compiled and present by…

Cody Mayo

Started 02-10-2011

Completed 03-24-2011

I started working on my collaborative project on

02-10-2011! I started out with a partner but had a lot of miscommunication. The easiest way for us to

communicate with each other was through our school e-mail and also our FLVS chat option. I

made several attempts to talk over the phone but were unsuccessful. During my Spring Break my partner submitted her project . I completed my

solo on 03-24-2011!

I would like to say that this was an informative and fun project. I learned a lot about coral

reef’s all over the world. I also learned that it is harder to complete work when you are working with someone. I had think that my Nan’s knee

injury and surgery put me a little behind because I had this PowerPoint file saved on my hard drive

on my computer at home instead of having it saved on my zip drive. I had to wait for my Dad to figure out how to send me the file so I could continue to work with Bailey on our project. She was an understanding partner. But, things did not

quite work out. I researched the entire presentation on my own. Then, I compiled my

Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Corals are colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, and are formed by polyps that live together in groups. The polyps secrete a hard carbonate exoskeleton which provides support and protection for the body of each polyp. Reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated waters. Also coral reef is a reef consisting of coral consolidated into limestoneOften called “rainforests of the sea”, coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. They occupy less than one tenth of one percent of the world ocean surface, about half the area of France, yet they provide a home for twenty-five percent of all marine species, including fish, molluscs, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges, tunicates and other cnidarians. Coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas.Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection. The annual global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated at $375 billion. However, coral reefs are fragile ecosystems, partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature. They are under threat from climate change, ocean acidification, blast fishing, cyanide fishing, and for aquarium fish, overuse of reef resources, and harmful land-use practices, including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution, which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algae growth.

Climate & Areas : Although corals exist both in temperate and tropical waters, shallow-water reefs form only in a zone extending from 30° N to 30° S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow at depths of over 50 meters (160 ft.). The optimum temperature for most coral reefs is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), and few reefs exist in waters below 18 °C (64 °F). However reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F) in winter and 38 °C (100 °F) in summer. Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 square kilometers (109,800 sq. mi.), which is just under one tenth of one percent of the oceans' surface area. The Indo-Pacific region (including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) account for 91.9% of this total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs account for 7.6%.

Although corals exist both in temperate and tropical waters, shallow-water reefs form only in a zone extending from 30° N to 30° S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow at depths of over 50 meters (160 ft). The optimum temperature for most coral reefs is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), and few reefs exist in waters below 18 °C (64 °F). However reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F) in winter and 38 °C (100 °F) in summer.

Deep water coral can exist at greater depths and colder temperatures. Although deep water corals can form reefs, very little is known about them.

Coral reefs are rare along the American west coast, as well as along the African west coast. This is due primarily to upwelling and strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (respectively the Peru, Benguela and Canary streams). Corals are seldom found along the coastline of South Asia from the eastern tip of India (Madras) to the border of Bangladesh and Myanmar. They are also rare along the coast around north-eastern South America and Bangladesh due to the freshwater release from the Amazon and Ganges Rivers respectively.

This map shows areas of upwelling in red. Coral reefs are not found in coastal areas where colder and nutrient-rich upwellings occur.

11 Marine Biodiversity Hotspots regions that are specially endangered

The 11 coral reef hotspots ranked by degree of threat

1) Philippines The Philippines are ecologically unique in as far that there are a lot of small regions and areas (such as an island) that are highly diverse. Major threats are destructive fishing methods using explosives and poison (cyanid fishing for the aquarium trade), excessive fishing, pollution runoff from logging, agriculture and urban development. This is one of the most threatened hotspots, due to its population density. Hotspot Philippines - Descriptions and maps of dive sites in the Philippines (Zubi)

2) Sundaland The Sundaland hotspot encompasses some 1'600'000 km2 and covers the western half of the Indonesian archipelago (Bali, Java, Sumatra, Borneo), Malaysia and a small part of Thailand. It is part of the so called Coral Triangle which is probably the most diverse coastal area on the planet having a richness of marine species and a large occurrence of endemism. Major threats are pollution from land-based sources, intensive destructive fishing (dynamite) and a growing live reef fish trade (for the aquarium trade). Hotspot Sundaland -Descriptions and maps of dive sites in Indonesia (Zubi)

3) Wallacea The Wallacea hotspot encompasses some 346'782 km2 and covers Nusa Tenggara (Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, Sumba, Savu, Roti and Timor), the Mollucas and Sulawesi. Wallacea is divided from Sundaland by the Wallace's Line. Major threats are pollution from land-based sources, sediment pollution from logging, intensive destructive fishing (dynamite) and live reef fish trade (for the aquarium trade). Hotspot Wallacea - Descriptions and maps of dive sites in Nusa Tenggara (Zubi)

4) Gulf of Guinea This hotspot encompasses the four islands (Annobón, Bioco, São Tomé and Príncipe) of the Gulf of Guinea, off the West African coast. The exact area of reef is unknown, but is likely to be less than 200 km2. There are rivers nearby, so the water is not very salty. Major threats from coastal development, sediment pollution from logging, over-fishing and a proposed coral harvesting business. Link - Hotspot Gulf of Guinea

5) Southern Mascarene Islands This hotspot encompasses approximately 1'000 km2 of reef surrounding the islands of Mauritius, La Reunion and Rodriguez in the southern Indian Ocean. Major threats are the rapidly growing human population, pollution from intensive sugar cane production, coastal and agricultural development, and over-fishing.

6) Eastern South Africa This hotspot lies adjacent to Cape Floristic and encompasses less than 200 km2. Major threats are land-based sources of pollution, fishing and development of tourism. Hotspot Eastern South Africa

7) North Indian Ocean This hotspot encompasses the Maldives, Chagos islands and much of the Lakshadweep and Lakkadives archipelagoes, as well as Sri Lanka, a total of 10,000 km2. Global warming in 1998 increased the sea surface temperatures and resulted in severe coral bleaching. Global climate change continues to pose a threat, as do coral mining, over-fishing and ornamental fish collection.

8) Southern Japan, Taiwan and Southern China Over 3,000 km2 of reefs extending from Kyushu in Japan, through Taiwan to the coast of southern China. Major threats are shoreline development (proposed airport) and conversion for agriculture and aquaculture, rapidly growing human population and also global climate change, sea warming, and plagues of coral-eating Crown-of-Thorns starfish. Hotspot Japan

9) Cape Verde Islands Approximately 200 km2 in the mid-Atlantic off the West African coast. Major threats are coastal development, pollution from land clearing and agriculture, and over-fishing. Link

10) Western Caribbean This hotspot encompasses the Caribbean islands and coastal reefs from the Mexican Yucatan Peninsula to Colombia, more than 4'000 km2 of reefs. Major threats are epidemic diseases and coral bleaching resulting from global warming and coastal development for tourism. Hotspot Caribbean

11) The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden hotspot extends for 2'500 km from north to south, including the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez. Major threats are coastal and industrial developments, tourism and oil spills from tankers. The western and southern coast are less threatened.

Information about marine ecosystems from IUCN (Environment Australia)

•Coral reefs are in crisis, dying at an alarming rate worldwide. •An estimated 25% of coral reefs have already disappeared and an estimated two-thirds of all coral reefs are at risk today.1•An estimated 88% of the reefs in Southeast Asia - the most species rich reefs on earth - are at risk.1•Since 1975, more than 90% of the reefs in the Florida Keys have lost their living coral cover (study by Dr. Phil Dustan).•Threats to the world's coral reefs include:

◦Pollution ◦Disease◦Over-fishing ◦Dynamite and cyanide fishing ◦Sedimentation ◦Bleaching caused by rising ocean temperatures

•Called the "rainforests of the sea," coral reefs are the greatest expression of ocean life, and the most biodiverse ecosystem on Earth with 30 of 34 known animal phyla present. •Unlike the rainforest, there is no comprehensive global baseline map of living coral reefs. This is urgently needed. A satellite mission dedicated to remote sensing of coral reefs can provide this critical global baseline.

The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometers

(1,600 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometers (133,000 sq. mi). The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland in

north-east Australia. The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms. This reef structure is composed of

and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral polyps. This reef supports a wide diversity of life, and was selected as a World Heritage Site in

1981. CNN labeled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world. The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland.

A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which helps to limit the impact of human use, such as fishing and tourism.

Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff, climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching, and cyclic population

outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish.

The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and is an important part of local

groups' cultures and spirituality. The reef is a very popular destination for tourists, especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions. Tourism is

an important economic activity for the region, generating A$ 1 billion per year.

In 1999, the Australian Parliament passed the Environment Protect and Biodiversity Conservation Act which improved the operation of national environmental law by providing guidance about regional biodiversity conservation priorities. The marine bioregional planning process came from the implementation of this law. This process conserves marine biodiversity by considering the whole ecosystem a species is in and how different species interact in the marine environment. There are two steps to this process. The first step is to identify regional conservation priorities in the five (currently) different marine regions. The second step is to identify marine reserves (protected areas or marine parks) to be added to Australia‟s National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Like protected areas on land, marine reserves are created to protect biodiversity for generations to come. Marine reserves are identified based on criteria written in a document created by Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council entitled „Guidelines for establishing the national representative system of marine protected areas,‟ also known as just “the Guidelines.” These guidelines are nationally recognized and implemented at the local level based on the Australian policy for implementation outlined in the “Goals and Principles for the Establishment of the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas in Commonwealth Waters.” These policies are in place to make sure that a marine reserve is only added to the NRSMPA after careful evaluation of different data. The priorities for each region are created based on human and environmental threats and the Marine Bioregional Plans are drafted to address these priorities. To assess different region‟s priorities, three steps are taken, first, a bioregional profile is created, second, a bioregional plan is drafted and third, the plan is finalized. After the plan is finalized, activity in different bioregions may become limited based on particular threats an activity may pose.

The Great Barrier Reef is one of the seven wonders of the natural world, and pulling away from it, and viewing it from a greater distance, you can understand why. It is larger than the Great Wall of China and the only living thing on earth visible from space. The marine park stretches over 3000km (1800 miles) almost parallel to the Queensland coast, from near the coastal town of Bundaberg, up past the tip of Cape York. The reef, between 15 kilometers and 150 kilometers off shore and around 65 Km wide in some parts, is a gathering of brilliant, vivid coral providing divers with the most spectacular underwater experience imaginable. A closer encounter with the Great Barrier Reef's impressive coral gardens reveals many astounding underwater attractions including the world's largest collection of corals (in fact, more than 400 different kinds of coral), coral sponges, mollusks, rays, dolphins, over 1500 species of tropical fish, more than 200 types of birds, around 20 types of reptiles including sea turtles and giant clams over 120 years old. The Great Barrier Reef is a breeding area for humpback whales, migrating from the Antarctic and is also the habitat of a few endangered species including the Dugong (Sea Cow) and large Green Sea Turtle. In recognition of its significance, UNESCO listed the Great Barrier Reef as a World Heritage Site in 1981. Because of its natural beauty, both below and above the water's surface, the Great Barrier Reef has become one of the worlds most sought after tourist destinations. In 2006 there were approximately 820 operators and 1500 vessels and aircraft permitted to operate in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park providing ease of access for all to experience the Great Barrier Reef and learn first hand about its natural delights and World Heritage values.

Predators are organisms that live by capturing and eating other organisms. One that victimizes, plunders, or destroys, especially for one's own gain. The sea is a complex ecosystem. Things are eating other things all the time. Usually the food chain goes from small algae like plankton to a small fish like a herring, a mollusc or an arthropod then onto bigger fish. Some big fish get eaten by even bigger ones like sharks. Interestingly some of the biggest creatures in the sea eat the smallest things.Here are some top predators: Sharks Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Sea Snakes Irukandji Jellyfish Sting Rays Box Jellyfish

1. An animal hunted or caught for food; quarry.2. One that is defenseless, especially in the face of attack; a victim.Here are some unfortunate prey: Coral Sponge Algae Sea Grasses King Prawn Insects Sea Slugs Fish Soft Coral

The relationship between a predator

and prey is in order for the predator to

live it has to eat its prey while still

maintaining the population of the prey

for further meals.

Coral

Sponge

Algae

Sea Grasses

King Prawn

Insects

Sea Slugs

Fish

Soft Coral

What do corals need to survive?

Sunlight: Corals need to grow in shallow water where sunlight can reach them. Corals depend on the zooxanthellae (algae) that grow inside of them for oxygen and other things, and since this algae needs sunlight to survive, corals also need sunlight to survive. Corals rarely develop in water deeper than 165 feet (50 meters).

Clear water: Corals need clear water that lets sunlight through to survive; they don't thrive well when the water is opaque. Sediment and plankton can cloud water, which decreases the amount of sunlight that reaches the zooxanthellae.

Warm water temperature: Reef-building corals require warm water conditions to survive. Different corals living in different regions can withstand various temperature fluctuations. However, corals generally live in water temperatures of 68–90° F or 20–32° C.

Clean water: Corals are sensitive to pollution and sediments. Sediments can settle on coral, blocking out sunlight and smothering coral polyps. Pollution from sewage and fertilizers increase nutrient levels in the water, harming corals. When there are too many nutrients in the water, the ecological balance of the coral community is altered.

Saltwater: Corals need saltwater to survive and require a certain balance in the ratio of salt to water. This is why corals don't live in areas where rivers drain fresh water into the ocean.

What are the different types of reefs? Scientists generally divide coral reefs into four classes: fringing reefs, barrier reefs, atolls, and patch reefs.

Fringing reefs grow near the coastline around islands and continents. They are separated from the shore by narrow, shallow lagoons. Fringing reefs are the most common type of reef that we see.

Barrier reefs also parallel the coastline but are separated by deeper, wider lagoons. At their shallowest point they can reach the water's surface forming a "barrier" to navigation. The Great Barrier Reef in Australia is the largest and most famous barrier reef in the world.

Atolls are rings of coral that create protected lagoons and are usually located in the middle of the sea. Atolls usually form when islands surrounded by fringing reefs sink into the sea or the sea level rises around them (these islands are often the tops of underwater volcanoes). The fringing reefs continue to grow and eventually form circles with lagoons inside.

Patch reefs are small, isolated reefs that grow up from the open bottom of the island platform or continental shelf. They usually occur between fringing reefs and barrier reefs. They vary greatly in size, and they rarely reach the surface of the water.

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