Contemporary South Asian Studies

Editor-in-Chief

Paulo Casaca, Avenue des Arts 19, South Asia Democratic Forum, Brussels,Belgium

This book series features scientific and scholarly studies focusing on politics,economics and changing societies in South Asia. Utilizing recent theoretical andempirical advances, this series aims at providing a critical and in-depth analysis ofcontemporary affairs and future developments and challenges in the region.Relevant topics include, but are not limited to, democratization processes, humanrights concerns, security issues, terrorism, EU-South Asia relations, regional andeconomic cooperation and questions related to the use of natural resources.Contemporary South Asian Studies (CSAS) welcomes monographs and editedvolumes from a variety of disciplines and approaches, such as political and socialsciences, economics and cultural studies, which are accessible to both academicsand interested general readers. The series is published on behalf of the South AsianDemocratic Forum (Brussels), which is one of the most well-known think tanks inEurope focusing on South Asia.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15344

Sumana Bandyopadhyay • Chitta Ranjan Pathak •

Tomaz Ponce DentinhoEditors

Urbanization and RegionalSustainability in South AsiaSocio-economic Drivers, EnvironmentalPressures and Policy Responses

123

EditorsSumana BandyopadhyayDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CalcuttaKolkata, India

Chitta Ranjan PathakDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CalcuttaKolkata, India

Tomaz Ponce DentinhoCentre for Applied Economicsof the AtlanticUniversity of AzoresAngra do Heroísmo, Portugal

ISSN 2509-4173 ISSN 2509-4181 (electronic)Contemporary South Asian StudiesISBN 978-3-030-23795-0 ISBN 978-3-030-23796-7 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23796-7

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or partof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmissionor information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in thispublication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt fromthe relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in thisbook are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor theauthors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material containedherein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regardto jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Contents

Part I Drivers of Urbanization

1 Introduction: Learning from Urbanisation in South Asia . . . . . . . . 3Chitta Ranjan Pathak, Sumana Bandyopadhyayand Tomaz Ponce Dentinho

2 Mapping of Urban Growth Dynamics in Kolkata MetropolitanArea: A Geospatial Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Sushobhan Majumdar and Lakshmi Sivaramakrishnan

3 Sikkim—Once a Captivating au Naturel Himalayan Kingdomin the Light of Its Growing Urbanscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Sanghamitra Sarkar

4 Migration and Entry to Urban Street Food Market: A Studyof Selected Street Food Vendors in Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Aditi Kundu and Sayak Dutta

Part II Pressures on the Environment

5 Disaster Risk Mitigation Strategies in the Southwestern CoastalRegion of Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Tuhin Roy, Mahbuba Nasreen, Abdullah Abusayed Khanand Md. Rezaul Karim

6 Estimation of Surface Thermal Influxes from Satellite Imagesof the Newly Developed Built-up Areas of South 24 ParganasDistrict, West Bengal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Anwesha Haldar, Pradip Patra and Sk. Mafizul Haque

7 Valuing Social Costs and Benefits of Multiple Uses of UrbanWetlands: The Case of Nature Park, Kolkata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87Debarpita Banerjee and Sumana Bandyopadhyay

v

Part III Restructuring Adapted Spaces

8 Urban Housing in Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109Bilesha Weeraratne

9 Evaluation of Urban Basic Services and the Role of UrbanGovernance: A Case Study of Selected Wards of ChandernagoreMunicipal Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135Arindam Dasgupta

10 Micro-Level Analysis of Road Connectivity and Its SpatialVariation in the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) Area . . . . 157Sk. Mafizul Haque and Md. Juber Alam

11 Railway Stations of Tripura, India: An Assessmentof Infrastructural Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177Stabak Roy and Saptarshi Mitra

Part IV Effects on Society

12 HIV/AIDS Vulnerability Among Street Children in UrbanBangladesh: A Reality of Old Dhaka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201Md. Saidur Rashid Sumon and Abdullah Abusayed Khan

13 Status of the Urban Poor in Kolkata—A Case Study RegardingSquatter Settlements Along the Beliaghata Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217Anindita Ghosh

14 Education in the Bankura District, West Bengal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231Mrinal Mandal and Debasis Ghosh

Part V Policy Issues

15 Exploring Dimensions and Elements for Smart City Developmentin India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245Dillip Kumar Das and Sanjaykumar G. Sonar

16 Challenges of Smart Cities in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261Chitta Ranjan Pathak

17 Is Participatory Urban Planning Deepening Democracy:The Case of Haora City, West Bengal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271Parama Bannerji

18 Strategies for Land Use Planning in Democracies: An InclusiveApproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289S. T. Puttaraju

vi Contents

19 Urban E-Governance: A Quest for Pro-citizenConceptual Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297Jaydip De and Sumana Bandyopadhyay

20 Disaster Governance in South Asia: Special Referenceto Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311Tej Karki and Nimesh Salike

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Contents vii

Contributors

Sumana Bandyopadhyay Department of Geography, University of Calcutta,Kolkata, India;University of Kolkata, Kolkata, India

Debarpita Banerjee Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata,India

Parama Bannerji Department of Geography, Vidyasagar College, Kolkata, India

Dillip Kumar Das Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering andInformation Technology, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein, FreeState, South Africa

Arindam Dasgupta Department of Geography, Chandernagore College, Hooghly,India

Jaydip De Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India;Department of Geography, Barasat Government College, Kolkata, India

Tomaz Ponce Dentinho University of Azores, Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal

Sayak Dutta Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

Anindita Ghosh Vidyasagar College, Kolkata, India

Debasis Ghosh Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, WestBengal, India

Anwesha Haldar Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata,India

Md. Juber Alam Department of Geography, Aliah University, Kolkata, India

Tej Karki School of Architecture, Design, and Planning, Lovely ProfessionalUniversity (LPU), Phagwara, Punjab, India

ix

Abdullah Abusayed Khan Sociology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna,Bangladesh

Aditi Kundu Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

Sk. Mafizul Haque Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata,India

Sushobhan Majumdar Department of Geography, Jadavpur University,Jadavpur, Kolkata, India

Mrinal Mandal Department of Geography, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University,Purulia, West Bengal, India

Saptarshi Mitra Department of Geography and Disaster Management, TripuraUniversity, Suryamaninagar, India

Mahbuba Nasreen Institute of Disaster Management and Vulnerability Studies(IDMVS), University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Chitta Ranjan Pathak Urban Planning, Architecture and Regional Planning, IITKharagpur, Kharagpur, India

Pradip Patra Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India

S. T. Puttaraju Chief Town Planner TCPD, Government of Goa, Panaji, India

Md. Rezaul Karim Municipal Governance and Services Project (MGSP), LocalGovernment and Engineering Department, Local Government Division, Ministry ofLocal Government, Rural Development and Co-operatives, Khulna, Bangladesh;Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA

Stabak Roy Department of Geography and Disaster Management, TripuraUniversity, Suryamaninagar, India

Tuhin Roy Sociology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh

Nimesh Salike International Business School Suzhou (IBSS), Xi’anJiaotong-Liverpool University (XJTLU), Suzhou, China

Sanghamitra Sarkar Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata,India

Lakshmi Sivaramakrishnan Department of Geography, Jadavpur University,Jadavpur, Kolkata, India

Sanjaykumar G. Sonar Town Planning Section, Department of CivilEngineering, College of Engineering, Pune, India

Md. Saidur Rashid Sumon Department of Sociology, Jagannath University,Dhaka, Bangladesh;MA in Criminology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada

Bilesha Weeraratne Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka

x Contributors

Abbreviations

AIDS Acquired immunodeficiency syndromeBBS Bangladesh Bureau of StatisticsCMC Chandernagore Municipal CorporationCSO Civil society organizationsCT Census townsCV Contingent valuationCVM Contingent valuation methodDN Digital numberDRE Drug resistance educationDRR Disaster risk reductionEA Energy analysisEF Educational facilitiesEFI Educational Facility IndexFAO Food and Agricultural OrganizationFCSW Female commercial sex workersFGD Focus group discussionGDP Gross domestic productGIS Geographic information systemsGO Government organizationsHIV Human immunodeficiency virusICT Information and Communication TechnologiesISR Institute–student ratioKII Key informant interviewKMA Kolkata Metropolitan AreaKMC Kolkata Municipal CorporationLDC Least Developed CountryLMIC Lower-middle-income countryLPG Liquefied petroleum gasLST Land surface temperatureLULC Land use–land cover

xi

MFCS Mudialy Fishermen Cooperative SocietyMODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging SpectroradiometerMoWCA Ministry of Women’s and Children’s AffairsNDVI Normalized difference vegetation indexNGO Non-governmental organizationNIR Near infraredNSS National Sample SurveyNTA Notified town areasPDRP Pre-disaster recovery planningR RedRS Remote sensingSTD Sexually transmitted diseaseSTI Sexually transmitted infectionsTCM Travel cost methodTIR Teacher–institution ratioTSR Teacher–student ratioTUGI The Urban Governance Initiative IndexUHI Urban heat islandUN United NationsUNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk ReductionVGF Vulnerable Group FeedingWTA Willingness to acceptWTP Willingness to pay

xii Abbreviations

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Growth of KMA from 1981 to 2011. Source Prepared byauthors based on Census of India dataset. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Fig. 2.2 Urban concentration in 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Fig. 2.3 Urban concentration in 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Fig. 2.4 Urban concentration in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Fig. 2.5 Urban concentration in 2011. Source Prepared by authors

based on Census of India dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Fig. 2.6 Population Density in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Fig. 2.7 Population Density in 2011. Source Prepared by authors based

on Census of India dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Fig. 2.8 Shift of mean centre of population 1981–2011. Source Census

of India prepared by authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Fig. 2.9 Land-use features in KMA from 2000 to 2010. Source

Computed by the authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Fig. 2.10 Land-use classification of KMA from 2000 to 2010. Source

Computed by authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Fig. 3.1 Location of the study area. Source Compiled from natural

resources Atlas of Sikkim, NATMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Fig. 3.2 Growth of population—Southern Sikkim (1981–2011).

Source Prepared on the basis of Census of India(1981a, b, 1991a, b, 2001, 2011a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Fig. 3.3 Settlement distribution at the district-subdivision-block levelin the study area in 2012. Source Prepared on the basisof Satellite image (Quickbird 3 Band, Image—2012) . . . . . . . . 30

Fig. 3.4 Urban areas in and around Gangtok and a closer view of thesettlements in Gangtok. Source Image 2018, CNES/Airbus,Google Earth, Imagery Date: 11.12.2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Fig. 3.5 Major urban Centers and Towns (2011—Sikkim). SourceBased on natural resources Atlas of Sikkim, NATMOand Primary Census Abstract Sikkim (2011a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Fig. 4.1 Region of origin. Source Primary survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

xiii

Fig. 4.2 State of origin. Source Primary survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Fig. 4.3 Father’s occupation. Source Primary survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Fig. 4.4 Age. Source Primary survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Fig. 4.5 Skill acquisition. Source Primary survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Fig. 4.6 Knew anyone before migration. Source Primary survey. . . . . . . 50Fig. 4.7 Who helped with moving? Source Primary survey . . . . . . . . . . 50Fig. 5.1 Natural disasters reported between 1975 and 2011 in

Bangladesh. Source EM-DAT (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Fig. 5.2 Study area map. Source Haque (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Fig. 5.3 Monthly income profile (1 € = 96.5 Taka). Source Field

Survey (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Fig. 5.4 Level of education. Source Field Survey (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Fig. 5.5 First helping hand in a disaster situation. Source Field Survey

(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Fig. 6.1 Conceptual framework on changing scenarios regarding

surface re-radiance from rural and urban land surfaces . . . . . . . 76Fig. 6.2 Study area with the urban locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77Fig. 6.3 False colour composite of a Landsat satellite image. . . . . . . . . . 78Fig. 6.4 Land use and Land cover map of South 24 Parganas

(a) 1995 and (b) 2010. Source Computed by the authors usingTM satellite images from United States Geological Survey(USGS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Fig. 6.5 NDVI Map of South 24 Parganas during (a) 1995 and(b) 2010. Source Computed by the authors using TM satelliteimages from USGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Fig. 6.6 Land use and Land cover map of Kakdwip during (a) 1995and (b) 2010. Source Computed by the authors using TMsatellite images from USGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Fig. 6.7 Land surface temperature at Kakdwip in (a) 1995 and(b) 2010. Source Computed by the authors using TM satelliteimages from USGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Fig. 6.8 Land use and land cover map of Sonarpur during (a) 1995 and(b) 2010. Source Computed by the authors using TM satelliteimages from USGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Fig. 6.9 Land surface temperature at Sonarpur in (a) 1995 and(b) 2010. Source Computed by the authors using TM satelliteimages from USGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Fig. 7.1 Location map of MFCS. Source Google Earth Pro; ImageryDate: 24.09.2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Fig. 8.1 Average share of household borrowing by source: 2016.Source Author’s estimation based on Department of Censusand Statistics (n.d.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

xiv List of Figures

Fig. 8.2 Greater Colombo housing approvals index 1995–2016.Note Base Period: 1995 = 100. Source Author’s illustrationbased on CBSL Annual Reports of various years . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Fig. 9.1 Location map. Source Prepared by the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136Fig. 9.2 Assessment of drinking water facilities. Source Prepared by

the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144Fig. 9.3 Garbage disposal and sewerage system. Source Prepared by

the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145Fig. 9.4 Condition of street lights. Source Prepared by the Authors . . . . 146Fig. 9.5 Tackling the water logging problem. Source Prepared by the

Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148Fig. 9.6 Road conditions and maintenance. Source Prepared by the

Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Fig. 9.7 Health facilities and health infrastructure. Source Prepared by

the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Fig. 9.8 Collection of house tax and other taxes. Source Prepared by

the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Fig. 9.9 Assessment of the corporation’s certification system of

Corporation. Source Authors’ work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152Fig. 9.10 Assessment of the role of the ward committee and councillor.

Source Prepared by the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153Fig. 10.1 Conceptual framework of planar graphs depicting road

network systems at micro-level spatial unit. Notes a Alphaindex, b Beta index and c Gamma index. Source Preparedby authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Fig. 10.2 Location map of the study area. Source Preparedby authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Fig. 10.3 Scenario of road connectivity within the KMC.Notes a distribution of road networks in the study area,b spatial variation of the alpha index, c spatial variation of thebeta index and d spatial variation of the gamma index withhigh, medium, low and very low categories. Source Preparedby authors based on computed value (Table 10.2) . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Fig. 10.4 Relationship between the spatial distribution of populationsand various indexes regarding road connectivity in the studyarea. Source Prepared by authors based on computed value(Table 10.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Fig. 10.5 Spatial arrangement of road networks in different wards of theKMC. Notes a Ward no. 59 shows a complex anatomy ofroads with a high connectivity, b Ward 26 and c Ward 27 alsodepict high connectivity with a number of complete networks,d Ward 135 and e 133 show low connectivity with absence of

List of Figures xv

any road network, f Ward 43 presents an incomplete networkof road extensions and shows a moderate nature ofconnectivity (except as regards the alpha index). SourcePrepared by authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Fig. 11.1 Location map of the study area (Source SRTM DEM 30 mresolution has been extracted from USGS and data of therailway stations and tracks have been collected by hand-heldGPS receiver). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Fig. 12.1 Tools and techniques. Source By authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203Fig. 13.1 Study area. Source Google Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221Fig. 13.2 Slum people are mostly factory workers. Source Survey

2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222Fig. 13.3 People of the shanties are associated with rag picking and

sorting. Source Survey 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222Fig. 13.4 Fuel used by the residents of slums. Source Survey 2015 . . . . . 224Fig. 13.5 Type of fuel used by residents of shanties. Source Survey. . . . . 225Fig. 13.6 Slum dwellers use a variety of capital goods. Source Survey

2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225Fig. 13.7 Use of capital goods is negligible among the residents of

shanties. Source Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226Fig. 14.1 Study area. Source 18th All India Livestock Census,

Agriculture Implements & Machinery, Fishery Statistics,Bankura, West Bengal, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Fig. 14.2 Dendrogram using average linkage (between groups). SourceMandal and Ghosh, April, 2016. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Fig. 17.1 Distribution of different categories of respondents . . . . . . . . . . . 275Fig. 17.2 Location of Haora city in Haora district. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276Fig. 17.3 Elevation profile across west-east section of Haora city.

Source National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisationand Google Image (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Fig. 17.4 Reasons to participate in DDP preparation by communityrespondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Fig. 17.5 Reason of citizens to not attend DDP preparation meetings . . . . 280Fig. 17.6 Impact of DDP preparation, according to community

respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282Fig. 19.1 ICT enabling environment. Source UN Habitat and Ericsson

(2015: 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303Fig. 19.2 Theoretical framework for e-government. Source Khanh

(2014: 15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304Fig. 19.3 Four pillars of e-governance. Source Yadav and Singh

(2012: 38) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304Fig. 19.4 Proposition of citizen-centric interactive model of urban

e-governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

xvi List of Figures

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Present composition of KMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Table 2.2 List of satellite images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Table 2.3 Land price comparison in Kolkata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Table 2.4 Percentage of land conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Table 3.1 Population densities and the percentage of migration

in relation to total population in Sikkim from 1971to 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Table 3.2 Classification of the towns in the different districts ofSikkim as per 2001 Census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Table 3.3 Classification of the towns in the different districts ofSikkim as per 2011 Census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Table 3.4 Rate of urbanisation in the three southern districts ofSikkim and their subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Table 3.5 Slums in the urban centres of Sikkim, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Table 5.1 Natural disasters from 1980 to 2010 in Bangladesh and

their impacts in many sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Table 5.2 Major economic activities in accordance with livelihood

groups in the southwestern coastal zone of Bangladesh . . . . 63Table 5.3 Age distribution of the respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Table 5.4 Family patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Table 5.5 Occupational status of the respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Table 5.6 Problems regarding mitigation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Table 5.7 Overall evaluation of strategies and plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Table 5.8 Efficiency in rehabilitation by the government to restore

and improve living conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Table 6.1 Spectral and spatial properties of Landsat data . . . . . . . . . . . 79Table 6.2 Classification output for the South 24 Parganas District . . . . 83Table 6.3 Kakdwip C.D. Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Table 6.4 Sonarpur C.D. Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Table 7.1 Components of total values of wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Table 7.2 Description of variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

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Table 7.3 Demographic characteristics of surveyed visitors. . . . . . . . . . 96Table 7.4 Intercorrelation among the variables (N = 60) . . . . . . . . . . . . 98Table 7.5 Payment according to age groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Table 7.6 Payment according to educational level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Table 7.7 Occupational categories and the WTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100Table 7.8 Payment according to income category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101Table 7.9 Payment according to frequency of visit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102Table 7.10 Payment groups and travel costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102Table 8.1 Selected characteristics of urban households-2016. . . . . . . . . 113Table 8.2 Characteristics of urban housing in Sri Lanka—2016 . . . . . . 114Table 8.3 Housing affordability indicators-2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117Table 8.4 Hedonic pricing models for housing rent in urban areas

in Sri Lanka—2016. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125Table 8.5 Commercial bank lending for personal housing

(purchase/construction/repair of housing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130Table 8.6 Structural transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132Table 8.7 Housing-related costs in urban areas: 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132Table 9.1 Selection of wards for the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Table 9.2 Age composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Table 9.3 Education level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Table 9.4 Occupational structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Table 9.5 Average monthly income. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Table 9.6 Assessment of drinking water facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143Table 9.7 Citizens’ response on disposal of garbage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144Table 9.8 Citizens’ response on street lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145Table 9.9 Citizens’ response on mosquito control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146Table 9.10 Tackling the water logging situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147Table 9.11 Condition and maintenance of roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148Table 9.12 Assessment of health services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Table 9.13 Collection of house taxes and other taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Table 9.14 Certification service and sanction of the house plan . . . . . . . 151Table 9.15 Functioning of ward committee and ward councillor. . . . . . . 152Table 10.1 Nature of road connectivity and their associated

characteristics in the KMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Table 10.2 Calculation of connectivity in different wards

in the KMC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168Table 11.1 Distribution of railway stations in Tripura (by district) . . . . . 181Table 11.2 Geographical distribution of functional railway stations

in Tripura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182Table 11.3 Number of ticket counters in Tripura by station . . . . . . . . . . 185Table 11.4 Descriptive statistics of ticket counter of railway stations

in Tripura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186Table 11.5 Platform geometry by station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Table 11.6 Statistics of platform geometry by station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

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Table 11.7 Nature of passenger shelter by station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189Table 11.8 Drinking water facilities by station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190Table 11.9 Toilets and urinal by station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192Table 11.10 Seating arrangement and capacity by station . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193Table 11.11 Electrical facilities by station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195Table 11.12 Waiting room size by station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197Table 13.1 Age of respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221Table 13.2 Per capita income among the bustee people . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223Table 13.3 Per capita income of the people of the shanties. . . . . . . . . . . 223Table 13.4 Economic index of living for the people of slums

and shanties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227Table 13.5 Social index of living for the dwellers of slums

and squatters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229Table 14.1 Indicators of educational facility and their goalposts . . . . . . . 234Table 14.2 Description of the indicators relating to educational

facilities in the Bankura district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238Table 14.3 Educational Facility Index (EFI) regarding the Bankura

district, 2011–2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240Table 15.1 Attributes, dimensions and elements of smart cities

in the context of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251Table 16.1 Urbanisation in India during the twentieth century

and beyond (Census of India 2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262Table 16.2 Rank of 97 smart cities in India (Report of the Smart City

Mission 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265Table 17.1 Factors leading to initiate participatory planning exercise,

Haora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279Table 17.2 Stakeholders’ perspective on the role of institutions in DDP

preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281Table 17.3 Problems of DDP preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281Table 17.4 Indicators to understand the nature and extent of

participation in Haora city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284Table 17.5 Observations on critical features of participatory process

in Haora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285Table 17.6 Summarised responses of the various factors affecting

participation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286Table 17.7 Positive and negative factors affecting participation . . . . . . . 286Table 20.1 Significant disasters in Asia since 1991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312Table 20.2 Disaster effects of the 2015 Nepal earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . 318Table 20.3 Nepal’s macro-economy before and after the 2015

earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320Table 20.4 Recovery needs from the 2015 Nepal earthquake . . . . . . . . . 326

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