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0111.11RMK

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE'

enie ACCESSION NO,

ED 013 342

OFFICE

CERIC

OF EDUCATION

REPORT RESUME

IS DOCUMENT COPYRIGHTED? YES

ERIC REPRODUCTION RELEASE? YES

0 NODOLEARIN eliouso

ACCESSION NUMBER

AA 000 194

RESUME tiA're

31 -01-68p T.A,

NODTITLE .

KEY IDEAS ABOUT LATIN AMEaICA, BULLETIN NUMBER 4.

PMRSONAL AUTHORIS)

GILL, CLARK C. * CONROY WILLIAMINSTITUTION (SOURCE)

UNIVuiv., AUSTIN'SOURCE COOKXPT87375

REPORT/SERIES NO. BunOTHER SOURCE SOURCE CODE

OTHER REPORT NO. EIR4'4183'""BULL°-4OTHER SOURCE $0,U Re E CODE

OTHER REPORT NO.

PUB'L, DATE CONTRACT/GRANT NUMBERPAGINATION, ETC.

EDRS PRICE MF -$O.25 HC-$1.60 40P.

RETRIEVAL TERMS

*SOCIAL STUDIES, *LATIN AMERICAN CULTURE, *CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT,*AREA STUDIES, *CURRICULUM PLANNING, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY,ECONOMICS, SOCIOLOGY,

IDENTIFIERS

ABSTRACT

SELECTED KEY IDEAS CONTAINED IN THIS BULLETIN ABOUT LATIN AMERICAARE ORGANIZED AROUND SIX CATEGORIES AND ARE MEANT AS SUGGESTIONSFOR CURRICULUM BUILDING AND EMPHASIS IN A SOCIAL STUDIES CLASS.THE SIX CATEGORIES ARE -.-(1) THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, (2)HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS, (3) CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY AND THE FAMILY,(4) CONTEMPORARY CULTURE, (5) CONTEMPORARY ECONOMIES, AND (6)CONTEMPORARY POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS.SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS AT BOTH THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEVELSSHOULD FIND THESE IDEAS A USEFUL BASIS FOR THEIR CURRICULUM SINCEMANY OF THE TOPICS CAN BE INTRODUCED IN A SIMPLIFIED FORM INEARLY GRADES AND DEVELOPED PROGRESSIVELY THROUGH SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL. ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL ASSUMPTIONS OF THIS PROJECT IS THATTHE TEACHER IS THE FOCAL POINT OF ANY PROGRAM WHICH PURPORTS TOSTRENGTHEN INSTRUCTION ABOUT LATIN AMERICA AND THAT NEW CURRICULAAND NEW MATERIALS WILL BE OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCE UNLESS TEACHERSTHEMSELVES ARE WELL INFORMED. A SUGGESTED TEACHING STRATEGYADVISES THE INDUCTIVE APPROACH, STARTING WITH FACTS AND THENMOVING TOWARD CONCEPTUALIZING AND GENERALIZING. THE BULLETINEMPHASIZES ENDS AND NOT MEANS, GENERALIZATIONS AND NOT DETAILS,LATIN AMERICA AS A WHOLE AND NOT INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES. RELATED

REPORTS ARE ED 012 365, ED 012 832, AND ED 012 833. (PM)

LIONEMIIIINIMM111111.111111111r

KEY IDEAS ABOUT LATIN AMERICA

Bulletin No. 4 (1967)

LATIN AMERICAN CURRICULUM PROJECT

403 Sutton Hall, The University of Texas, Austin, Texas 78712

Clark C. Gill and William B. Conroy (on leave 1967-68), Directors

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword

I. The Physical Environment 4

II. Historical Backgrounds 7

III. Contemporary Society and the Family 15

IV. Contemporary Culture 19

Contemporary Economies 25

VI, Contemporary Politics, Government, andInternational Relations 28

Countries of Latin America following page ii

Note: The research reported herein was written pursuant toa contract with the United States Department of Health,Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington,D. C.

FOREWORD

This is the fourth in a series of bulletins from the

Curriculum Project on Latin America. Previous bulletins are:

Teachint about Latin America in the Blementar School:nnota e to Instructional m'esources

0 ,L. etin

Teachin about Latin America in thILLIangaraaa/2221:An Annotated Guide to Instructio al Resources, BulletinV5,777 9.7

The Social Scientists Look aTaoszt, u e in o . 1

Latin America: Six Position

Chiefly responsible for the preparation of this bulletin

is Mrs. Catherine CornbJ.eth, a social studies teacher in

McCallum High School, Austin, Texas and a member of our project

staff. Mrs. Cornbletbls superior qualifications for this task

were enhanced by attending the NDEA Institute in Latin American

history at The University of Texas in the summer of 1967.

This bulle in prescribes no new curriculum organization

or teaching strategies. It merely suggests key ideas about

Latin America carefully selected and organized around six

categories. Social studies teachers at either the elementary

or secondary level should find these ideas a useful basis for

curriculum building and emphasis since any of them can be

introduced in a simplified form in early grades and developed

progressively through the senior high. Although these ideas

may represent a starting point for curriculum building for

the teacher, they may be considered the end results of the

",,,"*.t;"-, "..r1,,54"

ii

learning activities of the pupil if teaching strategies are

organized around the inductive approach, starting with facts

and then moving toward conceptualizing and generalizing.

One of the principal assumptions of this project is that

the teacher is the focal point of any program which purports

to strengthen instruction about Latin America. In most teacher

education programs, courses on Latin America are not required,

and few take them on an elective basis. New curricula and new

materials will be of little consequence unless teachers them-

selves are well informed. Not only must they know about

available materials, but also what is most important to teach.

This is not to discount the importance of teaching strategies,

but it is contended that once the outcomes are clarified, the

resourceful teacher is most adept at determining the means of

reaching them. This bulletin then emphasizes ends and not

means, generalizations and not details, Latin America as a

whole and not individual countries. It challenges the teacher

to supply what is missing.

Clark C. Gill, Director

40

20

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1

The study of culture areas may be hampered by bias and

stereotypes which zeverely limit student understanding. We

tend to see what wo expect to see, and our expectations may

be based on inaccurate, incomplete, or oversimplified infor-

mation. We confute fact and opinion or evaluate other cul-

tures according to our standards, which are not necessarily

relevant. Proud of our predominantly English heritage, we

tend to belittle the contributions of others to the culture

of the Western Hemisphere. In comparing other ways of life

with that in the United States, we forget that all things

are not equal, that other cultures evolved differently, in

part as a result of differing natural environments and experi-

ences. We may also fail to realize that human needs (such as

food, shelter, clothing, communication, government, and spirit-

ual and artistic expression) are universal, and that only the

means of satisfying them differ. Culture is man-made, and

thus cultural differences are not innate and unchangeable.

The way of life in the United States has changed considerably

in the nearly 200 years of our national history. Further,

Latin America is more than 200,000,000 people and 20 nations,

not a homogeneous unit. National and regional differences

must be respected.

Finally, studying other cultures can help students to

see their own more clearly. For example, self-government

2

which we unconsciously consider natural as well as highly

desirable, was not natural or desirable in 16th century

Spain when she established colonies in the New World while

ideas of representative government were gaining acceptance

in 17th century England when her colonies were established

in North America. Students might be encouraged to develop

and illustrate generalizations such as the following:

1. The cultures of different populations serve

comparable functions although they vary widely.

2. Differing natural environments explain, in part,

cultural variations among populations.

Complex historical events have multiple causes.

4. Nations are becoming increasingly interdependent,

yet nationalism remains a powerful force.

5. Change, common to all cultures, is increasingly

rapid.

In order to understand other cultures, students must have

the facts. However, facts, unless related to one another,

have little meaning. "Why" and "how" should be emphasized.

Students will learn from seeking these answers and destroy

some of their misconceptions (e.g., all Latin American govern-

ments are dictatorships; ala Latin American uprisings are led

by communists; Latin Americans are lazy, corrupt, and emo-

tional).

3

The study of Latin America can be organized in several

ways, and selected aspects can be incorporated into the

elementary social studies and into world history, American

history, world geography, sociology, economics, and current

problems courses offered at the secondary level. Whatever

the desired organization and coverage, it is necessary to

identify the main ideas in order to further student under-

standing and make any study of Latin America meaningful How

these main ideas are organized and the specific strategies

used to develop them will vary according to the abilities

and interests of the students and available materials. The

following outline offers some main ideas in Latin American

geography, history, and contemporary civilization including

society and culture, economics, politics, government, and

relations with the United States. These are drawn from a

variety of sources, including The Social Scientists Look at

Latin America: Six Position Papers (Bulletin No. 3, Latin

American Curriculum Project), materials presented in the

summer (1967) NDEA Institute in Latin American history at

The University of Texas; and numerous authoritative treat-

ments of Latin America.

At

I. The Physical Environment

A. Latin America is an area of great physical diversity,relatively isolated from world population centers andtrade routes.

1. Geographically, Latin America extends from thesouthern border of the United States to CapeHorn and includes the Caribbean Islands.

a. Most of Latin America lies southeast of theUnited States with the west coast of SouthAmerica almost directly south of the eastcoast of North America. (Thus, much of LatinAmerica is as close or closer to westernEurope than to the United States. Lisbonis closer to Rio de Janeiro than is New YorkCity, and the west coast of Africa is closerthan either to Brazil.)

b. Most of Latin America is remote from otherlarge areas, population centers, and majoreast-west trade routes which are further north.Latin America's relative isolation was animportant factor in earlier history but ispresently offset to some extent by modernmeans of transportation and communication.

2. While cultural Latin America includes the nationsof Spanish, Portuguese and French background,political Latin America refers to Q.A.S. members(except the United States) plus Cuba, not all ofwhom are of Latin background.

3. Commonly used geographic and political, regionalsubdivisions of Latin America are Mexico, Middleor. Central America, South America, and the Carib-bean or West Indies. Also used are the Andeancountries and the Plata region.

B. Mountains, tropical rain forests, and deserts orsemi-arid regions account for more than half of LatinAmerica's nearly eight million square miles (abouttwo and one-half times the size of the United States).

1. Mountains, particularly the Andes and includingthe highlands of Eastern Brazil and the mountainsof Mexico and Central America, are Latin America'sdominant topographic features.

5

a. High elevations make life possible in other-wise inhospitable tropical regions. (OnlyUruguay lies wholly outside the tropics andsubtropics.)

b. Mountains are obstacles to transportationand trade, inter-American cooperation, andeven national unity. Railroads and roadstend to lead to ports rather than to connectnations or inland cities.

2. The fou'r major river systems (Amazon, La Plata,Orinoco, and Magdalena, all of which empty intothe Caribbean Sea or the Atlantic Ocean) havenot provided efficient transportation unitingareas and peoples but offer considerable poten-tial for hydroelectric power.

3. Much of Latin America is unsuited to agriculture.(There is less good, arable land than in theUnited States.)

a. Large areas have not been productively uti-lized and are sparsely populated because theyare too dry, rugged, cold, and infertile foragriculture (as the Amazon basin of Brazilwhere the rainforest soil has been leachedby constant rain or the arid and semi-aridregions of northern Mexico, the coasts ofPeru and northern Chile, and western andsouthern Argentina).

b. The most productive soils are in the middlelatitudes where agriculture tends to concen-trate on cash exports as coffee, sugar andcotton; subsistence agriculture is common inthe less desirable areas which have not beenappropriated by large landowners.

4 With few exceptions (Uruguay, Paraguay and CentralAmerica), mineral resources are widely distributed.They include oil, iron ore, nitrates, sulfur, copper,tin, lead, zinc, and silver, but there is signi-ficant lack of coal in most areas.

a. Some desert areas (as the Atacama in northernChile) contain important minerals but miningappears to be most important in the Andeanregion.

6

b. Latin America's mineral resources have notbeen comprehensively surveyed or exploitedbut such activities can be expected toincrease as the demand for raw materialsgrows.

7

II. Historical Backgrounds

A. Indian and Spanish cultures interacted to produce aunique colonial society.

1. The stage of development of the various Indianpopulations ranged from the primitive, semi-migratory lowland tribes and villages to the moresophisticated, authoritarian, highland civilizations.

2. Motives for Spanish exploration, conquest, andcolonization reflected late 15th and 16th century(medieval) Spanish society and included a desireto dominate other peoples (for adventure, glory,and personal wealth), to gain commercial advantagesfor Spain, and to convert more souls for theCatholic Church.

a. Military virtues and the hidalgo (noble, warrior)spirit were fostered by the fighting with andfinal defeat of the Moors in 1492.

b. The defeat of the Moors fed Spanish nationalismand made possible the establishment of a strongnation-state.

c. Spanish society was overwhelmingly feudal andaccustomed to slavery.

d. The Catholic Church was a powerful religiousforce and an important political instrument ofthe crown. Conquistadores such as Cortes andmissionaries such as has Casas illustrated thecomplex mood of Spanish colonization while thecrown was primarily concerned with maintainingits authority, obtaining revenue, and mediatingthe conflicting demands of conquistador andChurch without sacrificing its own interests.

3. The clash of Spanish and Indian cultures was disas-trous for the Indian as his institutions wereshattered and those imposed by Spanish conquerorstended to exploit him.

a. A hierarchical social order emerged with theIndian at the bottom (except for the slave)and no place for the mestizo (person of mixedblood, usually Indian and European).

8

b. Spaniards and creoles (people born in Americaof European, usually of Spanish descent) lookeddown upon manual labor as something beneaththeir dignity and to be avoided. To solve thqlabor problem,,they developed the encomienda, ,

re artimiento, and finally the hacienda system.)which not enslave the Indian but forcedhim to work for Spanish landowners.

c. Royal protection of the Indian was generallyineffective as the humanitarian conscience ofthe lawmakers in Spain and the practical reali-ties of colonial life conflicted.

d. The Indian tended to react or adjust to Spanishrule by passively accepting his bleak future(fatalism).

e. The Indian population declined dramaticallythroughout the 16th century, and the declineor absence of Indian labor led to the impor-tation of slaves, especially in the West Indiesand the northeastern coast of South America.

B. Spanish colonial administration was highly centralizedand authoritarian, and Spanish control was reinforcedby the activities of the Church which, under royalpatronage, was a wealthy, conservative influence,(Thus two strong Indian traditions, authoritariangovernment and pervasive religious influence, werecontinued.)

1. The House of Trade and the Council of the Indiesin Spain determined colonial policy and, as aresult, there was little local initiative.

allel.,,MNI11101101

1Encomienda: a system in which Spaniards collected tributefrom the Indians but technically did not own their land orenslave them.

2Repartimiento: a system of forced Indian labor, sometimescalled "mita."

3Hacienda: a politico-socio-economic system resemblinga feudal manor under the absolute rule of the hacendado; debtpeonage kept the ndian from leaving.

9

Mercantilist economic policies strictly regulatedmining and trade but could not prevent smugglingand increasing foreign competition.

3. Administrators3 from viceroys (highest colonialofficial, to corregidors (local or provincialofficial were appointed by the king and ruledin his name; later, however, lesser offices werepurchased.

4. At the local level, the cabildo (town council)offered some opportunity for self-government, butin practice it had little power or democraticcharacter.

5. In spite of massive amounts of legislation coveringalmost every aspect of colonial life, it was impos-sible for authorities in Spain to enforce theiri)egulations as illustrated by the statement, "Godis in heaven, the King is in Spain, and I am herein the colonies."

6. The colonial Church exercised several functionsin addition to conversion of the Indians and per-formance of religious duties.

a. The mission was often a frontier settlementin which attempts were made to Europeanizeas well as Christianize the Indian (as illus-trated by Jesuit efforts in Paraguay).

b. There was general intolerance of indigenousreligious beliefs although some Indian practiceswere incorporated or adapted in order to facili-tate conversion.

c. Education and culture were dominated by theChurch (as can be seen in the universitiesestablished at Mexico City and Lima).

7. The 18th century was a period of administrativereform, economic recovery, and increasing discon-tent with Spanish rule.

a. Bourbon reforms revitalized colonial adminis-tration and loosened mercantilist controls.

10

b. Criticism was directed against laws and offl-cials but not against royal authority whichwas completely accepted as illustrated by thestatement, "Long live the King and death tobad government."

C. The wars for independence in Spanish America had com-plex causes and in some areas were also civil wars.

1. Internal unrest resulted from dissatisfaction withwhat were seen as discriminatory trade and taxregulations (favoring merchants in Spain), increasedcentralization of political authority, and creole-Eftnlmalms rivalries.

2. External influences, including the ideas of theEnlightenment and the examples of the American andFrench Revolutions, affected very few people.

a. The masses were illiterate and politicallyinert.

b. The elite groups such as the landowners andthe higher clergy tended not to be attractedto liberal ideas.

3. The immediate impetus for rebellion came in 1808with Napoleon's conquest of Spain and usurpationof the throne, creating a power vacuum and providinga legal rationalization for independence.

a. Ruling juntas replaced royal administratorsand ruled in the name of Ferdinand VII, thelegitimate heir to the Spanish throne; decla-rations of independence did not appear immedi-ately.

b. The liberal Spanish constitution of 1812 wasignored by Ferdinand upon his return, and by1816 Spain had put down most of the revoltsalthough military activity continued. However,Ferdinand was forced to abdicate in 1820 andliberal measures were introduced in Spain.

c. Creoles and onlpsulares differed among them-5717Firas to the desirability of independencealthough eventually it appears that independencewas sought in an effort to maintain the oldsociety and resist reform. Indians fought on

11

both sides, probably without real understandingof the issues. (Among the leaders of independ-ence, which was achieved by 1825, were Bolfvarand San Martin whose contrasting styles andviews reflect the complexity of this period.)

D. The legacy of the colonial period and the wars forindependence persisted in varying degrees.

1. There was no social revolution accompanying inde-pendence, and society continued to be hierarchicalwith great distances separating rich and poor.

a. The creoles and some mestizos gained socio-economic and political power, the latter largelythrough the military, at the expense of thepeninsulares and Indians who lost the nominalprotection of the Spanish crown.

b. Poverty and illiteracy continued to be wide-spread.

2. In spite of democratic ideals and constitutions,the tradition of authoritarian rule prevailed.

a. No political doctrine was widely accepted andexperienced political leadership was lacking.

b. Without national unity or leadership, region-alism persisted. Regional isolation was alsomaintained by primitive means of transportationand communication while the variety of peoples,some of whom did not speak Spanish, dividedmany countries.

c. Without experience with self-government, repub-lican experiments were short-lived.

d. The influence of the military increased as thearmy was the only group capable of maintainingorder.

3. Although Latin America was opened to trade andimmigration, the disorganized nature of the inde-pendence movement and the disunity which followedhindered cooperation among the new nations, andeconomic chaos prevailed following the 15 yearsof fighting.

12

A major political crisis in the new nations was theconflict of interests among rural landowners, risingmiddle class, and the peasant and urban masses.

1. A period of reaction followed the wars for inde-pendence.

a. The new republican governments were unable tomaintain order and stability, and relativelysoon they were forced to surrender to the land-owning oligarchy supported by the military andthe Church.

b. While the symbols of representative governmentremained, power was concentrated in the handsof one man, the caudillo (dictator, usuallyglamorized as a dashing man on horseback), andpolitics were highly personalized rather thanparty or issue oriented.

c. Force became a fundamental political instrumentas it was the only effective means of preservingorder or of changing government officials.(Revolutions, with the exception of Mexico in1910, Bolivia in 1952, and Cuba in 1959, havechanged rulers without involving basic politi-cal, economic or social change.)

d. Agricultural (hacienda) interests were dominantthus hindering commercial and industrial devel-opment as well as social change.

2. Liberal-conservative conflicts divided severalcountries while conservatives remained in powerin others.

a. Caudillismo persists in the 20th century butthe modern dictator tends to base his supporton the urban working class rather than theelites and has been attracted by totalitarianideologies. (Compare Peron and Castro.)

b. A basic conflict of interests between thestatus quo oligarchy and the revolutionarypotential of the masses continues in severalcountries (as Paraguay).

c. Military rule has been unavoidable or accept-able in some countries when neither liberals orconservatives have been able to govern effec-tively. (Consider Brazil and Argentina.)

AMNOMOROMO

13

3. Either peacefully or by revolution several coun-tries are achieving political stability and demo-cratic government, economic and social progress.(Consider Chile, Uruguay and Mexico.)

F. Economic diversification and development have beensporadic and uneven with far-reaching economic, social,and political effects. (See Section V, ContemporaryEconomies.)

1. Latin American economies are basically agricultural.

a. About half of the labor force is engaged inagriculture but food production has not keptpace with population growth.

b. Agriculture output is low, due in part to lackof modern equipment and scientific knowledgeand to land tenure systems with relatively few,large and under-utilized estates and many small,inefficient subsistence holdings.

c. Pressures for land reform are almost constantbut governments have been unable or unwillingto move against vested interests.

2. Latin American economies remain heavily dependentupon exports of agricultural products and raw mate-rials with the United States being Latin America'smost important trading partner.

3. The industrial sector of Latin American economiesis growing and increasingly important.

a. Most manufacturing is in light industries;development of heavy industry has been hamperedby the scarcity of capital, technical skills,and sources of power (although hydroelectricplants are under construction).

b. Most governments are committed to and involvedin economic development. (Mexico presents anoutstanding example.)

c. Foreign investment, earlier, largely Britishand increasingly American, has been crucialto economic diversification and developmentbut has aroused sensitive Latin American nation-alism which resents foreign exploitation.

14

4, Industrialization has stimulated the developmentof a middle class which has supported politicaland social reform, an urban working class, largecities (as sao Paulo), and urban problems (asslums).

a. Improvements in transportation, communication,and standards of living have aroused the massesof the people to desire a better way of life(revolution of rising expectations). Per capitaincome is above that in much of Africa andAsia but fax below North America and WesternEurope; however, low incomes predominate sothat many people are much poorer than averageincomes indicate.

b. The need for continued economic and socialprogress is urgent to keep pace with a rapidlygrowing population if radical solutions areto be averted. (Forces for such change includethe Alliance for Progress and LAFTA, LatinAmerican Free Trade Association.)

-.....11111.4111.1111111111.111111

III Contemporary Society and the Family

A. Population distribution and growth rates vary withinand among'nations.

1. Only Guatemala, Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic,and El Salvador have population densities equal toor greater than that of the United States. Incontrast, Paraguay and Bolivia have about one-fifthas many people per square mile.

2. The large population centers are in the highlandsand port cities separated by sparsely populatedregions. Physical isolation has perpetuatedpolitical and cultural regionalism in the absenceof effective communication and nationalization ofthe population.

3. More than half the people live in rural areasalthough there is an accelerating movement to themajor cities largely motivated by desires forbetter educational and economic opportunities.

a. Increasing urbanization presents new problemsin addition to traditional concern with landreform.

b. Movement to areas offering seasonal farm workand to frontier or unoccupied regions also indi-cates the inadequacies or unattractiveness ofrural living.

4. Latin America's rate of population growth is oneof the fastest growing in the world (greater thanthat of any other area of the world). This rela-tively recent, rapid increase will seriously aggra-vate socio-economic conditions if agricultural andindustrial growth and social reform do not keep pace.

a. A high birth rate combined with decreasinginfant mortality has resulted in high depend-ency ratios. With a majority of the populationunder twenty years of age and largely economi-,cally unproductive, large expenditures in areassuch as education are required.

b. When most of a nation's capital must be spenton consumer goods and services, there is aninsufficient amount available for investmentand economic expansion to provide for futureneeds and improved standards of living.

c. Because family values support high fertilityrates, a change in population trends requiressocial and cultural change. Opposition tofamily planning also comes from the RomanCatholic Church, politicians who feel the issueis too risky politically, and economists whoforesee an increased demand for labor. (A sig-nificant decline in birth rates has been achievedonly in Argentina and Uruguay.)

B. Latin American populations are racially mixed, andalthough reliable statistics on racial compositionare impossible to obtain, several groups of countrieswith similar population characteristics may be identified.

1. More than half the populations of Brazil, Chile,Uruguay, and Argentina is of European origincompared to less than ten percent of the populationsof most Central American and Caribbean nations,Bolivia, and Paraguay.

2. In Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Brazil,and Venezuela, at least one-third of the peopleis of Negro origin.

3. Indians and mestizos constitute a majority of thepopulation in Mexico, Central America, Paraguay,Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia.

4. Socio-economic and cultural characteristics areusually most important in determining "race." Forexample, an Indian may become mestizo or "white"by adopting the speech, education, dress, andoccupation of that group.

C. Relations among the many ethnic groups vary from nationto nation although in general there tends to be lessovert racial discrimination and hostility than in theUnited States.

1. Indians were, and to a lesser extent continue tobe, considered inferior; however, in p,,few nations(as Mexico) the Indian heritage is now respectedand a source of pride.

2. Brazil is an example of a relatively successfulmultiracial society.

17

a. There is no legal or institutional racialsegregation.

b. Prejudice and discrimination tend to be socio-economic rather than racial although a largeproportion of the Negro population is in thelower class. However, mobility is almost non-existent because of the wide distance separatingrich and poor.

D. Upper and lower sectors or classes may be identified,with more mobility within than between them.

1. In the work or lower sector, total wealth is verysmall and insufficient for access to upper sectorprestige symbols.

2. The upper sector places a negative value on manuallabor, and while wealth may enable one to gain pres-tige symbols (with help from friends, acquaintances,and relatives), wealth alone is not enough. "Correct"speech, behavior, and family are necessary as isthe power to influence other people.

3. A middle class, more closely associated with theupper than the lower group, is growing. It isalso prestige oriented and disdains manual labor.Mobility is greatest in the cities where educa-tional and economic opportunities are most available.

E. Various socioeconomic groups may be more specificallyidentified as peasants and rural laborers, urban workingclass, urban unemployed, urban middle class, landedupper class, and business oriented, urban upper class.

1. Peasants and rural laborers are illiterate, poor(usually living at a subsistence level), and theiroutlook is provincial.

2. The urban poor, the workingmen and the unemployed,inhabit the slums and shack towns surrounding majorcities. More aware of how others live than therural poor, these people are restless and potentialsupporters of extremist leaders.

3. The urban middle class includes growing numbers of -1

white collar workers, government employees, mili-tary officers, political leaders, small business-men, and professional people. This group is materi-ally comfortable, literate, and politically active.

4. Wealth and "family" characterize the traditionallandowning upper class while business and industryhave produced a more cosmopolitan, wealthy groupwith different interests and few if any ties withthe Church.

F. The extended family, including several generations andextensive lateral relationships, is of considerableimportance in all sectors of Latin American society.

1. The family cannot be considered apart from friendsand associates, and confianza (confidence) andcompadre (godfather) relationships frequentlyextend across classes. Thus the family is not anindependent unit, but part of a web of extendedfamily and friendship relations.

as For the upper class these relationships arebasic to prestige and power while in the lowergroups they may be essential to survival.

b. The middle class, especially in the cities,tends to have smaller family groups and fewerchildren.

2. While there are strong ties of loyalty and respons-ibility among brothers and sisters, the positionof the husband and father today depends to a largeextent on his ability to support the family eco-nomically. Where he is unable to provide forthe family, the mother is dominant.

a. Men and boys have considerable freedom out-side the home in clubs and informal socialgroups.

b. Girls may still be carefully chaperoned, andmarried women do not usually work outside thehome.

c. Urban middle class women are finding moreopportunity for social activity and workoutside the home and church. They areslowly being accepted in business and politics,and as teachers, nurses, doctors, and lawyers.

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IV. Contemporary Culture

A. Values, ideals, and creative expression

1. Culturally, "Latin America" is a varying blend ofdiverse Indian, Spanish-European, African, and,more recently, North American elements.

a. Indian foods, languages, architecture, art forms,handicrafts as weaving and ceramics, and reli-gious beliefs persist in some areas as docharacteristics such as fatalism or apathy,courtesy or submissiveness, and persistence.

b. The degree of present-day Indian influencedepends to a large extent on the area and theattitude of the ruling group which is oftennon-Indian and sometimes anti-Indian.

c. Spanish conquistadores and early colonistsbrought their medieval, eccelesiasticallydominated culture to the New World. Earlyimmigration to the colonies was restricted toloyal, Catholic Spaniards, and a degree ofcultural unity resulted from the Iberian her-itage (as language, religion, town planning,dress, legal system) and an agrarian economy.

d. New European ideas and influence did not makea significant impact until the late 18th century,and they were predominantly French. Nineteenthcentury immigration originated primarily fromsouthern Europe (Germany and Italy), and laterincluded Chinese and Japanese groups. Europeanimmigration helped to maintain cultural contactswith Europe, especially among southern SouthAmericans.

e. African influences are evident in language,religious practices, music, and dance.

f. United States' influence has been strong inthe 20th century, and has produced intellectualas well as nationalistic reactions. (UnitedStates' culture is often seen as materialisticwith emphasis on scientific, mechanical ortechnological things rather than philosophyand the arts; some Latin American intellectualsfear that the United States' influence islowering their cultural standards. United

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States' movies are seen in Latin Americancities; our informality and acceptance ofwomen's rights" have had an impact on Latin

American ways of life which clashes withtraditional values.)

2. Culture is both material and non-material; thelatter has traditionally received greater emphasis(in contrast to the United States), Severalcommon Latin American traits or values may beidentified although there are variations amongnations and within them.

a. Individualism is evidenced in strong feelingof pride and honor, For men, this often meansmachismo the very strong emphasis on masculinequalities and male dominance.

b. Personalism, the nature of interpersonal rela-tionships in business and politics as well asamong family and friends, remains strong (incontrast to the impersonality of much of UnitedStates' life).

c. Formalism, a very courteous manner with equalsor superiors, almost a ritual of politeness,as illustrated in public speaking and literarystyles, seems less important than previously.

d. Fatalism may also be of decreasing importance.Related to Catholic fatalism, the feeling thatcertain events are inevitable is weaker amongthe upper classes but prevalent among the poorwho are less able to care for their needs.

3. Cultural conflict characterizes much of LatinAmerica as a result of changes associated withindustrialization, urbanization, secularization,an emerging middle class, and new ideologies.

a. Traditional values and attitudes as the pres-tige and influence of the landed aristocracyand the idea of live and let live (ratherthan the goals of achievement and progress)are slowly giving way.

b. The emphasis placed on philosophy and the artsis now making room for consideration of scien-tific and "practical" subjects.

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c. A significant cultural gap remains betweenupper and lower classes, especially isolatingnon-Spanish speaking Indian groups.

4. Values, goals, and ideals are illustrated in LatinAmerica's art, architecture, music, and literature.

a. Mexico's artists and architects have combinedIndian influences and Aztec designs with modernideas and forms as illustrated by Rivera'smurals and the library at the National Universityof Mexico.

b. Modern architecture, especially in Mexico andBrazil, is bold and imaginative in its use ofform, color and materials as illustrated bythe new campus of the National University ofMexico and Brazilia, the completely new, moderncapital city of Brazil.

c. Latin American music, from calypso and bossanova to the works of the Brazilian composer,Villa-Lobos, reflects the blend of culturalheritages and the emergence of unique styles.

d. Poetry has been a favorite form of literaryexpression and drama has also been popularsince pre-Columbian times. Literature is oftenpolitically oriented, and it is common forpolitical leaders to be "men of letters" ratherthan professional politicians. (Jose Marts,1853-1895, the leading figure in Cuba's strugglefor independence, is known for a variety ofwritings which championed the underdog. Aromantic liberal, without hatred and bitterness,he was anti-clerical and outspokenly in favorof responsible independence. Nicaragua's poet,Ruben Dario, 1867-1916, was the first, out-standing representative of an original LatinAmerican literature. Other well known poetsinclude Chile's Gabriela Mistral, the firstSouth American writer to win a Nobel prize,and Pablo Neruda, who perhaps has not receiveddue acclaim because of his Communistic politicalactivities. Writers of and about the MexicanRevolution include Mariano Azuela, CarlosFuentes, and poet Octavio Paz. On December 10,1967, Miguel Angel Asturias of Guatemala becamethe second Latin American to win the covetedNobel Prize for Literature.)

Be Religion

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1. The role of the Roman Catholic Church in LatinAmerica is changing as society becomes more secular.

a. Earlier, the Roman Catholic Church (with thelandowning elite and the military) supportedthe status quo and held substantial politicalpower.

b. Bitter church-state conflicts have dividedseveral nations in the 19th and 20th centuries.In most cases the Church lost all but its reli-gious influence and functions although it stillplays an important role in private edutlation.

c. Many Latin Americans are only nominally Catholic.Church support is strongest among women, theupper class, and in rural areas.

2. In some nations the Roman Catholic Church has becomea progressive force, opposing dictatorship andfavoring land reform, for example.

C. Education

1. Education for the elite, with emphasis on thehumanities and law, has a long tradition in LatinAmerica closely associated with the Roman CatholicChurch.

2. At the university level, inadequate facilitiesplus continued emphasis on the humanities andrelative neglect of technical, scientific, andrelated subjects does not provide the trainedpersonnel necessary for socioeconomic progress,

a, Children from wealthier families, who usuallyattend private schools, have an advantage overthose who have attended public schools inreaching and completing higher grade levels.Thus class differences are accentuated to someextent by differential access to education, andless than one percent reach the university.

b. Universities are often centers of politicalactivity, as the training ground for futureleaders, meeting places for those committedto reform, or platforms for extremist spokesmen.

3. Although primary education (equivalent to gradesi -6) tends officially to be free and compulsory,lack of facilities, teachers and individual moti-vation; and multiple languages, poverty, and rigidcurriculums result in only about 10 percent ofall school age children completing the elementarygrades. With 50 percent of the population under20 years of age, less than 20 percent were inschool in 1965,

a. Deficiencies are more acute in isolated andrural areas. Mexico has made significant prog-ress in decreasing illiteracy and providingeducation to meet different needs throughcultural missions, special vocational (indus-trial and farm work) training, technical,Indian, and agricultural education programs.

b. With wide variations among nations, one-thirdto one-half of the adult population is illit-erate, from less than 10 percent in Argentinato more than 80 percent in Haiti.

c, Rapidly increasing populations increase thealready formidable task of providing adequateeducational opportunities. (For example,lack of facilities results in one-third ofArgentina's potential high school studentsbeing unable to attend classes, while thosewho are enrolled usually attend one of threedaily shifts.)

d. Long-range programs, usually under centralgovernment management, are hindered by polit-ical instability and lack of financialresources. Alliance for Progress loans havebeen meager in relation to needs. Governmentexpenditures for education vary; for example,25 percent of the national budget is spenton education in Bolivia, Costa Rica, Mexico,Panama, Peru, and Venezuela while Brazil spendsless than 10 percent and nearly half herpopulation is illiterate.

4. In spite of educational deficiencies, percentagesof illiteracy are decreasing and more widespreadeducational opportunities stimulate growth of themiddle class, a mild leveling of social status,and a common background which tends to strengthennational unity.

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5. There is an urgent need for increased quantityand quality in education at all levels in orderto achieve socioeconomic goals and stability.Not only must there be more skilled techniciansand specialists, but also an educated public ableto participate in and benefit from industrializationand to provide an informed and responsible electo-rate as a basis for effective democratic government.

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A. Economic development is of primary concern throughoutLatin America. The problem or challenge is to raiseper capita income and improve the welfare of a largepopulation which is growing more rapidly than that ofany other world region,

1. Compared to the United States and western Europe,most of Latin America is grossly underdeveloped,although its position relative to Asia and Africais much more favorable. (However, Latin Americanstend to compare themselves to the United States,with obvious dissatisfaction.)

a. Latin America's underdevelopment is character-ized by low per capita incomes, uneven distri-bution of wealth, low-productivity agriculture,export-dependence, insufficient housing andeducational facilities, deficient diet, andrapid population growth.

b. From suppliers of raw materials and marketsfor foreign manufactured goods, diversified,industrial economies are slowly developing.(Economic progress has been greatest in thelarger, more populous nations such as Braziland Mexico.)

2. The Alliance for Progress, since 1961, has attemptedto coordinate and stimulate economic reform anddevelopment.

a. The Alliance for Progress resulted, in part,from economic problems aggravated by fallingprices after the Korean War, Nixon's hostilereception in 1958, and Castro's victory in1959. Although proposed by President Kennedy,the ideas and purposes of the Alliance werelargely of Latin American origin (e.g.,Kubitschek's "Operation Pan America").

b. Economic progress, social justice, politicalliberty, and more specifically, agrarian andtax reform, education and industrializationare called for in the Charter. Self-help isa condition for aid which comes from private,public, and international sources.

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c. Progress has been substantial although notnear expectations, and the need for furtherprogress is urgent. Dissatisfaction led tothe creation of CIAP (Inter-American Committeeon the Alliance for Progress) to coordinateand direct policy and lessen United Statesdominance.

3. Private foreign investment provides needed capitaland know-how for industrial development but alsoarouses Latin American complaints of exploitation.

a. Foreign investors, necessary because of domesticcapital shortages but discouraged by politicalinstability and the threat of expropriation,demand high profit ratios to offset risks.

b. Most investment is in oil and mining ratherthan in industry where it is more urgentlyneeded.

4. Regional cooperation, the establishment of commonmarkets and attempts at economic integration, promiseto increase trade (providing investment capital)and create larger domestic markets for developingindustries.

a. Both LAFTA (Latin American Free Trade Associa-tion) and CACM (Central American Common Market)were established in 1960 to expand trade byremoving national barriers and to integratetheir respective economies.

b. CACM has been more successful than LAFTA inpromoting "free trade" but economic integrationhas been almost non-existent.

B. In addition to industrial development and related togeneral economic progress are the problems of inflation,taxation, government spending and government's rolein the economy.

1. Inflation is almost universal, and especiallyserious in several nations.

2. Public revenues derive largely from import-exportduties and excise taxes, and as a result fluctuatewidely hindering long-range planning and programs.

3. Government plays a variety of roles in the nationaleconomy.

a. Except for Cuba, private enterprise predomi-nates in spite of some government ownership.

b. Public planning is much more common than publicownership, and its purpose is to promoteeconomic development, not to support a partic-ular ideology.

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VI. Conter____Iporai_xPolitisilernational Relations

A. Given the lack of preparation for representative govern-ment, acceptance of military rule and thinly disguiseddictatorship, uneven economic development, internaldisunity, and defensive nationalism, it is not surprisingthat the Latin American republics do not tend to berepublics in practice and that they are often unstable.

1. Lack of preparation for orderly, democratic govern-ment during the colonial period led to the domi-nance of caudillos and political instabilitythroughout the 19th and into the 20th century.(For a review of Spanish colonial administration,see II. B. and especially the legacy of the colonialperiod and the wars for independence, II* D.also, II., politics in the early national period.)

2. Violence has played a large role in Latin Americanpolitics because power often cannot be gained bypeaceful, democratic means. Thus, most revolutionsor coups are changes of the "palace staff" and donot involve basic political, economic, or socialchange.

3. Political stability depends, to a great extent,on satisfactory economic progress. Changes ofgovernment, peacefully or through "revolutions,"often result when governments cannot satisfythe economic demands of various groups (as busi-nessmen and urban labor) or cannot controlinflation.

4. The role of the military is changing. Tradition-ally associated with the ruling elites, leadershipcomes increasingly from the middle and lowerclasses, representing national rather than eliteinterests, and thus favoring some reform.

a. The military sees itself as representingconstitutionalism and continuity in the roleof the nation's watchdog but does not seemto recognize the apparent contradictionbetween this view and military rule.

b. The army has played an important part ineconomic development in such areas as trans-portation and communication, literacy, publichealth, and basic technical training. A

major political issue concerns the desirabilityof extended military involvement in tradition-ally non-military activities.

c. The real or perceived threat of a communisttake-over and growing dissatisfaction withthe rate of economic deirel-ament increasesthe possibility of military intervention inseveral nations (e.g., Brazil, 1964) . (Con-siderable fear of Communism has been expressedto justify coups although charges tend to bemore convenient than real.)

5. In addition to specific political and economicproblems is that of developing national integrationor unity and national leadership.

a. Geographic obstacles to transportation andcommunication sustain regionalism.

b. In Middle America and the Andean region, areasof unassimilated Indian populations exist.

c. Although the middle class is growing, consider-able distance separates the rich elite and thepoverty-stricken masses who, as a result, havefew common interests.

6. In spite of internal disunity, nationalism is astrong force in Latin America.

a. Having achieved political independence, LatinAmerican nations are aiming for economic andcultural independence and recognition ininternational politics.

b. Existing in the shadow of United Statesmaterial accomplishments and military might,Latin American nations are especially sensi-tive to hints of exploitation, threats totheir national pride, and the feeling thatthey are merely pawns in the Cold War.

c. Communist propaganda and agitators have takenadvantage of this sensitive nationalism topromote their ends as seen in attacks on theUnited States and "Yankee imperialism."

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B. Although Latin American governments are not Western-style democracies, personalist rule is fading (onlyParaguay, Haiti, Cuba, and Brazil are dictatorships,and only Cuba's is ideological and totalitarian) andresponsible political parties are developina, How-ever, political stability remains the exception.(Examples of reasonably healthy "democracies" includeCosta Rica, Chile, Venezuela, Uruguay, and Mexico--although it is a one-party nation.)

1. Most constitutions provide broad presidentialpowers and some prohibit re-election (e.g., Mexico)in an attempt to break the tradition of caudillismowhile providing strong leadership.

a. Where federal governments exist (Argentina,Mexico, Brazil, and Venezuela), the presidentmay exert considerable influence in the states(to the extent of choosing their governors,for example).

b. Legislatures tend to rubber stamp presidentialdecisions and the judicial branches have simi-larly limited powers.

2. Political parties are no longer merely the personalfollowirjgs of popular leaders.

a. Radical and ped.nia3 democratic parties existin Argentina, Chiles and Peru. Small, doctri-naire communist parties exist in most LatinAmerican nations, buts except in Chile, havehad little electoral success.

b. Perhaps the most encouraging development froma progressive democratic point of view hasbeen the growth of Christian Democratic parties,especially in Chile and Venezuela. Stimulatedby the progressive attitude of the Church andits concern with social issues, these predomi-nantly middle class, urban parties are workingfor agrarian and tax reforms, state economicplanning, and other improvements.

3. The appearance of middle class and mass politicalparties indicates the diversification or expansionof the electorate and the growing voice of peoplewho previously were politically unaware and inert.

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a. Still relatively isolated, the rural peasantsare being reached, largely in an effort tocounteract extremist agitators. Moderateleftists hope to satisfy lower class demandsin order to keep extremists weak.

b. As the moderate left has become respectable,the far right (including large landowners,conservative military and clergy) has lostpower although it remains influential, espe-cially in rural areas.

4. Because the middle and upper classes have thenecessary education, leisure, and money, they aredominant politically, and the university studentsare very much involved in political activities.

a. Low literacy and educational levels of themajority of the population explain in part theprominent political role of university studentsin several countries.

b. Political activity is naturally associatedwith education. Few professional politicianshead governments; rather they are intellec-tuals or military men. Learning is highlyrespected, in private and public life.

C. Latin America's political future appears to depend uponthe ability of moderate and liberal leaders to attractmass support and carry out basic reforms in the faceof vested-interest opposition and extremist agitation.

1. United States-style democracy is not necessarilythe best form of government for Latin America.

a. To some extent democracy has been discreditedas a result of the weak, corrupt oligarchieswith which it was associated.

b. Democracy is often slow and inefficient whileLatin Americans are demanding more, now.

2. There are not merely two alternatives for LatinAmerica (United States-style democracy or communism).It is most likely that Latin American nations willdevelop their own styles, adapted to their own con-ditions, and it may be that these governments willhave strong executives and play a major role ineconomic development.

D. United States-Latin American relations have been charac-terized by alternating periods of United States interestand neglect, of conflict and cooperation, within ageneral atmosphere of increasing United States concernwith Latin America.

1. Historically, Latin America has been within theUnited States' sphere of influence. When the UnitedStates was preoccupied with internal problems ordevelopment, Latin America was ignored; when theUnited States was involved in international poli-tics, Latin America received some attention; andin several instances the United States interveneddirectly in Latin American affairs,

a. From the beginning of the independence move-ment in Latin America, a sympathetic interestwas shown by the people and government of theUnited States (illustrated by our early recog-nition of the new nations).

b. The Monroe Doctrine has been variously inter-preted and implemented both to the benefit andexploitation of Latin American nations. Whilekeeping European nations from intervening inLatin American affairs, the United Statesappointed itself policeman of the westernhemisphere and exercised considerable polit-ical, economic, and military influence. Somepeople even went so far as to include LatinAmerica in their visions of the United States'manifest destiny.

c. A significant change in the United States atti-tude did not come until the 1930's when we demon-strated our "Good Neighbor" intentions byabrogating the Platt Amendment and negotiatinga dispute with Mexico over expropriation ofAmerican-owned oil properties. Still, theUnited States did not treat her neighbors asequals, or take a serious interest in the area'seconomic development.

d. Today, Latin America is important to the UnitedStates politically as it comprises one-sixth ofthe United Nations' General Assembly and 95% ofthe Organization of American States; economicallyin terms of markets, resources, and investment;and strategically. Since the late 1950's theUnited States has become genuinely involved in

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33

Latin America (e.g., Alliance for Progress);however, this interest seems (especially toLatin Americans) motivated largely by concernwith the spread of communism and cold warpolitics.

2. Anti-Americanism is an inevitable aspect of UnitedStates-Latin American relations.

a. There is historical basis for charges of Yankeeimperialism. The Mexican War and the periodof the Spanish-American War saw the UnitedStates acquire considerable territory.

b. The United States did not enthusiasticallysupport any real cooperative spirit even whenthe Pan American movement began, and in spiteof cooperation since the 1930's, the UnitedStates continues to act unilaterally and tointervene in Latin American internal affairs(Guatemala, 1954; Cuba9 1961; DominicanRepublics 1965).

c. United States' private investments may involvegovernment protection of the rights of Americaninvestors, and some Latin Americans see UnitedStates actions as political meddling.

d. As a result of cold war politics, the UnitedStates is often seen as, and has acted as, anobstacle to economic, socials and politicalchange. Our concern with communism has madeus especially sensitive to or suspicious ofany left-leaning movements regardless of thedesirability of the changes involved, and ouremphasis on short-range security considerationshas led at times to the support of dictators.(The Johnson administration supports all pro-United States governments.)

e. United States influence (political, economic,cultural) is unavoidable, and the clash ofLatin American nationalism and a United States"superiority complex" is intensified by a lackof meaningful communication and mutual under-standing.