Consumer Behavior: A Framework

Chapter 5:

Consumer Motivation

Ten Key Concepts Concept of

Motivation Consumer needs Operant

conditioning Classical

conditioning Vicarious learning

Opponent-process theory

Optimum-stimulation level theory

Reactance theory Perceived risk Consumer

attributions

What is Motivation? Motivation refers to an activated

state within a person that leads to goal-directed behavior. It consists of the drives, urges,

wishes, or desires that initiate the sequence of events leading to a behavior.

Motivation begins with the presence of a stimulus that spurs the recognition of a need.

Need recognition occurs when a perceived discrepancy exists between an actual and a desired state of being Needs can be either innate or learned. Needs are never fully satisfied. Feelings and emotions (I.e., affect) accompany

needs Expressive needs involve desires by

consumers to fulfill social and/or aesthetic requirements.

Utilitarian needs involve desires by consumers to solve basic problems (e.g. filling a car’s gas tank).

The Structure of Emotions

Ten Fundamental Emotions People Experience: Disgust Interest Joy Surprise Sadness Anger Fear Contempt Shame Guilt

Some General Theories of Motivation

Maslow hierarchy: physical, safety, belongingness, ego, and self-actualiation

McClelland’s Theory of Learned Needs Achievement motivation is seeking to get ahead, to

strive for success, and to take responsibility for solving problems.

Need for affiliation motivates people to make friends, to become members of groups, and to associate with others.

Need for power refers to the desire to obtain and exercise control over others.

Need for uniqueness refers to desires to perceive ourselves as original and different.

Classical Conditioning A neutral stimulus,

such as a brand name, is paired with a stimulus that elicits a response.

Through a repetition of the pairing, the neutral stimulus takes on the ability to elicit the response.

The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus which is repeatedly paired with the eliciting stimulus.

The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is an eliciting stimulus.

The conditioned response (CR) is the response elicited by the CS.

The unconditioned response (UCR) is the reflexive response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

Classical Conditioning RelationsUnconditioned/Secondary Stimulus Unconditioned Response

Pairing

Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response

FlagEmotions

Politicalcandidate

Emotions

Requirements for Effective Conditioning The neutral stimulus should precede in

time the appearance of the unconditioned stimulus.

The product is paired consistently with the unconditioned stimulus.

Both the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are highly salient to the consumer.

Applications of Classical Conditioning Applications: communications--advertising,

public relations, personal selling. Goal: identify powerful positive stimulus

and associate brand with it. Examples of powerful, emotion causing

stimuli: beautiful, sexy people patriotic themes, religious symbols Music, beautiful scenes Also, negative stimuli can be associated

with competitors. Credit card insignia may elicit spending

responses

Operant Conditioning . . .. . . is the process in which the frequency of occurrence of a bit of behavior is modified by the consequences of the behavior. If positively reinforced, the likelihood of

the behavior being repeated increases. If punished, the likelihood of the

behavior being repeated decreases.

Reinforcement & Influencing Behavior

A reinforcer is anything that occurs after a behavior and changes the likelihood that it will be emitted again. Positive reinforcers are positive rewards

that follow immediately after a behavior occurs.

Negative reinforcers are the removal of an aversive stimulus.

Secondary reinforcers . . .. . . are a previously neutral stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties through its association with a primary reinforcer. Over a period of time, previously neutral

stimuli can become secondary reinforcers.

In marketing, most reinforcers are secondary (e.g. a product performing well, a reduction in price)

A Punisher . . .

. . . is any stimulus whose presence after a behavior decreases the likelihood of the behavior reoccurring.

Extinction & Eliminating Behaviors Once an operant

response is conditioned, it will persist as long as it is periodically reinforced.

Extinction is the disappearance of a response due to lack of reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement . . .

. . . determine if a behavior is reinforced after a certain number of repetitions or after a certain length of time has passed.Example. Slot machines use a variable schedule based upon number of pulls of handle.

Discriminative Stimuli . . .

. . . are those stimuli that occur in the presence of a reinforcer and do not occur in its absence.

Example: point of purchase display is a discriminative stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization

Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism behaves differently depending on the presence of one of two stimuli. Goal of differentiation is to cause stimulus discrimination.

Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism reacts similarly to two or more distinct stimuli. Goal of “knock-off” brands is to use stimulus generalization.

Shaping Consumer Responses . . .

. . . is creating totally new operant behaviors by selectively reinforcing behaviors that successively approximate the desired instrumental response.

Vicarious Learning . . .

. . . is the phenomenon where people observe the actions of others to develop “patterns of behavior.”

Three important ideas: People are viewed as symbolic

beings who foresee the probable consequences of their behavior.

People learn by watching the actions of others and the consequences of these actions (i.e. vicarious learning).

People have the ability to regulate their own behavior.

Factors Increasing a Model’s Effectiveness

The model is physically attractive. The model is credible. The model is successful. The model is similar to the observer. The model is shown overcoming

difficulties and then succeeding.

Three Major Uses of Social-Learning Theory

A model’s actions can be used to create entirely new types of behaviors

A model can be used to decrease the likelihood that an undesired behavior will occur

The model can be used to facilitate the occurrence of a previously learned behavior

Midrange Theories of Motivation Opponent-Process Theory Optimum Stimulation Levels The Desire to Maintain Behavioral

Freedom The Motivation to Avoid Risk The Motivation to Attribute

Causality

Opponent-Process Theory. . . explains that two things occur when a person

receives a stimulus that elicits an immediate positive or negative emotional reaction: The immediate positive or negative emotional

reaction is felt. A second emotional reaction occurs that has a

feeling opposite to that initially experienced. The combination of the two emotional reactions

results in the overall feeling experienced by the consumer.

Explains addictive behaviors Explains priming—the effects of a small

exposure to a stimulus.

Optimum Stimulation Level

. . . is a person’s preferred amount of physiological activation or arousal. Activation may vary from very low levels (e.g. sleep)

to very high levels (e.g. severe panic). Individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum

level of stimulation and will take action to correct the level when it becomes to high or too low.

Accounts for high vs. low sensation seeking people. Accounts for variety seeking Accounts for hedonic consumption—I.e., the need of

people to create fantasies, gain feelings through the senses, and obtain emotional arousal.

The Desire to Maintain Behavioral Freedom

Psychological reactance is the motivational state resulting from the response to threats to behavioral freedom. Two types of threats can lead to reactance:

Social threats involve external pressure from other people to induce a consumer to do something

Impersonal threats are barriers that restrict the ability to buy a particular product or service

Frequent in marketing: e.g., pushy salesperson Scarcity effects: scarce products are valued

more. Limited time offer, limited supply.

The Motivation to Avoid Risk

Perceived risk is a consumer’s perception of the overall negativity of a course of action based upon as assessment of the possible negative outcomes and of the likelihood that these outcomes will occur.

Perceived risk consists of two major concepts - the negative outcomes of a decision and the probability these outcomes will occur.

7 Types of Consumer Risks. Financial Performance Physical Psychological Social Time Opportunity Loss

Factors Influencing Risk Perception Characteristics of the person—e.g.,

need for stimulation Nature of the task

Voluntary risks are perceived as less risky than involuntary tasks.

Characteristics of the product—price Salience of negative outcomes

Six risk-reduction strategies

Be brand loyal and consistently purchase the same brand.

Buy through brand image and purchase a quality national brand.

Buy through store image from a retailer that you trust.

Seek out information in order to make a well informed decision.

Buy the most expensive brand, which is likely to have high quality.

Buy the least expensive brand in order to reduce financial risk.

The Motivation to Attribute CausalityAttribution theory describes the processes

through which people make determinations of the causality of action.

Internal attribution is when a consumer decides that an endorser recommended the product because he or she actually liked the product.

External attribution is when a consumer decides that an endorser recommended the product because he or she was paid for endorsing it.

Augmentation-Discounting Model Discounting occurs if external pressures exist that

could provoke someone to act in a particular way - so actions would be expected given the circumstances.

The augmenting principle states that when a person moves against the forces of the environment to do something unexpected, the belief that the action represents the person’s actual opinions, feelings, and desires is increased.

Fundamental Attribution error: One consistent finding is that people are biased to make internal attributions to others.

Applications of attribution theory

endorsers: seek to get consumers to perceive internal motives for making endorsement.

satisfaction: seek to get consumers to perceive external reasons for product problem.

sales promotion: find ways to avoid consumers attributing the cause of the purchase to the sale rather than to the excellence of the product.

Managerial Applications of Motivation

Positioning/differentiation: use discriminative stimuli distinguish one brand from another.

Environmental analysis: identify the reinforcers and punishers that impact consumers; identify factors that influence risk perception.

Market research: measure motivational needs (e.g., McClelland’s needs and need for arousal), measure risk perception.

Marketing mix: use motivational needs to design products (e.g., safe cars) and to develop promotional strategy that meets needs. Develop messages to influence consumer attributions. Use in-store promotions to prime consumers.

Segmentation: Segment market based upon motivational needs.