OUR PASTS – III64

Colonialism and the CityThe Story of an Imperial Capital

6

What Happened to Cities Under ColonialRule?You have seen how life in the countryside changed after theestablishment of British power. What happened to the citiesduring the same period? The answer will depend on thekind of town or city we are discussing. The history of a templetown like Madurai will not be the same as that of amanufacturing town like Dacca, or a port like Surat, or townsthat simultaneously served many different functions.

In most parts of the Western world modern cities emergedwith industrialisation. In Britain, industrial cities like Leedsand Manchester grew rapidly in the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies, as more and more people sought jobs, housing andother facilities in these places. However, unlike WesternEurope, Indian cities did not expand as rapidly in thenineteenth century. Why was this so?

Fig. 1 – A view ofMachlipatnam, 1672

Machlipatnamdeveloped as animportant port townin the seventeenthcentury. Its importancedeclined by the lateeighteenth century astrade shifted to thenew British ports ofBombay, Madras andCalcutta.

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

65

In the late eighteenth century, Calcutta, Bombayand Madras rose in importance as Presidency cities.They became the centres of British power in the differentregions of India. At the same time, a host of smallercities declined. Many towns manufacturing specialisedgoods declined due to a drop in the demand for whatthey produced. Old trading centres and ports could notsurvive when the flow of trade moved to new centres.Similarly, earlier centres of regional power collapsedwhen local rulers were defeated by the British andnew centres of administration emerged. This process isoften described as de-urbanisation. Cities such asMachlipatnam, Surat and Seringapatam were de-urbanised during the nineteenth century. By the earlytwentieth century, only 11 per cent of Indians wereliving in cities.

The historic imperial city of Delhi became a dustyprovincial town in the nineteenth century before it wasrebuilt as the capital of British India after 1912. Let uslook at the story of Delhi to see what happened to itunder colonial rule.

How many ‘Delhis’ before New Delhi?You know Delhi as the capital of modern India. Did youalso know that it has been a capital for more than a1,000 years, although with some gaps? As many as 14capital cities were founded in a small area of about 60square miles on the left bank of the river Jamuna. Theremains of all other capitals may be seen on a visit tothe modern city-state of Delhi. Of these, the most

Presidency – Foradministrative purposes,colonial India wasdivided into three“Presidencies” (Bombay,Madras and Bengal),which developed from theEast India Company’s“factories” (trading posts)at Surat, Madras andCalcutta.

Fig. 2 – Bombay port in theeighteenth century

The city of Bombay began togrow when the East IndiaCompany started using Bombayas its main port in westernIndia.

COLONIALISM AND THE CITY

Urbanisation – Theprocess by which moreand more people beginto reside in towns andcities

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

OUR PASTS – III66

important are the capital cities built between the twelfthand seventeenth centuries.

The most splendid capital of all was built by ShahJahan. Shahjahanabad was begun in 1639 and consistedof a fort-palace complex and the city adjoining it. LalQila or the Red Fort, made of red sandstone, containedthe palace complex. To its west lay the Walled City with14 gates. The main streets of Chandni Chowk and FaizBazaar were broad enough for royal processions to pass.A canal ran down the centre of Chandni Chowk.

Set amidst densely packed mohallas and severaldozen bazaars, the Jama Masjid was among the largestand grandest mosques in India. There was no place higherthan this mosque within the city then.

Delhi during Shah Jahan’s time was also an importantcentre of Sufi culture. It had several dargahs, khanqahsand idgahs. Open squares, winding lanes, quiet cul-de-sacs and water channels were the pride of Delhi’sresidents. No wonder the poet Mir Taqi Mir said, “The

Fig. 3 – Image of Shahjahanabad in the mid-nineteenth century, The Illustrated London News,16 January 1858

You can see the Red Fort on the left. Notice the walls that surround the city. Through the centre runsthe main road of Chandni Chowk. Note also the river Jamuna is flowing near the Red Fort. Today it hasshifted course. The place where the boat is about to embank is now known as Daryaganj (darya meansriver, ganj means market)

Dargah – The tomb of aSufi saint

Khanqah – A sufi lodge,often used as a resthouse for travellers anda place where peoplecome to discussspiritual matters, getthe blessings of saints,and hear sufi music

Idgah – An open prayerplace of Muslims primarilymeant for id prayers

Cul-de-sac – Street witha dead end

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

67COLONIALISM AND THE CITY

“Dilli jo ek shahr thaalam mein intikhab...”

By 1739, Delhi had beensacked by Nadir Shah andplundered many times.Expressing the sorrow ofthose who witnessed thedecline of the city, theeighteenth-century Urdupoet Mir Taqi Mir, said:

Dilli jo ek shahr tha alammein intikhab,...Ham rahne wale hain usiujre dayar ke(I belong to the sameruined territory ofDelhi, which was oncea supreme city in theworld)

Fig. 4 – The eastern gate of theJama Masjid in Delhi, by ThomasDaniell, 1795

This is also the first mosque inIndia with minarets and fulldomes.

Source 1

streets of Delhi aren’t merestreets; they are like the albumof a painter.”

Yet, even this was no idealcity, and its delights were enjoyedonly by some. There were sharpdivisions between rich andpoor. Havelis or mansions wereinterspersed with the far morenumerous mud houses of thepoor. The colourful world of poetryand dance was usually enjoyedonly by men. Furthermore,celebrations and processionsoften led to serious conflicts.

The Making of New DelhiIn 1803, the British gained control of Delhi afterdefeating the Marathas. Since the capital of BritishIndia was Calcutta, the Mughal emperor was allowedto continue living in the palace complex in the RedFort. The modern city as we know it today developedonly after 1911 when Delhi became the capital ofBritish India.

Demolishing a pastBefore 1857, developments in Delhi were somewhatdifferent from those in other colonial cities. In Madras,Bombay or Calcutta, the living spaces of Indians andthe British were sharply separated. Indians lived in

Fig. 5 – The shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi© N

CERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

OUR PASTS – III68

the “black” areas, while the British lived in well-laid-out “white” areas. In Delhi, especially in the first halfof the nineteenth century, the British lived along withthe wealthier Indians in the Walled City. The Britishlearned to enjoy Urdu/Persian culture and poetry andparticipated in local festivals.

The establishment of the Delhi College in 1792 ledto a great intellectual flowering in the sciences as wellas the humanities, largely in the Urdu language. Manyrefer to the period from 1830 to 1857 as a period of theDelhi renaissance.

All this changed after 1857. During the Revolt thatyear, as you have seen, the rebels gathered in the city,and persuaded Bahadur Shah to become the leader ofthe uprising. Delhi remained under rebel control forfour months.

When the British regained the city, they embarkedon a campaign of revenge and plunder. The famous poetGhalib witnessed the events of the time. This is howhe described the ransacking of Delhi in 1857: “Whenthe angry lions (the British) entered the town, theykilled the helpless … and burned houses. Hordes of menand women, commoners and noblemen, poured out ofDelhi from the three gates and took shelter in smallcommunities, and tombs outside the city.” To preventanother rebellion, the British exiled Bahadur Shah toBurma (now Myanmar), dismantled his court, razedseveral of the palaces, closed down gardens and builtbarracks for troops in their place.

Gulfaroshan – A festivalof flowers

Renaissance – Literally,rebirth of art andlearning. It is a termoften used to describe atime when there is greatcreative activity.

Fig. 6 – British forces wreakingvengeance on the streets of Delhi,massacring the rebels.

Source 2

“There was once acity of this name”

Ghalib lamented thechanges that wereoccurring and wrote sadlyabout the past that waslost. He wrote:

What can I write?The life of Delhidepends on the Fort,Chandni Chowk, thedaily gatherings atthe Jamuna Bridgeand the AnnualGulfaroshan. When allthese … things are nolonger there, how canDelhi live? Yes, therewas once a city of thisname in the dominionsof India.

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

69

The British wanted Delhi to forget its Mughal past.The area around the Fort was completely cleared ofgardens, pavilions and mosques (though temples wereleft intact). The British wanted a clear ground forsecurity reasons. Mosques in particular were eitherdestroyed, or put to other uses. For instance, the Zinat-al-Masjid was converted into a bakery. No worship wasallowed in the Jama Masjid for five years. One-third ofthe city was demolished, and its canals were filled up.

In the 1870s, the western walls of Shahjahanabadwere broken to establish the railway and to allow thecity to expand beyond the walls. The British now beganliving in the sprawling Civil Lines area that came up inthe north, away from the Indians in the Walled City.The Delhi College was turned into a school, and shutdown in 1877.

COLONIALISM AND THE CITY

Fig. 7 – Looking out from JamaMasjid, photograph by FeliceBeato, 1858-59

Notice the buildings all aroundthe Masjid. They were clearedafter the Revolt of 1857.

Fig. 8 – View from the JamaMasjid after the surroundingbuildings were demolished

ActivityCompare the view inFig. 8 with that in Fig. 7.Write a paragraph onwhat the changesdepicted in the picturesmight have meant topeople living in the area.

�

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

OUR PASTS – III70

Planning a new capitalThe British were fully aware of the symbolic importanceof Delhi. After the Revolt of 1857, many spectacularevents were held there. In 1877, Viceroy Lytton organised

a Durbar to acknowledge QueenVictoria as the Empress of India.Remember that Calcutta was stillthe capital of British India, butthe grand Durbar was being heldin Delhi. Why was this so?During the Revolt, the Britishhad realised that the Mughalemperor was still important tothe people and they saw himas their leader. It was thereforeimportant to celebrate Britishpower with pomp and show inthe city the Mughal emperors

had earlier ruled, and the place which had turned into arebel stronghold in 1857.

In 1911, when King George V was crowned in England,a Durbar was held in Delhi to celebrate the occasion.The decision to shift the capital of India from Calcuttato Delhi was announced at this Durbar.

New Delhi was constructed as a 10-square-mile cityon Raisina Hill, south of the existing city. Two architects,Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker, were called on todesign New Delhi and its buildings. The governmentcomplex in New Delhi consisted of a two-mile avenue,

.

Fig. 9 – The Coronation Durbar ofKing George V, 12 December, 1911

Over 100,000 Indian princes andBritish officers and soldiersgathered at the Durbar.

Fig. 10 – The Viceregal Palace(Rashtrapati Bhavan) atopRaisina Hill © N

CERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

71

Kingsway (now Rajpath), that led to the Viceroy’s Palace(now Rashtrapati Bhavan), with the Secretariat buildingson either sides of the avenue. The features of thesegovernment buildings were borrowed from different periodsof India’s imperial history, but the overall look was ClassicalGreece (fifth century BCE). For instance, the central dome ofthe Viceroy’s Palace was copied from the Buddhist stupa atSanchi, and the red sandstone and carved screens or jaliswere borrowed from Mughal architecture. But the newbuildings had to assert British importance: that is why thearchitect made sure that the Viceroy’s Palace was higherthan Shah Jahan’s Jama Masjid!

How was this to be done?

New Delhi took nearly 20 years to build. The idea wasto build a city that was a stark contrast to Shahjahanabad.There were to be no crowded mohallas, no mazes of narrowbylanes. In New Delhi, there were to be broad, straightstreets lined with sprawling mansions set in the middleof large compounds. The architects wanted New Delhi torepresent a sense of law and order, in contrast to thechaos of Old Delhi. The new city also had to be a cleanand healthy space. The British saw overcrowded spacesas unhygienic and unhealthy, the source of disease. Thismeant that New Delhi had to have better water supply,sewage disposal and drainage facilities than the Old City.It had to be green, with trees and parks ensuring fresh airand adequate supply of oxygen.

COLONIALISM AND THE CITY

Source 3

The vision of New Delhi

This is how Viceroy Hardinge explained the choice of Delhias capital:

The change would strike the imagination of the people ofIndia … and would be accepted by all as the assertion of anunfaltering determination to maintain British rule in India.

The architect Herbert Baker believed:

The New Capital must be the sculptural monument of thegood government and unity which India, for the first timein its history, has enjoyed under British rule. British rule inIndia is not a mere veneer of government and culture. It isa new civilisation in growth, a blend of the best elements ofEast and West … It is to this great fact that the architectureof Delhi should bear testimony. (2 October 1912)

ActivityImagine yourselfwalking up RaisinaHill, looking towardsRashtrapati Bhavan.Do you think Bakerwas right in thinkingthat looking up tothe building wouldcreate a sense ofawe and emphasisethe power of theBritish?

�

ActivityCan you find atleast twoinstances fromthis chapter thatsuggest that therewere other waysof thinking aboutthe image of thecapital city?

�

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

OUR PASTS – III72

Life in the time of PartitionThe Partition of India in 1947 led to a massive transferof populations on both sides of the new border. As aresult, the population of Delhi swelled, the kinds ofjobs people did changed, and the culture of the citybecame different.

Days after Indian Independence and Partition, fiercerioting began. Thousands of people in Delhi were killedand their homes looted and burned. As streams ofMuslims left Delhi for Pakistan, their place was takenby equally large numbers of Sikh and Hindu refugeesfrom Pakistan. Refugees roamed the streets ofShahjahanabad, searching for empty homes to occupy.At times they forced Muslims to leave or sell theirproperties. Over two-thirds of the Delhi Muslimsmigrated, almost 44,000 homes were abandoned.Terrorised Muslims lived in makeshift camps till theycould leave for Pakistan.

At the same time, Delhi became a city of refugees.Nearly 500,000 people were added to Delhi’s population(which had a little over 800,000 people in 1951). Mostof these migrants were from Punjab. They stayed incamps, schools, military barracks and gardens, hopingto build new homes. Some got the opportunity to occupyresidences that had been vacated; others were housedin refugee colonies. New colonies such as Lajpat Nagarand Tilak Nagar came up at this time. Shops and stallswere set up to cater to the demands of the migrants;schools and colleges were also opened.

The skills and occupations of the refugees werequite different from those of the people they replaced.Many of the Muslims who went to Pakistan were

artisans, petty traders and labourers.The new migrants coming to Delhiwere rural landlords, lawyers, teachers,traders and small shopkeepers.Partition changed their lives, and theiroccupations. They had to take up newjobs as hawkers, vendors, carpentersand ironsmiths. Many, however,prospered in their new businesses.

The large migration from Punjabchanged the social milieu of Delhi.An urban culture largely based on Urduwas overshadowed by new tastes andsensibilities, in food, dress and the arts.

Fig. 11 – Thousands stayed inthe refugee camps set up in Delhiafter Partition.

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

73

Inside the Old CityMeanwhile, what happened to the old city, that hadbeen Shahjahanabad? In the past, Mughal Delhi’s famedcanals had brought not only fresh drinking water tohomes, but also water for other domestic uses. Thisexcellent system of water supply and drainage wasneglected in the nineteenth century. The system of wells(or baolis) also broke down,and channels to removehousehold waste (calledeffluents) were damaged.This was at a time when thepopulation of the city wascontinuously growing.

The broken-down canalscould not serve the needsof this rapidly increasingpopulation. At the end ofthe nineteenth century, theShahjahani drains wereclosed and a new system ofopen surface drains wasintroduced. This system too was soon overburdened,and many of the wealthier inhabitants complainedabout the stench from roadside privies and overflowingopen drains. The Delhi Municipal Committee wasunwilling to spend money on a good drainage system.

At the same time, though, millions of rupees werebeing spent on drainage systems in the New Delhi area.

COLONIALISM AND THE CITY

Fig. 12 – A famous baoli near theshrine of Nizamuddin Auliya inDelhi

Fig. 13 – Chandni Chowk inDelhi in the late nineteenth century

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

OUR PASTS – III74

The decline of havelisThe Mughal aristocracy in the seventeenth andeighteenth centuries lived in grand mansions calledhavelis. A map of the mid-nineteenth century showedat least a hundred such havelis, which were large walledcompounds with mansions, courtyards and fountains.

A haveli housed many families. On entering thehaveli through a beautiful gateway, you reached anopen courtyard, surrounded by public rooms meant forvisitors and business, used exclusively by males. Theinner courtyard with its pavilions and rooms was meantfor the women of the household. Rooms in the havelishad multiple uses, and very little by way of furniture.

Even in the mid-nineteenth century Qamr-al-dinKhan’s haveli had several structures within it, andincluded housing for the cart drivers, tent pitchers,torchbearers, as well as for accountants, clerks andhousehold servants.

Many of the Mughal amirs were unable to maintainthese large establishments under conditions of Britishrule. Havelis therefore began to be subdivided andsold. Often the street front of the havelis became shopsor warehouses. Some havelis were taken over by theupcoming mercantile class, but many fell into decayand disuse.

The colonial bungalow was quite different from thehaveli. Meant for one nuclear family, it was a large single-storeyed structure with a pitched roof, and usually setin one or two acres of open ground. It had separate livingand dining rooms and bedrooms, and a wide veranda

Amir – A nobleman

ActivityThink of the life of twoyoung people – onegrowing up in a haveliand the other in acolonial bungalow.What would be thedifference in theirrelationship with thefamily? Which wouldyou prefer to live in?Discuss your views withyour classmates, andgive reasons for yourchoice.

�

Fig. 14 – A colonial bungalow inNew Delhi

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

75

running in the front, and sometimeson three sides. Kitchens, stables andservants’ quarters were in a separatespace from the main house. The housewas run by dozens of servants. Thewomen of the household often sat onthe verandas to supervise tailors orother tradesmen.

The Municipality begins to planThe census of 1931 revealed that thewalled city area was horribly crowdedwith as many as 90 persons peracre, while New Delhi had only about3 persons per acre.

The poor conditions in the WalledCity, however, did not stop it fromexpanding. In 1888 an extensionscheme called the Lahore GateImprovement Scheme was plannedby Robert Clarke for the Walled Cityresidents. The idea was to drawresidents away from the Old City to anew type of market square, aroundwhich shops would be built. Streetsin this redevelopment strictly followedthe grid pattern, and were of identicalwidth, size and character. Land was divided intoregular areas for the construction of neighbourhoods.Clarkegunj, as the development was called, remainedincomplete and did not help to decongest the Old City.Even in 1912, water supply and drainage in these newlocalities was very poor.

The Delhi Improvement Trust was set up 1936, andit built areas like Daryaganj South for wealthy Indians.Houses were grouped around parks. Within the houses,space was divided according to new rules of privacy.Instead of spaces being shared by many families orgroups, now different members of the same family hadtheir own private spaces within the home.

COLONIALISM AND THE CITY

Fig. 15 – A street in Old Delhi

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

OUR PASTS – III76

Let’s recall1. State whether true or false:

(a) In the Western world, modern cities grew withindustrialisation.

(b) Surat and Machlipatnam developed in thenineteenth century.

(c) In the twentieth century, the majority of Indianslived in cities.

(d) After 1857 no worship was allowed in the JamaMasjid for five years.

(e) More money was spent on cleaning Old Delhithan New Delhi.

Let’s imagineImagine that you area young man livingin Shahjahanabadin 1700. Based onthe description of thearea in this chapter,write an account ofyour activities duringone day of your life.

Herbert Baker in South AfricaIf you look atFig.16 and Fig.17you will find astartling similaritybetween thebuildings. But thesebuildings arecontinents apart.What does thisshow?

In the early 1890s, a young English architect named HerbertBaker went to South Africa in search of work. It was inSouth Africa that Baker came in touch with Cecil Rhodes,the Governor of Cape Town, who inspired in Baker a love for the British empire and anadmiration for the architectural heritage of ancient Rome and Greece.

Fig. 17 shows the Union Building that Baker designed in the city of Pretoria in South Africa.It used some of the elements of ancient classical architecture that Baker later included in hisplans of the Secretariat building in New Delhi. The Union Building was also located on a steephill as is the Secretariat Building in New Delhi (Fig. 16). Have you not noticed that people inpositions of power want to look down on others from above rather than up towards themfrom below? The Union Building and the Secretariat were both built to house imperial offices.

Fig. 16

Fig. 17

ELSEWHERE

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

77

2. Fill in the blanks:

(a) The first structure to successfully use thedome was called the _____________.

(b) The two architects who designed New Delhiand Shahjahanabad were _____________ and_____________.

(c) The British saw overcrowded spaces as_____________.

(d) In 1888 an extension scheme called the_____________ was devised.

3. Identify three differences in the city design ofNew Delhi and Shahjahanabad.

4. Who lived in the “white” areas in cities such asMadras?

Let’s discuss5. What is meant by de-urbanisation?

6. Why did the British choose to hold a grand Durbarin Delhi although it was not the capital?

7. How did the Old City of Delhi change under Britishrule?

8. How did the Partition affect life in Delhi?

Let’s do9. Find out the history of the town you live in or of

any town nearby. Check when and how it grew,and how it has changed over the years. You couldlook at the history of the bazaars, the buildings,cultural institutions, and settlements.

10. Make a list of at least ten occupations in the city,town or village to which you belong, and find outhow long they have existed. What does this tell youabout the changes within this area?

COLONIALISM AND THE CITY

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

Notes

© NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed