Technical Report Writing (HM102)

Basic Expository Techniques in Technical Writing

DiscussBackground Definition DescriptionAnalysis

Background Exposition is explanation and/or instruction. It is the term for the kind of writing we use to explain facts or ideas. Exposition brings about an understanding of something.

Background (Cont.)Expository techniques may be grouped into three major categories or methods: Definition Description Analysis

Definition DefinitionFormal definitionInformal definitionDefinition by illustrationExpanded definition

DefinitionA definition is an explanation of an object or idea that distinguishes it from all other objects or ideas. It is basic to knowledge. Definition indicates or explains what is included within a term and what is excluded.

Types of Definition

a). The Formal DefinitionA formal definition consists of three parts:The term-the word, object, idea or concept to be defined (It needs defining).The genus- the class, the group or category in which the term belongs (the class to which the item belongs).

a). The Formal Definition (Cont.)Differentia- the characteristics that distinguish the term from other members of the genus. The differentia excludes all other members of the genus except the term being defined (differentiation of the item from all members of its class).

a). The Formal Definition (Cont.)Example: A rectangle is a four-sided figure having all its angles right angle and, thus, its opposite sides equal and parallel. (Classify the term, genus and differentia)

Rectangle is the term; four-sided figure is the genus; having all its angles right angle, thus its opposite sides equal and parallel is the differentia. (bottom-up process)

Add. Info.How to classify the term: to define a term, first place the term in a class. The class is a large group to which the term belongs. The group can be either broad or narrow, e.g. a pen can be caused as a thing or as a writing instrument. The narrower the class, the more meaning it conveys, and the less that needs to be said in the differentiation.

How to differentiate the TermTo differentiate the term, explain those characteristics that belong only to it. If the differentiation applies to more than one member of the class, the definition lacks precisions, e.g. if a writer says, evaporation is the process of water disappearing from a certain area

the definition is too broad; water can disappear for many reasons, not just from evaporation.The differentiation must explain the characteristics of evaporation that make it unlike any other process-the change from a liquid to a vapor. A camera is a device (the class) for taking photographs (the difference). Here are five common methods for differentiating a term.

Add.Write two objectives of Technical Report Writing on a separate sheet. 1. 2.

Name its essential properties-the characteristics features possessed by all individual of this type.Explain what it does If the term is an object, describe what it looks likeWhat it is made ofIf the term is a process, explain how to make or do it a). Classify/differentiate the following example keeping in view the above mentioned points. Skip the point (s) if irrelevant to the given example: (Time: 5 Minutes)Example: A camera is a light-tight box that holds a piece of film so an image can fall on it.b). Categorize the above given example in light of term, genus and differentia.

add. inf.A camera is a light-tight box that holds a piece of film so an image can fall on it.What it looks like? A camera is a light-tight box.Explain what it does. holds a piece of film so an image can fall on it. A camera (term)is a light-tight box (genus)that holds a piece of film so an image can fall on it (differentia).

Name the essential properties-the characteristics features possessed by all individual of this type.Define the term Engineering or Electricity keeping in view the above heading (only one or two sentences)(Time: 3 Minutes- class activity).You can begin the definition, such as,Engineering is the, deals with, means, includes??? Electricity is adeals with

Name the essential propertiesEngineering is the application of scientific principles to practical ends, such as the design, construction, and operation of efficient and economical structures, equipment, and system. Electricity is a physical phenomenon arising from the existence and interactions of charged particles.

Explain what it doesThe microprocessor-based 7920 Multicontroller [is a machine that] automatically controls multiple-step operations in industrial production and processes.Autolayer is an AutoCAD layer management utility. It allows users to save layer groups and their properties from a current drawing.

Describe what it is made of Concrete is made of sand, gravel, water, gypsum, and, its key ingredient, portland cement. A double end stepping motor [is a machine that] has an output shaft that extends from both ends of the motor.

Describe what it looks likeA sine curve is a figure that has semicircles of identical size altering above and below a horizontal axis.

Explain how to make or do itSimple staining is [a process of] coloring bacteria by applying a stain, methylene blue, to a fixed smear (mark).

Avoid circular definitions Do not use circular definitions, which repeat the word being defined. You will not help the reader understand capacitance if you use the word capacitor in the differentiation.

b). The Informal definitionFor specialized or technical terms that your readers will not know, provide informal definitionsThe informal definition uses the shortest and simplest method for identifying or explaining the matter. It may involve substituting a short, more familiar word or phrase or synonyms.

Operational definitions and synonyms are quite acceptable if they furnish the necessary information. An operational definition gives meaning of an abstract word for one particular time and place. It creates a test for discriminating in one particular circumstance, e.g. to determine whether or not a marketing program is a success, managers need to define success.

If their operational definition of success is to increase sales by 10 percent and if the increase occurs, the program is successful. In this sense, the operational def. is agreed- upon criterion. If everyone agrees, the def. facilitates the discussion and evaluation of a topic. Specifically, the operational definition describes the activities, procedures, or operations within which the term operates.

Using the techniques of operational def. and synonyms are more appropriate for informal situations than for more formal requirements.Synonyms: microbe- germDouble-twice Paleography-ancient writing

Synonym word means the same as another word. It is effective as definition only when it is better known than the term being defined. People are more familiar with loudspeaker than with electroacoustics transducer.If audience have less knowledge about the topic, use common words to clarify technical terms. When using synonyms, put the common word or the technical term in parentheses.

For example, most of the rock consists of calcium carbonate (limestone). The maps are drawn in a projection that enlarges the areas near the edges (called limbs) of the moon.

Definition by IllustrationsOffering an illustration is a primary means for defining an unfamiliar thing or concept.

Trapezium or Quadrilateral(Define it, write one or two sentences)

The dictionary defines the trapezium as a plain figure with four sides, no two of which are parallel(AmE).A flat shape with four straight sides, one pair of opposite sides being parallel and the other pair not parallel (BrE).

The Expanded DefinitionSometimes the informal or simple definitions fail to explain a complex object or concept. In such a case the definition must be developed by the use of details, examples, comparisons, and other explanatory devices such as: derivation, analogy, explication, comparison and contrast, history and analysis.

Explain derivation:Explain derivation means to define its origin.For example, ammeter is derived from the combination of ampere and meter, it is a meter that measures amperes. COBOL is an acronym for common business-oriented language. Inductance, which stems from induce, refers to the ability of an electric current in one circuit to cause voltage in another circuit.

Explicate termIn this context, explicate means to define difficult words contained in the formal sentences definition. When explicating, provide an informal definition rather than another formal one. Notice that speed defines velocity in the following example: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity (or speed) with respect of time.

Use an analogyAn analogy points out a similarity between otherwise dissimilar things. If something is unknown is to readers, it helps if you compare it to something they do know.

Here is an analogy that compares electricity to golf balls.An electric current travels with lightning speed-20,000 miles per second along a copper wire-but individual electrons do not: they amble along at less than an inch per second. The current streaks through the wire because the electrons push each other all the way. The phenomenon can best be understood by imagining a pipe completely filled with golf balls. If an additional ball is pushed in at one end of the pipe, a ball will pop out almost instantly at the other end.

Compare and contrast A comparison-contrast definition shows both the similarities of and the difference between similar objects or processes. An example is comparing water flowing through a pipe to electricity flowing through a wire. Like other methods of extending a definition, the comparison-contrast method takes advantage of something the readers know in order to explain something they do not know.

Comparing and contrasting a semiconductor with a conductor of electricity works only if the reader knows what a conductor is.

Class Activity No 3 (Time: 15 Minutes; use separate sheet)1. Write one sentence definitions of any two of the following technical terms for a non-expert reader and then for an expert reader.2. Write one or two sentences formal and informal definitions of any two objects or concept.Technical Terms are: Network , Equation, Microwave oven, Elements of a camera lens, Robotics, Bicycle gear train , An organizational chart, Compression, Word processing function, The web is a bunch of hooked together, Software is what you use to run hardware, A manager runs the show.

Description (Mechanism or Organism)Description is widely used in Technical Writing. Many reporters require that you describe something-machine, process, or system.The goal of a mechanism description is to make the readers confident that they have all the information they need about the mechanism. No need to describe every part in minute detail, so select various key part and their functions.

Planning the mechanism description

Consider the audienceTo make the audience feel confident, consider their knowledge level and why they need info. Basically, give physical detail they need to act.The details you choose and amount of info. you provide reflect your understanding of their knowledge and need.

Sample, AThe truck box size is an important factor because we frequently transport 4 ft by 8 ft sheets of wood. The box size of the Hauler (carrier) at the floor is 3.5 ft by 6 ft. The box size of the x-200 at the floor is 4 ft by 8 ft. This factor means we should purchase the x-200.

Sample, BThe ABC scanner has 50-200 dpi resolution, 24-bit color scanning, and an optional transparency adapter. The XYZ scanner has 400-1600 dpi resolution, 24-bit color, and an optional transparency adaptor. The higher resolution capabilities make XYZ the preferable purchase to fill our needs.

Select an Organizational PrincipleLeft to right or right to leftTop to bottom or bottom to topMost important to least important or least important to most importantDepends on audience need.For general introductiontop to bottom is bestFor future action, say, to decide whether or not to accept a recommendation, use most to least important.

How to know the effectiveness of your principle of organizationLook for backtrackingYour description should move gradually forward, starting with basic definitions or concepts that audience needs to understand later statements.If it is full of sections in which you have to stop and backtrack to define terms or concepts, your sequence is probably inappropriate.

Choose Visual Aids

It enhance your description It shows all the parts in relationshipReaders focus on specific aspectsOften a visual aid of a detail can dramatically shorten a text discussion.

Follow the usual form for descriptionGenerally, description do not stand alone but are part of a larger document. However, they still have an introduction, and body sections; conclusions are optional. Use conclusions only if you need to point out significance.Make the introduction brief, stating either your goal for the reader or the purpose of the mechanism.

To describe a part, point out whatever is necessary about relevant physical details-size, shape, material, weight, relationship to other parts, or method of connection to other parts. If necessary, use analogies and statements of significance to help your reader understand the part.

Writing the mechanism description A stand-alone mechanism description has a brief introduction, a description of each part, and an optional conclusion.

Introduction

The introduction gives the reader a framework for understanding the mechanism. In the introduction, define the mechanism, state its purpose, present an overall description, and preview the main parts.

Figure: 2, Paper Micrometer (It measures thickness of a piece of paper) (Write introduction)

HintsWhat is this?Define and write purpose Use analogy How many parts?Name the parts

A paper micrometer is a small measuring instrument used to measure the thickness of a piece of paper. The micrometer, roughly twice as large as a regular stapler (see Figure, 2), has four main parts: the frame, the dial, the hand lever and the piston.

Ato paper (Definition & purpose)The micrometerto main parts (Overall description)The frametothe piston (Main parts)

Body: Description of mechanismThe body contains details, identify each main part with heading and then describe it.Begin the paragraph with a definition, then add details.Use structural parallelism ( i.e. first a def., then a list of terms, then the def. of the terms).If you put size in one section, do so in all of them.

Body Describe the Frame

Hints for the FrameDefinitionColorAnalogy Size and analogy Weight

Sample The frame of paper micrometer is a cast piece of steel that provides a surface to which all the other parts are attached. The frame, painted gray, looks like the letter C with a large flat disk on the bottom and a round calibrated dial (to mark or correct the units of measurement on the scale of thermometer) on top. The disk is 4 inches in diameter resembles a flat hockey puck. The frame is 5 inches high and 7 inches long. The frame is approximately 1 inches wide. The micrometer weighs 8 pounds.

The frame of paper micrometer is a cast piece of steel that provides a surface to which all the other parts are attached. (Definitions) The frame, painted gray, looks like the letter C with a large flat disk on the bottom and a round calibrated dial on top. (Color and analogy)The disk is 4 inches in diameter resembles a flat hockey puck. The frame is 5 inches high and 7 inches long. The frame is approximately 1 inches wide. (size and analogy)The micrometer weighs 8 pounds. (weight)

Describe the dial

Hints for DialDefineshow thickness of paper Analogy Size Appearance

Sample The dial shows the thickness of the paper. The dial looks like a watch dial that it has only one moving hand. The frame around the dial is made of chrome-plated metal. A piece of glass protects the face of the dial in the same way that the glass crystal on a watch protects the face and hands. The dial, 6 inches in a diameter and 1/8 inch thick, is calibrated in .001 inch marks and the face of the dial is numbered every .010 inch. The hand is made from a thin, stiff metal rod, pointed on the end.

The dial showsof chrome-plated metal. Definition and analogyA piece of glasswatch protects the face and hands. AnalogyThe dial, 6 inchesevery .010 inch. SizeThe hand is madepointed on the end. Appearance

Describe the hand lever

HintsDefinition Analogy Relationship to other partsEffect

SampleThe hand lever, shaped like a handle on a pair of pliers, raises and lowers the piston. It is made of chrome-plated steel and attaches to the frame near the base of the dial. The hand lever is 4 inches long, inch wide, and inch thick. When the hand lever is depressed, the piston moves up, and the hand on the dial rotates. When the hand lever is released and a piece of paper is positioned under the piston, the dial shows thickness of the paper.

The hand lever, shaped like a handle on a pair of pliers, raises and lowers the piston. It is made of chrome-plated steel and attaches to the frame near the base of the dial.

The hand lever is 4 inches long, inch wide, and inch thick. When the hand lever is depressed, the piston moves up, and the hand on the dial rotates.

When the hand lever is released and a piece of paper is positioned under the piston, the dial shows thickness of the paper.

The hand lever, shaped like a handle on a pair of pliers, raises and lowers the piston. It is made of chrome-plated steel and attaches to the frame near the base of the dial Analogy and definitionThe hand lever is 4 inches long, inch wide, and inch thick. When the hand lever is depressed, the piston moves up, and the hand on the dial rotates. Relationship to other partsWhen the hand lever is released and a piece of paper is positioned under the piston, the dial shows thickness of the paper. Effect

Describe the piston

HintsDefinition Function Size Relationship to other parts

The Piston The piston moves up and down when the operator depresses and releases the hand lever. This function causes the papers thickness to register on the dial. The piston is 3/8 inch in diameter, flat on the bottom, and made of metal without a finish. The piston slides in a hole in the frame. The piston can measure the thickness of paper up to .300 inch.

The piston moves up and down when the operator depresses and releases the hand lever.This function causes the papers thickness to register on the dial. The piston is 3/8 inch in diameter, flat on the bottom, and made of metal without a finish. The piston slides in a hole in the frame. The piston can measure the thickness of paper up to .300 inch.

The piston The piston moves up and down when the operator depresses and releases the hand lever. (Definition). This function causes the papers thickness to register on the dial. (Function). The piston is 3/8 inch in diameter, flat on the bottom, and made of metal without a finish. (size). The piston slides in a hole in the frame. The piston can measure the thickness of paper up to .300 inch. (Relationship to other parts).

Other patterns for mechanism descriptionTwo other patterns are also useful for describing mechanismThe function method and generalized method The function methodOne common way to describe a machine is to name its main parts and then give only a brief discussion of the function of each part.This method is used extensively in manuals.

Sample (Function buttons )The four function buttons, located under the liquid crystal display, work in conjunction with the function switches. The four switches are hertz (Hz), decibels (dB), continuity (c), and relative (REL). (List of subparts)

The hertz function allows you to measure the frequency of the input signal. Press the button a second time to disable. The decibel function allows you to measure the intensity of the input signal, which is valuable for measuring audio signals. It functions the same way as the hertz button.

The hertz function allows you to measure the frequency of the input signal. Press the button a second time to disable. (Function and size of subpart 1).The decibel function allows you to measure the intensity of the input signal, which is valuable for measuring audio signals. It functions the same way as the hertz button. (Function and size of subpart 2).

The generalized methodThis method does not focus on a part by part description; instead the writer coveys many facts about the machine. This method of describing is commonly found in technical journals and reports.With generalized method, writers use the following outline:

General detailPhysical descriptionDetails of functionsOther details

General details consist of a definition and a basic statement of the operational principle.Physical description explains such items as shape, size, appearance, and characteristics (weight, hardness, chemical properties, methods of assembly or construction)

Details of function explain these features of the mechanism:How it works, or its operational principleIts applicationHow well and how efficiently it worksSpecial constraints, such as conditions in the environmentHow is it controlled How long it performs before it needs service

Other details include information about background, information about marketing, and general information such as who makes it.

Writing Activity 5 Minutes (Do not use separate sheet)Point out the differences in the following Methods: Usual Method for Mechanism DescriptionFunction Method for Mechanism DescriptionGeneralized Method for Mechanism Description

Summary of description Begin with the definition of the matter to be described (define the mechanism).State its purpose, what it does or what it is used for.Describe what it looks like, for complex or unfamiliar matters use an analogy.

Use illustrations to help the reader visualize the appearance, size, dimensions, and shape both of the item as a whole and of its components.Explain why (the theory) the device or organism operates or behaves like the way it does.

Use steps 1-5 above to describe each main functional division of the item, its parts and the principles under which they operate.Consider your readers requirementsFinally, state how the mechanism or organism functions by taking it through a cycle of operation.

Format: Mechanism Description1. Introductiona) Definition and purposeb) Overall description (size, weight, shape, material)c)Main parts2. Descriptiona) Main part A (Def. followed by detailed description of size, shape, material, location, method of attachment)b) Main part B (Def. followed by overall description, and then identification of subparts)I. Subparts X (Def. followed by detailed description of size, shape, material, location, method of attachment)II. Subparts Y (same as for X)

Basic Expository Techniques in Technical WritingAnalysis:Analysis is a systematic and logical process of separating or breaking up a whole into its parts, so as to determine their nature, proportion, function, or relationship. In analysis, we divide a subject or a problem into its components and study them critically to understand the parts as well as the whole.

The process of analysis is fundamental to all scientific and technical activity and to reporting and communicating such activity.

Analysis aids clarity of thought by breaking down a complex whole into as many carefully distinguished parts as possible and helps determine how the parts are related within the whole.

In technical writing, the process of analysis helps writers understand the subject under investigation.It enables them to see component parts and identify the relationship of those parts to each other and to the whole.

It helps writers to distinguish and group together related things.In short, analysis is the process which helps writers understand their material and organise it into a logical order for efficient communication.

Classification and Partition

The basic operational element in analysis is division.When a group is divided into its classes, the process is known as classification.When a whole is divided into its parts the process is called partition.

Classification is a useful technique in exposition. It enables writers to systematise widely diverse facts for presentation in an orderly arrangement.

Summary of Analysis

Analysis requires thinking. It is the systematic and logical process of separating a whole entity into its component parts.The basic operation in analysis is division. When an assemblage of things, ideas, people, objects or processes is divided into categories, the operation is known as classification.

When a whole is divided into parts, the process is called partition.Classification defines a subject by revealing its essence through comparison.Partition defines a subject by listing and explicating the details or parts of its essence.

Tables, charts, and illustrations are effective aids in showing comparisons, similarities and component parts in the classification and partitioning processes.Analysis helps writers to organise their subject matter into a rational order for more effective communication.

In technical writing, analysis helps both writers and readers understand a subject; the process helps both to see and understand the ingredient parts and the relationship of those parts to each other and the whole.

The End

*Expository WritingIn expository writing, writers focus on a single topic. This piece of writing can be instructional, informational or defining. As a result, writers of this style have license to be creative. In general, expository writing depends on a strong coherent structure, facts arranged in a logical order and details supporting the facts; examples include a business letter and a research paper. While expository writing depends heavily on facts, its primary purpose is to communicate a conclusion based on the facts, rather than the facts themselves.Technical Writing:Technical writing follows all the rules for expository writing but depends strongly on clear facts. Unlike expository writers, technical writers do not have license to be creative: they take a "just the facts, ma'am" approach. The emphasis is on the power of the prose versus the writer's personality. Technical writing is always from an objective point of view and for a specific audience. Because that audience often comprises readers within a specialized field, say, computer hardware, technical writing is filled with technical vocabulary that is unique to that field. *DifferencesAlthough technical and expository writing share characteristics, clear differences exist between them. Technical writing is one way, imparting information to a reader without expecting a response. Expository writing is two way, requiring or evoking a response from the reader. An expository piece goes beyond fact to present new information based on what the writer has written. The reader is invited to agree or disagree with the writer in a conclusion, though it is clear that the writer encourages agreement. Technical writing is often filled with the lingo of a specialized field and is thus for a small audience with expertise in that field. Expository writing is for a wide audience. *