .1,.. tail h. Itr: I

16 Platetetteg welvtit. t t. t1.1 rut , 197!

It ni.t- .ielt."11 thief the' !`ttilf% "Iiinli"1"11 ..it I tedetittaiheate ietratimi attI the.

The Superintendnt.' Ntwurk 73

t 5.

F (10INOILS Wont t

F.h,. .1...i 1.1. ht.!. .titttitt.t irIrt %Watt 1,4% t*.t the fatly. national"qua% t tinniest at Si million .Ifi 1/4 a- unite, the

'tile. non t l't P.m! t 11.0ti al die 1 to% ei-n \ ehr 3-ka %tuff%

!Mt itieliev it- -tippoit . and the glint ttlIkI '1s at, tit.% Itt hell! That Malt:WI has r be,-11 ,t 1.f., to the eittei ging %two.? ttitetnlents. \ et w bow e% el . itt

t.tchtft.twal tli.tut .t 1tirt.tge tit tun.,%%111. 11 111 111,11 111e.11tt .411.1111 1111t 11.1t stir (et 1.11.1% ttitl .hint. ',want w.t.

mg. WIttwitt n,. no is the .n..Nste. h.tsr 11.4"11 e1411111111.111%

1.1...1.. 1.% e. I tA,11.411"1 2'10 111,1'11111111.1e1lt 1114111, 11.1%1'111111ra 1111...11 suns etiti..11

r,lial "I lie *lot .t "%t Itt7:"... pp. 2-3.

%ha later tr. tfle.l the de% eloionent of these nlea-; e took 1t1111%.

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t Fitt ..t .11 ytr k iii - ta,t[lj;tnut. Tr airmig and gtu 1-:%.1) haul dr.clop. -attall.giottp .not intt pet.ontal change. 41.111111 1111' 1.11.1 111.11

iftItt1.1.1 1.- .01114..111% he s.1014 .01.1 .1% t....t1W4, 111.411.11 .1 thrs 111/11.1i4.11,11

rf tft then ap. it% in maintain then ..1%11 111.111111.110% .111.1 11StIIt%'1 . 1111 b. be %111111'1.111ie. [fort MI ,a/i1%, he S11111/1ablt %het. tht% 114'1

this ..111 .1,t1'11.1 1111.111.1'1%eI Mtt it .4 the. had lieu it de.% eloped Soniaaro! iise4 tit hem I 44. iieterowthat. It,- timetng,

C It1.1t ..tits N.1. %%Alter Kw kin*, . frinrted tikutilnr.t 'lin is..tk of 11.11 t amotionet who 11,1.1 bal poptilaritet1 t ;ener S% .41'111.

1 (1e..1% Alta Fd "1"gtc.t1 111e.tt % .

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tints .itioIttantt.innt.. .11.

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% Networking !.essita 79

111:4 )>( 11E.WTIVF:

Ak LOW"

The high and low poles :knote the capacity of a system to dealwith it e.n ironmnt: rapacity is determined by the system's knowl-edge. power. willingness to art. time available status. and financialresources. In eq) ease. the system's capacity is different. and ineach ease the VI?VirtItinleneS rapacity to respond (or to act initially! kdifferent.. Con icier a single school's ti e., a system's capacity to dealwith .a student on a matter of promotion or discipline'. Normally wewould con -ide'r that the school holds most of the cards: status, power,money. willingness to act. knowledge', and time are em the schemersside. would say that the school has a high capacity for dealing withit in inenment and that the student (th environment in this case! hasa low eapaeity; not much status. power. or money. In such a ease. wewould xir-t "proactive- le-havior from the. school. and an "tnaetive-re-sponse from the student.

But if the environment is a different system. such . real estateinterests. the school's captte ity shrinks. One school or even a schooldistriet 1;as little knowledge . power. money, time, or willingness to actin a I t.i.,licenship with real estate entere sts. but the actions of therealton. ran affect the se pool (especially in the matter of the composi-timi of the student hotly!.

87

80 The t than school Superintendent of the Future

S%stem's

high

FA%irotl,nt lles(:apac its

Joh

high

Like.1% Itelno for

proactivethesYstem dsstnnescontrol

high rtati% the'e'n Intltet itsIttllcscontrol

low inactke nothinghappens

high interactive.haring or "givean take- approach

The..e. are nut hard and last formulas. but they are a dear guide.The dill!. nity lies in assessing the' capacities of the system and itsettireeturie nt. It is as hard to judge one's :twit capacit for that of the

stem to which tette belongs', as it is to weigh the capacity of one'sen% irnment. Nor is it easy en- realistic to separate a single environ-ment. that is. a single other system. One school has many environ-ments: students. the courts. police.. 11.1. the "power structure.-\F. N. %FT. business interests. ethnic groups. up to awl possiblyindite hng the lots drivers' unie.n. There are also free-floating. intangi-ble environments. like resistance to change. the national mood, andceem ern iunal wisdom.

Although the diagram does not suggest the -best- behavior, thereis invariably a widespread tendency to assume that interactive be-havior is best. Interaction simply sounds better. It conjures up apicture of fair-dealing, of give-and-take. of democratic compromise.Thtts. when the Emblem- solving begins, a lot of superintendentswho are in reality a remarkably proactive lot will select the interac-tive opiion as the best eourse of action. This happens despite themanager's explanation that no one behavior is always best. and that agiven situation may call for either inactive. rer..tive. or proactivebehavior. Oen it is other participants who get things back on an evenkeel Icy fe erasing attention on the overemphasis on interaction. It is theinteraction of the session itself that helps end the game some superin-tendents play when they choose interaction because they think it is theLest behavior to exhibit.

k

Nel%rkig 81

Real Problem

to tit OM% In a ItetWIII king there hate been twit kind% elljet i% itic; I I a ciik..,c ItPtik at a -clitit if district.- tql% ire olltitettt. it ff,e-ti% and dots,. gtter:di/abl force- or teatimes t hich all partici-pants -hare. and 21 sonic general theort and strategies that are relatedto the on-going concern- of each indi% idual system. Participants limehad a eliane tictermin whether some. of these theoretical conceptscan punt ide a better -handle" fur tar kting prtthlems. r ommunicating.anti cloning to deckiitn-.

The. ileAt planned act i% it% pro ides an upportunitt to test furtherthe eitilit% ui theor% in fault realistic situations. such it. the tUllowing:

Fite citizen- with a serious grie% ance are waiting in yourouter ',flier. The% tell volt their problem: two m4411111011'

ttiltil.. Were -wilt hottle thus tiooritifig for ,Olking inthe halls. Th% were told they could not return until theirparents nut with the teacher and/or principal. The two-indents told their parents that dItiens of others were- nuking in the balk and that they had been singled outbecause they were artiVkIN who wanted certain Changeswithin the school. The parents talked to each other. called

eral other community leaders. and now tell you. "Werefuse to meet with this principal; he has already demon-strated that he is agoinst the changes our children have aright tit expect. We want our children bark in scl d. andsecondly. we feel strongly that the principal should bereplaced because he i- dicriminatort.

This ca..e generates quite a bit of discussion about eitrumunieationbetween the' principal and the superintendent. Some participants maymaintain that. whatever happens. the uperintendnt must back theprincipal and must not make any commitments to the ominunitymembers. ()fliers feel that the problem k a basic policy issue. and thatthe rules for handling disciplinary problems should be sufficientlydear 411 that this kind of situation could not occur. Some superintend-ent mat argue that there should lie a stud nt-faculty committee tohandle disciplinary problem". rather thati a kind of 011e-Matt rule sys-tem. In any ease. a.- the process (-continue. it will be clear that noteveryone agrees lin what should be done. Other approaches are ex-plored: a different disciplinary procedure. better lines of

to the community. ter more training for the principals in dalin

89

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86 The Urban Saint! Superintendent of the Future

Some of the networking activities are packaged. They it aVV beenused with success and are ekes% to use again. Other activities dependupon the participants and their interests. The preliminary data onparticipants will indicate what subjects should be on the agenda. andwhat subjects ought to be it% oided. If the planning or managementteam discovers a highly explosive or pularitd kstIV. it will. from itsown oast experience. urge that this issue not be vnfro .ted at the firstopportunity. Participants in a polarized session don't engage eachother; the% shout, and nobody listens. lien. again. the rule of intimary :the closer the day-to-day relationships. the more careful the planninghas to be.

If a networking session invoking those who work closely has suchpotential for disaster. why would anyone' hold one? The reason is thatgreater risks and harder work may also pay bigger dividends. A su-cssful expriencelr district principals or civic leaders. 1101. e%ainPle.will linthabl mean that they will work together better thereafter. Atthe %pry least they will participate in another, more ambitious network-ing .1....14m. They will have improved facilities for processing informa-tion and have improved techniques for taint attitudes tfiwardt sarch-ing for information. And because the roles and the. institutions theyrepresent affect each other, that impro% ell interaction is beneficial, Itis not just that the superintendent now knows the city councilmen;they .A!' kneiw something about eat others concerns. responsibilities.and choices.

To Intervene or Not To intervene

Some superintendents have been in the role of manager in theirown training seSSilens; others have worked with professional managersin the development of a session. As one becomes more involved in theproves,: a. a conference leader. manager. or trainer, the problem ofintervention becomes more acute. There is a universal problem in allareas of education, training. and development which quickly rises tothe surface, and that is the temptation on the part of the -teacher."manager. or leader to tell people how to behave. When you tell some-one, child or adult, what to do. there are several possible outcomes:

I. He may follow the suggestion and it may turn out well.so that everybody feels fine.

2. He may follow the suggestion, and it may not work.partly because your solution did not fit his personality

91

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88 nu- I rhan school Superintendent of the Future

into a hotel -et of relationship. or into a more effective problem--ok ing mode. 1,s a matter of fact. 111J11% training endaeir, ha.t..blished this as a not in of et foliation. There f el, en language in thefield whid.h uppls the idea. so managers of training meetings areoften called facilitators or trainers or conference leadlers. The asump-lion is that. loeause of their special skill- in group interaction or groupEncor. -. filet ran help the group work together more effective!', . byasking such quest isms as:

'I la% e %drii unNielred other altrnati.eft.r

-Do von feel that others in the group are listening carefullyto earl' other?"

"t hat do von feel dm need to do to establish a climate inw %d could work tigether mddre effectivel?

The. and other -ophi-ticated, penetrating intervention. are t1 pirat-prove, training.- The PRON.( :T (WEN strategy does not deny theutilit of trainer-oriented training. but prefers to define the Supein-tendent.' \ et wiirk as of a different nature and order.

First. in dealing with anything as immense as the public winded!system. the idea of providing facilitators for thousands of groups issimply not feasible. and probably nest desirable. PROJECT OPENfunds and res.ourees are severely limited. If one is bringing together agroup of 30 school superintendents or 80 selletl !ard MnkrS.council members. community leaders. it is hardly feasibl to dividethem into groups of eight and prd.vidle trained facilitators for Pallgroup.

Who Asks !r or Help?

The dynamics of any kind of intervention are complex. When amember of a .mall group asks for guidance' from a professional leader.he is asking 14 one of several reasons:

I. Ile may feel that the group is hung up and that someclarification of what is happening may help the groupwork through its own problem.

2. Ile may simply be looking for an ally to support theposition or the repress he favors.

A typical request for intervention in a group of superintendentsmight be .omething like this: "Don't you think that we should have a

9'

Net%orkireg !..tsillbit 89

Chairman ir .cretary tot this intittgr The question usedly arisesbast -e ..rt member feel. rather -tie owl% 4and he may have quite alew allies, that the problem with the group is that it does not have achairman. Other. may feel that they operate better in a loose andunstructured way. Thus. the request for intervention is really a r-iiiic%t for the -outside epert to take a side. which May win him SMefriefill. eon (me hand and create alienation on another. It also begins toput hint in the reek eet arbitrate.r of intragroup tensions. Therefore.almost all trainer would agree to leave the problems in the hands ofthe group tee work oat tti its own way.

3. A nuttier reason fur railing on sect else to inter-% ene is so that the group itself can avoid engaging itsown members. who are bored. distracted. or uncom-mitted. It is le okiag for excitement. energy. or direr-t ;ett from outsile itself. or it is looking for excitement.energy. or diree tient from outside itself, or it is lookingfor a scapegoat tier its own unwillingness to bring tic thesurface the ethical issues at hand.

4. If tasks and expeetations are well-defined. either bythe staff or the group at the outset. then an interventionrequest is usually the result of sMe on-going problemwithin the group itself for which the group must takeresponsibility.

The long and short of it is simply: Avoid intervention.B. its nature. the Superintendents' Network exists for superin-

tendents and school administrators and is run by them and with theirpeers and associate.. This means that a school superintendent oughtto he able to conduct programs and problem-solving activities with hisown staff or within his own community. This requires a process thatran be duplicated, is low in cost. and is "owned" by the participants.rather than by some outside agency or outside consultant. The net-work manager's role is to set up the structure. observe and guide theprocess, and intervene under certain extreme conditions.

Perhaps the managers' function is the same a.. %ie thermostat'sfunction in the cybernetic system. sensing and regulating the "tem-perature'. of the workshop. But that metaphor does not encompass theearly role the managers play in setting up the structure. Actually, whatthe professionals do is enable the networking si -ion to occur.

97

90 The t than School Superintendent of the Future

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. t. not 0% en % en to eittlfrmItat tutu !Mt Si' Ittighr.taltding the in each other.

net .ceib either to-oft/ems or-solution.. but ittotethelr.. not all i- left tochance: stelivotual. well versed in pRojEcr OPEN theory and strategies are

alv b a. s ,t itand to facilitate ri.k-taking. to help avoid

. . -action training- f traming-tr.-41,4ingt in- tread of the -perches. re-

Ind 14.ttk levet

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eaten ellsrupt e was-. Bather it true- Sc' product- a Veltit itilitott. adne-tment of all of

the parties 0.,..aeitt to each other: a vielding here. the- mat-Mug of a hard -tampthere. \ot %/` won. by Gee* fent "Ur made sow- prtigreess.- or "nes finallyunderstood what we are sore about.- or -Sell mew you half way.-

2 1.1.11114111Shat has pros Wed a "short hie.tory ul intrrvent ion... which we print betow:

The- initial idea of intervention. in group life ran probably best he ereanil to the

\ ational Training Laboratory . .4 t it. outset tin. was composed of socialp....chologeo. and tither practitioners primarily from educational wiling.. (Le..

higher education. .01-iologi.t.. rt At Graduallt . it to gan to include inefutrial pra -titioner. p.vettiatri.t...teeial worker-. and finaltv. line people from itidu.try and

government. Again, I think a quick historic-al re-ft-truer herr would teay that \II. in

it. earls stage.. was titter...tea in watching group. work and trying to understandtheir shimmies. In this preece.s. they 'organ to snake observations about what was

going on in the group itself. and then determined that this artuall'y hail an effect sett

grim!, behavior. So the idea of proe.. itle-ery ation. of intervening into a group anti

fewslititt bark t., it 14..11% tit of it..iwn [what jut titan el With nom the- teercptinsof group member Anil from the boil% of htleoniedge and the .4. which isit4

I"r tillable IL.... psis hologv and group 415 Handy- P. elTirrtwit from \ TI.Credit lot' -time new mode- of intervention elm probably go to Jack (rild.. who wa.

a---ociates1 with Western Behavioral Science Lal. atill an odd time \

Berl, Shepard. 44-13t191 witty \TI. and with ariem. mtiversitie. and Bolo Blake.

best known recetttIv for hi- work site thl'Iitiagerial Grid. kit Ili.140/11314. ..n. and

th I nit er-its Teta. Their names .1totild be mentioned a. having begun h.

evperiment with interventions other than personal. That is. its sarioa. woe.. dues

eiltittilitttd to the development of the :ilea of -The- Iteeterimented latheerator*.-

%Inch of what you about the weakness. of personal intervention really eame from

their eve-tie-nye-. and we at LSI) touilt un tlic- clitoritne* alb! ihd401/ed 1111)"

original modes 'if our own.

99

CHAPTER EIGHT: 91IMAGINING THE FUTURE

It's an old joke that writings about education conclude with rec-ommendations for "further study and evaluation.'" We would like tobreak that pattern and suggest instead some changes in training forpublic school administrators. chart a course for the SuperintendentsNetwork. and describe the kind of superintending required to managea major urban public school system. New York City. for example. Weare picking New York because it is still the big apple and the toughestnut to crack. to scramble the images a bit.

The Future of TrainingTraining is als a bit of tough nut. Past a...I present approaches

are seriously y deficient. but we do not believe there is a single approachthat will work for I.%.r.one everywhere. It follows. we believe. that themonpol% now held I% g. afloate schools of education must be broken.We simply do not of the argument that it is not a monopolybut an oligopoly: arsenic. cyanide. and strychnine are different insome ways too. but the are alike in the one way that matters. Poisonshave their legitimate uses (arsenic can be prescribed in the treatmentof syphilis and encephalitis) but in small doses and special cases.

Where might school administrators be "trained." in addition tothe graduate schools of education? Just about anywhere: universities.large school districts. state or federal agencies. health or social serviceorganizations. or private business. Why shottI4'n't a competent. re-sourceful. and thoughtful hospital administrator. business executive.or government official be capable of running a school district? Weknow of no obvious reasons why school administrators should heformer teachers and principals who have trained at graduate schools ofeducation. Certification is a hurdle. but not an insurmountable one.When one major school district in New Yot k State went shopping for anew superintendent last year it made discreet inquiries about thepossibility of hiring a person from outside professional education. Thatdistrict subsequently opted for someone with an Ed.D. and the properblood lines. but other districts will follow the early lead. and some dayone will not turn back.

To prepare fur that day. training for administrators needs to breakout from its narrow bondage. Teacher training is already a few stepsahead. Some school districts Montgomery County. Maryland. forexample offer in-service courses for teachers with credits whichcount toward advancement within the system (but these credits are aottransferable. a major problem). The American Federation of Teachers

99

92 The t than %ehool Superintendent of the Future

wants to train teachers. and the large foundation that reeeived the .41Tproposal calls it -interesting.-

Training for administrators already shows some signs of M..Several large school districts are interested in establishing trainingprograms jointly with an institution of higher education. that is. with auniversity or a school of education. Dallas. Texas. is involved in a!faster'. Program in Administration fur principals. which works thisway: about 40 promisMg teachers from Dallas are selected each year,the% are rotated through the system for the school year. given a fourand one-half month classroom program in management techniques.and tested at intervals for specific skills and language usage. Theirattitudes. pereeptions, and prejudices are measured on a "dogmascale.- If they make it through the program (many are weeded outt.they serve as principals of a summer school, then as "intern princi-pals" fur two years in two different schools in the district. During theinternship they take (gasses at the university, and after completion(again. 'cite are dropped( the graduates mph, e a Master's degree andgo into the pc (ol from which Dallas selects its principals. The size of thepool and the rate at which Dallas principals are recruited away by otherdistricts all but guarantee each graduate a principalship within a year.

Dallas is proud of that program but recognizes that there is roomfor improvement. Right now all the candidates come from Dallas: animproved program would fish for candidates in a pool which includednon-school. non-Dallas people. The program is apparently rigorousenough to weed out those without the qualities and abilities that makea good principal. and broadened recruitment would test the old schooladage about the importance of working up through the ranks. Perhapsthe butcher. baker. or candlestick -maker would make capable princi-pals. given on-the-job training. Right now, final judgments aboutgraduation and certification the official imprimatur are in thehands of the university and the certifying agency. An improved prog-ram would give the school district an official voice. The interns spendmost of their time in the public schools. and the district's unofficialveto power ought to become official.

The Dallas program is a good beginning. However, it is a programfor middle management. not for superintendents. Even so, it is easy toimagine that same structure writ large. with the modifications sug-gested above. Not surprisingly, we think school districts could do agood job of training superintendents.

Recruitment must search beyond the ranks of school people.What schoolmen call "chalk on your sleeves" is helpful but not neces-sary. What is needed is integrity, the capacity for leadership, and aninclination toward a life of the mind. By life of the mind, we mean

100

Imagining The Future 93

humane learning and the habits of reflection and introspection. Somesuperintt sidents might argue that job conditions do not allow time forreflection. but that response only demonstrates the linear mind -setthat we need to move away from. Reflection and introspection cannotbe scheduled for 30 minutes a day or 30 minutes a week: they arehabitual, as the life of the mind is pervasive. Harold Howe IL wrotesome years ago.

I has e long believed that a man with the ability of AdlaiStevensf,n might be a successful educational administratorin a large city. and one who would lend the professiondignity.: but I imagine he's a little short of semester hours.'

A joint university-school district training program would requirestudents to spend roughly half their time in university cursework, halfin the administrative machinery of the district. The doctorate ought tobe awarded jointly by the university and the district. The prospect of adegree from a school district raises eyebrows, but that reaction is to aperipheral issue. The central point is that the school district shouldshare the responsibility for and control of administrative training andcredentialing.

We want to be dear about our proposal. When we say university.we mean just that. We do not recommend that the departments ofeducational administration share the training responsibility with theschool district. We are recommending that the urn !ersities share theresponsibility. Asking the departments of educational administrationto carry the whole load is akin to asking the polluters upstream to deanup the river.

There are other polluters and pollutants. of course. it is not thesole fault of departments of educational administration that so manyprincipals and superintendents are concerned with minutiae. To agreat extent. school boards and the citizenry reward that behavior. andthe training is geared to elicit that response. We said in the openingchapter that the public schools are laden with contradictions, and thepublic's lack of clpreeiation for conflict and controversy in the schoolsis well documented.

We are not arguing that departments of educational administra-tion should go out of business. Over 1.000 of the nearly 30.000 graduatedegrees in education in 1972 were in educational administration, andthat proportion may well increase. as more specialized administrativejobs are created. We just want to see some competition.

102.

94 The ( than School Superintendent of the Future

Continuing Education"t:otitinuing Education" is not really competing with the graduate

schools. because most if it ciC c urn there. There are varieties of con-tinuing education available. and metre to come in the years ahead.After all. there are about I5A)00 superintendents. plus all the associateand assistant superintendents and thousands more waiting (err-title& backstage. F.% en as the number of superintendencies shrinks.specialized administrative posts are being created. and the normalpattern succession is unlikely to be disrupted by our or anyone else'scomplaints and suggestions. Thus we have compiled. with the help ofUCEA Executive Director Jack Culbertson. a list of **strategies** ofcontinuing education. which we present in no particular order. This ishow people if -e climbing the holder:

t Through the professional organizations: the three-dayworkshops run by the National Academy for School8.1mittisttators are the major example'.

Through l'oundation-sponsored individualized learn-ing: The Kettering Foundatient provides small grantsand resources to individuals who have outlined in fairlyspecific terms what it is they want to learn.

3; Through the school system: A 'Director of ContinuingEducation- is appointed. His job (rarely full time) is tocoordinate and facilitate the in-service education ofpersonnel (usually teachers but including adminis-trators) in the school system.

4) Through on-the-job diagnosis: Properly designed in-struments might he able to inclentify the strengths andweaknesses of adminismitrs. The UCEA and the At-lanta public schools hay' :ecently completed a seriesof instruments to diagnose the performance of princi-pals in different behavioral domains (suh as "reactionto change-) in order to prescribe necessary learning.

51 Through on-campus summer workshops: those involv-ing external lecturers are less popular. while thoseinvolving more active learning through such methodsat. simulation are becoming more popular. according tothe ['CEA.

6t Through technology: audio cassettes. for example,seem suitable for individualized learning in free time.

Art1.0"


The 1'4*.F.A and some private sector firms offer seriesHu administration.

Through individual efforts, such aK night school, thesabbatical. and travel: It is impossible to gauge the'le% el of these actin ties.

Through "organization development" in a school sys-tem over a period of time: system-wide tor state-wideefforts usually employ outside consultants, whoanalyze the system and prescribe remedies to prob-lems thus identified. The re-education of participatingpersonnel is often by a prescribed remedy. and. at thesame time. a by-product of the whole process. That is.the administrators of the system are re-educated tosome degree by virtue of their involvement in the.maly

The' urfering. in continuing education for administrators atgraduate schools of education tend to be frequent. short, and crowded.Seventy-five per cent of the institutions had programs during 1970-71,but almost 40 per cent of these were on -day sessions, and almost halfof the workshops involved 50 or more participants. Only 17 per centcould conceivably be railed small timer than 25 participants): only 15per cent lasted more than three days. short sessions with .50 or moreparticipants are to be suffered through. but not generally learned from.in our experience.

That is the way things are. however. and it is also the way they arelikely to remain for some time. Radical change in public education orin the training of its administrators is not very probable. Most change isof the "bolt-on" variety. like much of the gadgetry designed to reduceautemneleile engine emissions. Human beings tend to think in patternsand to assume that things can only be' as they are. We tinker with whatwe have, and even many of the truly drastic changes end up looking alot like what they were invented to replace. The old joke that theautomobile engine is in the front because' that's where the horse was"provides an insight into the process of change. As long as peoplebelieve that some sort of extra training is necessary. changes in thepresent training process will be of the "bolt-on" variety.

The Superintendent of the FutureImagining the urban superintendent of the future is easier than

hurdling the obstacles to his appearance. New York City is our

103

96 The I than Schou! Superintendent of the Future

metaphor tor any unmanageable urban .ghoul district, and the terms"superintendent" and "manage" require some explanation. too.

First of all. me single superintendent Can do the job. and presentadministrative team. are in ariably accidental. instead 01 the &Mier-ate ereJtion doy ought tee be. N19.1 ap..i.tant and associate superin-tendents get there by dint elf talent, hard work. time. tenaeity, and theham accident of being in the right place. at the right time. Thesuperintendent ma. have gotten to the top in the same way . or he may

stn cltider. If he ramp front outside tin district. he probablybrought one. or two. rarely more., key assistant. with him. The rest areinherited. and the e-esulting combination may or may not he an effec-ti%e managerial team. We do not think New York City or any otherurban district can be mat:ged by that kind or team. especially in thesetl.ay . of at4e. politically aware school boards.

And although it defies training. social custom, and souse presentrules and regulations. we think the notion of the superintendent as asingle person should and will disappear. Someday in the future. NewYork City. or Pittsburgh. or an Francisco will hire a superintendingtrans of six or ten or so.2 That team will have trained together and willbe mutually supportive. Administrative teams will come andgo as one.and their contracts will stipulate that no one on the team may be hiredtee replace the person at the top of the pyramid (No more backstabbing.0 Brave New World!). Such a team will be complementary. though metconflict-free. Today's administrative teams sometimes match weak-nesses. or are weakened by the' choice of a superintendent who isfearful of competition and thus selects lesser people. That is the firstpart of our answer: a superintending team, and not a single superin-tendent.

Manage" requires redefinition if urban schools are to be man -ageable. Many- educators actually mean suppression when they speakof conflict management. and they do so because that is apparentlywhat the public. wants. Unless society's tolerance for conflictsincreases, urban schools will not be manageable in our times.

Out of genuine concern for impressionable children. social pro-hibitions have evolved tee prevent the teaching of extreme politicalviews, and school personnel are expected to be apolitical andheterosexual in and out eel school. Children are encouraged tee preparefor life in a democracy. but schools seemingly do not believe that theprovisions of the Bill of Rights apply to children. Conflict must besuppressed.4 and superintendents are hired and fired for their abilityto do same.

As long as this is so, no urban school system will be amenable to"management." Now the citizenry can he educated to tolerate conflict

104


in the schools is another. mole shttlirult que.tiott. Vet eau be againstt ioletie, but we ''tight to be able to accept health shouting and- holing. and no Otte should shrink from sensible attempts to under.stand the tension and contusion that evit in *11611 and are mirroredin adolescent minds. Some will sa that is courting tragedy, consider-ing the easy it% (1 ea P4 UP. Jail our Strlet$*s proupation

ith grat Mitt( ois appreciate the point. ht'allse it fiettloh-'trate, the' school's relationship to the world outside. Schools arrathe institutions. no better or %tn..... than !hp relltlattinit and calinterconnected institutions want and allow them to be. A team cnsuperintendents if it is willing to take the risks might hr able tolead the public out of the wilderness. but it will not be able to managethe public school- until the public understands that conflict is oftenhealthtul and neressar, and that suppression of conflict ran be athreat to social and individual stability.

Getting hack to that tough nut. New York City. a superintendingteam there w ill ha% r to be a political force. willing to take risks.because a- long as guns and drug- are available on city street runners.the. will turn up in the schools. As lung as significant elements of thesoviet% are sb...v.0.4i with ilieure vet intolerant of eillit, theschools in \ ew York and elsewhere' will be unmanageable inan! real -,ett4e. That is the seelthtl part of our answer.

The Obstarie of Retirement PlansRedefining "management'. is only one of the obstacle, to the

ape'aranc'e of a superintending team. superintending team may betetria. heeatt%e of the se% ere dislocatic exi4ting person-

nel. One part of the problem is traditional: the superintendent torassistant superintendentt cannot become a principal again without anunacceptable loss of personal and prolessilal prestige. This is not theease with ellege deans and professors: in their eases. mobilitylateral. and a dean ran bec ome a professor again without actual orapparent &Mt ition heeatti+e the twit pootiti011s are equally respected.But movement from the central administration to principal is seen as ademotion (although some superintendents will say privately that high%Ascot principals have a tougher jtelFt. If the movement were seen aslateral tas in the' college or university I. then bringing in a superintend-ing team would cause much less dislocation. and former assistant andassoc;ate superintendents would be eligible for principalship = in thedistrict.

That sort of redefinition of the hierarehy, may he necessary.because, although movement intrastate from one system to another is

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98 The t Alan School Superintendent of the Future

not particularly eomplicated. monemnt too another state is nearlyimpossible. The retirement systems are the problem, ironically. Orig.mall set up to protect they 101%s art' genuine hairier, to changebecause they mobility and reward stasis,.

There reall is no -t4eical- retirement system. Some plans in-elude all state emplovees, some include all public edueation em-plo.s, and some are' limited to professional educators working forthe state. Benefits differ with the eligibility rub's: some plans paysocial security. and others don't. Some match contributioons, whileothers put in a fixed amount. Benefits may begin at age 60. 62. 65. orwhenever the' retiree chooses. But the rub is -portability." whichmeans the transferability of loroefits from one state to another. Be-cate a state stern homers credits built up anywhere. in the state, anintrastate transfer means only a battle with red tape. Transferring toanother state w ithout losing retirement benefits is often impossibleand afw as s difficult. \ ineteen states have portability provisions. all of%Inch differ. The. other 31 stitteiiii1111.1.flo not provide tier transferringbenefits in and out. 'Mete is no national retirement system forsuperintendnt..." or other public education employees, nor is therelikely to be' one. I-duration is a state responsibility. and the care ofretired public educators has naturally fallen to the. state's.

Consider the implications: the superintendent or any other publicschool employer who has put 15 or 20 years into a schnolmyviteht simplycannot move tee a different state without jeopardizing his or her retire -ment benefits. The AAA survey indicated that only eight per cent ofall superintendents had switched states. and that most moves hadbeen tee another superintendency within the skittle state. Because thepattern is for Itlovetnellt within the state to a district of the same size, itis easier to move in California or Texas Ior New York, where there are anumber of districts of comparable size. In Nevada or West Virginiathere aren't many districts with 25.000 pupils. or with 10.000 pupils.

Often an urban !him! district (few states have more than two)makes the interstate move' possible for the incoming superintendentby buying credits in the retirement system. Portability is less of aproblem when the district pays for five years 4f retirement credits.enabling a superintendent in his first year to pay for his sixth year ofmembership in the new system. But buying retirement credits for ateam of uprintendent4 is not realistic. It would cost the district toomuch. It is unlikely that those displaced by the' new team would he ableto move out-of-state without losing benefits. and the availability ofcomparable positions within the state is a matter of chance. It amount:to a "no-win- game.

10G


The new stsperintendent brings one or two key assistants at themost. lie inherits as ttlatt a- 20 .**.Wattt. 11%.liciate, and regionalsuperintendents. from s hose petspeethr the new uperintendrot isan unknown quantity . 1.*.6 email spends a good deal of ettera protect-* his own stake.

Sel:itol !wank can be !no% eel by re atom% emettle en. and ..entintentto retain the a!,--i-tant anti ..elperintendetti%. who probablyare eater 1.:3 tears old. lta%e gf% en their line. It the elistriet. and lime noplace tee gee. (.titian% pint edit! lent quite different emotions figure in theboard's decision to wio% e uperintentlent. Neither the menthe!)

the nor the retro.% al of the superintendent curate' tee theheart r thee mattet. Both decisions focus too nmh attention em totet.t.n. the opetintetolent.

We %mild like tee suggest some gradual steps toward the "itiperin-tend ing team. One would be the adoption of the co iliey of mass resigna-tions: it might be a googf idea if all a.htant and associate superinten-dents were tee offer their resignations upon the appointment of a newsuperintendent. much as ealeinet officers resign when a new Presidentof the United States takes Haire. The new superintendent and theboard could areept the resignations or not, at their discretion. If theychoose not to accept some resignations, then those assistants stay (on.members of the tram in a genuine political anti psychological sense. Ifthe resignations are accepted. the immediate burden falls en thedistrict !that is. on the board! to see that those no longer on theadministrative team are appropriately employed.

The heavier burden falls ten the profession itself. for it mustdevelop strategies and techniques for transferring credentials andequity. Such a step sounds radical only because the isolation of train-ing and certification have led to a lack of public awareness of thecomplexities' of administration and to inbreeding on the part ofthe proleroilon. A tradition of mass resignation would give superinten-dents a healthy jolt.

The new superintendent also ought to be able to select perhaps 20

per cent of his administrative team from outside the certified world.that is. from among laymen. lawyers. engineers, social workers. andothers. This new penetration into the administrative tangle couldreinvigorate the superintendency. educate the public. and build politi-cal support for the superintendent. These are steps along the way to ateam approach.

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MO The t ean school Superintendent of the. Future

The Future of the Superintendents' Network antil'utoJEct t OPEN

eh not e%ifect tho..f now gin runup. administratit e training togt *flng with ',fir suggestions with, oil a struggle. We think -trustbusting.' is in order. r think that the **continuing education" nowat affable for school administrators is woeful!) inadequate. We thinktlir pi 4...hef %ice It afning olaeltnittistrators would benefit limn c ottipeti.tion. awl we thirk that Art.0101114 for eiil elistriets and unit ersities toput then hands on the e.ont rots would viol some of the stagnation. Wewant more drastic change. rat the relatit its new tit141 of continuingeducat

Fitst 411. continuing ethin is a tniftiner. We will call itre-e,litrat ion. because that is what is rieressart if public school a41-itchiest .ir ging t.. stir% it e and grow personally and profession-allt . He-education is the anti behind the Superintenents' Network.because thew is no point in reentitteting anything that is part of theproidem.

'rite pi t the Superintendents' 'Network. and its reason forbeing. is that superintendents are in trouble. and their training and theat allable rettitming education are nett much help. Designed as sup-prt s stems. these training and continuing education programs are infact millstones. t support stern Fier high- level public school adminis-tratrs must he rele ant to their needs. It toast provide a means forthem to recgiiir ehal with their environment. the central fact of

hirh 16. the interrelatedness of the sehool systin and its surroundingsocial %stems and sub-t stems. lit,eillicatiote of this kind abolishesfalse distinctions between trainer and trainee by reetriring thate%ersotte work at defining problems and designing solutions. Re-educatin for school iffieerifitettilent recognif4 that len. ating the r.etfilm for eltange in the ftniferintenflent themselves is urn' step towardchange in the public schools. The process of individual, institutional.and ..tic ial change i contradicted In the notion of a -changer- and a-eh:mixt.: since et es-% one is suscptilile to change. 'rile ..trnetneethe super ilitenefft.: \ et tt.trk Mt that prmi-e. C hfe-fla% work-...lisps for 30 %tsiterillietleirtat% are not.

The Question of Evaluation

Innatiim and change are confide% and elhere. public edu-catin itself. and eannot, with our present knowledge of the process.be controlled in a wad that would satisfy the erahlators We haveknown. timid Cohen 'Los:

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Imagining Future 101

. . .the ititt -*/* of planning. development. aml testing so-cial innovation cannot be tilltiertettSSI si!ntelt as a series ofinteractions in w hick the'i'rs is translated into practie. It isin addition a Prilet'Sselfewloring what the idea was in thefirst place. anti finding out what it might become.. Discov-er% is a' appropriate. a II letailifir a. develoment.°

We. can cite the steads spread of PROJECT OPEN-type networkingaril 1,6% t ha. 1 Hutto'. but most of the. data Klink! not he' snitch use' inwarding ff bright-fled e% Anatol.% eager for instant results. In the end.we coins' back to our original premise: since school superintendentslime to answer for the %tate of the' Shtfk. they ought to be equippedwith at least some of the tools for ontreelliew their operating (limb-ti.111%*

Atually . the' evaluators ask the wrong questions. as almoster% one pm atels admits. The' -state of the art" in educational evalu-

ation as The information comes in too late to influenedecisions. but the pressure for data often fierce, programs into a"qualtitatise- mold in which the immeasurable must becomeIneitsitt.tie or he ruled illegitimate.

t g course. the Superintendents' Network dike every project thatteends public funds, must be held accountable for its behavior. butaceleant ability does not necessarily have to be data-processed. Thepulitc . the school board. and the federal government have a right toknow the conditions under which the money is spent. and to whatends. If they saw fit to approve the project in the first place. then theyhave an obligation not to strangle it in its infancy by immediatelydemanding hard data.

How should the Superintendents* Network be evaluated? Thereare at the present time insurmountable- obstacles to objectivity. andthis might to he re-cognized. The Superintendents' Network is new.often inartiulate and unclear about its goals and methods (which areehangingi. and often unsure about what standards it ought to apply toitself. Part of trying out an innovation is also trying to decide how toevaluate it.

As the !..euperintendents. Network and PROJECT OPEN grow. itis logical to expect the tensions of the local-federal relationship toincrease. Tension rises with the stakes. Right now PROJECT OPENis asking questions about what went wrong with educational reformand is trying to enlarge the arena. so that all the social systems andsub-systems involved in public education are part of the re-educationand readjustment process. PROJECT OPEN and the Superintend-ents* Network are not experiments in a scientific sense. They are a

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groping effort to go beyond the limits of research. development, lec-tures. and computer retrieval systems as a meansof improving schoolsand school people. They are also a new kind of federal-local relation-ship. Essentially. the federal role is to encourage diversity. not to leadthe way. The Office of Education, in our view. should not be neutral.which implies passivity, but should push for growth in new directions,leaving the choice of direction up to the locals. Donald Sehon haswritten:

Government cannot play the role of "experimenter for thenation." seeking first to identify the correct solution, thento train society at large in its adaptation. The opportunityfur learning is primarily in discovered systems at theperiphery, not in the nexus of official policies at the center.Central's role is to detect significant shifts at the periphery.to pay explicit attention to the emergence of ideas in goodcurrency. and to derive themes of policy by induction.?

This means that the Office of Education must live with the tensioncreated by leaving the Superintendents' Network on its own. TheOffice has an enabling function, and it has to resist the pressure to takethe local machinery apart to discover why it ticks.

We cannot know if the Superintendents' Network will become"respectable** or who will make it so. Perhaps the AASA, the ChiefState School Officers, or the Council of Great City Schools will em-brace its philosophy. That sort of respectability would be a virtue,considering the bewildering pressures on school superintendents. butwe do not want the united front of respectability to become an excusefor inaction.

The Superintendents' Network could create the climate for risk-taking. so that all districts in a state could adopt. for instance. a singleposition on compliance with court orders. School superintendentscould never urge their boards to "get out in front" on desegregation.for example. but they could urge boards to pressure the state educa-tion agency to adopt a consistent attitude toward enforeentent.8 TheSuperintendents' Network might be the vehicle for weighing the ad-vantages of such a declaration of unity. At present. no such vehicleexists. and no unity either, because districts by their very structureand charter act independently, and resist independently. Through theSuperintendents' Network school superintendents and others couldbegin to understand the effects of non-compliance and resistance onschool and community.

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imagining The Future 103

Until a team or superintendents is possible. and until somethinglike the Superintendents' Network re-educates its way through theurban public school systems of the country, the struggle for highquality in the public schools will be a losing one. The issue is not justthe survival of school superintendents even though the social learn-ing we urge includes the lesson that superintendents are currentlybeing held responsible for events they do not control.

tt stake is the survival of public education itself, because wecannot continue to heap demandsoften contradictory onesuponpublic schools without tearing then.) apart. and we cannot continue toinsist that the schools do what we as a people are apparently unwillingt do. The Superintendents' Network and PROJECT OPEN are small.tentative step. toward the healthy readjustment of the entire society.

FOOTNOTESHarold Howe. II. -The Care and reeding of Superintendents.- tiaturdat Retireefrelernatt 1.. Itm)21. p, 14.

2 'Mr District of Columbia reenth hired a superintending tram of twee. BarbaraSizemore and Kenneth Haskins. Sizemore is the Superintendent and Haskins the

ice-Superintendent oult bec ause. as she explained it. "The Board had to know whowas finall% responsible and who would get the bigger paycheck.- Sizemore andHaskins are operating as a team. am! one of their first tasks in. in Haskins words. -toflatten out the hierarchy."

' The Oakland thictis base -ball team. owner Charley Finley. and ex-manager DickWilliants are good (if time-bound( examples of the public's and the media's lowtolerance leer conflict. Williams managed t wo different teams to three champientechipnbetween 1967-73. including ceinsecutive world championships in 1972 and 1973. Thet' in particular have been embroiled in conflict player-Om:et% manager-player.and env ner- pia% er. between the manager and the owner became public whenWilliams resigned abruptly after the 1973 World Series. The reaction to theseconflicts ha.. been interesting. The As have said in effect. "Why does it matter howwe get along off the On the field we're professionals. and we're winning." Thepublic and the media .h. not scent able to accept this. A great deal has been writtenabout the Oakland warn.- behavior. almost all of it el-hie:if. The implicit. and oftenexplicit. criticism is that a "real" team should not and would not squabble. criticize.am! fight ttt such a manner. The mildest criticism comes out something like, -Well. Isuppose it' alt right for them. but I sure wouldn't want my daughter to marr) one."Apparently the Oakland tans agree: they stay away from the ball park it. droves.41tbough the As win em the field. which is the goal in professional baseball. thepublic.. led by the sportswriters. calmed accept the idea that conflict% are inevitableand healtliv. especially among a stable of highly competitive. high-strung. well-paidathletic. machines whose professional life span is short.

4 report on violence in the California public schools hears out our colucervation.Minimizing or preventing conflict is the aim of the report's recommendations. as thissummary from edurettiem 1 N.4 (December 10. 19731 makes clear:

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te(xrrsarEs (Cent.)

k new region on violence in California public schools suggests that students.parents. and teachers all disagree on the causes of ',dos,' conflict and violence. In itsscar -lung study. "A Repo on Conflict and inienre in Califoniia's High Schools."the state education department found that students believe conflict is caused by:uneven application of discipline by the %dhoti staff and favoritism toward "studentgovernment cliques:. smoking regulations. unfair and authoritarian administrationpractices. pour counseling sere ices. lack of a student role in the decision - makingprocess. tracking. iippressivr school policies tsusprnsinn, clothing circles. etc.. t, anddiscrimination against low- income students by assessing fees for participation inschool activities. On the other hand. administrators. counsrlun and teachers sug-gested entirely different causes fur conflict, including excessive administrativepaperwork. poor facilities, teacher disinterest. drug use. and home values. Parents.however. offered still a third set of reasons fur confrontations. including crowdedschools, lax school discipline. irrelevant curricula. outside agitators. and poor com-munication between p.cloods and pniice.

The task hare toresented several recommendations for dealing with andminimizing school violence and conflict. Active involvement by all participants. inthe school ---administranirs. counselors. teachers. students. parents and communityleadersis a significant preventive measure fur conflict, the report says. Parentadvisors councils have been formed in mans communities as effective vehicles ofparticipati,ron, giving assistance and support to prevent conflict helOrr it erupts. Oneof the must promising practices is the growing use of group counseling to "cnol"troubled campuses. it says. And it offers several ideas for reducing vandalism:student lounges and "rap rooms." the planting of green areas and construction ofoutdour patios and other gathering areas. student-designed murals for hallways, andredecoratit n of rest rooms under student supervision. The study found that inter-group conflict can be minimized through more communications among students ofdifferent ethnic origins. inserviee teachers training to develop sensitivity to ethnicdifferences and minor;ty problems, and adoption of a multicultural curriculum toinclude balanced presentations of the history and cultures of minorities.

California school chief Wilson Riles plans to establish a "Conflict PreventionResource Index." a clearinghouse for matching districts with develuping or potentialproblems with communities which have experienced similar diffieulties and havefound ways to prevent a recurrence. "Conflict in the schools is a reflection of theconflicts in society. but that dues not excuse the schools from their responsibilities."Riles says. "Schools must nut function in ways which contribute to conflicts in thecountry."

The closest thing ma national plan is the AASA's Retirement Plan. established eightyears ago. It is intended to supplement Ionial security and other retirement plans.Under the plan. employers contribute by reducing actual employee salary or bydiverting a salary increase into the retirement fund. Retirement is usually at 65.although benefits can begin at 55. The plan provides for portability. "Participatingmembers who transfer from one employer to another will take the total value of theirannuity with them regardless of how long they have been employed. It is hoped thatthe new employer continue to make the contribution un your behalf, thuspermitting your retirement plan to remain intact."


fN tlt YMOTES (Cont.)

6 David h. Cohen. "Social Esperiments with Schools: Slat has Been Learned?Center for Educational Policy. 1tesean. lithe Brooking, Institution (July. 1973 p.21.

Donald A. Srhon. Bel fond the Stable State I New York: N Ilion. New York. 197b.p.

n The Superintendents' Network is concerned with desegregation to the extent that itis a major i,sur in public education. Public schools have been told to do what thelarger "owlet% «rem:. unwilling to undertake. and public education is beingscrutinized as never before. Superintemlents feel the heat. and that is often reflectedin networking sessions. Superintendents at a networking session generally begin bytalking about their own survival. Gradually they discover then that not even hangingtogether prey ems them from hanging separately. New and better interaction with therest of the world sounds like a simplistic prescription for survival and positivechange. but it works. The Superintendents Network is committed to that prescrip-tion.

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APPENDIX A: 107SOME REFORM ATTEMPTS

The current interest in the training of educational administratorsdates back to the late 1940's and early 1950's, when the KelloggFoundation underwrote exploratory studies and a large-scale im-provement program. This appendix discusses a number of the larger ormore recent efforts. The list is not inclusive.

1. The Seven University Consortium ProjectThe best known of the reforms in training educational adminis-

trators is the Seven University Project, now the Seven UniversityConsortium Project. The program was set up by the Fold Foundationin 1968 to help prepare superintendents to cope with the emergingproblems of urban school administration. Enough universities wereinterested in reforming their own training programs with Foundationmoney. and Ford ultimately funded programs in seven major univer-sities, both public and private.

This is how the Consortium describes itself:

The Consortium for Educational Leadership was in-corporated as a not-for-profit Corporation in the State ofIllinois on May 24. 1973. Its membership includes sevenmajor institutions of higher education in the United States:Atlanta University, the University of Chicago, ClaremontGraduate School. Columbia University (Teachers College),the University of Massachusetts, the Ohio State Univer-sity, and the University of Pennsylvania.

Financial support for the initial work of the Consor-tium has been provided by a grant from the Ford Founda-tion, with the University of Chicago acting as fiscal agent.

The purposes of the Consortium are: to train educa-tional leaders; to promote cooperation among the seveninstitutions which train educational leaders; to assist in-stitutions which seek the services of qualified persons; andto conduct research related to leadership training and prac-tice.

Within the context of these purposes. five priority areas have beenidentified by the Board of Directors:

(1) Placement: Effective placement of students in intern-ships (when desired) and jobs from which leverage forcreative change can occur.

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(2) Cadre-building: Growth of collegial relationshipsamong students on the various campuses. as well aswith alumni now working in the field, to provide sup-port for leaders who are bringing about change and whoneed assistance.

(3) Sharing Intellectual Resources and

t41 Diminishing Faculty Parochialism: Opening up thehuman and material resources of each campus to stu-dents and faculty on the other campuses. in such waysthat individual needs are satisfied and interaction en-hanced.

(5) Problem-oriented Research: Focusing of research ef-forts on the political and training issues of the Consor-tium and upon the particular problems of leaders whoare interested in the reform of public school systems.

Each of the Consortium members actively recruits educators whoare sensitive to the needs of the alienated, both metropolitan and rural.and gives them the skill and competencies to serve those groups.

The office of the Consortium is located at 5801 South KenwoodAvenue. Chicago. Illinois 60637 (312- 667 - 8585 -6). Dr. R. BruceMcPherson is Executive Secretary and Mr. Columbus Salley is DeputyExecutive Secretary of the Consortium.

2. The National Ed.D. Program for Educational LeadersThe Ford Foundation has been indirectly involved with a con-

troversial "external doctorate" program at Florida's Nova University.The Foundation made a planning grant to enable this program to drawup a curriculum outline and a process evaluation of its program forschool administrators. The Nova Program has come under attack.most recently in the November. 1973. Phi Delta Kappan, as a "di-ploma mill" or a "cheap" doctorate. Those interested in the con-troversy.are directed to Nova's response (in the February, 1974, issueof the same magazine) by Dr. Donald P. Mitchell. director of Nova'sNational Ed.D. Program for Educational Leaders.

That Ed.D. Program describes itself in this fashion:The Nova University National Ed.D. Program for Educa-tional Leaders a new program for improving leadershipin the elementary and secondary schools of the UnitedStates is designed to

develop persons already in administrative roles in

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Some Reform Attempt' 109

the schools to assure that leadership improve-ments attained by candidates are felt in theschools immediately and not add to the over-supply of trained persons for jobs that probablywill not exist.

focus on real-life situations and real job problemsby using the schools as real laboratories and notby pulling participants out of the system to spendtime on university campuses and then be rein-troduced through artificial "internships."

make maximum use of the top talents of outstand-ing scholars and practitioners drawn from the uni-versities and educational systems of the entirenation and On presume that any single univer-sity or system in isolation is able to provide thelevel and diversity of talent needed.

provide a national point of view through systematicinteraction with those from other areas and back-grounds to mitigate the provincialism now presentin local school systems and local universitiesand not to reinforce inbred attitudes.

work through a supportive mechanism the clus-ter (both local and national) where candidatesaid one another in a professional manner andnot encourage competition in isolation for indi-vidual trophies.

operate a total program involving a significantnumber of peers in both individual and group ef-forts and not bits and pieees where each personalone shops around from university to university.

provide support and help to participants beyondthe period of actual involvement in graduate work

and not communicate only for alumni fundingevents.

assure its financial continuance as a program byproviding its essential elements through the tuitionpaid by its working candidates and not dependupon the whims and fancies of governmental orphilanthropic groups' support for survival.

110 The 1. :than School Superintendent of the Future

offer a unique national laboratory for the researchand development interets of the participants. localand state authorities. foundations and others in-terested itt the improvement of the schools, bykeeping the emphasis on growth and changethroughout the system and not by placing aresearch cachet on existing systems.

keep testing whether the program is fulfilling itspurposes in the real world and not assume thatmeeting standards in treatises based on theories is

the only road to credibility.

Nova University attained its accredited status at the end of1971 from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. TheSouthern Association had spent three years studying "non-traditional study programs'. and thus was receptive to externaldegree proposals in December. 1971. The program was announcedto the education field in January 1972. By June of 1972 elevenclusters were in operation. There were 31 at the end of 1973.

Among the requirements for successful completion of the NovaEd.D. Program are the following: each participant must demon-strate competency in each tf eight substantive areas. Participantsare helped to develop their competencies in these areas throughall-day seminars with National Lecturers. specially prepared studyguides. local cluster activities, and study group activities; theymust also devote a great deal of time to independent study.

The study areas are designed to provide participants an oppor-tunity to gain conceptual skills and substantive understanding thatwill assist them in providng leadership to schools and school sys-tems. The primary goal of improving the leadership of school ad-ministrators provides a rationale for content and pedagogy as-sociated with each study area. Similarly. all persons seekinggraduate preparation who are interested in a career as a basicresearcher or specialist in education technology. for example. willfind other graduate programs more appropriate.

Formal instruction in the program is provided by NationalLecturers. Work in each study art a lasts three months and includesthree all-day seminars with National Lecturers. The Senior Na-tional Lecturer in each study area is responsible for designing thearea of study. identifying and monitoring the Associate Lecturers.and evaluating the participants.

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Some Reform Attempts ; I I

While the lecturers present much substantive information. theyempha.iie tic% elopment ,4' per,ipect i% es and understanding that helpthe cluster and participants to move ahead on their own. Loy ad dustersand individual participants have much opportunity to shape their ownlearning experiences in each study area. They inform lecturers of ((1within the study area especially relevant to the cluster; they use specialcluster funds to involve local experts in the instructional program: theydevelop Of purchase special materials or equipment and they use oneanother as a resources by forming task-oriented stall). groups.

Participants are formally evaluated on the basis of examina-tions, projects. or papers. The common characteristic of the evalua-tion procedure is that they emphasize analytic, interpretative, andconceptual skills rather than information recall. Instruction andevaluation procedures are increasingly process-oriented. Whenappropriate however, participants may test out of a given study areaby working out a suitable evaluation procedure with the SeniorNational Lecturer.

A Pass-No Pass System. Each participant must pass all eightareas. In no more than two of the eight areas, under all specialcircumstances. a participant may request an alternative evaluationfrom the Nova staff. In such cases it is the participant's responsibil-ity to propose and justify the alternative procedure, and to completeit to the satisfaction of the Nova staff.

The alternative evaluation procedure is not easier than a regu-lar exam: it must result in persuasive evidence of a part;cipant'scompetency in the study area. There is no stigma attached tosuccess through an alternative examination.

3. The National Program in Educational LeadershipMid-Career training is the approach taken by the National Pro-

gram in Educational Leadership (NPEL). which began in 1970, and issupported by the U.S. Office of Education. NPEL seeks to recruit intoeducation those who have already been successful in other fields butnow want to work full time in education. Five universities. a commu-nity college, and the North Carolina State Department of Educationare the participating institurans: Ohio State University. ClaremontGraduate School. City University of New York. the University of Texasat Austin, Northwestern University, and Navajo Community College(Chinle, Arizona). Ohio State is the coordinating institution.

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Approximately the candidates are selected annually at each in-stitution for a two-year program. Stipend (up to $18,750) is based onpast salary and nerd. NMI. believes that after two years of study. the .Fellows will be able to obtain meaningful positions in education.though not necessarily as superintendents.

According to Creamer and Feld. in a pamphlet "Some Innova-tions in the Training of Educational Leaders." (The ConferenceBoard. New York. 1972. p. 49). NMI. is not a degree-granting pro-gram. though it is university-affiliated. Because the student involved isa mature professional, the content of the program for each individualvaries depending cm his background and interests. tie is assisted inthis planning by the director in charge of the program at each center.All facilities of the educational center involved are available to theFellows. However, they are encouraged to arrange interviews andinternships at various educational and community agencies and or-ganizations. Fellows meet to discuss their experiences and suggestpossible interviews with persons who can widen their knowledge ofeducation and provide them with new perspectives.

Because no degree is to be awarded, and because the Fellows willnot have "gone through the ranks" before entering the educationalsystem. great effort is being made to obtain the support of variouspeople within the system. to keep them informed of the process of:WEL. and to solicit their ideas on how to improve and strengthen it.

4. The Education Professions Development ActPart F of the Education Professions Development Act of 1967

tEPDA) provides for leadership training in the vocational educationfield. Eighteen universities have set up programs and qualified forfederal funds. The stress has been on diversity of studies, includingliberal arts training. and on internships. A typical program is de-scribed below:

The doctoral program at Rutgers is divided into four seg-ments: the Core. Selected Area Course work. the Intern-ship. and the Dissertation.

The Core segment consists of six basic areas: vocational-technical education. educational foundations, psychology.sociology. economics. and research methods.

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Some Reform Attempts 113

Most students in the Rutgers program attendon a part-timebasis, but EPI)A Fellows are required to be full-time stu-dents. For the 1970-71 Se !Will year. 17 EPDA doctoralcandidates were chosen. As a whole. however, there are128 students in the Rutgers doctoral program.

EPDA Fellows receive a stipend of 83.500 per academicyear (maximum of three yeartflplus an allowance 48400 foreach dependent. Additional funds are available for sum-mer study. Each university in the program receives $2.500per year plus $600 for summer work for each student. Thisamount is reduced by any tuition charges paid by thestudent. (Creamer and Feld. pp. 48-491

S. The Notional Level Internship ProgramThe 1.niversity Council on Educational Administration tUCEAi

sponsors a National Level Internship Program. which it thus de-scribes:

The National Level Internship Program is currently accepting can-didates for the 1974-75 academic year, which will be the secondyear of operation for the program. The NLIP is sponsored by aspecial project grant of the Division of Training Programs. Bureaufor Education of the Handicapped. United States Office of Educa-tion.

The program has several objectives. They are as follows:

1. To achieve a national perspective on education

2. To acquire understandings of change strategies usedby national agencies

3. To participate in change strategies and other functionsperformed within national agencies

4. To ;observe government and private agencies interactat the national level

5. To assist individuals in clarifying their career goals interms of a national perspective

A theme underlying the entire National Level Internship Program isthe integration of the fields of general and special education. Duringthe last four years. UCE.A has become involved in a consortium ofdepartments of general and special education in universities across

120


the eountry . The elonsortium is designed to assist integration of thetwo fields lip the extent that departments of special education canlearn more about the field of administration and departments ofgeneral education can become aware of the problems to( the specialeducator.Candidates for the National Level Internship Program are drawnfrom NO general and special education or related fields, and areexpected to have completed or hr near ecompletkne of the doctoratein these areas. In order to facilitate the integration notion of under-lying theme of the program. interns who are receiving their dingo-rates in general education administration are offered the opportu-nity to be placed in agencies having a major responsibility forspecial education. interns who are receiving doctorates in specialeducation may also be placed in organizations which have a moregeneral leadership (orientation. Special education agencies whichhave or an going to participate in the program are the Bureau forthe Education of the Handicapped. the Council for ExceptionalChildren. the National Association of State Directors of SpecialEducation, and the Secretary's Commission on Mental Retarda-tion. General education agencies that have or will participate in theprogram are the Council of Great City Schools, the National Insti-tute for Education: the American Associathen of School Adminis-trators. the Association of Chief' State School Officers. and theNational School Public Relations Association.

Interns are provided the opportunity for periodic seminars thatsupplement their internship experience. These seminars help in-terns to acquire learning,. external to the agencies with which theyare involved, as well as provide the interns the opportunity to shareexperiences along the line of integration of general and specialeducation administration.

The evaluation of the program is hieing conducted by Dr. C. Brook-lyn Derr of Harvard University. Dr. Derr has conceptualized an(organizational evaluation design which consists of both formativeand summative evaluation. Formative evaluation is defined as ongo-ing information which is constantly and periodically collected,analyzed and fed back into the system in order to help develop andmaintain consistency or congruence of expectations between in-terns and their supervisors. This type of evaluation is often over-balked within the normal evaluation designs of many programs.Summative evaluation is defined as more long-term terminal typesof evaluation and is more typical of the common evaluation design.

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Some Reform Attentpt I IS

6. There are also several new, university-based programs: a **univer-sity without walls" at Fairkigh Dickinson and limners Administra-tion and Social Policy Programs deserve special mention. as doesYale's Mki-Career Program in City Sehool Administration. The latteris a one-year non-degree program for between 10 and 20 high-leveladministrators who receive leaves of absence and up to 315,000 (leavepay and stipend combined,. The Kellogg Foundation has provided afive-year grant with the expectation that Yak will provide from its ownfunds as the grant decreases. Creamer and Feld describe theprogram:

Half of the program is tailored to the needs of the individualstudent using university resources. The other half (2courses! is a common program invoking all students.Common Course 1 is a colloquium extending over theyear in which major problems in city schools are dis-ussed. Lecturers from inside and outside the universityspeak and readings are assigned. The lectures are mul-

. involving such fields as psychology.economics. philosophy. sociology, political science. andlaw. Common Course 2 is an intensive seminar eachsemester consisting of all aspects id' one topic . . .

For the individualized portion of the program students takeover available seminars at the university according to theirparticular interests. The candidates come into the programwith some problems from their own school system andthese are to be worked out during the time of study. In thisconnection they meet to discuss Advanced Problems inAdministration. (Creamer and Feld. p. 570.

Erwin Miklos. in "Training -in- Common for Educational. Public.and Business Adtninistrators". (UCEA Series on Administrator Prep-aration. Danville. Illinois. 1972. pp. 40430. discusses several jointprograms and makes special reference to Stanford University's jointProgram in Educational Administration. a venture involving theGraduate School of Business and the School of Education. This pro-gram. and roughly similar Business-Public Administration combina-tions at Cornell University and York University in Toronto, offera coreof common courses. Miklos also discusses. with reserve, some man-agement programs that claim to be preparing people for careers inpublic and private organizations. He puts new programs atCarnegie-Mellon (1971i. Yak (1971) and the MIT Sloan School ofManagement (1971 t in this category.

122

I lb The Urban Melton! Superintendent of the Future

7..4 Program to Retrain PrincipalsThe (:arttegi Fotu umlerwriting a tw -year 'migrant for

the retraining of principals in Massachusetts. The Educational De-velopment Corporation EMI of :Newton hope% to train 'about 60principals each year with a 1050.000 grant. while at the sante timebuilding a base of public support for the program. Dr. Charles Brown.the project manager. feels that the program can do what the univer-sities have Nan! to do. "Ws unconscionable that schools of educationcast their graduates adrift, but they do. Perhaps the schools of eduea-tion aren't capable of meeting the needs of school administrators.-Brown has experience anti perspective: he worked at Ford on thedesign of the Seven University Project and then directed the initialattempt at their cooperation.

Brow n reels that principals need a outfit! deal of help. although hestres' that the EDC project will not tell principals how they ought tolie r -ft:tenet!. We will only be working with principals who want help.lie or h IA ill work Last with us the direction the program will take.Brow it ens kid dn. that principals will want to chart -adaptive- plans fin-

the future. to Much and learn ft-otn the past. and to cope with theeontradliction of being a public and a private figure simultaneously.-Pritteipal. lit I. crisis managemnt.- Brown obsert ed. -Theyrarely hate the time or the personnel to allow them to look throughproblems at the larger picture. Some dem% have the inclination. itstrue. but we want to help those who do.- tPersonal interview. July.a 973 d.

8. The National Academy for School ExecutivesThe AASA's National Aethimy for School Executives describes

itself in this fashion:The Acadenty operates upwards of fifty to sixty programs tti

varying length each year. Generally *peaking. these programs aredirected! by a member of the NASE staff: about a third are directedeach bs the N .%SE consultant. William Curtis anti the NASE arc

sciate director. Richard Morrow: of the remaining third. the pro-grams are about equally divided among the NASE director. LouieZet en. VASE interns who serve with us on a one.year assignment.and a few "outside- directors. such as Forrest Conner. recentlyretired executive secretary of AASA.

The Academy opened the doors on its first sessions in the fail of196/1. and since that time the Academy has operated 152 programsfor 4.414 participants.

123

Some Reform Attempt* 117

Of those participants. a little more than a quarter are schoolsuperintendents. Initially in 1968 through 1970 the percentageof participants who were acting school superintendents hoveredaround 40 per cent. Since we adopted a new, broader mailing list in1972, the percentage of superintendents has dropped to about 26per cent. and the percentage of other categories of administratorshas increased.

The Academy operates three different kinds of workshopsvarying in length. The must common type of program offered by theAcademy is its Seminar which lasts from Monday morning to Fridaynoon. The cost of a seminar to a member of AASA is $225 forregistration. materials and instruction. In addition. the Academyalso offers role institutes for men and women new to their positions.skills institutes for administrators who seek to develop a specificskill. and orientation institutes for administrators who wish abroadly sketched understanding of a major issue in education. Eachof these institutes is one and a half or two and a half days in length.and the costs vary slightly from $100 to $150 to AASA members.Again, that fee includes costs of registration. instruction and mate-rials.

Beginning in early 1974. the Academy will also offer one-dayprograms designed to take very quick looks at emerging proL: tts ineducation. These will be substantially less in cost. although wecannot at this moment accurately indicate the exact level of thecost.

Normally costs for attending the Academy program are paid bythe administrator's own school district. There are instances wherethese costs have been absorbed through federal project funds. or insome cases. have been paid personally by the man himself. Nor-mally, however. the district absorbs expenses.

121

APPENDIX Bs 119

THE SUPERINTENDENT'S NETWORK:SELECTED SITUATIONS

SITUATION I

BACKGROUND: Assume that you are the superintendent of aschool system and you have an assistant superintendent who is per-forming well in most areas of his job. but his achievement in one area isbelow standard. Assume that you and he in previous discussions haveagreed upon specific output goals. (e.g.. the interaction of new cur-riculum units across the system, inservice teacher training. etc.).These were discussed carefully and plans were made to achieve thesegoals with agreement on the step-by-step process involved. About amouth ago. you met with your assistant and found that he was notattaining the goals. They were again discussed and revised slightlydownward. and there was an agreement that they could be achieved.You now learn. through an internal reporting system, that the goals arebeing missed significantly. You are now talking to the man and he hassaid that he has a variety of problems in achieving the goals. but therereally is no change in his situation. He just doesn't know why he isunable to get the results and expresses real concern. You as thesuperintendent (system) must select a strategy to deal with the assist-ant superintendent (environment) regarding the successful perform-ance of a variety of functions (goal) and. while this process has beengoing on. completion of at least one of the tasks has become urgent.

RESPONSES TO SITUATION I

RESPONSE A: Accept the fact that its a tough job and everybodyhits rough spots. Try to give him support and reassurance and, at thesame time. show a willingness to explore other ways in which he mightstrive toward goal achievement.

RESPONSE B: Dig more deeply into the specific causes for difficul-ties. Try to build joint understanding of what's needed. Explore anyadditional alternatives that are uncovered. Strive for commitmenttoward improvement'.

RESPONSE C: Point out to the man he shou.td continue to developalternatives and necessary plans to move back into line with yourjointly agreed-upon objectives and also make it clear that some kind ofstep will have to be taken if improvement doesn't begin to emerge.(That is. depending upon the specific case. point ut that he may be

125


transferred to a less sensitive job. or into an area where he has morechance to develop before being assigned additional responsibility. orin an extreme situation, he might even be. terminated.

RESPONSE Ds Use your own experience and any data available topoint out ways in which he might improve. and achieve his goal.Illustrate to him some of the advantages of new and better approachesto the problems he faces. Point out some of the possible benefits to himover the long pull.

SITUATION II

BACKGROUND: The Board of Education in a small, primarily uppermiddle-class community has decided to institute a program of com-munity use of school facilities. It develops over the course of the yearthat several things happened. One is a severe cut in the budgetallocations as a result of a defeat of the bond i.k4ue. Secondly. there'squite a bit of .iotial unrest in the community, with some violencebreaking out. particularly some of an interracial nature in a smalldowntown area. Also, the initial efforts at this kind of program have notbeen well received by quite a few parents who at the moment are uptight" about the violence. As the Principal of the largest school facilityyou have been asked to advise the Board (System) on the most appro-priate course of immediate action for it to take with regard to the newprogram (goal) in this community (environment).

RESPONSES TO SITUATION II

RESPONSE As I don't think it makes much sense to push forwardwith this at this Hint-- We are short of funds, there is unrest in thecommunity. and some people are expressing concern about a climateof violence. Rather than make a big issue about expanded use of schoolfacilities we probably should face realities and let it lie for a while. Ifanti when funds are made available we may want to reopen the issueand push for the adoption of our plan.

RESPONSE Bs If we let people in the community dictate when andwhat programs to develop. pretty soon we won't be able to initiateanything. I recognize that there is some public unrest and that we arefaced with financial problems. However, moving ahead with the pro-gram will in fact provide us with an opportunity to build better under-standing with the community and the interrelationships between themand ourselves.

126

The Superintendent's Network: Selected Situations 121

RESPONSE C: As usual we are forgetting to think about the kidsthemselves and their parents. Why not work with them in trying tosolve this problem? We might attempt to problem-solve with themabout the lack of funds and the causes and realities of communityunrest. My own suspicion is that a useful program could be developedout of this. Let's not rigidly stick to what we are proposing to do, norgive the impression that we are giving up on a mutually advantage( .usproposition.

RESPONSE D: Under normal circumstances I think your programproposal is the right one, but there are more critical efforts needed nowto resolve some of the conflicts in the community. We literally do nothave the money to provide the kind of bus service or back-up funds forcommunity activities, or for tours and trips. I simply suggest that wenot create a big flap over an issue that is probably going to blow over ina week or so anyway. I don't see much point in attempting to engagewith the community or the kids and risk escalating the already touchysituation that exists.

SITUATION III

BACKGROUND: A study group comprised of parents. elementaryschool student representatives, teachers and university personnel(system), has been assigned responsibility for developing a programcalled "Getting to Know Your Community" (goal) for implementation 9months from now. The program is to be designed for youngstersbetween 9 and II years of age, although it might be used with older oryounger students later on (environment). One member of the groupssuggests that "getting to know your community" means moving outinto the town or city and learning more about its libraries, its publicinstitutions, its roads. buildings, etc. Someone else points out that theprogram might also be used to learn something about geography andeconomics. In attempting to structure the program. group membersbegin to express how they feel about the group of children who mightbe involved. As the chairman of the group, which strategy do you thinkthe new program should reflect in its approach to the students?

RESPONSES TO SITUATION III

RESPONSE A: Children of this age don't have very much informa-tion about the community on any organized basis. I think we shouldcarefully set up specific expectations and goals and then develop

127


projects designed to fill in the gaps that are likely to exist in the groupand at the same time let them build upon what they already know.

RESPONSE B: Today's kids know an awful lot. They watch televi-sion, they're out in the community all the time. I think we ought to letthem specify what they're interested in and then work with them toarrange projects including tours and visits to fit in with their interests.

RESPONSE C: I'm a little uneasy about having this group settle themajor aspects of the program and the design of what should be done. Itseems to me that all of us have lived in the community for a while andthat each of us has had unique experiences and knowledge whichcould be used in the situation. For instance, we might want to suggestthat the group t somewhere that it has never been aware of orencountered. I think all of us should try to take part in determining avariety of ways on how this program might be organized and de-veloped. Some of these ideas could then he presented to the studentsthemselves so that they can respond and work with us to develop aprogram that represents a truly joint effort.

RESPONSE D: I think we're making too much out of this program. Idon't think we can expect the students to be enthusiastic about aprogram that may seem irrelevant to them. If you think back on yourown lives, you probably remember how most of us had to really learnfrom experience and then pretty much decide on how we are going totune in or out of the community.

SITUATION IV

BACKGROUND: A white secondary school principal has recentlybeen transferred from a predominantly Anglo school to a predomi-nantly black school. Although the teaching staff is still largely Anglo.the proportion of black tesithers has been increasing. Early in hiscareer at the school, the principal has received a numbet of subtle. andsome not so subtle. signals regarding concerns of his teaching staffabout his responses to the black students. One of the Anglo teachersconfronted him with: "You'll have to lower your expectations here:this is not the same as a white school."

RESPONSES TO SITUATION IV

RESPONSE A: There are standards to be met. If we need remedialsessions for students, well have them. If special sessions are needed

128

The Superintendent's Network: Selected Situations 123

to help the staff better to cope with any particular problems. we'llarrange for them. I think we have an obligation to attain standardsestablished for the school system.

RESPONSE Before taking any specific action, I'd like to get moreinformation about student performance. standards that we've beenapplying, teacher expectations. and where there seem to be problems.Then we can consider remedial programs and the whole question ofappropriate standards.

RESPONSE C: The school seems to have been running well so I'mnot inclined to change what all of you have been doing.

RESPONSE Di I want to get more information about studentperformance and teacher expectations. If the staff thinks that thestudents need to be judged according to somewhat lower standards. Ican accept thatgiven the disadvantaged environment from which somany of our students have come.

SITUATION V

BACKGROUND: You are the school superintendent (system) in amajor metropolitan city (environment). In similar size communitiesthroughout the nation. there have been numerous instances of politicalpressures. court actions and/or demonstrations to bring about changesin treatment for members of minority groups (goal). For a variety ofreasons, some of which are not clear to you. there has been very littleaction of this sort aimed at your school system. Part of the reason maybe that both the city, and you in your school system. have built trulyprofessional and competent staffs which have good reputations. How-ever. there may be some factors relatively unique to your local minor-ity groups which you are aware of.

keeping in mind both the national trend and your system's experience.you would:

RESPONSES TO SITUATION V

RESPONSE A: Di, nothing at this time regarding your personnelpolicies and practices.

RESPONSE Bs Keep alert to any signs of a similar pattern beginningin your city to respond to any incidents before they develop into alarge: issue.

129

124 The Urban Sehool Superintendent of the Future

RESPONSE Ct Quietly initiate an internal study, using only yourown immediate stag'. to review your policies and procedures withspecific attention being given to recommendations for changingpolities so as to avoid issues which have raised problems elsewhere.

RESPONSE D: Contact key and knowledgeable community rep-resentatives, including those from minority group organizations, todisrupts whether a joint citizens and departmental audit and review ofpersonnel policies and practices would lw desirable.

130

APPENDIX C: 125THE DESIGN AND INFORMATION CENTER

OF PROJECT OPEN

The Design and Information Center (DAICi of PROJECT OPEN pro-vides certain kinds of strategic information, and ways of securing suchinformation, to PROJECT OPEN networks. especially during theinitial stage of each network's development. Unlike other informationcenters, this one is not a collection of solutions to be matched with theperceived problems of educators. It is not an ERIC -like repository ofreports of research and other experience related to education. Rather.it is information both subjective and objective coming from the"action research" of each specific network and for strategic use in theaction training of a network.

The kinds of facts dealt with by the DAIC may be technical (e.g..demographic data on an ethnic minority), but are more likely to revealthe points of sensitivity between two systems in interr ction, the pointsof resistance, the points of immediate and future action. For networkparticipants who share a common role (principals of newly integratedschools, for examplei the DAIC might well supply data includingindividual and group perceptions on unifying the group. identifyingpossible courses of action, confirming and legitimizing felt needs. andincreasing the willingness to take risks. Very particularly, the inform-thm system seeks to facilitate the examination of programmatic andbehavioral alternatives.

DAIC information is viewed and used as an e..ergizing force in thenetworks to strengthen the participant systems' power and courage toact.*

The DAIC dews not disparage or underestimate the usefulness of theusual hard research data. Its posture however, is that there is anoverload of such information on many pedagogical issues (e.g.. thereport of a successful demonstration elsewhere) and that to attempt touse it at points of potential conflict will divert attention from the largerissue: designing strategies of interaction among systems which arenormally closed to each other but which. nevertheless, depend uponeach other.

*The concept of information as energy can he clarified by examination of "Weight'Watchers' and "Alcoholics Anonymous.- In each of these successful "networks" it isinformation. strategically exchanged. which provides the energy needed by the par-ticipants to prevail. A more powerful example is the immense. uncontrollable energy ofrising expectations. which has its source in the instant exchange. by TV and othermedia. of information about how the other half tooth halved lives, and what everyone.everywhere is getting away with.

131


The word -design" is included in the name of theCenter because it isthrough probing into the initiating system and its immediate environ-ment and constituencies that the Network gets started. The first stepmay be a tenative survey, by questionnaire or interview, to revealpoints of concern. sensitivity, and resistance. It may, for safety's sake.deal at first with a fictitious case study or a distant analogous situationrather than with the real system or systems. The surveys may probe at

first only within the protecting boundaries of systems which arehomogeneous by virtue of the identity of role of all Network partici-pants. Later, the surveys will probe other systems that interface withthe original system and are in some degree in conflict with it. This isthe -heterogeneous- mode.

Thus, the design and information system of PROJECT OPEN pro-vides data of special kinds to facilitate and accelerate the Networkingprocess. i.e., the prrn'ess by which systems learn how to learn continu-ously about themselves and about the systems and constituencies

which impinge upon them. The goal for all its readjustment: self-knowledge and self-evolution, rather than self-defense and confronta-tion. A system a person, an institution, a government is

nourished. energized. only outside itself.

The Design and Information Center is not meant to serve the Networks

of PROJECT OPEN throughout the entire course of each Network'sexistence. It will help to initiate a network, help it to achieve its owndesig.e (strategiesi: thereafter each network is expected to do its ownprobing in response to its own needs for information and interaction.

The DAIC is at present operated by Educational Systems and Designs.

Inc., in Westport. Connecticut. under subcontract to grants made by

the U.S. Office of Education. It has done surveys and other probingrelated to specific networks. by questionnaire and by interview, withsome of the latter presented on film. Much of the accumulated infor-mation is potentially useful to other networks. Inquiries are invited.

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