CRISIS AND THE EMERGENCE OF

SCIENTIFIC THEORIESChapter 7

INT

RO

DU

CTI

ON •This chapter traces paradigm

changes that result from

the invention

of new

theories

brought about by the failure of existing theories to solve the problem

s defined

by that

theory.

•This failure is acknow

ledged as a

crisis by

the scientific

comm

unity.

•As is the case w

ith discovery, a change in an existing theory that results in the invention of a new

theory is also brought about by the aw

areness of anomaly.

•The em

ergence of a new theory is generated by

the persistent failure of the puzzles of normal

science to be solved as they should.

•These failures can be brought about by observed discrepancies betw

een theory and fact or changes in social/cultural clim

ates.

•In early stages of a paradigm

, theoretical alternatives are easily invented. O

nce a paradigm

is entrenched (and the tools of the paradigm

prove useful to solve the problems the paradigm

defines), theoretical alternatives are strongly resisted.

•Crises provide the opportunity to retool.

Examples of Crises to theories

1.Em

ergence of Copernican Astronom

y–

Its predecessor, the Ptolemaic

system w

as admirably successful in

predicting the changing positions of both stars and planets.

–D

omenico de N

ovara- held that no system

so cumbersom

e and inaccurate as the Ptolem

aic could possibly be true.

–Copernicus him

self said that the astronom

ical tradition that he inherited had only created a m

onster.

–Technical breakdow

n is the core of the crisis.

–External factors are principally significant to determ

ining the tim

ing of break down and the area

where the breakdow

n first occurs.

Exam

ples of

Crises to

theories

2.Em

ergence of Lavoisier’s O

xygen theory of com

bustion–

1770: Many factors have com

bined to generate a crisis in Chem

istry.

–Cavendish, Priestly and Scheele believed in PH

LOG

ISTON

THEO

RY.

–Although they believed in Phlogiston Theory, they w

ere unable to apply it constantly due to elaborate results of their experim

ents

–W

hen Lavoisier began his experim

ent on airs, there were

almost as m

any versions of the Phlogiston Theory as there w

ere Pneum

atic Chemists.

–The proliferation of versions of a theory is a very unusual sym

ptom

of crisis.

Exam

ples of Crises to

theories

3.The em

ergence of Relativity Theory–

Leibniz criticized N

ewton’s m

aintenance of classic conception of absolute space

–The proliferation of versions of a theory is a very unusual sym

ptom of

crisis.

TH

E

EM

ER

GE

NC

E

OF

REL

ATI

VIT

Y

TH

EO

RY

Their critics were purely logical.

They’re not able to show the absolute

position and motion w

/o any function in N

ewton’s system

They did not succeed in hinting a fully relativistic start of space and m

otion w

ould later come to display.

Theory of space enters norm

al science with

the acceptance of wave theory of light

this theory says that if light is a wave

motion transm

itted in a m

echanical ether directed by N

ewton’s law

s, then celestial observation and terrestrial experim

entation can detect drift

through the ether

the detection of drift by aberration

measurem

ent become a problem

in normal

science

they built a special equipment but this did

not detect observable drift (experim

entalist and observers to theoreticians

•M

axwell’s (N

ewtonian)

electromagnetic theory

light and electromagnetism

were

due to variable displacements of

the particles of a mechanical

ether

He believed that his theory

compatible w

ith some

articulation of the New

ton’s m

echanical view but he finds it

hard to develop a suitable articulation

As a result, his theory despite its N

ewtonian origin produced a

crisis in the paradigm from

w

hich it had sprung

Maxw

ell theory proved such drag w

as very difficult to

introduced in his theory