4 Pollution (Oil)

7/31/2019 4 Pollution (Oil)

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MARINE POLLUTION:MARINE POLLUTION:

OILOIL

MARINE POLLUTION:MARINE POLLUTION:

OILOIL

BIO 508-001BIO 508-001

EVPP 505-001EVPP 505-001


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Oil is a actually natural component of the marine

ecosystem

But increased use of oil as a:fuel source and

industrial raw material

Submarine hydrocarbon seeps continually release oil into

the marine environment (approx. 250,000 tonnes a year)

Oil PollutionOil Pollution

Increased extraction from marine areas

Increased transport of oil by a marine route

More instances of human error & cut corners

Warfare in oil producing areas

Causes increased oil pollution


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Oil Tanker Routes 1997 (millions of


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At Sea Oil Pollution &At Sea Oil Pollution &

SpillsSpills


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The bulk of oil spilt at sea is not from tanker accidents at

sea but leaks/spillages account for much:

oil rigs (2%)routine tanker operations/filling (7%)

and coastal refineries & marine terminals (1.6%)

Much pollution from these tankers comes- from discharges when tanks are cleaned at sea (21%)

But half of the world's extracted oil is transported by

sea in super tankers.

After a oil is offloaded

some clings to the side of the oil tanks

At Sea oil pollutionAt Sea oil pollution


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This clingage = 800 tonnes for a 200,000 tonne tanker

The empty tanker takes on water in its tanks to

provide ballast

The contaminated water was dumped at sea before the

tanker came into port to refill

The clingage mixes with this ballast water.

Under the MARPOL treaty at sea oil tank cleaning is illegal incertain areas - for vesselsover 400 gross tonnes.

But not others

Tank CleaningTank Cleaning


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Types of spillsTypes of spills

ITOPF (2003)


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The largest oil spillThe largest oil spill

1991 - Gulf War1991 - Gulf War::9,000,000 barrels9,000,000 barrels

(378,000,000 gallons)(378,000,000 gallons)

1979 -1979 - Bay ofBay of

Campeche, Ciudad delCampeche, Ciudad del

Carmen, Mexico:Carmen, Mexico:

140,000,000 gallons140,000,000 gallons


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StatisticsStatisticsNumber of spills over 700 tonnes, 1970-2002

ITOPF (2003)


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StatisticsStatistics

Quantities of oil spilt, 1970-2002

ITOPF (2003)


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Impact of oil onImpact of oil on

organismsorganisms Direct physical contact

Inhalation or ingestion of toxiccomponents

Loss of food resources


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organismsorganisms Birds and furredBirds and furred

mammalsmammals Loss of insulatingLoss of insulating

propertiesproperties Ingestion of toxicIngestion of toxic

substances (esp.substances (esp.when grooming)when grooming)

Inhalation of toxicInhalation of toxicvolatilevolatile

hydrocarbonshydrocarbons Marine mammalsMarine mammals

Skin irritationSkin irritation Clogging of baleenClogging of baleen

platesplates[Geraci (1990)][Geraci (1990)]


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organismsorganisms MarineMarine

turtlesturtles

DisturbancDisturbance to nestinge to nestinghabitathabitat

SpecialSpecialhabitatshabitats coral reefscoral reefs

tidal flatstidal flats


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Impact of oil on fisheriesImpact of oil on fisheries

Loss ofLoss ofbreedingbreedinghabitatshabitats

AccumulationAccumulationof toxinsof toxins

Poor tastePoor taste

Impacts onImpacts onsport fishingsport fishing


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Oil spills also have major economic impacts by effecting

marine tourism


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CleanupCleanup

Spill locationSpill locationWhere the oil is spilledWhere the oil is spilled

Ocean conditions (e.g., wind,Ocean conditions (e.g., wind,current)current)

Characteristics of the shorelineCharacteristics of the shoreline


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CleanupCleanup Natural remediesNatural remedies

weathering, evaporation, oxidation,weathering, evaporation, oxidation,biodegradation, and emulsification,biodegradation, and emulsification,

sedimentationsedimentation

From: http://www.itopf.com/fate.html


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CleanupCleanupHuman interventionHuman intervention

Booms,Booms, SkimmersSkimmers (remove(remove

floating oil)floating oil) Sorbants (absorbSorbants (absorb

oil)oil) straw/peat/syntheticstraw/peat/synthetic Dispersing agents,Dispersing agents, Gelling agentsGelling agents

(aid(aidmechanical extraction)mechanical extraction) Biological agentsBiological agents

(oil(oilmetabolizing microbes)metabolizing microbes)

Mechanical washingMechanical washing


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Boom


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Skimmers


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Exxon Valdez,Exxon Valdez, 24 March24 March

19891989The largest oilThe largest oilspill in USspill in UShistoryhistory

3535thth largestlargestsingle spill insingle spill inthe worldthe world

Spilled 10.9Spilled 10.9million gallonsmillion gallonsof crude oilof crude oil(Alaska North Slope(Alaska North Slope

Crude)Crude) into Princeinto Prince


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Exxon ValdezExxon Valdez

Three days after the spill a gale dispersedThree days after the spill a gale dispersedthe oil slick and foiled containment effortsthe oil slick and foiled containment efforts By June 20By June 20thth the oil covered 28,500kmthe oil covered 28,500km22

40% of the oil stranded on beaches in40% of the oil stranded on beaches in

Prince William SoundPrince William Sound 1900km of coast were oiled1900km of coast were oiled But up to 5,221km of shore line receivedBut up to 5,221km of shore line received

oil contaminationoil contamination 900km of coastline heavily oiled900km of coastline heavily oiled 20% of the original oil spill still remained20% of the original oil spill still remained

on beaches in 1992on beaches in 1992

Oil was found in sediments nearly aOil was found in sediments nearly a


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Exxon ValdezExxon Valdez - Impacts- Impacts Many areas of musselMany areas of mussel ((Mytilus trossulusMytilus trossulus)) bedsbeds

were contaminatedwere contaminatedThese mussel beds retainedThese mussel beds retained

hydrocarbons for a considerable time hydrocarbons for a considerable time double background levels 6 years afterdouble background levels 6 years after

the spillthe spill (Carls(Carls et al.et al. 2001)2001)These persistent hydrocarbons inThese persistent hydrocarbons in

mussels may have led to contaminationmussels may have led to contaminationof predator speciesof predator species

(Duffy(Duffy et al.et al. 1996; Sharp1996; Sharp et al.et al.

1996)1996) Also reduced survival rates in intertidalAlso reduced survival rates in intertidal

clamclam ((Protothaca stamineaProtothaca staminea)) even six years aftereven six years afterthe spillthe spill (Fukuyama(Fukuyama et al.et al. 2000)2000)

20 species of fish showed effects of the20 species of fish showed effects of theoil including genetic damage, physicaloil including genetic damage, physical


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3,500 to 5,500 sea otters (3,500 to 5,500 sea otters (EnhydraEnhydralutrislutris) oiled) oiled 200 harbor seals (200 harbor seals (Phoca vitulinaPhoca vitulina))

The US Fish & Wildlife ServiceThe US Fish & Wildlife Serviceestimated 350,000 to 390,000 birdsestimated 350,000 to 390,000 birdswere killedwere killed

Total survival rate was 50.7% for birds,Total survival rate was 50.7% for birds,

and 62% for sea ottersand 62% for sea otters Reduced survival rates were recordedReduced survival rates were recorded

in sea otters a decade after the spillin sea otters a decade after the spill

[Monson[Monson et al.et al. (2000); Bodkin(2000); Bodkin et al.et al. (2002);(2002);DeanDean et al.et al. (2002)](2002)]


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The spill clean up operation wasThe spill clean up operation wasmassive:massive: 11,000 personnel,11,000 personnel,

1,400 vessels and1,400 vessels and 85 aircraft involved85 aircraft involved

Total cost of the spill = c. $9.5 billionTotal cost of the spill = c. $9.5 billion

The spill led toThe spill led to 1990 Oil Pollution Act1990 Oil Pollution Act

Established to improve the nations abilityEstablished to improve the nations ability

to prevent and respond to oil spillsto prevent and respond to oil spills

L i l tiL i l ti


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LegislationLegislation 1969 -1969 -International Convention on CivilInternational Convention on Civil

Liability for Oil Pollution DamageLiability for Oil Pollution Damage 1971 -1971 - International Convention on theInternational Convention on the

Establishment of an International FundEstablishment of an International Fundfor Compensation for Oil Pollutionfor Compensation for Oil PollutionDamageDamage

MARPOLMARPOL (1973, 1978, 1983)(1973, 1978, 1983)The International Convention for the Prevention ofThe International Convention for the Prevention of

Pollution from ShipsPollution from Ships Requires pollution prevention equipment on shipsRequires pollution prevention equipment on ships

and prohibits discharges within a certain distanceand prohibits discharges within a certain distanceof landof land

Credited for reducing oil pollution from shipping byCredited for reducing oil pollution from shipping by60%60%

1990 -1990 - International Convention on OilInternational Convention on Oil


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Nearly 43% of oil discharged into the marine

environment enters the oceans via urban storm drainage

systems & industrial discharges

In particular major sources of oil pollution are:

-oil spills and leaks during car maintenance &

-illegal discharge/dumping of waste oil

Tanker accidents account for less than 7% of the oil

discharged into the oceans

Marine Oil PollutionMarine Oil Pollution Although the major source of marine oil pollution might

appear to be accidental oil spills, particularly large events

such as theExxon Valdez


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Annual oil spilled?Annual oil spilled?

http://seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN_PLANET/HTML/peril_oil_pollution.html

Annual input of oil into the oceans worldwide (in millions ofgallons)


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This accounts for 23x as much oil entering the marineenvironment as tanker accidents

The atmospheric input from oil tanker traffic may be as

much as 3.75 million tonnes of hydrocarbons a year

But from evaporating hydrocarbons in oil tankers/storage

Atmospheric Oil PollutionAtmospheric Oil Pollution A major source of oil getting into the marine environment

is not from spills or discharges


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Polynuclear AromaticPolynuclear AromaticHydrocarbonsHydrocarbons (PAHs)(PAHs) High rate of cancer in beluga whalesHigh rate of cancer in beluga whales

((Delphinapterus leucasDelphinapterus leucas) in the St.) in the St.Lawrence Estuary ~ PAH contaminationLawrence Estuary ~ PAH contamination[Martineau[Martineau et al.et al. (1994)](1994)]

Research conducted in the UKResearch conducted in the UK

-- PAHs in coastal and estuarinePAHs in coastal and estuarinewaters and marinewaters and marine sedimentssediments[[LawLawet alet al. (1997); Woodhead. (1997); Woodhead et alet al. (1999)]. (1999)]

At one site, PAH contamination was highAt one site, PAH contamination was highenough to potentially cause the mortalityenough to potentially cause the mortalityof marine organismsof marine organisms

and about 15% of the samples analyzedand about 15% of the samples analyzedcould lead to contaminant levels in marinecould lead to contaminant levels in marineorganisms that might lead to chronicorganisms that might lead to chronichealth effectshealth effects


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ReferencesReferences Bodkin, J.L., Ballachey, B.E., Dean. T.A., Fukuyama, A.K., Jewett, S.C., McDonald, L.,Bodkin, J.L., Ballachey, B.E., Dean. T.A., Fukuyama, A.K., Jewett, S.C., McDonald, L.,

Monson, D., OClair. C.E. and VanBlaricom, G.R. 2002. sea otter population status andMonson, D., OClair. C.E. and VanBlaricom, G.R. 2002. sea otter population status andthe process of recovery from the 1989the process of recovery from the 1989 Exxon ValdezExxon Valdezoil spill.oil spill. Marine Ecology ProgressMarine Ecology Progressseriesseries 241:237-253.241:237-253.

Carls, M.G., Babcock, M.M., Harris, P.M., Irvine, G.V., Cusick, J.A. and Rice, S.D.Carls, M.G., Babcock, M.M., Harris, P.M., Irvine, G.V., Cusick, J.A. and Rice, S.D.2001.Perseitence of oiling in mussel beds after the2001.Perseitence of oiling in mussel beds after the Exxon ValdezExxon Valdezoil spill.oil spill. MarineMarineEnvironmental ResearchEnvironmental Research 51: 167-190.51: 167-190.

Dean, T.A., Bodkin, J.L. Fukuyama, A.K. Jewett, S.C. Monson, D.H. O'Clair, C.E. andDean, T.A., Bodkin, J.L. Fukuyama, A.K. Jewett, S.C. Monson, D.H. O'Clair, C.E. andVanBlaricom, G.R. 2002. Sea otter (VanBlaricom, G.R. 2002. Sea otter (Enhydra lutrisEnhydra lutris) perspective: mechanisms of impact) perspective: mechanisms of impactand potential recovery of nearshore vertebrate predators following the 1989 Exxonand potential recovery of nearshore vertebrate predators following the 1989 ExxonValdez oil spill.Valdez oil spill. Marine Ecology Progress SeriesMarine Ecology Progress Series 241: 255-270.241: 255-270.

Duffy, L.K., Bowyer, R.T., Testa, J.W., and Faro, F.B. 1996. Acute phase proteins andDuffy, L.K., Bowyer, R.T., Testa, J.W., and Faro, F.B. 1996. Acute phase proteins andcytokines in Alaska mammals as markers of chronic exposure to environmentalcytokines in Alaska mammals as markers of chronic exposure to environmentalpollutants.pollutants.American Fisheries Society SymposiumAmerican Fisheries Society Symposium 18: 809-813.18: 809-813.

Fukayama, A.K., Shigenaka, G. and Hoff, R.Z. 2000. Effects of residual Exxon ValdezFukayama, A.K., Shigenaka, G. and Hoff, R.Z. 2000. Effects of residual Exxon Valdezoil on intertidal Protothaca staminae: mortality growth, and bioaccumulation ofoil on intertidal Protothaca staminae: mortality growth, and bioaccumulation ofhydrocarbons in transplanted clams.hydrocarbons in transplanted clams. Marine Pollution BulletinMarine Pollution Bulletin 40: 1042-1050.40: 1042-1050.

Geraci JR. 1990. Physiologic and toxic effects on cetaceans. In:Geraci JR. 1990. Physiologic and toxic effects on cetaceans. In: Sea mammals and oil.Sea mammals and oil.Confronting the risks,Confronting the risks, (Ed. By J.R. Geraci and D.J. St Aubin). Academic Press, .San(Ed. By J.R. Geraci and D.J. St Aubin). Academic Press, .San

Diego.Diego. Jewett, S.C., Dean, T.A., Woodin, B.R., Hoberg, M.K. and Stegeman, J.J. 2002. ExposureJewett, S.C., Dean, T.A., Woodin, B.R., Hoberg, M.K. and Stegeman, J.J. 2002. Exposure

to hydrocarbons 10 years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill: evidence from cytochrometo hydrocarbons 10 years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill: evidence from cytochromeP4501A expression and biliary FACs in nearshore demersal fishes.P4501A expression and biliary FACs in nearshore demersal fishes. MarineMarineEnvironmental ResearchEnvironmental Research 54: 21-48.54: 21-48.

Monson, D.H., Doak, D.F., Ballachey, B.E., Johnson, A. and Bodkin, J.L. 2000. Long-Monson, D.H., Doak, D.F., Ballachey, B.E., Johnson, A. and Bodkin, J.L. 2000. Long-term impacts of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on sea otters, assessed through age-term impacts of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on sea otters, assessed through age-dependent mortality patterns.dependent mortality patterns. Proceedings of the National Academy of SciencesProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97:97:

6562-6567.6562-6567. Shar , B., Cody, M., and Turner, R. 1996. Effects of theSharp, B., Cody, M., and Turner, R. 1996. Effects of the Exxon ValdezExxon Valdezoil s ill on theoil spill on the

Clark, R.B. 2001. Oil pollution. In: Marine Pollution.

5th Ed., pp. 64-97. Oxford University press, Oxford.


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References - PAHsReferences - PAHsCarvan, M.J. and Busbee, D.L.Carvan, M.J. and Busbee, D.L. 2003. mechanisms of aromatic hydrocarbon2003. mechanisms of aromatic hydrocarbon

toxicity: implications for cetacean morbidity and mortality. In:toxicity: implications for cetacean morbidity and mortality. In: Toxicology ofToxicology of

marine mammalsmarine mammals (Ed. by J.G. Vos, G.D. Bossart, M. Fournier and T.J. OShea),(Ed. by J.G. Vos, G.D. Bossart, M. Fournier and T.J. OShea),pp. 429-457. Taylor and Francis, London.pp. 429-457. Taylor and Francis, London.

Hansen, L.G. and Shane, B.S. 1994. Xenobiotic metabolism. In:Hansen, L.G. and Shane, B.S. 1994. Xenobiotic metabolism. In: BasicBasicEnvironmental ToxicologyEnvironmental Toxicology (Ed. by L.G. Cockerham and B.S. Shane), pp. 49-(Ed. by L.G. Cockerham and B.S. Shane), pp. 49-105. CRC Press, Florida.105. CRC Press, Florida.

Kelly, C.A. and Law, R.J. 1998. Monitoring of PAH in fish and shellfish followingKelly, C.A. and Law, R.J. 1998. Monitoring of PAH in fish and shellfish followingthe Sea Empress oil spill. In:the Sea Empress oil spill. In: The Sea Empress Oil Spill: Proceedings of theThe Sea Empress Oil Spill: Proceedings of theInternational Conference held in Cardiff, 11-13 February 1998.International Conference held in Cardiff, 11-13 February 1998. (Ed. by R.(Ed. by R.Edwards and H. Sime), pp.467-473. Chartered Institute of Water andEdwards and H. Sime), pp.467-473. Chartered Institute of Water andEnvironmental Management, London.Law and Hellou, (2000)]Environmental Management, London.Law and Hellou, (2000)]

Law, R.J., Dawes, V.J., Woodhead, R.J. and Matthiessen, P. 1997. PolycylicLaw, R.J., Dawes, V.J., Woodhead, R.J. and Matthiessen, P. 1997. PolycylicAromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in seawater around England and Wales.Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in seawater around England and Wales.Marine Pollution BulletinMarine Pollution Bulletin 34: 306-321.34: 306-321.

Martineau, D., De Guise, S., Fournier, M., Shugart, L., Girard, C., Lagace, A. andMartineau, D., De Guise, S., Fournier, M., Shugart, L., Girard, C., Lagace, A. andBeland, P. 1994. Pathology and toxicology of beluga whales from the St.Beland, P. 1994. Pathology and toxicology of beluga whales from the St.

Lawrence Estuary, Quebec, Canada. Past, present and future.Lawrence Estuary, Quebec, Canada. Past, present and future. Science of theScience of theTotal EnvironmentTotal Environment154: 201-215.154: 201-215.

Woodhead, R.J., Law, R.J. and Matthiessen, P. 1999. Polycyclic aromaticWoodhead, R.J., Law, R.J. and Matthiessen, P. 1999. Polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAH) in surface sediments around England and Wales, andhydrocarbons (PAH) in surface sediments around England and Wales, andtheir possible biological significance.their possible biological significance. Marine Pollution BulletinMarine Pollution Bulletin 38: 773-790.38: 773-790.


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For more information:For more information:

EPAs Oil ProgramEPAs Oil Program

http://www.epa.gov/oilspill/index.htmhttp://www.epa.gov/oilspill/index.htm

NOAA Office of Response and RestorationNOAA Office of Response and Restorationhttp://response.restoration.noaa.gov/index.htmlhttp://response.restoration.noaa.gov/index.html

Exxon ValdezExxon ValdezOil Spill Trustee CouncilOil Spill Trustee Council

http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/

International Tanker Owners PollutionInternational Tanker Owners Pollution

Federation (ITOPF)Federation (ITOPF)
http://www.epa.gov/oilspill/index.htmhttp://www.epa.gov/oilspill/index.htmhttp://response.restoration.noaa.gov/index.htmlhttp://response.restoration.noaa.gov/index.htmlhttp://www.evostc.state.ak.us/http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/index.htmlhttp://www.epa.gov/oilspill/index.htm

4 Pollution (Oil)

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