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Essentials ofPlanning, Selecting, and TailoringInterventions for Unique Learners

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Essentials of Psychological Assessment SeriesSeries Editors, Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of 16 PF® Assessmentby Heather E.-P. Cattell and James M. Schuerger

Essentials of Assessment Report Writingby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Nancy Mather,Nadeen L. Kaufman, and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Assessment with Brief Intelligence Testsby Susan R. Homack and Cecil R. Reynolds

Essentials of Autism Spectrum Disorders Evaluation and Assessmentby Celine A. Saulnier and Pamela E. Ventola

Essentials of Bayley Scales of Infant Development–II Assessmentby Maureen M. Black and Kathleen Matula

Essentials of Behavioral Assessmentby Michael C. Ramsay, Cecil R. Reynolds, andR. W. Kamphaus

Essentials of Career Interest Assessmentby Jeffrey P. Prince and Lisa J. Heiser

Essentials of CAS Assessmentby Jack A. Naglieri

Essentials of Cognitive Assessment with KAIT and Other KaufmanMeasuresby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Debra Broadbooks,and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Conners Behavior AssessmentsTM

by Elizabeth P. Sparrow

Essentials of Creativity Assessmentby James C. Kaufman, Jonathan A. Plucker, and John Baer

Essentials of Cross-Battery Assessment, Third Editionby Dawn P. Flanagan, Samuel O. Ortiz, and Vincent C. Alfonso

Essentials of DAS-II® Assessmentby Ron Dumont, John O. Willis, and Colin D. Elliot

Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Interventionby Nancy Mather and Barbara J. Wendling

Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventionsby Barbara J. Wendling and Nancy Mather

Essentials of Executive Function Assessmentby George McCloskey and Lisa A. Perkins

Essentials of Forensic Psychological Assessment, Second Editionby Marc J. Ackerman

Essentials of IDEA for Assessment Professionalsby Guy McBride, Ron Dumont, and John O. Willis

Essentials of Individual Achievement Assessmentby Douglas K. Smith

Essentials of KABC-II Assessmentby Alan S. Kaufman, Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger,Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of MillonTM Inventories Assessment, Third Editionby Stephen Strack

Essentials of MMPI-ATM Assessmentby Robert P. Archer and Radhika Krishnamurthy

Essentials of MMPI-2® Assessment, Second Editionby David S. Nichols

Essentials of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® Assessment, Second Editionby Naomi Quenk

Essentials of NEPSY®-II Assessmentby Sally L. Kemp and Marit Korkman

Essentials of Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Editionby Nancy Hebben and William Milberg

Essentials of Nonverbal Assessmentby Steve McCallum, Bruce Bracken, and John Wasserman

Essentials of PAI® Assessmentby Leslie C. Morey

Essentials of Planning, Selecting, and Tailoring Interventionsfor Unique Learnersedited by Jennifer T. Mascolo, Vincent C. Alfonso, andDawn P. Flanagan

Essentials of Processing Assessment, Second Editionby Milton J. Dehn

Essentials of Response to Interventionby Amanda M. VanDerHeyden and Matthew K. Burns

Essentials of Rorschach® Assessmentby Tara Rose, Nancy Kaser-Boyd, and Michael P. Maloney

Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Editionby Daniel C. Miller

Essentials of Specific Learning Disability Identificationby Dawn Flanagan and Vincent C. Alfonso

Essentials of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5) Assessmentby Gale H. Roid and R. Andrew Barram

Essentials of TAT and Other Storytelling Assessments, Second Editionby Hedwig Teglasi

Essentials of Temperament Assessmentby Diana Joyce

Essentials of WAIS®-IV Assessment, Second Editionby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WIAT®-III and KTEA-II Assessmentby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Kristina C. Breaux

Essentials of WISC®-IV Assessment, Second Editionby Dawn P. Flanagan and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WJ IIITM Cognitive Abilities Assessment, Second Editionby Fredrick A. Schrank, Daniel C. Miller, Barbara J. Wendling,and Richard W. Woodcock

Essentials of WJ IIITM Tests of Achievement AssessmentbyNancyMather,Barbara J.Wendling,andRichardW.Woodcock

Essentials of WMS®-IV Assessmentby Lisa Whipple Drozdick, James A. Holdnack, andRobin C. Hilsabeck

Essentials of WNVTM AssessmentbyKimberlyA.Brunnert, JackA.Naglieri, andStevenT.Hardy-Braz

Essentials of WPPSITM-III Assessmentby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WRAML2 and TOMAL-2 Assessmentby Wayne Adams and Cecil R. Reynolds

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Essentialsof Planning, Selecting, and

Tailoring Interventions for

Unique Learners

Edited by

Jennifer T. MascoloVincent C. AlfonsoDawn P. Flanagan

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Cover image:Cover design:

This book is printed on acid-free paper. s∞

Copyright © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:Essentials of planning, selecting, and tailoring interventions for unique learners / edited by Jennifer T.Mascolo, Dawn P. Flanagan, and Vincent C. Alfonso.

pages cm – (Essentials of psychological assessment)Includes index.ISBN: 978-1-118-36821-3 (pbk.); ISBN: 978-1-118-41735-5 (ebk); ISBN: 978-1-118-42065-2 (ebk)

1. Linguistic minorities–Education. Children of minorities–Education.Multicultural education./LC4065Children with social disabilities–Education. 2. Special education. 3. Remedialteaching. 4. Students with disabilities–Education. I. Mascolo, Jennifer T., editor ofcompilation. II. Alfonso, Vincent C., editor of compilation. III. Flanagan, Dawn P., editor ofcompilation.

LC3969.E77 2014371.9–dc23

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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To my most precious blessings:

My children, Michael, Matthew, and Mia:

Your smiles light up my day,Your kindness warms my heart,Your voices are music to my ears,

Your love touches my soul,You make my life complete

I love you with all of my heart (“to infinity and beyond”)—Mommy

My husband, Michael:For your love, for your unwavering support and encouragement, and for always

believing in me

All my love forever—Jennifer

To my colleagues, students, and friends at Fordham University, especially in theGraduate School of Education where I spent 19 years preparing for my current position.

I hope to make you proud!

Thanks for everything!—Vinny

In loving memory of my mother, for a life time of listening, guiding, supporting,believing, encouraging, and loving

Forever in my heart—Dawn

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CONTENTS

Series Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

Part I Intervention Planning: Diagnostic Assessment,Response to Intervention, and Consultation 1

One A SystematicMethod of Analyzing AssessmentResults for Tailoring Interventions (SMAARTI) 3Jennifer T. Mascolo, Dawn P. Flanagan,Vincent C. Alfonso

Two Essentials of a Tiered Intervention System toSupport Unique Learners: Recommendationsfrom Research and Practice 56Devin M. Kearns, Christopher J. Lemons,Douglas Fuchs, Lynn S. Fuchs

Three Home-School Collaboration forIntervention Planning 92Michael J. Coutts, Susan M. Sheridan,Tara M. Sjuts, Tyler E. Smith

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Part II Selecting and Tailoring Interventions andIndividualizing Instruction 121

Four Tailoring Interventions in Reading Based onEmerging Research on the Developmentof Word Recognition Skills 123David Kilpatrick

Five Selecting and Tailoring Interventions forStudents With Reading Difficulties 151Steven G. Feifer

Six Selecting and Tailoring Interventions forStudents With Mathematics Difficulties 178Diane Pedrotty Bryant, Kathleen HughesPfannenstiel, Brian R. Bryant, Jessica Hunt,Mikyung Shin

Seven Selecting and Tailoring Interventions forStudents With Written Expression Difficulties 204Tanya Santangelo, Steve Graham

Eight Individualizing Instruction for Students WithOral and Written Language Difficulties 231Virginia W. Berninger, Jasmin Niedo

Part III Interventions for Underserved andMis-served Populations 265

Nine Interventions for English Learners WithLearning Difficulties 267Julie Esparza Brown, Samuel O. Ortiz

viii CONTENTS

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Ten Interventions for Students With ExecutiveSkills and Executive Functions Difficulties 314George McCloskey, Caitlin Gilmartin,Betti Stanco Vitanza

Eleven Interventions for Students With MemoryDifficulties 357Milton J. Dehn

Twelve Interventions for Students With LectureNote–Taking Difficulties 387Stephen T. Peverly, Gardith Marcelin,Michael Kern

Thirteen Interventions for Students from Low ResourceEnvironments: The Abecedarian Approach 415Craig T. Ramey, Joseph J. Sparling,Sharon L. Ramey

About the Editors 449

Index 451

About the CD-ROM 479

About the CD

CONTENTS ix

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SERIES PREFACE

In theEssentials of Psychological Assessment series, we have attempted to provide thereader with books that will deliver key practical information in themost efficientand accessible style. The series features instruments in a variety of domains, such

as cognition, personality, education, and neuropsychology. For the experiencedclinician, books in the series offer a concise yet thorough way to master utilizationof the continuously evolving supply of new and revised instruments, as well as aconvenient method for keeping up to date on the tried-and-true measures. Thenovice will find here a prioritized assembly of all the information and techniquesthat must be at one’s fingertips to begin the complicated process of individualpsychological diagnosis.

Wherever feasible, visual shortcuts to highlight key points are utilized alongsidesystematic, step-by-step guidelines. Chapters are focused and succinct. Topics aretargeted for an easy understanding of the essentials of administration, scoring,interpretation, and clinical application. Theory and research are continually woveninto the fabric of each book, but always to enhance clinical inference, never tosidetrack or overwhelm. We have long been advocates of “intelligent” testing—thenotion that a profile of test scores is meaningless unless it is brought to life by theclinical observations and astute detective work of knowledgeable examiners. Testprofiles must be used tomake a difference in the child’s or adult’s life, or why botherto test?Wewant this series to help our readers become thebest intelligent testers theycan be.

Essentials of Planning, Selecting, and Tailoring Interventions for Unique Learnersis an exciting addition to the Essentials series. This innovative edited book containsdynamic chapters contributed by esteemed practitioners and researchers in thefield of psychology, all of which assist practitioners in working with students whohave learning difficulties. Each chapter provides concrete, step-by-step proceduresfor assessing and interpreting cognitive and academic performance and otherrelevant factors (e.g., teaching style, curricular materials) for the purpose of

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intervention planning—with a unique focus on demonstrating how to individu-alize interventions for students using actual case examples.

Part I of this book (“Intervention Planning”) teaches practitioners how togather and interpret data in a manner that will assist them in identifying anddefining specific targets for intervention.

Part II (“Selecting and Tailoring Interventions”) provides rich discussion andinformation relating to the specific academic, cognitive, and behavioral manifesta-tions of students with learning difficulties in reading, math, writing, and orallanguage. Each chapter describes how the difficulties interfere with specific class-room tasks and explains how to select,modify, or otherwise tailor an intervention (orstrategy, accommodation, etc.) based on that information.

Part III (“Interventions for Underserved and Mis-served Populations”) teachespractitioners how to recognize, and intervene with, students from underserved andmis-served populations who are at risk for learning failure. These often-ignoredpopulations include students with executive functioning difficulties or inefficientmemory strategies as well as English-language learners and students from impov-erished environments.

Overall, Essentials of Planning, Selecting, and Tailoring Interventions for UniqueLearners is a comprehensive practical resource that explains how to conductassessments for intervention and how to individualize interventions to meet theunique needs of struggling learners. This book will give practitioners the skills theyneed to be key members of any team or committee that is involved in interventionplanning in the schools.

Alan S. Kaufman, PhD, and Nadeen L. Kaufman, EdD, Series EditorsYale Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine

xii SERIES PREFACE

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

W e wish to thank Sherry Wasserman, editorial program coordinatorat John Wiley & Sons Inc., for her support throughout this project.We are further grateful for advice and encouragement fromMarquita

Flemming throughout the production process as well as the early assistance andfeedback from Suzanne Ingrao and additional, invaluable assistance from RoseSullivan during the final stages of production. We also extend our heartfeltgratitude and appreciation to the contributing authors for their research andscholarship, professionalism, and diligent efforts in producing such meaningfulchapters. Finally, we wish to thank Alan and Nadeen Kaufman for their continuedsupport of the Essentials of Psychological Assessment series, which aims to bridgetheory and practice in such a way that sound judgments can be made whenworking with children and their families.

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Part I

INTERVENTION PLANNING:DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT,RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION, ANDCONSULTATION

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One

A SYSTEMATIC METHOD OF ANALYZINGASSESSMENT RESULTS FOR TAILORINGINTERVENTIONS (SMAARTI)

Jennifer T. MascoloDawn P. FlanaganVincent C. Alfonso

The term intervention is one that is familiar to anyone working in a schoolsystem. Adjectives such as research-based and evidence-basedwhen placed infront of this term elevate it to an indubitable status. This is primarily

because these descriptors suggest that the intervention was subjected to a rigorousevaluation and was found to be effective, meaning that when implemented withfidelity, it leads to positive outcomes (e.g., Cooney, Huser, Small, & O’Connor,2007; Flanagan & Alfonso, 2011).

Not surprisingly, then, evidence-based interventions are often the ones that areused first in either general or specialized instructional settings as compared to thoseinterventions and techniques without such support. In general, it is incumbentupon practitioners to use evidence-based interventions with students who struggleacademically. It is also prudent to use comprehensive interventions that can meetstudents’ multiple manifest academic difficulties (e.g., remedial reading programsthat contain the five essential components of reading; Feifer, 2011). However, it isclear from the literature that despite their overt relevancy, not all comprehensive,evidence-based interventions address the academic needs of every student effec-tively (e.g., Della Tofallo, 2010; Hale, Wycoff, & Fiorello, 2011).

In a tiered service delivery model, interventions are planned for and selectedbased on universal screening data. For example, students who are at risk forreading difficulties may receive Wilson if their reading difficulties are related

3

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primarily to decoding difficulties or Read 180 if their reading difficulties are relatedprimarily to comprehension difficulties (e.g., Feifer, 2011, and Chapter 5, thisvolume). When a student does not respond as expected to evidence-basedinterventions, a comprehensive evaluation is often recommended to gain a betterunderstanding of the nature of and basis for the student’s learning difficulties. It isthrough a comprehensive and focused evaluation that the intervention processmoves from planning and selecting interventions to tailoring interventions. Planningand selecting interventions is typical of a standard treatment protocol Response toIntervention (RTI) service delivery model, whereas tailoring interventions is moreconsistent with a problem-solving RTI model.

PLANNING AND SELECTING INTERVENTIONS VERSUSTAILORING INTERVENTIONS

Planning and selecting interventions is conceptualized here as the process ofidentifying evidence-based interventions that are most often used in standardservice delivery models to address manifest academic difficulties that are revealedvia progress monitoring (e.g., a particular reading program is selected by a districtas a Tier II intervention for students with reading fluency difficulties). On theother hand, a primary focus of tailoring interventions involves understanding thestudent’s pattern of cognitive and academic strengths and weaknesses and how thispattern interacts with the instructional materials used by the student as well asclassroom instructional factors, environmental factors, and other individual/situational factors that may facilitate or inhibit learning. The goals, therefore,are (a) to use information about a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors to tailorspecific interventions; and (b) to ensure that a student has appropriate access to thecurriculum byminimizing or bypassing the adverse affects that cognitive and otherweaknesses have on the student’s learning. Tailoring interventions may includeModification (e.g., instructional, curricular), Accommodation, Remediation, andCompensation. The acronym,MARC, can be used to assist in remembering thesemethods of tailoring interventions, which are defined in Rapid Reference 1.1.

AMETHOD FOR TAILORING INTERVENTIONS

This chapter provides a Systematic Method of Analyzing Assessment Results forTailoring Interventions (SMAARTI). This method, as initially conceptualized byMascolo (2008), involves the organization, analysis, and synthesis of assessmentdata to aid in understanding the cognitive basis of students’ learning difficulties.Based onmultiple data sources, the steps of SMAARTI assist in identifying various

4 ESSENTIALS OF INTERVENTIONS FOR UNIQUE LEARNERS

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Rapid Reference 1.1 Methods of Tailoring Interventions...........................................................................................................................

TailoringMethod Brief Description Examples

Modification Changes content of material to betaught or measured; typicallyinvolves changing or reducinglearning or measurementexpectations; may change thedepth, breadth, and complexity oflearning and measurement goals.

Reducing the amount of materialthat a student is required to learnSimplifying material to be learnedRequiring only literal (as opposedto critical/inferential) questionsfrom an end-of-chaptercomprehension checkSimplifying test instructions andcontent

Accommodation Changes conditions under whichlearning occurs or is measured, butdoes not change or reduce learningor assessment expectations.Accommodations may includetiming, flexible scheduling,presentation, setting, and responseaccommodations.

Extending time on examsAssigning a project in advance orallowing more time to complete aprojectAligning math problems vertically,as opposed to horizontallyProviding a separate room toworkHaving a student dictate responsesto a scribe

Remediation Techniques or programs used toameliorate cognitive and academicdeficits. Academic interventionstypically focus on developing a skill,increasing automaticity of skills, orimproving the application of skills.Cognitive interventions typicallyfocus on improving cognitiveprocesses such as working memorycapacity and phonologicalprocessing. There are manytechniques, published programs,and software designed for thepurpose of remediation.

Evidence-based programs listed atWhat Works Clearing House:http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwcReading programs appearing onthe Florida Center for ReadingResearch website: www.fcrr.orgTechniques and materials from theReading Rockets website: www.readingro cke ts.orgCogMed (Pearson)Spotlight on ListeningComprehension (LinguiSystems,2006)

Compensation Procedures, techniques, andstrategies that are intended tobypass or minimize the impact of acognitive or academic deficit.

Teaching the use of mnemonicdevicesOrganizational aids or techniquesTeaching a student to outline oruse graphic organizers

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methods of tailoring intervention (i.e., MARC) that make instruction moreaccessible to the student, thereby improving learning. SMAARTI is used whena student fails to respond as expected to evidence-based interventions (typicallythose used at Tier II) and, therefore, undergoes a comprehensive evaluation thatincludes an assessment of cognitive functioning.

STEPS OF SMAARTI

SMAARTI consists of five steps (see Rapid Reference 1.2). While this methodassumes that several forms of data have already been collected for a particularstudent and, therefore, will be viewed post-hoc, the steps of SMAARTI can also serveas a roadmap to the types of data that ought to be gathered in an initial evaluation toaid in tailoring interventions for students with unique learning needs.

DON’T FORGET............................................................................................................A comprehensive evaluation should include data from the following areas offunctioning: (a) educational history and current academic performance; (b) familialfactors and medical history; (c) cognitive performance (including Cattell-Horn-Carroll [CHC] ability domains and neuropsychological processes); (d) behavioral andsocial-emotional functioning; and (e) classroom/instructional/environmental obser-vations. Other information that must be garnered during the course of an evaluationto ensure that interventions are practical include parent/home resources (e.g., timeavailable to spend with student, parent interest/motivation, parents’ level of languageproficiency, computer in the home), student’s schedule and routine, current and pastinterventions used, and current strategies used by the student. When necessary, acomprehensive evaluation may include assessment of cultural and linguistic factors aswell as any other factors that will assist in differential diagnosis.

Rapid Reference 1.2 The Five Steps of SMAARTI...........................................................................................................................

1. Organize primary data using the CHC-based Data Organization and Targets forIntervention form (or DOTI form; see Table 1.1 and CD). Primary data includeinformation from norm-referenced, standardized tests of cognitive and academicability and neuropsychological processes and provide information about charac-teristics that reside mainly within the child (i.e., that are intrinsic). Examine allprimary data to gain an understanding of the student’s unique pattern of ability andprocessing strengths and weaknesses.

2. Determine whether academic weaknesses are empirically related to the cognitiveweaknesses by reviewing the research on the relations among specific cognitive

6 ESSENTIALS OF INTERVENTIONS FOR UNIQUE LEARNERS

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Step 1: Organize Primary Data Using the CHC-Based Data Organizationand Targets for Intervention (DOTI) Form

In this step, practitioners may use the CHC-based DOTI form in Table 1.1(also downloadable from CD) to organize primary data. Primary data includestandardized test scores from cognitive and academic measures, special-purpose batteries (e.g., memory, language), district-wide testing programs(e.g., English Language Arts scores), and progress monitoring. As may be seenin Table 1.1, the DOTI form is organized into 10 CHC domains. It alsocontains an “other” category, which is reserved for use with measures not

abilities, neuropsychological processes, and academic skills (see Rapid Reference1.4). An empirically established relationship between cognitive abilities or pro-cesses and academic skills allows practitioners to gain a better understanding of thepotential reasons for the academic deficit. Knowledge of the underlying reasonsfor academic skill deficiency is necessary for both diagnosis and intervention.

3. Review manifestations of cognitive weaknesses, organize secondary data, identifyinitial targets for intervention, and identify types of academic skill deficits forremediation using the DOTI form. Determine whether identified cognitiveweaknesses manifest in real-world performances in predictable ways. Refer tothe CHC-based manifestations tables (see Rapid References 1. 5 to 1.13) to gainan understanding of the various ways in which a weakness in a specific cognitivedomain likely manifests generally, as well as more specifically in reading, math, andwriting. Based on this information, integrate secondary data into the DOTI form.Secondary data include information from rating scales, classroom observations, andinterviews with parents, teachers, and the student him- or herself. Like primarydata, secondary data typically provide information about characteristics that areintrinsic to the child. When practitioners are able to observe the manifestations ofspecific cognitive deficits in classroom performance, for example, cognitive testresults are ecologically valid. Be sure to note whether manifestations of cognitivedeficits are pervasive (i.e., occur across settings) or setting-specific (e.g., occur onlyin school during mathematics instruction). When recording data in the DOTIform, hypothesize whether the cognitive areas of weakness should be targeted formodification, accommodation, remediation, compensation, or some combinationthereof, and whether the areas of academic weakness are related to basic skillacquisition, fluency, or higher level skill (i.e., application).

4. Consider tertiary data, which are comprised of information about classroominstruction, instructional materials, environment, and strategies—that is, informa-tion about factors that affect learning and that are largely external to the student(i.e., extrinsic). Use the information in Rapid References 1.14 to 1.20 to tailorinterventions for the purpose of minimizing the effects of cognitive weaknesses onlearning and achievement.

5. Integrate data from all previous steps, design and implement an intervention, andmonitor its effectiveness.

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readily classified into one of the 10 CHC domains (e.g., measures of visualmotor ability, attention, executive functions, social-emotional). The DOTIform has three columns for organizing data, allowing for normative strengthsand weaknesses to be recorded in separate columns. As the note to Table 1.1

Table 1.1 CHC-Based Data Organization and Targets for Intervention(DOTI) Form

CHC Cognitive/AcademicAbility or ProcessingDomain

Normative Weaknessand Information About

Intervention

WithinNormalLimits

Normative Strengthand Information

About Intervention

Fluid Reasoning (Gf)Target for Intervention?Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)Target for Intervention?Long-Term Storage andRetrieval (Glr)Target for Intervention?Short-Term Memory (Gsm)Target for Intervention?Visual Processing (Gv)Target for Intervention?Auditory Processing (Ga)Target for Intervention?Processing Speed (Gs)Target for Intervention?Reading (Grw-R)Type of Skill TargetedWriting (Grw-W)Type of Skill TargetedMathematics (Gq)Type of Skill TargetedOtherTarget for Intervention?

Note: Use the following guidelines for identifying strengths and weaknesses: NormativeWeakness is defined by standard scores that are about one standard deviation or more belowthe mean; Normative Strength is defined by standard scores that are about one standarddeviation or more above the mean; within normal limits is defined by standard scores that fallbetween ± 1 SD of the normative mean (i.e., standard scores between 85 and 115). If acognitive domain is targeted for intervention, note whether it is targeted for Modification toInstruction/Curriculum (M), Accommodation (A), Remediation (R), or Compensation (C).When there is a need to target an academic area for intervention, note the type of skill targeted aseither a Basic (or foundational) skill (B), Fluency (F), or a Higher-level (or applied) skill (H).

8 ESSENTIALS OF INTERVENTIONS FOR UNIQUE LEARNERS

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indicates, in general, standardscores that are about 1 standarddeviation (SD) below the meanor lower are considered norma-tive weaknesses and standardscores that are about 1 SD abovethe mean or higher are consid-ered normative strengths.

To illustrate various aspects ofSMAARTI, this chapter includes excerpts from a case study, a boy, AydenMurphy, who has difficulties with learning (see Rapid Reference 1.3). ADOTI form for Ayden is included in Table 1.2. This table contains primarydata only. For example, a quick review of the data included in this table shows thatAyden has cognitive weaknesses in Glr, Ga, and Gs as well as deficits in reading,math, and writing skills. He also has relative strengths, particularly in the areaof Gv.

C A U T I O N.........................................................Readers not familiar with CHC theory arereferred to Essentials of Cross-BatteryAssessment, Third Edition (Flanagan, Ortiz, &Alfonso, 2013) for definitions and taskexamples of all CHC abilities as well asCHC classifications of cognitive, academic,and neuropsychological tests.

Rapid Reference 1.3 Selected Information From aPsychoeducational Evaluation of Ayden Murphy...........................................................................................................................

Name: Ayden MurphyAge: 10Gender: MaleGrade Level: Fifth Grade

Reason for Referral:Ayden was referred to the Spotswood Center for Psychological Services for anevaluation by his mother, Ms. Murphy. Ms. Murphy reported that she was concernedabout Ayden’s difficulties in reading, reading comprehension, and writing. Morespecifically, Ms. Murphy indicated that Ayden continues to have difficulty decodingwords and is not able to write in complete sentences most of the time or formparagraphs. In general, Ayden’s academic performance has declined markedly in thefifth grade and he has recently demonstrated much less interest in school, homework,and reading.

Selected Measures Administered/Evaluation Procedures:Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, Sixth Edition

(BEERY VMI)

(continued)

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Child Intake InterviewParent Intake Interview (Source: Mother)Test of Orthographic Competence (TOC)Woodcock-Johnson III Normative Update Tests of Achievement (WJ III NU ACH);

Form A, Age NormsWoodcock-Johnson III Normative Update Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III NU

COG); Form A, Age Norms

Background Information:Ayden is a 10-year-old Caucasian male who is currently in fifth grade at JeffersonElementary. He resides with his mother, stepfather, maternal grandmother, andyounger sister. Ms. Murphy reported that Ayden typically gets along with all membersof the household. Ayden has no reported medical conditions and is seemingly in goodhealth. Ayden’s last vision exam was approximately a year ago. He wears glasses fornearsightedness. Although he has never had a hearing exam outside of school, hishearing has never been a concern and he has passed all screening exams conducted atschool.

Ayden attended Washington Heights Day Care between the ages of 3 and 5years. He has attended Jefferson Elementary School since kindergarten and iscurrently in the fifth grade. During kindergarten (age 5), Ayden’s teacher reportedthat he behaved well, but had difficulty reading and making sound-symbolconnections. During first grade (age 6), Ayden had a strict teacher whom Ms.Murphy believed was beneficial for him. Specifically, Ayden’s first-grade teacherkept him on-task and worked with him often on an individual basis. Nevertheless,during second grade (age 7), Ayden continued having difficulty reading and alsobegan misbehaving in the classroom. For example, he would often play with thingsin his desk during reading instruction and frequently left his seat during readinggroups. In third grade (age 8), Ayden was described as having problems withreading and writing and, in fourth grade (age 9), he received additional help from areading teacher. Although he continued to struggle in reading and writing in thefourth grade, his teacher reported that he made some improvement over thecourse of the academic year.

Ayden is currently in fifth grade (age 10). According to his mother, Ayden iscurrently receiving pull-out services, which include meeting with the remedial readingteacher for one period three times per week for 30 minutes.

In terms of social-emotional development, Ms. Murphy described Ayden asgenerally cooperative, even-tempered, friendly, happy, and affectionate. Hereportedly gets along well with others. Ayden enjoys playing football, soccer,and X-Box. According to Ayden, his least favorite activities are reading indepen-dently and completing social studies homework, although Ms. Murphy reportedthat Ayden enjoys reading with his family. Ayden also likes going to the park,movies, and out to eat. Ayden attends Operation Exodus, which is an after-schoolprogram designed to help him complete his homework and explore variouseducational activities.

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Table 1.2 DOTI Form for Ayden MurphyWith Primary Data Only

CHC Cognitive/AcademicAbility or Processing Domain

NormativeWeakness and

Information AboutIntervention

Within NormalLimits

NormativeStrength and

Information AboutIntervention

Fluid Reasoning (Gf) Fluid ReasoningFactor = 88 ± 4

Target for Intervention?Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) Comprehension-

KnowledgeFactor = 95 ± 4

Target for Intervention?Long-Term Storage andRetrieval (Glr)

Long-Term Storageand Retrieval Factor= 77 ± 5

Target for Intervention?Short-Term Memory (Gsm) Short-Term

Memory Factor= 96 ± 6

Target for Intervention?Visual Processing (Gv) Visual

ProcessingFactor =107 ± 4

Target for Intervention?Auditory Processing (Ga) Auditory Processing

Factor = 72 ± 5Target for Intervention?Processing Speed (Gs) Processing Speed

Factor = 84 ± 4Target for Intervention?Reading (Grw-R) Passage

Comprehension =70 ± 5Reading Fluency =83 ±

Letter-WordIdentification =90 ± 4

Type of Skill TargetedWriting (Grw-W) Writing Samples =

74 ± 6Spelling =87 ± 5Writing Fluency= 95 ± 5

Type of Skill TargetedMathematics (Gq) Applied Problems =

81 ± 4Fluency = 80 ± 4

Calculation =107 ± 4

Type of Skill Targeted(continued )

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Step 2: DetermineWhether AcademicWeaknesses Are EmpiricallyRelated to the CognitiveWeaknesses by Reviewing the Research on theRelations among Specific Cognitive Abilities, NeuropsychologicalProcesses, and Academic Skills

In the initial step of SMAARTI, data were organized by CHC domain andnormative strengths and weaknesses were identified. Prior to making classifica-tions or diagnostic decisions and tailoring interventions, however, it is importantto examine the relations among cognitive abilities, neuropsychological processes,and specific academic skills for the following reasons. First, information oncognitive-achievement relationships assists in interpreting the data entered onthe DOTI form. Second, because specific learning disabilities are caused byunderlying cognitive processing weaknesses, knowing the cognitive correlates ofmanifest academic difficulties assists in diagnosis (e.g., Flanagan, Alfonso, &Ortiz, 2012; Flanagan et al., 2013). Third, when empirical data are available tosupport a relationship between identified areas of cognitive and academic weak-nesses, interventions designed to remediate academic skill deficits can be tailoredin an attempt to minimize the effects of cognitive weaknesses on learning. Thus, inthis step, practitioners should examine the information in Rapid Reference 1.4 todetermine if identified cognitive and academic weaknesses are related empirically.

Table 1.2 (Continued )

CHC Cognitive/AcademicAbility or Processing Domain

NormativeWeakness and

Information AboutIntervention

Within NormalLimits

NormativeStrength and

Information AboutIntervention

OtherTarget for Intervention?

Note: Cognitive and Academic standard scores are from the WJ III NU COG and ACHbatteries (Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001, 2007), unless otherwise noted. Use thefollowing guidelines for identifying strengths and weaknesses: Normative Weakness is definedby standard scores that are about one standard deviation or more below the mean; NormativeStrength is defined by standard scores that are about one standard deviation or more above themean; within normal limits is defined by standard scores that fall between ± 1 SD of thenormative mean (i.e., standard scores between 85 and 115). If a cognitive domain is targeted forintervention, note whether it is targeted for Modification to Instruction/Curriculum (M),Accommodation (A), Remediation (R), or Compensation (C). When there is a need to target anacademic area for intervention, note the type of skill targeted as either a Basic (or foundational)skill (B), Fluency (F), or a Higher-level (or applied) skill (H).

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Rapid Reference 1.4 Summary of Relations BetweenCHC Broad and Narrow Cognitive Abilities and Reading,

Math, and Writing Achievement...........................................................................................................................

ReadingAchievement

MathAchievement

WritingAchievement

Gf Inductive (I) andgeneral sequentialreasoning (RG)abilities play amoderate role inreadingcomprehension.

Inductive (I)and generalsequential (RG)reasoningabilities areconsistentlyvery importantfor mathproblem solvingat all ages.

Inductive (I) andgeneral sequentialreasoning abilities (RG)are consistently relatedto writtenexpressionat all ages.

Gc Languagedevelopment (LD),lexical knowledge(VL), and listeningability (LS) areimportant at allages. These abilitiesbecomeincreasinglyimportant with age.

Languagedevelopment (LD),lexical knowledge(VL), and listeningabilities (LS) areimportant at allages. These abilitiesbecomeincreasinglyimportant withage.

Languagedevelopment (LD),lexical knowledge (VL),and generalinformation (K0) areimportant primarilyafter about the secondgrade. These abilitiesbecome increasinglyimportant with age.

Gsm Memory span(MS) andworkingmemory (WM)capacity.

Memory span(MS) andworkingmemory (WM)capacity.

Memory span (MS)is important towriting, especiallyspelling skills,whereas workingmemory (WM) hasshown relationswith advancedwriting skills (e.g.,writtenexpression).

Gv OrthographicProcessing—reading fluency

May be importantprimarily for higherlevel or advancedmathematics(e.g., geometry,calculus).

OrthographicProcessing—spelling

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Research on the relations among cognitive abilities, neuropsychological pro-cesses, and specific academic skills has mounted over the years (see Flanagan, Ortiz,Alfonso, & Mascolo, 2006; Flanagan, Alfonso, & Mascolo, 2011; Fletcher, Lyon,Fuchs,&Barnes, 2007; andMcGrew&Wendling, 2010, for summaries).Much ofthe recent research on cognitive-academic relationships has been interpreted withinthe context of CHC theory (e.g., Flanagan et al., 2011) and with specificinstruments developed from CHC theory (e.g., McGrew & Wendling, 2010).In addition, statistical analyses, such as structural equationmodeling, have beenusedto understand the extent to which specific cognitive abilities explain variance inacademic skills above and beyond the variance accounted for by g (e.g., Floyd et al.,2008; McGrew, Flanagan, Keith, & Vanderwood, 1997; Juarez, 2012; Vander-wood, McGrew, Keith, & Flanagan, 2001). Finally, many valuable resourcessummarize the research on cognitive and neurobiological processes associatedwith specific academic skill deficits (e.g., Feifer & Della Toffalo, 2007; Flanagan

Ga Phonetic coding(PC) or“phonologicalawareness/processing” is veryimportant duringthe elementaryschool years.

Phonetic coding (PC) or“phonologicalawareness/processing” isvery important duringthe elementary schoolyears for both basicwriting skills and writtenexpression (primarilybefore about grade 5).

Glr Naming facility (NA)or “rapid automaticnaming” is veryimportant during theelementary schoolyears. Associativememory (MA) isalso important.

Naming facility(NA); associativememory (MA)

Phonetic coding (PC) or“phonologicalawareness/processing” isvery important duringthe elementary schoolyears for both basicwriting skills and writtenexpression (primarilybefore about grade 5).

Gs Perceptual speed (P)abilities areimportant during allschool years,particularly theelementary schoolyears.

Perceptual speed (P)abilities areimportant during allschool years,particularly theelementary schoolyears.

Perceptual speed (P)abilities are importantduring all school yearsfor basic writing andrelated to all ages forwritten expression.

(continued)

14 ESSENTIALS OF INTERVENTIONS FOR UNIQUE LEARNERS