Confucianism and a New World Orderl

byJLtZia Ching（Urhversity of Toronto）

心地的duc震on

Just as the government of・・・a householdis modened on the

gOVernmentofone－sself・・・On aC∞untofsim亜ude，匝he Chinese］

Came t：Oequaもe thenotion ofa staもeto thatof ahouse。rfamily，

With the rderrepresenting the head ofthefamily，thus argthng

byvrtueofananalogyfroma魚milyt。advilsociety．2

The eighteenth－Century German p皿osopher Christian WQll王is correcllin

hisint鏡PretatjbnofChinesepo旺caltheory・Toregardastateasaf：m血yis

in manyrespects topromoteapatriardhyofenHghtened despotism・However，

bo regard a hりZid of nadonsas aiamilyla family of nations，is a d鯖erent

matter・eSpeddllyif the notion of the patriardhal rderis replaced by an

internatjbmalorganisation HketheUnited Nationsandits generalsecretariat，

Wi血itsmodera血8，ratherthan domineering roleininternationalcon鮎cts．

工mention this as an e瀧mple of how Confudan e址csタeSPeCiallyits

po咄cal ethics・is to serve a modern and postmodern wodd order．工址nk

thatitretainsits usefdness，PrOVided weareawarebothofitsinsightsand

Ofits］imita丘ons・The Confudan te虻・the Great Learning says：・・．．．when the

PerSOnal駈eis cultivated・thefamiユy wiu bein order；When theramnyisin

Order・血esti船W皿bewdLlgovemed；Whenthestateisw壬Ⅱgoverned，there

Win be peacein the wodd．・一

The basicinsightis　∞ntainedin the exhortation to personal seH－

Cultivation・Forthe鬼milyofnationstobe wengovemedtoday，thereisneed

On the part of our globalleaders to unite actjon andintention，and to make

Surethattheintentionarisesoutofaweu－Cultivated personal旺eandaweH－

grounded amm．

」・脇stand艇SまCuIt批dJde南砂aJ～dm提g轟け

1・工Wishto drawattentiontoareeentb∞k，mted施缶onsReft，m：L∞Idhg

Ahead A鹿rn駐y】胎alちed・by Eric Fawce憤‥＆Hanna Newcombe．（Toronto：

Sdence for Peace，1997）．

2・Christjan Wo雌，一一〇n the Philosopher∴IGng and the RuHng Philosopher，一一

SeClゴon6・SeeJuHa Ching and W劃ard G・0XtOby，馳EhlighSem77ent：

Leibni2and雌on Chiha Monumenta seri∽Monograph Series，n0．26

（Nettetal：Steyler Verlag・1992），p・195・Wo聯・s works were read with

admiration by FrederickIIof PrussiaJthe European EnHghtenment，s model

desp。亡，apatrOn，fdrsometimelOfFrance，sVo止aire，andlikeWo聯afhend

Of Chinese dv遭isation．

East and West both needto re∞gniseinthemselves a historyof selr－

CentrednesS・basedonarighlfulsenseofseH一∞nSdousnesstogetherwithan

lgnOranCe that each had°f the other．

There are pardne］Ls as well as∴d出講erenees between the Chinese and

Western Eur。p鍋n dv址sation・We Eindin China a uniquely∞herent and

integrated dv址saaon，andent yet enduring・Which develCPed more orless

independendy of other dviHsations・W細目ms∞me the∞nSdousness of

unlqueneSS and even superiority，a COnSdousness strengthened by the ract

thatthe Chineseciv址isation鍍tendeditsbene鎚sto thewholeof EastAsia．

And・aSthecentreofitswodd，ChinahadalotAT‥regardforaHthat：iscaHed

foreugn，als。∝Lned barbarian・Thisrecalls thecustominancient Greece，tO

CanIlbarbarian一一whatisnotGreek・ButChinesecdturehasen］Oyedamore

COntinuousandlessinterruptedhistory。Verahrgercontinentln‥Landmass，

andspreadovertoJapan，Koreaandwhatisnowvietnam・Greekculture，by

COntraSt，SerVed more as animpetus Forthan as theactual∞ntent ofwhat

today we call Western dv址sation．3

Andthenthereisthe負gureofConfueiuswhonvedinthesinh一艇ntury

B・C・工ntheWest，P∞pleareaccustomed toanimage ofConfueiusas awise

man Or a sage，teaChing about how to Hve a virtu。uSⅢb，mueh as did

Soeratesin andentGreece・Socratesis regardedasahumanist；in fact，he

WaS∞ndemnedbythestateformisleadingyouth・turningthemawayfromthe

godsoftl遁iriathers・Confuciushadhis ownstrugglesw地thestate，but

diedanaturaldeath・Inawoddwherem亜aryvalourwashighlyesteemed，

heinst＝mCtedtheyouthsinsteadintheidealofahumaneperson，Whovalued

moral relatjbnships above alleke・Confudus seld。m diseussed re迫gious

matterSand has always been known as a humanist・工ndeed，hetransfomed

theparticularvirtueof脚，thekindnessthatcharacterisedthemanofhigh

birth，intothe universalvirtueofhumanenessthat madeeveryperson who

PraCtisedit・a　一・gendeman・・or junzi（meraHy，the prhce・s sdon）．

Understandably，he distancedhimselffromthe reHgionofantiq庇y，W地its

emphasis on divinadon and sacrifice－→nduding human sacri慮ce，WmChheis

rePOrtedtohavecondemnedinstrongterms・And Confudus●teaclhngof脚

WaS e虻ended to the pomi∞l。rder，Whereit－is de丘ned as benevolent°r

humanegovemment・aSgOVernmentofmoralsuasion，inwhichtheleadergrves

thee粗mPleofpersonalintegrityandsel血essdevotiontothep∞ple．

3・ConsultJuiaChing・ChineseRengiotlS（London・MacminanaOrbis，NewYork，

1993），工ntroduc瞳on．

「　．＿‾‾　ノー

The Confudanteaching ofmoralreLationships，definedasth°Sebetween

rulerand subject・parent and ehHd・husbandand wif（㌔e虻erand younger

Sibmgs，andfriends・apPearStOupholdaverticalhierarchyinsocietywhile

urglng for responsib亜y and recIPrOCity・工n many waysit did have this

effectsociaHy・Besides，theChineseviewofthehumanbeingtendstoseethe

PerSOninthecont鉱tOfasoeialnetworkratherthanasanindividual．But

the＝burth－tO址rd－Century Mencius（372－289　B・C・）further developed

Confuciuslthoughttoarticuhtehis∞nVietionthateveryhumanbeingeodd

be∞me asage・Imphcitin this d。Ctrineofthe universalaccessib亜y of

Sageh∞d亘ateachingofhumanequaHty・OfwhatwemaycE皿，・・moralequal

OPPOrtunity・，l Andweshould rememberthatbecomingasagewastantamount

tO gaLlnlng the rights to kingship，Sineethe most revered sages were the

Sage－kings of ages past．A

TheteaehingsofConfuciusandMenciushavebeenreveredinChinaand

inEastAslafbrseveralthousandyears・Therearetimelesselements，eVenif

therearealsotime－boundelementsintheset鎗Chings，andifthefeudaland

Patriarchtilsocietyin whieh these devebped alsotended to s曲ethe moral

ereal丘vity wmch gave sueh a v岨fom・Confucianism did not give riseto

PO咄caldespotismortopolygamy・althoughitaeceptedthesysteminwhichit

founditself，Seekingtoe淑dseaninflueneethatwasattimesmoderatingand

at Other times almost revolutionary，by pointing to the source of moral

inspirationinthehumanmindandheart，Whichitregardedtoreflectahigher

mOralforce・IfConfudusandMenciuswereaHvetodaylWehavenoreasonto

mnk that they一一eSPedally Mencius一一WOdd approve of any unjust war，

inhumane government or socialsystem，Since they had condemned suehin

Mendus gave voicetoa doGthnejus也Eyingtyrannidde，dedaring that

k亜nga一一tyrant・・isnotk皿nga・憶ng・当MenciusIB：8）・工nfact，theChinese

WOrd forking（脚g）connotedp岨osophicanythemeaningofag00dking，

eVenanideahking・工nanagewhenthealtarsoftheeaJ重心andgrainsigniry

PO虻calauthority・Mendus●Wordswere；MThep∞ple∞meHrst；theakarsof

theearth and grain固e symbels ofthe state］∞me afterwards；the ruler

∞meS hst（7B：14）．一一

MendushasalsoafEimedthateveryone∞nbeaYaoanda Shun．Inso

doing，hehasextendedthepossib亜yofsageh00dtoeveryone・Presumably，

having seen thatactualkings were usuaHy not sagesタMendus and others

4・ConsultJu址Ching・ahineseRelゆonS eh．3－4．

＿　　▲　　○‾

J

haveimp通dy rede宣ned both kingship and sageh∞d，When they extend

accessib虹ity to everyone．

The United Nations UniversalDeeLaration on Human Rights says that

humanrights shouldbeprotectedby therdeofhw世］manisnottobe

eOmPelledtohavere∞urse・aSaLastresort㍉tOIでbemonagainsttyrannyand

OpPreSSion・l15　工n the∞Se Of China，there has been an age－dd d00Ehne

regarding thelegidmation ofpower：thatthe ruler rules orhy bya divine

mandate・∽nedthe∴MandateofHeaven伍mmiIlg）・Whichhe∞ddlose by

nhsg。Vernment・工ndeed，the chinese w。rdior revdutionis∴HterE皿y，t：〇

一一removethe Mandate一・（geming）．

In aneient china・Heaven was regarded as a pers。nal deity．with

PhHosopHcd evo］山tion，Heaven be∽me a symbol for a transcendent moral

foree・The mandate was s皿assodated with∴it，and rders were s皿

でeSPOnSibletothisHeavenfortheirmannerofgoverning．

And so confucian China shares w地Christian Europe theidea∴C膚

Vicarious authorityin kingsmp・But the doctrine of tyrannidde，Whieh

developed soearlyin China，emerged only mudh］Laterin Europe．Thehte

Sixt鎚nth－Century treertises by an anonymous Huguenot authorand by the

SpanishJes血LLhs Mariana were either pub地y burnt or∞ndemned，

although血ey were to wield enormousi血uence・6　工n China t00，SOme Of

MenduslteachingswereeonsideredinHammatory・ThiswastheopiJhonofthe

fourteenth－Century founderofthe Ming dynasty，Whosoughttodeletefrom

theB∞kofMencius血osepassagesthatapprovedoftyranJhdde．7

ImpHcitinthepo咄cHt鈎。hngscitedaboveisthatgovernmentrestson

POpuhr∞nSent・More expHeitly，the址rd－eentury B・C・Confucian址nker

Xunzi（Hstinセu）Speaks of human beings conhng togetherin sodet：y tO

achievethestrengthandhamony w地outwhich theycannot∞nquerother

beings，PreSumably，thebirdsandbeasts・8　BeIbrehim｝the睨h－∞nturyB．C．

址nker，Mozi（Mo－t2m）・already diseussed the origin of sodalauthority

5・WalterLaqueurandBarryRubin，meHuman樹tsReader（NewYork：New

Ameri∽n Library，1989），p．197．

6・工amreierringtothe Vitt虚cae∞17的抽nnw（1579）andtoMariana・sDe

regeetregZsinszjtudotle（1598－99）．

7．JuHa

1977），

Ching・∽血。anist77and Ch血出血け（Toky。：KodanshaInternatio血，

p．193．

8・一一TheReguhtionsofaKing・，in槻nTZmBasIc脆dngs，tranS・byBurton

Watson・（NewYork：CQlumbiaUniversityPress，1963），p．46．

＿4　＿一

through aform ofconsentonthe partofhuman beingswho gathertogether

tO prevent disorderandinjury by theelection of wiseleaders．9

2・弛e耽verseand UぶEco垂井霞むSus虚血ab五秒

From the EastAsian viewpoint，thetraditionalbeHt審has been expressed

in aねmiliaradage describing the hamony underhning Chine鍵thoughtand

eiv址sa丘on；t：hatHeaven andhumanity areone－一物nrenhe重工址erally；Heaven

and the human being join as one）・Itisan adage that has frequendy been

misunderst∞dby血ose whocLaimthattheChinese cannotdistinguishbetween

thetweerders，the divineand the human・Butit∴is an adage thatIbeneve

to have onginatedinthat very mysticand ecsta丘c union between血e human

being andthe possessing deityor∴Spirit・Thiswasthepmeva：LeKpehen健，

the experienceof a shaman・It was neverforgotten・工t has been celebrated

in songs，myths and rituals・　工t was fomuhted philosophiC塩ny as an

銚preSSionofthecontinuum betweenthe human beingasthemicro∞Sm Ofthe

universe as maerocosm・And址s miero∞Sm－maCrOCOSm∞rreSPOndence has

been basic to most of philosophisingin Cmna・工t was also址e profound

敦Perience of many mystics）Whether Confucian〕Taoist，Or Buddhist．工n Later

ages，Wimincreasing Buddhistinflsuenceタit was also transfomedinto the

philosophical adage一一that An Things are one（脆n一朝LZ yj－tV閥n間　yi勧

represendng more pantheism皿an personaltheism・And this ar丘euhtion of

human harmonywith the∞SmOSis what工beHeve to he atthevery heartof

CHLnese hdSdo虜．

The ConfudanorTaoistviewofnatureis d正EerentfromthatoftheWest．

工t d∞SnOt referto whatis o勧erbo theselS but tothat whidhineludesthe

human self・Natureis n∝af∞tO be∞nquered，a reSOurCetO behamessed．

Natureis mother・and we areit：S〔心血dren・Return to natureisin a sense，

retumtothe eternalwomb・Inthis一一nonduaList，●∞nteXt，both Confuciansand

Taois光S regard the human being as the Hdcro∞Sm Ofthe universe，Which：is

the macrocosm．

This reference to nonduaHty suggests as wen a eertain experiential

dimension of awareness，tranSCending the subjeet一〇bject division．We read

aboutthe similarity of what工Can nature mystidsm t：O the dis∞Very Ofthe

Tao・It：is madein an apophatic（abstract or non－imaL車ng）meditative

PrOCeSSeS，emPtying the mind of an　∞neePtSlimages，and afrections．We

understand this be憤er｝When we relLect upon血e e拓ort of∞nCentrationin

meditation・beginrhng with concentration on a certain object，be that，あで

9・l一工dentjLfying with One－S Superiors，・・in Burton Watson，Mt，∴TbLu BasIc

Wr1倍hgs（NewYork：C01umbiaUniversityPress，1963），p．34－35．

日園田漢雪

eXamPle・the act of bre創tlhng，but eonduding possibly with a state of

∞nSCiousnesswheretheinnerfaeultiesofmindandheartareallgatheredat

aPOintof stiuness，beyondthesubje∝一〇bject division．This∞ntraStSl．rith

kataphadcmedit遇tjbn，Whichi島nsthenhndwith∞neePtSOrimages，SuChasin

Christian discursive meditation orin visuaHsation exercises，SuCh as of a

Buddha－image・OrOf theinnerviscera of血ebody and the一一Taoist・一deities

that rulethem・In theLatter∞Se，thatis，Of visma：Lisation●an eXPerience

tranSCending me subject一〇bjecl‥（迫vision may als00ccur as the meditator

identifies himseH orherselrinCreaS注nglyw咄h一心eobjectof meditation，fdr

example，the Buddha－image・

To speak of meditatjbnand spirituaHty may seem a diversionfrom the

Subjeet of eanh e址cs，eXCept that nature draws us to bo血　quiet

COntemplation and，at：times，fearofits awesomepower・Wearenotalways

COmPetent一一eVenthough we seekto dowhatwe can一一tO detertheforcesof

nature when these be∞me fearsome，Whetherin earthquake or voIcanic

eruptions・But we canlearn to respectthese rorces，nOt tO PrOVOke these

iorces，andtoappreeiatea］皿themore，theconsohtionsofnatureinhamony

Withitself and with us．

lIOneness between Heaven and Humanity一一　usuaHy reiers to the

eOrreSPOndenceand harmony betweentwor’迫Ims：thehuman，andthe natural

Or∞Smic・We searchin vainin the Analects andin the chssics for an

銚PHcitarticuhdonofthese four c址esewords・However，themeaningis

impHdt as a pmosophicalpresupposition for severalof these texts，in

ParticulartheAppendixtotheB∞kofChanges一一aCtuallyacommentaryadded

intheearlyHandynasty・Andwe血dinMendusap岨osopmcaldevelopment

血atwemaywdHassodatewiththesewords・WedosoifwerememberdLat

WithMencius，thetem tiaIlOrH鎗Ven has∞metOrepresentmuchmoreofa

tranSCendent monalfbrce，rather than the supreme personal deity血atit

appeared to have been with Confueius．

Foraman to givefuIユnea血sation tohis mind orheart：isfbr him

tO understand his own natureタand a man who knows his own

nat：ure Will know Heaven・By reta血hng his mind or heart and

numringhisnatureheisservingHeaven（Mendus7A；1）．10

TheChineseword血7maybetranslatedase虹hermind orheart，OraS

both，Sinceitistheseatofbothintemgenceandwill・工ntheabovepassage，

Mendustalksabout一七ea皿sing・一or，一fuH皿ng一一thenhndorheart｝bringingout

10・English transhdon adapted from D・C・Lau，喚ndus（Harmondsworth：

Penguin B∞ks，1970），p．182．

一Ij一

its fupotential・and asserl嚢；that such winlead t：〇一一knowing Heaven・l．In

Otherwords・heisproposingacertaincontinuumbetweenthenhndorheart，

Whichiswi址nus・andHeaven，Which∴wetendto址nkofasoutsideofus，

aSaboveus，andastranscendingus・Ashehasalsosaid，

Themyriad址ngsareallwi址nme・Thereisnogreaterjoyfor

me than to血d，On Se15－e粗minadon・that工am true to myseH．

Thisistheshortestwaytohumaneness（脚）（Mendus7A：4）．

▼Themyriad址ngs一一isanothertemあrtheexterioruniverse．Butfbr

Mendus・theuniverseisa：Lsointeriortohumanbeings・工tisbothinsideand

OutSide・bothl吐anseendingourhumanhmit急白onsandyetimmanentinus．The

insightexpressedhaspuzZkd manywesternschClarsandpⅢosophers，Who

haveargued thatwh創ヒtranscends cannot alsobewhatisimmanent．Butit

hasakoservedastheprindpaLfc肥ndationfdrmuchofChinesethought，both

iorLaterfc姐owersofMenciusandforp岨osophic壬ITaoism．

The一，oneness betweenHeaven andhumarmyl－hasbeenatroubmgidea

r（虹・Westernphilosophers・工ts蝕nStOdenytheseparationbetWeenObjectand

Subject・thenaturaland humanorders，theotherandtheseLf，tranSCendenee

andimmanence・Andthatwouldindeed beso，韮thestatementweretakenin

itsliteralsense・EvenChinesephilosophyhaswitnessedanentirespectrum

Of positions regarding thisif溝ue・W地ICer血n thinkers wi址n ConfudLanism

andDaoism（and，later・ChanBuddhism）ravouringthe・・oneness・・，tOthepdnt

Ofalmostdenying一一〇therness，一，andotI蛤rthinkerspreferringmoredistinction，

OreVen COmPlete separation betweenthe naturaland the human．Andthere

arethoseothers who understandthe一一oneness一一in an analogicalmanner，aS

maintaining a disthction between the two realms while pointing out a

rehtionshipofthehumanasmicrocosmtothenaturalasmacrocosm．工shaH

bedwe］岨ngespedallyonthis址rdinterpretation．

Thatthetranscendentisalsoimmanentd∞SnOtnecessarilydestroy血e

meaningoftranseendence・Whatis「beingse庇1isnotperiectidentily，butthe

dis∞VeryOfthetranscendentononeleMel，thatofhuman consciousness，in

the depthofthenhndorheart・工amreferringtoaninsightassodatedwith

myStical∞nSdousness：Whatafburteenth－CenturyWestern址nker，NieoLasof

Cusa，hascalledthe・庖ncidenceofopposites一一，heldingthatthedivinemaybe

dis∞Veredinthehumanheart・Wearenotnecessarilyalsosayingthatthe

divineis present onjyin human∞nSdousness・Thisis aninsight also

develQPedbythesevenfeenth－CenturyGemanphilosopherG・W・Leibniz，Who

一rr1－

SenSedapersona：LamnitywithChinesethought・andwhoseownp岨os°phyof

血emonads hasa織medasimihrinsight．ll

Mencius spokein mystical tems about the oneness of H鎗Ven and

humanity・For him，human beings partidpatein the monaJ．fbrcf∋thatis

Heaven・Tmsise血stentiauyscen aCCOuntofthe qi（air，breath，energy）

that‥isin the universe andin a皿・living beings・And址s qItakes on a

SpeCialmo蝿alchara（賞ierinthecaseofhumanbeings・mOraljudgmentbeingthe

disting血shing markbetWeen humansandanimals．

This‥is not tosay that‥the confucian p皿osophers had no址ng more

SPed缶ctosayaboutec010gicalsustainab亜y・Mendustoldakingthat

IfthemulberryispLantedineveryhomesteadof丘Vemuofland，

thenthosewhoare鞭y∽nWearSilk；ifchickensタplgSanddogs

do not mss tht垂r breeding season・then thosewhoare seventy

∞n eat meat　韮ir eahlot of a hundred muis not deprived of

labourduringthebusyseasons，thenfam址eswith severalmouths

to feed wⅢnot go hungry．12

EIsewhere，he∞mPLains about the over一kgglng Of tr∞S and the over－

pasturing of the mountain：

There was a time when the trees wereluxuriant on the Ox

Mountain・Asitisontheoutskirtsofagreatmet：rOPOHs，thetrees

are∞nStantlylopped byaxes・工sitany wonderthattheyare n°

10nger fine？Wid・the respitelhey getim the day andin the

night・and the moiE出ening by the rain and the dew，thereis

Certaimy nclack of new sh00tS∴eonhng out・But血en the ca出e

and sheep∞meto grazeuponthemountain・Thatiswhyit∴isas

Andso，WemayHndasourceforuniversalhamonyand gbbaletl轟csin

the original，myStical・insight・foundin the Chinese tradj帖ion，but tNithits

Paraudin Western n∞－Phtonist philosophy andin the traditions　°f

SPirit：uaHtythat：ithelpedt：OnOurish・工mspeakingoftheunitybetWeenthe

human and the heavemy，be thal‥CZmed divinity｝nature，or the Tac．工am

SPeakingof血eonenessofa］皿things，thatunityin whichthewholeurhverse

finds mse虹，inlWhich aH human beings are rehted andinterrehted，aS

ll・ConsultJu虹Ching and Winard G・Oxtoby（eds・），44braIEtl耽tenmetm

Ldbmあand雌on c龍na．

12・MenciusIA；3；inD・C・I・au－stranhtion●p．51．

13・Mencius GA：8；Lau，P・165．

一　8一

Children ofheaven and eal費血，aS SteWardsof natureand ofone another，

Without being separated from natureitsem

3・A融gR地心叡）USneSS伍），Econo血ca融So地Jusdbe

Menciustaughtrentogetherwith」Vi（righteousnessorjustice）・Indoing

SO・hefocusedoftenonissuesregar（nngecononhcandsocialjustice．

Inhisconversadonswithvariousrdersofsmallstates●Menciusappearsoften

tO putthe kings on the deiensive regarding th（垂rluxurious暁－Styles．As

King Huiof：Liang，iore粗mPk，St∞d overa pond，he askedMencius：・庖e

SuCh址ngsenJOyedevenbyag∞dandthseman？一，Theanswerwas：，一〇血y

ifamanisg∞dandwiseisheabletoenJOythem…・工t：WaSbysharingth垂r

enJOyments w虻l the p∞Ple that men of antiquity were able to enjoy

themsdves．一一14

He went on to say：

I，Thereisfat meatin your址chenandthereare weH－fed horsesin your

Stables，yetthep∞Plel∞khungryandintheoutsldrtsofcitiesmendrop

dead fromstarvation・Thisisto showanimalsthe waytodevour men…．H

then，One whois∴father and mother to the people cannot…aVOid showing

animals the way to devour men・Wherein‥is he father and mother to the

Throughout：Chinese hist：Ory，enHghtened Confueian o綿dals sought to

bring about more equity among the p∞Ple by Land reformブfrequendy

justifying their measures庇h ancient precedents・The Chinese communist

gOVernment also attempted Land refom on a hge scale・Only to end up

during the C此uralRev01ution（1966－76）by making∞mmunes out of hnd

previouslyredistributed・工nrecentyears，ithasreversedtheproeess．工tis

interestingtopointoutthatthepresent－dayprospe址yofTaiwan∞nalsobe

Partlyatthbutedtosuccessfu］「Landref（比m，undertakeninthesixties．

Suchr｛垂ommeasuresusuanyhavetheirr∞tSina∞neernfore∞nOnhc

andsocialjustiee・Whichintumisbasedonaconcernrbrhumanwemre，a

∞neern groundedin the Confudan tradition・As afomerexpert from china

eXP址ned・humanrightsencompasstherightto旺e？e∞nOmierights，POmゴcal

14・MendusIA2；SeeD・C・Lau－stranslationlP・50．

15・MendusIA4；I・auタOp・Cit・lP・52．

■害患雅言

rights，andculturalrights・leWeanknowthatthetalkofhumanrights，and

eVen Of eeonomierights，Win not血any st：OmaCh・Butthe enforeementof

reSpeCtforhumanbeings，theirwelfareandtheirneeds｝and，ifwewishto

add，their rights，Ⅷgo along way toenhandng e∞nOmic rights．And

indeed，theenhancementofe∞nOmic重工ghtsisinnowayacontI岨dietiontothe

aCeePtanCeOfmore basiclhuman rights．

Thatc皿ectiverightsaremoreimporhntthanindividualrightshasako

beentheargumentofthecommunistgovernment・∴whodaimstohaveliberated

the∞untryfrom eolonialismandimperiansm・aSWeH・as whatit（血Ds，the

llfeudaHsm－10f past oppressions・However，Whatisin呼起edis often that

individualsshouldbesacriHeedwhenneces甜yfbrthe∝Ⅲe’屯vity，andthat

thoseinpowershoulddeeidewhatisg∞dfor皿atcdHectivity．

AnotherareainwhichConfucianhumanismshowsitsHmitationsregards

theroleofwomen・Theprocessforsubjuga。ngwomentomenbeganbefdre

Confucius，Withl吐iedevelopmentofthepatriarchlkinsmp systemasso。ated

tO theancestralcmltinthe hou period・tOgether with confirmation ofthe

hereditarymaleprincipleinsuccessionstothethrone・Theritualt叔SSPeak

aboutthe一一three obediences・・・Subjecting women to their rathers，then to

husbands・and then to sons during widowh00d・17　Doubdess，Confueius

SuPPOrted the patriarchalcharacter of soeietyin general・He has said：

一一Womenand p∞Pleoflow birtharevery hardtodet血∴with・Ⅱyouare

famiHr融hthem，theygetoutofhand・Ifyoukeepyourdistance，they

reSentitn（Analects17；25）・Wemightnot｛∋thatwomenandp∞Pleoflowbirth

Wereboth＝eXdudedfromeducation・Andw岨eConfudussoughtto bemore

indusiveinhisteachingof disdpLes，he didnotextendthatprivHegeto

Astoryteus howMasterKongoncepaida visittoaladyinfamousfor

herin∞StuOuSrelationships，Nanzi・thewifeofDukeLingofWei．T址action

makesus址nkhewasnotabovesomepontiddngwitharulerIsinnercourt．

Thatithappened shows thatnoble womeninhisljmes were s皿able to

maintain their軸uses whHe en］Oying their notoriety，eVen reeeiving

unrehted maleguestson血eirown・aSiWenaspowe血Ienoughoverdhdr

SpOuSeSregardingthepossibleemploymentofthesemaleguests．Butthisact

greadydispleasedtl蛤∴diseiple狙u・andledtheMastertosw鎗r（址erany；

16・YuHaoeheng・＝OnHumanRightsandTheirGuaranteebyLaw，一一in雌hael

C・Davis（ed・）・HumanRigh缶andChin明地ues弓ei助Ph鵬cphi血andP舶calPe櫛Pee慶ves（HongKong：OxrordUniversitypress，1995），P．99．

17・慮一曲Cheng－Chq8：9b．

副四国

Withan arrow），一一IfIhave doneanythingimproper，mayHeaven・scurse beon

me・may Heaven－s curse beon me！・・（6：28）．18

Whatdidtheoathmean？Inmyopinion・itwasomyasocialvisit，aS血e

晩sterwasaboveingratjdting himseHsexuaHywitharuler，sspouse，Whidら

aiteran・WOuld beapunishableerime・Butthe question wasofpropriety，

andKongdefendedhimselfon血atground，Whichdemonstratesara血erbroad

Viewofpermissiblesocialinteractionbetweenmenandwomen．

Wi址ntheframeworkofConfucian址nking，theindividualwasregarded

alwaysasamemberofamuchmoreimportant・largergrouplbethatf吐milyor

SOefety・The gender quesdon cons址uted血erefore part and parcelof a

larger∞mplexofquestionsinvdvingtheFiveRelationships・

If we e粕rnine Confucfan texts，We actually find吐血e tneatlnentOf the

POSitionofwomenandtheirobHgations・Butitistheh咄e we do丘ndthat

makes animportant：difrerenee・For example，the Book of Changes was for

ageSPaStanimportanttextforp岨osophicalre”eCtion・ThereltheHe瀧gramS

Qian・（Heaven）and Kun，（Earth）representrespectivelytheyangandtheyh

forces，andtheseintumrepresentthemaleandthefemale・Thuswomanis

tOmanaseart：histoHeaven，10Wlyandinferior，Weakandreceptive．

Meneiusemphasised that human natureis onginally good，andthereIbre

perrectible・Hetaughtthateveryperson∞ddbecomeasage（Mendus6B：2）．

Logictmy，the teaclhng has served to strengthen a basic beHt妻in human

equality・regardless of dass or even gender distinetions．Mendus also

emphasisedthatthe tab∞betweenthesexesshould notpreventamanfr°m

helpingtoreseueadrowrmgwoman，SuChasmssister－inJLaw・Letusquote

the eonversadon（Mencius4A：17）：l一工sittherdethatmalesandfemalesarenottotoucheach

Otherin givingorreeeivinganything？一一一一工tis the rule．一一

IIIramanlssister－in－LawisdrowningタShouldhestretchhis

hand to rescue her？一・IIHewhowouldnotrescuesuehadrowningwomanisa

beast・Whileitisthe gene離ilruJethatmalesand

remalesnott：OuCheacho血eringllTlngOrreCeiving，itis

aparZjculare粗genCytOStretehone－s handtorescuea

drowning sisteで－in－hw．”

18・The translationis from D・C・Lau・匠ans・），Ccm血dus：Tne AnaIecfs

（Harmondsworth：Penguin B∞ks・1979），P・85・On thepointof血eoath＿

taking・∞nSukArthurWaley，（trans・）・meAnaIeczsofCbnmdus（Lond°n：

Allen＆Unwin，1938），Pp．240－1．

一日一

ーI2　＿

工n址s way・human Heand dignity－ゼ鵬manLsHe and dignity一一WaS

placed beiore rituallaw・On balance・however，the position of women

∞ntinuedtoweakenasconfucianismgainedascendaney・Andit－WOuldfurther

deterioratein hter ages，Withl址emergence of the necdonfucian

p岨osophers・Theconfuciantradition，iore粗mPk｝hasalwaysemphasisedthe

importanceofkeepingthebodying∞dfbm，aSa宣岨responsetothegj駈

Ofonelsparentsandancestors・Butfewconfucianpmosophersberorethe

tWentieth（捨nturypr。teSted the customoff∞t－bin’迫ng whichso defomed

WOmen，afIecting not othy t：hdr personal healt：h，but also th亡く迂their

C皿dren・WhiLeiWOmenwereneverfbmany鉱duded・fromthe咄dhgsof

Confucfanhumanism，theywerenonethelessexdudedfrommanyofitsbeneEits，

includingthoseofaiormaleduGal邑on．19

W地thepassageof time，and astheestabHshed sch∞lofthought，

ConfuciaJtismt00konmoreandmore也Lerigidityofid∞logy・Thepositionof

WOmen continued to dechne，Whenever thisid∞logy wasin force．The

eleven仕LCGmturypl血OsopherchengYiisespeeianyrememberedforhaving

Saidthatjtisbettertos出光Vethantoremrry，WhichiswhatZhu粗（Chu

Hsi）reiteratedirlLt1時tWel托heentury・Afteran・・Tostarvetodeatl：しisa

Verysmallmatter，butt01oseone－svirtueisaveryseriousmatter．，・20　And

ZhuXit∞kCheng－sideasseriouslyenoughtowritetoadis。pletourgehim

tO∴counse］「hisl心dowedyoungersisternottoremarry・Hecontinues：

…1etherunderstand thal［justaswhenadynastyfa皿S；I凸記

nthister must remainloyaL so t∞・・・the widow must remain

Chaste…・Fromthepopuhrpointorview，tIhsist：r血yunreaHstic，

butin the eyes ofa gendeman who knows theく址遁Sies，and

understandsprinciples，this言issomethingthatcannotchange．2l

Confuciansodetydidofferafewprotecti’mSforwomen，preSCribing∵that

aWirecoddnotbedivorcedirshehadnohometoreturnto，irshehad

19・工nthisrespect・WeaCCePtthefactthatdespiteConfucius●personale的rts

andthoseofmanyofhis最mowers，educadonremained mailJyditistin

traditionalChina，and appears stinl的be suchin maihhnd China，On

aCCOuntoftherebdngiewschodsandsmanenrohents．

20・ConsultEhJhtmgquanshu（CompLet遁WorksoftheTwoChengs），SPPYed．；

擁shu（Surviving works），22B：3a．

21・Lettert。Chenshizhong・inZhubftmgong鵬tm（CQlleetedWritingsofZhu

Xi）Subu beiyao ed・・26：26b－27a；Consult∴WingセitChan，αね「．礁藍焼野

S蝕王底（Honol血：U血versity ofHawaiiPress，1989），P・540．Menwere

Permittedtodivorcetl議連r、diVesfbranyofsevenreasons：disobeyingthe

parentS－inJLaw・nOtbearingason・adultery，jealousy・ineurablesickness，

excessive tZnkativeness，Ormeft．

一　「ユー

Pertbmedthrt詮yearsofmourthngforaparent－in－law・OrifthefiLJrmyhad

risenfrompovertyorahumblestationtowealthandahighstationafterthe

工ntheorderofnature・thehusband－Wiferelationshippreeedeseventhat

Ofthefat：her－SOn・andcertajhLy・tlmtoftherder－Subject・Intheorderof

SOCidLreauties，however，therdationshipofd咋rWifetothehusbandwasaHer

aHpatternedonthatofl曲LeministertothesovereHn・Aftersungtim諺，

C址esehist：OrywitnessedaninGrt差出ngcentrahsationofstat：eP°Werinthe

handsoftheruler・Whoregardedhisministersasservantsratherthanas

Partners，justasthewomen ofhis haremwereallrhsconcubines．Few

tnrall‘1′、＋1．＿1（∴∴」＿＿＿」　⊥＿intieHectuals daredtocridcisesuch asystem，

introdueedinthetwentietheentury．

Andtheexperieneeofwomenwasinmany

Werethemselvessubjecttofathersandrulers，

becameincreasingly・・coHectivisedl・without

individualscaughtintheweb・And Confucian

in the same web，Serldng theinterests of the

draineditofits humanisticcontent．

While real Changes were only

WayS Shared by the men，Who

in a patriarchalsodety which

O播ering protection to the

humanism was Hkewise caught

abs01ute state・Which slowly

4・Beingmlmane（托n力Re印eCfingHumanRighB

TheUnit：ed NadonsDedarationon HumanRights，induding apreamble

andsome30Artkゴes，WaS drafledverymuchundertl喪主influenceofthe

Westernnations，inparticuhrtheurhtedStatesofAmerim，attheendofthe

SecondWorldWar・Thesodalandeconomic－rightswereindudedverymuch

attheinsistenceofthecommu血stnations・W址h・however）didnotbe∞me

SHnatOries・Therehasbeen，understandably，discussionandargumentasto

Whetherthestatementofrights∴representsawestern conceptualeonstmct

With］imitedappHcab亜y，OrWhetheritoffersasohdcoreofprindplesthat

deservetherespectofanpeoplesandgovernments・工shanbediseussing

SOmeoftheseproblemshter・butofrerthosepartsoftheDedLaLradonthat工

havequotedasemplesofwhatisconsideredtobetheconでentSOfhuman

rights・Andtheserightsas●●hghts・・areak〕COnSidered一一inthewest一一aS

universalandinaHenable，tObeenJOyedequanybyallwh。arehuman，VJithout

WhichtheyiCannotnvea蝿deemedtObefuy一●humanl・．

And here arises our problem・Is human rightS maiIuy a Western

idedogictnexport（toaccompanyitstradedelegations）b01st：eredbysubde

－－．i一一〇一一．－．“一一一．“－－－

22・Chan，ChuH立言暁憤StudieSp．539．

／　　つ　‾

CkhmsofWesternpoliticalandc址uralsuperiority？一Whatvahditycanitdalm

tohaveinnon－Westernculturessuchasinthechinese？

Thereisa problem，iorexample・Withthe word一五ghts・・：nOt justin

Cmesetranslation・butalsoin westernlanguages・Atfirstsight，thetem

repreSentSleganyprote（賞遅den咄ementsofindividualsinsociety・Andmany

have血einやmSSicm言出LatCertainrightstakenforgrantedaLreaSaCredlegaey

from the past．

We turn now to the term・・human＝∴∴S丸nce by hu脚rjghts，We are

refbrringtothe吐ghtsofhumanbeings・一▼IshaHnotdwenonthedefi咄on

Of ahuman being，Sinceeven tms∴coddbe eontroversial・Depending on

Whetherwe optforthebiological（rorexample・thefuHgenedc code），the

Philosophical（rationaHty・freeⅧ・SeH－COnSCiousness），OrSOmeOthermodel，

therewillとnwaysbe problemsregardingtheboundary血es・Fore粗mPle，

PeOPlequestionwhetherfetuses，Ortheeomatose，Shouldbe∞nSideredhuman．

工wouldHketodescribehumanrightsasaereatureofrecentbirthwith

afaihylonghneage・Itsmotheris的eralmoralandpo岨ealphilosophy一一the

FrenehEnhghtenment andHberalEnglish址nking，amOngOther址ngs；its

iatherisinternadonalニLaw・W岨eitsnhdwiieisrevolution‥firsttheRevolution

OfAmerican工ndependeneeand thenthe FrenchRepub造nRev01u五〇nofthe

hte eighteenth∴century・Sueh papers as the Ameri∽n Dedaration of

工ndependenceandthe French Dedarationofme Right：SOf Manandofthe

Citizen，maybeeonsidereditsbilthcertificate一⊥・heensuingBimofRights

that becameincorporatedin many national∞nStitutions woddwide，and

eSPeCiany theurhted NationsuniversdDedaration ofHuman Rights（1948），

nhght bedescribed asitsintroduction to highsociety・Butits ancestry

indudes further back，Stoic∞neePtS Of natural・lawand the traditionsof

RomandvilニLawon血econ血entandoftheAnglo－Saxon∞mmonlawtothe

eXtent：thattheselentprotectiontotherightsofcitjzensandofindividuak．23

Faisthechinese wordforLaw・agraphwithawaterradiGalandwhat

COudbeamythicalarhmal，htersymboheofjustice・aSasemantic∞mponent．

Itsetymologyisdiificdt・butitrepresentsatranscendentorder・24∴Auegedly，

inanandentriteorordeal，abullwaspresentedtot］峡∋a山遇rOfthegodof

23・Therearemanyb00ksonhumanrights・Fore地mPleタEugeneKamenkaand

AHce Erh－S∞n Tay，ed・・Humam∴RighiEs（London：Edward ArnQld，1978），

indudesinternationalcontributionsfromp岨osophersandlegalexperts．

24・For亀seeHsdChin－hsiung・Zbomg1匹Ogu地shehui脚zyぜremeIxue

de toushi（Aneient chinese sodety：An Exanhnation of writing and

Anthrop010gy）・Revisededition（Taipei・CommerdalPress，1995），PP．542－3．

一14－

the s血，。Ver whichlustrations were sprinkled・The contestants then read

theiroathsofinnocence・Whiehthegu址ypartywasunabletofinish，andwas

gored to death by the bun．25

Itisinteresting that a mythicalanimalinstimng a sense of fearin

COnteStantSOr旺gantsshoddserveasasymbolofjus丘ce・Jusdce，itwodd

Seem，inspiresfearintheunjust・eSPeCianyinthosewhoseek，Withoutmerit，

tO take advantage of the system・Perhaps，it－is not surprising that the

ChinesehavetraditionaHy anduntHourown daysavoided thelaweourtsin

th（重rsearchfdrcon址ctresolution，PreferringtoavoidiCOn批ct，Oratleast，tO

丘nd arbitration t00VerCOme∞nfLict．

What thelegendary ordeal dIso revedsislhat血e contestants are

SOmehowpresumedg血tyunlessprovedinnocent，WHchimposesnotonlythe

burdenofpr∞f，butalsothetaint：Ofsuspiciononthosewhocontestanissue

Orare detained bytheauthohtiesforaHegedo播ences．

工nancienttexts，鬼designatesthelawofHe盟VentOWhichsagesl00kup，

Whereas another word，XI重gir With a knife radical，Signifiespena］Llaw．And

While血e ancient concept：Of hw wasinterpret：ed as belonglng to血e

tranSCendentorder，Confucian soeietyregardeditseHasbeinggovernedmore

byli（址eraHy，htual・Or址ualLaw）・atemr∞tedin andentreHgion，and

PreSuminga distinetionbetweennob亜yand∞mmOnerS・Limay bedescribed

alsoascustomary・unCOdifiedhw，internalised byindividuals，andgoverning

gentkmenin their personaland socialHvesタin their behaviour toward the

SPiritsaswenastherestof血eworld・Forthatreason，lihas血eextended

諾S誓書嵩rh＝慧e器r・A芸S蓋嵩慧霊業educa五〇ninthe rites，Onethatpreparedthe youngnobkts］brⅢe・みon

the other hand・referred to ritual customs，Selected and cod追ed，Which

becameapenalcode，tObeappHedespeciallyto commonerswhohad not也e

Phvilege of a htual educa丘on．

咽ottodount00therswhatyouwodd nothavethem dotoyou．，，This

hstme，COming缶om Confuciushims亜・hasbeencaHed血enegaBveG01den

Rule governing mor。］腫ら　But hotATit∴is to be appHedin di］旺erent

dreumstances∞n血uesto beapuzzle・Whatiflheindividual∴負ndshimseH

Or herseHin con紐ct between responsib亜y toward the kinship group and

reSpOnSib址tytowardthestat：e？Howshouldonech00Se？

25・Joseph Needham（ed・）・Sdence and鮮血isadon jn China vQl・2，P．205，

especiaHy note a．

＿七一

∴Once told by apubhc‘飼Eidalabout a young man who testifiedagi正nst

his£ath鎌，Who had stolen a sheep，C。nfueius repHed：l－In our vimge・・・，

自thers　∞Ver uP for their sonsl and sons eover up for thelr鬼thersl一

（Andec鯵13：18）．

This answer has been perple，dng to mny western schohrs，Who are

astonished to see confucius－en∞uragement of deviousness，and∞neerned

ab。utthe protection ofone－s ramilyasthe sourcet正many pr°blemsin how

SOCiety・relatesit駒elftpthestate・CertaimylSuCh astatementappears na董ve

in the∞SeOfs。meOne Who wantedto serve government）∞n hardlyendear

血espeakerto anyruer，and d∞S nOteXemP駈yany kindoffaudal‥LoyalCy

°n the part of Cdnfucius．

That Confueius notomy saidit，but sfhd soto ahigho縦cialタisvery

relevant・工tisindic告白veof血epriorityofnaturalrelationshipsovera唖eial

Or∞ntraetualones・In the∞urSe。f time，aS the∞untry beGame unified，

andas the state eentraHsedaH powersinits own hands●SOdety∞dd s皿

resIst the st：atels ener00dhmentsinithe name of kinship duties，Whidh the

State，ironically●Often had to support．

工nitsemphasis。ntheunionbetWeenthemoralandthelegtnorders，血e

Chinese traditjbn has su駈used melegalredm with a moral coneern dedved

Rlm Confueian philosophy，WHehis（艇ntered on the universal virtueof脚

（humanity or benevolenee）・血e pracIEiee of wmch renders a person

perfecdy humane．

But」ifineipientideas ofhuman equaHtyand popuhrsovereignty arose

Veryeahyin CHn鎧ethought，theydid notl鎗d toapdLiticalstrueturewhidh

prOteCtS human rights・The twentiethく遁ntury has not seen the proper

developmentoftheinstitutions dfparticipatory demoeraey which∞uld assure

human rightsin China・Unfort：unately，the dangerremainsthatomyanother

Violent revClu邑on∞dd●一ree髄y一一the situationタand so鬼r，reVOlutions have

°nlyrepla∞d onesetbrruHngelitewith anotherset．

me U通ed Nations Dedaration phees prmaryinpOr由nce on every

itlCZi融ualbhumandignity，andthesancBtyofhuman出も　工nCmna，tradition

daims血at anancient sageking reirainedfroma warofconquest wil士Lthe

WOrds：llエwould notshed thebl∞d。foneinnocenthuman beingevenifthat

∞血dgainmetheworld・一一　WhetherthatwasaetuaHysaidisnotsoimportant，

be∞uSe the beZiefin the truth of the statement shows how・import：ant One

individualhumanlilもwasregardedthroughtheages．

一高一

The evolution oflawin China may be described as the devol櫨otl°f

ritual（mintClaw（ia）and oflawintopunishment・26　Forthis reason，hwis

regardedashavingplayedamairnypenalrolein Chinesesociety●prOteCting

therights oftherulersandenjoirhng passiveobe（nenceonthepart ofthe

Subjects・Untjn boday・the Chinese fearlaw，because hw has been an

arbitraryinstmmentinthehandsoftherulers・Throughouthistory，Chinese

law served pubHcinterestonlyinsofarasitalsoserved theinterestsofthe

Eveninapo旺caldespotism，POWerisabsoluteonlyinth∞ry・Andmany

Werethe chtics（痛powerabusesintraditionalChina●indudingthosein the

innercirdes ofp。Weritsdi・Therewere akoothervoices，Of一，dissidents当

intenectut丸leaders・I・Ongalterthe色meofMendus，Cri丘quesofpowerwere

incでeasingly made obHquely orin secret・A sevent鍵nth－Century址nker，

Huang Zongxi，Wen known as a philosopher andintenectual historian，

COndemnedtherders forregardingtht垂rdomainsas theirprivateproperty，

andthdrsubjectsastheirservantsandslaves・Heproposedth：rt］鼠W（自）be

estabnshedfortheinterestofallratherthanofthefewタandthatgovemment

be bylaws rather than human beings・And he denouneed those Laws that

enslave peopLe as，．unlawful Laws・・．27

Unfortunatelyfor China・Huang，sideasdidnotgetthesamerecep丘onas

iorexample・John Locke－sin seventeenth－Century Enghndand beyond．But；

Grantedthehistoricanyalien eharacterofthe∞nCePtOfhumanrights，∞uld

We Stillargue the vali址y of extendingit to the Chinesesituation，On the

basisthatthereisenoughintheculturethat∞uldacceptit？

工n the post－Chhsdan West，meral humanism，beginning as∴ia reVOIt

againsttheism，and eventuanyinnuendng many beHeversinGod，haso播ered

a climate of openness for the assertion and discussion of umversal moral

Values・工n China，Where a westernideology，Marhst－Lenirhsm｝nOnhnany

reigns as absolute dogma，the popuhtjbn remembers a native humanist

traditiongoingbackmorethantwomillenniatoConfudus∴andeven鎗rlier．

Leading twentieth－Century Chinese phnosophers Hving outside Cmna，

When∋theybreathe afresherair，haveagr鉾dthattraditionalChinesec咄ure

26・Consult Sa Meng－Wu・Zhongguo丘BZ血I∴丘ixiamg（Chinese Thinking　°n

GovernmentbyLaw）（Taibei：Yenb。Press，1978）．

27・See MiIlgyidaiZをng ju，Subu beiya。ed追on，Ch・1－3；Eng・tranS．by Wm．

Th∞dorede Bary・胞dng丘Lr統eDa肌A Ph関わr功ePriIICe（NewYork：

Celumbia University Press，1993）．

一宮一

COntainl－seeds・・forconeeptshkesdence∴anddemocracywhichhavecomemore

directlyfromthewest・Iamreferringtosuchpersons，HkeCarsunchang，

MouTsung－San・Tangchtin－iandHstiFu－kuan．28

Inthewest・thedevelopment＝OfhumanrightSalsoreflectstl記growthof

individuansminthel曲ieOryandpracticeofsociety・Sod亜stshaveehticised

its development，andaskedexphcitlyforeconomicandsoeid・rights．But

PreSumably，Communistchinafduowedthepでeeedentofthesovietunionas

WeH as of the chinese Repubhc of1911in eventuany glVlngitself a

COnStitution・Chinahaspromukatedseveralconstitutions・threetimes（1954，

1975・1978）betbre1982・Thisreflectsaneffortto血dasuitableinstrument

forlegitimation・Sinee each eons址utionlost珊h唖y through the

nOnObservance of the partyin poweで・StjH・theimpressionis・tI珪it a

gOVernmentshotmehstfortheprotecB的Of叡epeQfue鳴Lig由Es・Sothe1982

COnS址ution glVeS dueregardtothe・一eitizens，freedomofspeeeh，Ofthe

PreSS，Of assembly，Of associationM∴and even desehbessuch freedom as

llinviohble・，・工nfact・We∞ncomparethe1982ccnstitutionvJiththeUnited

NaもOnsuniversalDedarationartidebyarti。e，andfindrealparaHeLs．29

5・A施お皿ofPeace（缶重めg）

Confudusgatheredabouthimsdfasmangroupofdisdples｝manyOf

Whomsharedhislife・traVelsandtribuhtions・（ContemporaryschoLarsdispute

thetraditionalnumberofthreethousand，andpreferasmaHerfigure，Perhaps

SeVenty－tWO・）工ntheirnhdst・hewasafatherlyHgure，eVenifsomeofthe

discipkswereonJafewyearsyoungerthanhimseH，andafewwereeven

OHer・Hepraetised whatmaybecaHed theartofspiritualgLhdance，

GhortinghisifC姐owerstomoderateth’∋∈淑iCeSSeSOftheirtemperamentsby

Ce地neffortsofseHcontIblaidedbythepracticeofself－reI鰭mination．He

givesthisgeneraladviee‥一一Whenyoumeetsomeonebetterl曲ianyourseH，址nk

aboutem血tinghim・Whenyoumeetsomeonenotasg∞dasyourself，l∞k

insideandexi蘭rhneyourownsem・（Analeets4：17）．

28・Cons庇・・AManifestO氏洋theReappraisalofSinClQgyandReconstmetionof

Cmnese c庇ure・一●in carsun chang，meDevekpmentof胸－Cbtm由n

Thought（NewYork・1963），VOl・2，Appendix．

29・Arti〈ユes35∴＆370fthe1982ccnstitution・Consult∴Jt止iaching・PrlDbihg

α山地′sso血Re軸，P地場地軸血加地p短R印批（S竺Franciseo：HarperをRow，1990）．0．168＿　Hn，．，，3、，ハ＿　《《＿＿．＿＿＿＿，＿〟”LdLJ－LJふいLjU：narPer＆Row・1990）・P・168・However，CertHn

ea亜erwerestruckout，SuChastherightforworkersto

right of aihng grievances on waH posters andで一子ヽ↑－章一とゝl二▼ヽ／ヽ●ヽ′う（．〟、＿＿　　　　′「＿COrreSPOndenee・Consult also Andrew∴Nathan，一IPoH邑ciil

C址neseconstitutions，・・inR・RandleEdwardsetaz・（ed．），

Ccmz創岬OratyChina（NewYork；ColumbiaUniversityPress，

一　言一

rights pe咄ed

Strike，and the

Of privacy in

Rights in the

Hu収まか輯鰹jh1986），p．79．

Moral education was confucius－chier∞nCern・He∽nnOt be described

Simplyas a paei丘st・He talked aboutthe need of giving the pe°Ple moral

training for aslong as seven years・beSoreleading them to war（Analects

13：29）・Notdoingso・andyettakingthemtowar，aCCOrdingtohim，WOddbe

Simplyabandoningthep∞Ple（13：30）・Menciusaddedthat

Confudusrejeetedthosewhodotheirbesttowagewaで．．．

［We noticethat］in wars toacqdreterritory，d鎗d bodiesf粗Ithe

Plains…・De虻h∴its｛吐F：is t∞　Hght a punishment for war＿

mOngerS・（Mendus AA：15．）

Meneius∴eOndemned King HuiofLiangasaruthless man，Wh〇・一senthis

peOPletowar，makingpulpofthem・forthesakeofgairhngfurtherterritory一一

（7B：1）・Mencius…鵡sosaidthatnoneofthemanywarsでecordedsupposedlyby

ConfudusintheSpring－AutumnAnnals一一COVeringtheyears722t0481B．C．in

thesmanstateofLu・Which・WaSConfudus・homestate一一Werejustwars（7B：2）．

Itshowsthathis standardsforwhatwodd beajustwarwas veryhigh

The United Nations Declaration places primaryimportance on every

indi融ua彊humandigrhty・andthesanctityofhumanlilbInChina，tradi五〇n

Claimsthat anandent sageking refrainedfroma warofeonquest w弛Lthe

WOrds：ll工woudnotshedthebl∞dofoneinnoeenthumanbeingevenifthat

COddgainmetheworld・・・WhetherthatwasactuaHysaid‥isnotsoimportant，

be∞uSethe benefin吐e truth ofthe statementshows how・important one

individualhumanliEewasregardedthroughtheages．

Confucian：ism has∴∴SOmetimes been deseribed as an e出血fc・吐adidon．

ActuaHy，ithasalwayshadauniversaHstthrust，SinQeitisat∞reanethieal

humanism・An today，itsi岨uenceis manifestin the entire East Asia，

Stretchingfrom china to Korea・Japan，and Vietnam・In his own days，

Confudus had no aversionあrother p∞Ples・工nd鍵d●heonce expressed a

desiretose咄eamongthe・・barbariantribesoftI唯＝eaSt・一一Whensom∞neasked，

llHowcanyouputupwith血eirun∞uthways？・一hisanswerwassimply，一一Ifa

gentleman was∴（。：live withlhem・What‥un∞uthnesswinthere be？当Analects

Cmnese utopianideas have usuanyfoeused on time ratherthan phce．

The chinese view of time has been usuany described as cydieal and

backward－1∞king，aSShowninthepreferred一一utopian・，descriptionofaGolden

Past・eSPeCiauyfoundintheSectioncfmedLiJ沌n（EvolutionofRites）fromthe

B∞k ofRit：eS，Whichspeaks ofaremote past，When the一一wohd belongedto

au，一・CalledtheGreatunity（d副抽mg）・andatimeafterthatmledbydm∋early

○′－　i t　．一′

khgs・CanedtheLesserProsperity（虹okang）・ThisConfucianvisionofpeace

and universalharmonyisespedallya咄butedtoConfucius：

When the Great Waywas pmqEised，the world wasshared byall

aHke・The worthy and able were promoted t00綿ce and au

practised g∞d EEmh and Hvedin a癒ection…・The age found a

fittingdosetotheir∵Hves，therobusttheiremployment；they。ung

Were PrOVided with an upbhnging and the widow and widower，

the。rPhm and the sick・gOt PrOPer∽re…・This preduded

COnSpiraciestodoevil，aSWeuaS址evesand rebelsタW皿ep∞Pk

COddleavetheirhouse gates unboked・工twastheageof Great

TheSpring－AutumnAnnalswasamoreheonictext・工twaselab。ratedby

a narrative commentary・meAnnaZs cf鴎and a cateehetical∞mmentary，

theGongyang，favouritecommentaryoftheanegoricalsch00l・FouC而ngupon

thep皿。SOPherDongZhongshu・ssuggestions・theseholarHeShiu（129－82BC）

eLaboratedonthe一皿ree Agesl・theory・Whi。L dilddedthe242yearscovered

bytheSpring－AutumnAnnalsinlblhreegroups：theLatestyearswerethose

perSOnaHywtnessed byConfudus・andthen，gdngbackward，Camethosethat

he heard of through oral testjmony，and those hel鎗rnt of through

tranSmitted records・31These一一Three Ages，・Were subsequently describedin

Chron01ogical・Order as those of Disorder・Approadhhg Peace，and Universal

Peace（taiping）．

Many r’連bmersin hist：Ory had wanted to restore the age of Lesser

Prosperity，and a few visionaries evenl∞ked back to

thellThreeAges，一th∞ry haspresented thepossib亜y

into the futurein a different way；by daiming the

tmTOugh mstory，thus prodaiming a morelinear view

tem・ZIaZping・Or the great：Or universalpeace，eametO

Wenasadreamoranidealtoberealisedthroughg∞d

the Great Unity．But

Of projee瞳ng the past

POSSibility of progress

Of timeitself．　This

Signify peaceitSelf as

gOVernment．

Both Dong Zhongshu and He Shiu belonged to the

Whieh had much t01erance for apoeryphal nt：erature，

in鼠ueneeinproda址ngth垂rfLamboyantreading ofthe

Were reSurrectedin the Late nineteenth－eentury by the

and reiomer Kang Yuweiwho promoted their一一utopian一一

30・Eng・tranS・adapted from w・T・de Bary｝ed．，Sources

（ColumbiaUniversity Press，1960），P．191．

31・Dong Zhongshu・CJ九mqiu」島nlu，eh・1；Fung YuTlan，rl十〇＿＿？1＿　＿　＿　＿　〃＿

Modem Seript sch∞l

and sought pdLitical

dassies．Theirideas

controversiiLI schohr

the°des to advance

Of C血血ese Tradj筋on

A」亜鏡n聾′　Of C鷹nesePhi血坤Ph男tranS・byDerkBodde・（PrincetonuniersityPress，1953），VOl．2，

‾　‾‾‾くつ　　‾　‾　‾“●‾－‾7　　－●　‾“i”Oi－′〇一〇ノーノ’　」教ふ　　ヽノ■〇〇m■12：＞t

p．81．

tL－亭主＿ニ

ー　20　＿

his own sodo－pOhticH agenda一一anedeetic，Confucian，BuddHst，andeven

anarchistvisionofauniversalhumancommunity．

Theproblemwas：TraditionalChinesep｛址ticaltlmughtalwaysassumed

mh〇十∴rh′、．、＿．＿（1＿＿＿　＿＿＿＿　．．thatmonarchywas me bestfomof

Pastofsage－kingswh。anegedlyruled・C。五言三言言霊yL芸。＝：：；

benevolentmonarehsandhadnousefortyrants・butconfudanministt賞SWere

unabletokeeptyrantsfromtt唯日出LrOne・Therewereehangesinthedynastic

CyClebuttheindividualswhoacquiredpoweriWereoftenofthewrongkind，

eVeniftheydidsointhenameoftheMandateofHeaven・工ntheHghtof

eVentS，this doctrine be髄me underst∞d by manyas a kind ofhistorical

determinismgoverningthe】riseandfa110fpo亜caldynasdes・Besides，the

Sage－kingidealdidnotbringwith‥itacaref皿yarticuhtedprogrammefor

g∞dgovernment・Theconfucian虹・theInstitutesofChou，PreSumedto

COntainamodelforg∞dgovernment・○播ersmaimyanideaHsedbureaucraey．

T∞muchwasexpededofthepersonaLe址calquamieSOfthesage－king，and

t∞址dewasdonetoregulatehisrule・anOtherreasonfortheidefntobeeome

ageneralisedendorsementofbenevolentdespotism．

Why wasit∴thtthe chinese had veryearlyarticulatedideasabout

humandignityandequaHty，butwereunabletoestab軸apd田島ct丑system

that would proteet tmsく坤印Lity and equaHy？This question has b甜

trOubmg the∴minds of many contemporary chineseintenectuals．The

disintegrationoffeudaHminwesternEuropewaseventuany脚Owedbythe

emPOWermentofthepropertiedchsses，Whoseassertionsoftheirownrights

eVentuallJrCOnthbutedtotheext：enSionofHkerightstothewholepop血tion．

工n China・however，a SyStem of feudaHsm started very early and was

disintegratingbytl唯rtimeofconfueiusandMendus・工tcametoafomalend

WhenthecountrywasuniHedbytheswordundertheFirstEmperor，ahated

despotwhoburntb∞ksandburiedsclmlars（C・213B．C．）．

Ineontrastwit：h∴WesternEurope・POWerin chinabecameincreasingly

eentraHsedin the hands ofthe monarch，rather than shared．A titled

aristocracywasstrongduringthedmsicdperiod，atthetimeofConfucius

andMencius，Whenthe∞untrywasdividedintofeudalstates・Itspowers

andprivnegeswerethendiss0lvedbyasuspidousabsoht：emOnarehy，neVer

tObesuccessf皿yrestored・Agovernment－∞ntrouededucationsystemanda

CivHserviceexaminationpromotedtheprindpleofmerit・Whilemonopolising

thesupplyofbureaucrats・Whoweremereadvisorsandadnmstrators，and，

aSthepropertied class・neVerthr鎗tened rebemon・EventuaHy，eVenthe

POSitionoftheprimemiIhster・lNTaSabo亜edinthefourteenthe’mtury，SOthat

一ユ＼一

gOVernment・aSitl∞ked back to a Golden

pOWer－Sharingatthetop occurredmoreo紅en舶eunuehsthan融

eOmPetentministers・Therewasneveranindependentjudidary・amOugha

CensorateservedtOChannelpQlicycriticisms．

Theconfuciandoctrineofbenevolentgovernmentfromabovewasnot

Sufficienttoguaranteetherightsofthesubjeetsbelow・andthepopumon

WaSinstructedmoretoservesocialharmonythantoasserttheirownrights．

Powerwasmorecommonlywrestedfromonepartybyanother・throughwars

andrebemons・Startedinturnbythem曲数Ye址eorbythesociauy

deprivedwhohadno址ngtolose・工twasnotproperly（迫stributedand

Ofeourse，democratiewesternEuropeisinmanywaysan馳Ptionon

thegeopoHEicln‥LandmassorEurasLa・andintheworldasawhole，in

aChievingdemocraticinstitudonsafteramereperiodofnearlytwothousand

yearS・Even血ere・itdidnothappenovernight・AndtheproeessevoIved

fromthestrugglefortherightsofthenoblesandpropertied，tOthatforthe

rightsofall・∴正Chinadidnotdevelqplikeins址utionsearlier，COuldsheat

least，aCCePttheimportaneeofhumanrightsasaconceptanddeveIqpthe

I址nkthatphilosophersHkeMenciusandHuangzongxidemonstratethat

thechineseintenectualtraditbnwasweHpreparedfmaeceptingwestern

ideasregardin8日thelegalprotectionofhumanrights・馳nessthe〔出Fdrtsof

inteHectuahinthehtermetmthandeahytwentietheenturywhosoughttoSeeureaeonstituti（malfbImofgovernment，Hrstunderamon的hy，andthen

underarepubHc・Theire縦庇S鬼ilednotsomuehbe剛Sethel／Were

introdueingideaseonsideredaHen・butratherbe剛Sethe∞untrY、wasnot

Pernmed bytheoutsidepowers・bothth（∋WestandJapan，tOevQlve

Beforethecommunistst00koverpower・andinspiteofgreatoddsand

manyimperkdons・theRepubncofChinahadmadehamgprogressw油hits

judieiarysystem・Today・Wecan慮ndencouragementinthoseEastAsian

COu咄esandregionswheretherecordhasimpr。Vedvasdy・eVeniritiss皿

nOtperfe億∴∴wehaveinmindthesitua丘onsinJapan（wherethepost－War

Constit咄onisAmerimn－inspired）・andmorereeendyinsouth∴Koreaand

Taiwan，WhichhaveaHbeenin軋en∞dbythe龍遇d血ngsofconfucian

humanism・Thesecountriesandregionshaveexperieneedrapidecononhc

mOdernisat：ion・aCeOmpaniedbydemocratisationandthemore∞nscientious

enaCtmentandobservanceofhumanrightslegislations・TaiwanタWhichalso

Ca皿sitse虹theRepubHcofchinakabastionofChinesecLnture，distinetfrom

H。ngKongwhichhasbemaBritishcolony，andisonlynowe｝中任rimenting

・一一　ュユ‾

－　GZ　－

」二田二°＿

庇hademo的ticlegishtivestructurewhiehthemaihLand governmenthas

threatenedt：Odismantle，andfromsingapore・aneX－BritisheolonywhichHkes

tO Claimits own form of partidpatory democracy under a one－Party

HasthewisdomofChinayets。me址ngtQeHerustoday一一tOChina，and

Myownanswerisa∝mtiousYes・Wherechinaiscon敬ned，Withl曲Le

understandingalsothatl曲Lereisasyet咄eotherculturaloptionavaihbk．

工ntherecentpast，Chinesehumanismhasbeentestedbytheinvasionof

Westernvalues・PuriHedbythefiresofrevolution，andchaHengedbythe

ideoIogyofMarxism－Lerhnism・N010ngerorthodoxorestab血ed，Confucianiism

hasoncemorebecomeadiffusedteachingratherthanastatesystem．駈h

Self－e｝鞄minabonandseH－C亜cism・itmayyetfindnew旺e，With∴whiehto

reinvlgOrateatotteringciviHsation・Anditwilldos00myinaplura軸e

SOCiety，aSOneschoolamongmanyothers・thewayitwaswhenconfudus

himselfwasa皿veandt鎗Ching．

WheretherestoIEthe∴worldisconeerned一一eSPeCieⅢywherethewest，

WhichhassochangedChina－sdestiny・isconeerned一一Chinesehumanismhas

Perhapsalsoafew址ngst00ffer：What：SOmepeoplecallfem血yvaluesand

WOrke址e・butwhatmaymoresimplybedeseribedasdisdpHneandtolerance

andanewharmony・Chineseobserversofthewesthavealsopointedout

Whatthewestco血dlearnfromtheEast・Fore測Ple・theyHnd∝eSSive

individ田並ism，a咄giousspiritpromotingcon舶ratherthanhamony，and

eSpedallyinthe－Jn血edStates，anunaCeeptablyhighcrimerat’ゝ∴∴Thereis

akanincr鎗SinggapbetWeentheriehandthepoorincapit＝皿st：SOCieties，a

mOnOPOlyofpoliticenele’血oncamp独gnsbythosewhocanafbrdthem，andthe

SOdaldeprivation ofvariousnm。rities・32　wi址n chinaタand庇ho斑cial

tOlerance・reHgionsandspirituaHtjieShavebeenenjoyingam五五一reVivalof

SOrtSduringthereeentde∞des・Andtheancientartofqig（mgOrChinese

yOga・PrOmoting the urhty of body and sp亜・has been reeognised

increasinglyasaheaHngresource・Thepeaceftn・disdpmed，andthriving

SOCj定tjesinEastAsiancountriesoutsideofChina碇hverydensepopuhtions

demonstratethepeopLetsenseofso血harmony・EastAsiansvaluewhat

トトくさ17　′、．つll L．。．＿＿＿＿＿＿＿theycZ皿humaneness，Orhumanwarmth，Whichthey血dladkingin

Wherehumannelatibnshipshavelostapersonaltouch・EastAsians a SyStem

are dso

32・ConsultKishoreMahbubani，一ITheDangersofDecadenoe：lWhattheRestcan

TtjaChthewest・・・Ebr唾nA・範217℃72（Sept・／Oct・，1993），pP．10－14．

一2うー

ー　9　－