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Chapter 7. Normative Leadership Theories
Transformational Leadership The term “transformational leader” was the product of
a book written by James MacGregor Burns, a former presidential advisor, political scientist, and historian
Moral commitments are at the heart of Burns’s definition of transforming leadership.
Transformational leaders focus on terminal values such as liberty, equality, and justice.
Transformational leaders are driven by duty, they are guided universal ethical principles
They are altruistic
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Transactional Leaders
Transactional leaders emphasize instrumental values, such as responsibility, fairness, and honesty, which make routine interactions go smoothly.
Transactional leaders take a utilitarian approach, judging the morality of actions based on their outcomes.
Transactional leaders are concerned with protecting their interests rather than in promoting the interests of the group.
They are more likely to be controlling.© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Transactional Leadership
Leadership expert Bernard Bass and his colleagues found that transactional leadership has both active and passive elements:
Active transactional leaders engage in contingent reward and management-by-exception.
Passive–avoidant or laissez-faire leaders wait for problems to arise before taking action, or they avoid taking any action at all.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Transformational Leadership
According to Bass and Avolio, transformational leadership is characterized by the following: Idealized influence: They become role models for
followers and put followers’ needs above their own Inspirational motivation: motivate by providing
meaning and challenge to the tasks of followers and they arouse team spirit
Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders stimulate innovation and creativity.
Individualized consideration: act as coaches or mentors who foster personal development
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Transformational Leadership
Bass found that transforming leadership uses both transactional and transformational elements.
The transformational leader uses the active elements of the transactional approach (contingent reward and management-by-exception) along with idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.
Evidence from more than 100 empirical studies establishes that transforming leaders are more successful than their transactional counterparts.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Transformational Leadership
Bass adopted the terms authentic and pseudo-transformational to distinguish between ethical and unethical transformational leaders
Authentic transformational leaders are motivated by altruism and marked by integrity; allow followers free choice, followers are viewed as ends in themselves
Pseudo-transformational leaders are self-centered; they manipulate followers for their own goals
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Transformational Leadership
Applications of Transformational Leadership
Start small Employ the full range of leadership
behaviors Recognize the universal appeal of
transformational leadership
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Transformational Leadership
Cautions of Transformation Leadership
Equating success with transformation Leader centric Fosters dependency
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Transformational Leadership
9 charismatic and transformational attributes universally associated with outstanding leadership: 1. Motive arouser 2. Foresight 3. Encouraging 4. Communicative 5. Trustworthy 6. Dynamic 7. Positive 8. Confidence builder 9. Motivational
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational v. Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leaders are more person centered; followers have a strong connection to the leader, approaching idol worship; their success as leaders is based on their personal characteristics; and are result focused
Transformational leaders raise the morality of both the leaders and followers; transformational leaders prescribe how leaders should act; and they are much less prone to ethical abuses
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Servant Leadership
The basic premise of servant leadership is that leaders should put the needs of the followers before their own needs.
Servant leaders are less likely to cast shadows by taking advantage of the trust of followers, acting inconsistently, or accumulating money and power.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Servant Leadership
5 concepts that appear to be central to Servant Leadership 1. Stewardship: Being a servant leader means acting
on behalf of others. 2. Obligation: Servant leaders take their obligations or
responsibilities seriously. 3. Partnership: Servant leaders view followers as
partners, not subordinates. 4. Emotional healing: Servant leaders help followers
and organizations recover from disappointment, trauma, hardship, and broken relationships.
5. Elevating purpose: Servant leaders also serve worthy missions, ideas, and causes.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Servant Leadership
Applications of Servant Leadership
Focus on followers Act as a steward Cultivate self-awareness Pursue elevating purposes
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Servant Leadership
Cautions of Servant Leadership
Seems unrealistic May not work in every context Poses the danger of serving the wrong
cause or offering unwise service The term servant carries a negative
connotation
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Servant Leadership
5 Strengths of Servant Leadership
1. Altruism: concern for others (followers) comes before the self
2. Simplicity: having one goal in mind—to serve others 3. Self-awareness: servant leaders take time to listen
to themselves and others and to reflect 4. Moral sensitivity: servant leaders are acutely aware
of the importance of pursuing ethical purposes that bring meaning and fulfillment to work
5. Ongoing development
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Servant Leadership
Criticism of Servant Leadership
Cynicism: the first response when this model is presented; some equate servant leadership with passivity
A misunderstanding that equates service with weakness.
Misplaced goals: a problem for both servant leaders and followers
Members of some minority groups, particularly African Americans, associate the word servant with a history of slavery, oppression, and discrimination.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Servant Followership
Consultant and author Robert Kelley outlines 5 patterns for those who hope to become ideal servant followers: 1. Leading yourself: excellent followers know how to
lead themselves 2. Commit and focus: commit to ideas and causes
bigger than themselves 3. Develop competence and credibility: set high
personal standards; higher than the leader 4. Use your courageous conscience: serve as ethical
watchdogs 5. Disagree agreeably
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Authentic Leadership
Proponents of Authentic Leadership Theory (ALT) identify authenticity as the “root construct” or principle underlying all forms of positive leadership.
The practice of authentic leadership leads to sustainable (long-term) and veritable (ethically sound) organizational performance.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Authentic Leadership
4 Components of Authenticity
1. Self-awareness means being conscious of, and trusting in, our motives, desires, feelings, and self-concept.
2. Balanced processing describes remaining objective when receiving information.
3. Internalized moral perspective refers to regulating our behavior according to our internal standards and values, not according to what others say.
4. Relational transparency is presenting the authentic self to others, openly expressing true thoughts and feelings appropriate for the situation.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Authentic Leadership
Applications of Authentic Leadership
Recognize the significance of authenticity Develop the four components of
authenticity Foster authenticity in others
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Authentic Leadership
Cautions of Authentic Leadership
Overstates the importance of authenticity Equates authenticity with morality Differing interpretations of authentic behavior Authenticity can be defined as a personal
characteristic or as a perception
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Authentic Leadership
For authenticity to have a positive influence on organizational behavior, observers must perceive that a leader’s behavior is authentic.
Authenticity then becomes a product of perception, not of personal beliefs and behaviors.
Being authentic is no longer enough. Leaders must also appear authentic.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Focus on Follower Ethics: Authentic Followership
Followers have the greatest impact on leaders when they develop psychological ownership, foster trust, and practice transparency.
Psychological ownership: Authentic followers feel like they “own” the organizations where they work and volunteer.
Trust: They build trust with their leaders by taking on challenges without being asked.
Transparency: By sharing their thoughts, values, and feelings, they help create transparent relationships with their leaders.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
The aesthetic perspective emphasizes the sensory and emotional dimension of organizational life.
Successful leaders generate strong positive emotions and attributions. For example, President John F. Kennedy was youthful, energetic and glamorous.
Ethics is integral to aesthetic leadership.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
University of Exeter leadership professor Donna Ladkin identifies three components that contribute to a beautiful leadership performance. The first is mastery. An ethical/beautiful leader is
competent and possesses the necessary skills and abilities to perform in a given moment.
The second component is coherence. The beautiful, ethical leader is authentic, acting in a way that is consistent with his/her message and purpose.
The third component is purpose. The beautiful leader serves the best interests of the community and improves the human condition.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
Applications of Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership:
Recognize the physical dimension of leadership
View leadership as a performing art Make aesthetic judgments
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
Cautions of Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
Ignores the rational dimension of leadership
Definitions of beauty vary Performances can be dishonest
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Leadership Ethics at the Movies: A Ripple of Hope
Discussion Questions:
Why did Kennedy decide to give the speech despite the warnings of police? What might have happened had he cancelled the rally or only given a brief formal statement announcing King’s death?
Why did Kennedy wait till this incident to talk publicly talk about the death of his brother?
What made his speech so powerful and beautiful?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Responsible Leadership
European researchers Nicola Pless and Thomas Maak believe that leaders can help their corporations become a force for global good through exercising responsible leadership.
Maak and Pless define responsible leadership “as a values-based and principle driven relationship between leaders and stakeholders who are connected through a shared sense of meaning and purpose through which they raise to higher ethical levels of motivation and commitment for achieving sustainable value creation and responsible change.”
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Responsible Leadership
Responsible leadership then manifests itself in the following roles:
The leader as steward The leader as servant The leader as coach The leader as architect The leader as storyteller The leader as change agent The leader as citizen
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Responsible Leadership
Applications of Responsible Leadership
Encourage corporate social responsibility Play the roles of the responsible leader Broaden your focus to outside the
organization
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Responsible Leadership
Cautions of Responsible Leadership
In the early stages of development Overlaps other theories Corporations are resistant to an expanded
social role Liberal bias Focuses exclusively on business leadership
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Responsible Leadership
Only responsible leadership incorporates globalization and stakeholder theory.
Responsible leadership theory is in the beginning stages of development, which accounts for many of its shortcomings.
Additional theoretical development may address what is perhaps the greatest concern about responsible leadership, which is whether this perspective can serve as a general theory of leadership ethics.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Taoism
Taoism (pronounced “Dowism”) is one of the world’s oldest philosophies, dating back to ancient China (600–300 B.C.).
The Tao is the shapeless, nameless force or “nonbeing” that brings all things into existence, or being, and then sustains them.
Ethical leaders and followers develop te, or character, by acting in harmony with the Tao, not by following rules and commandments.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Taoism
Taoists rely on images or metaphors drawn from nature and daily life to illustrate the characteristics of model leaders.
First image: An uncarved block of stone or wood is nameless and shapeless, like the Tao itself.
Second image: A child serves as another reminder that wise leaders don’t get caught up in the pursuit of power and privilege but remain humble
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Taoism
Images (Cont’d) Third image: Water provides an important insight into
how leaders ought to influence others by illustrating that there is great strength in weakness.
Fourth image: Valley: Taoists highlight the importance of the yin, or feminine side of leadership, which is represented by the valley metaphor. Leaders should seek to be valleys (which reflect the yin) rather than prominent peaks (which reflect the yang).
Fifth image: the clay pot, which celebrates emptiness by elevating nothing to higher status than something.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Taoism
Applications of Taoism
Use “soft” tactics Focus on being, not doing Temper your use of power and privilege Follow nature’s example
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Taoism
Cautions of Taoism
Denies reason Rejects codes and laws Is ambiguous about many moral issues Does not adequately explain evil
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Taoism
Taoist principles provide an ethical framework for such important trends or themes in leadership studies as empowerment, innovation, teamwork, spirituality, and collaboration.
Taoism speaks most directly to the leader’s use of power and privilege.
The Taoist perspective also addresses environmental issues.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Taoism
There are some serious disadvantages to Taoist ethics:
In their attempt to follow nature, Taoists encourage leaders to empty themselves of, among other things, reason.
Although Taoism has much to say about the shadow of power and our relationship to the world around us, it is silent on many common ethical dilemmas.
One final concern should be noted: Taoism’s firm conviction that humans, in their natural state, will act morally seems to deny the power of evil.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Case Study: Transforming Clear Lake College
Discussion Questions: What elements of transactional and transforming
leadership did Sam exhibit? Was Sam a transformational or a pseudo-transformational
leader? How would you evaluate the actions of the college’s board
of directors? Have you ever had to confront a leader about her or his
behavior? What did you say or do? What was the outcome of the encounter? Would you do anything differently next time?
How do you determine when to remove a leader, particularly one who has a proven track record of success?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Case Study: From the Secret Service
Discussion Questions: Should Secret Service agents be held to a higher
ethical standard both on and off the job? Will the new rules and the appointment of a female
director prevent future scandals? What additional steps can the agency take to
change its culture? How can more women be encouraged to join Secret
Service protection teams? How can the agency reinforce the importance of its
mission?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Case Study: Patagonia
Discussion Questions: How does Yvon Chouinard function as a responsible
leader? Can you think of other business executives who also
meet the criteria for responsible leadership? Could leaders of publicly held corporations follow
Chouinard’s example? Should they try to do so? Does Patagonia put too much emphasis on the
environment? Who might be hurt by this commitment?
Should all states adopt benefit corporation laws? What are the potential benefits and costs of doing so?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.