39751649 Development of Russian Rocket Engine Technology

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NASA TECHNICAL TRANSLATION NASA TT F-15,408

DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN ROCKETENGINE TECHNOLOGY

Ye. K. Moshkin

(NASA-fT-P-15408) DEVELO E3 LZ'I OF EUSSIAH N74-22411

COCRET E S G X t i E 'IECatiOLOGY (Kan n Er (Leo)Associates) 208 E: HC 13.50

C S C L 21H Unclas

G 3 / 2 t l 38034

Translation of Ratvitiye OtechestvennogoRaketnogo Dvigatelestroyeniya, M O S C O W ,

Mashinostroyeniye Press, 1973, 256 pages.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D. C. 20546 .MARCH 1974



TABLE OF CONTENTS

Fr omt heAut hor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapt er 1. The Per i od of Theor et i cal Foundat i on of t he

1. 1. At t he Wel l spr i ngs of Sovi et Rocket Desi gn . . . .1. 2. The Wor ks of N . Ye . Zhukovski y and I . V.

Meshcher ski y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. 3. K . E. Tsi ol kovski y. t he Founder of Ast r onaut i cs . .

The Wor ks of K. E . Tsi ol kovski y on t he Cr eat i on o f t heTheory of React i on Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . .

Suggest i ons f or LRE Fuel s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Recommendat i ons f or t he Desi gn of Combust i on Chamber sbevel opment of Feed Syst ems . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Yu. V. Kondr at yuk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The Wor ks of Yu. V. Kondr at yuk on Rocket Engi nes . . .Suggest i ons f or LRE Fuel s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Recommendat i ons f or t he Desi gn of t he Combust i on

Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Devel opment of Feed Syst ems . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. 5. The Sci ent i st and I nvent or F . A. Tsander . . . . .The Wor ks of F . A. Tsander on Rocket Engi nes . . . . .I nvest i gat i on of Fuel s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .St udy of Pr ocesses W t hi n t he Chamber and Cool i ngCondi t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I ncreasi ng Speci f i c I mpul se and Ef f i c i ency . . . . . .The OR- 1 React i on Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The OR- 2 Rocket Enf . ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Pl ans of Rocket Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapt er 2. The Fi r si Rocket Sci ent i f i c Resear ch andExper i ment al Desi gn Or gani zat i ons i n t he USSR

2. 1. ' The I ni t i al Per i od of Devel opment of GD . . t heN. I . Ti khom r ov Labor at or y . . . . . . . . . .

2. 2. The Gas Dynam cs Labor at or y . . . . . . . . . . . .2 . 3 . Li qui d and El ect r i cal Rocket Engi nes and Rocket s

o f GDL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Experi ment al El ec, r i c Rocket Engi ne . . . . . . . . .Sel ect i on of Fuel f or L R E . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Engi nes wi t h Annul a. Combust i on Chamber s . . . . . . .Engi nes wi t h Radi al l y Pl aced Nozzl es . . . . . . . . .Engi nes wi t h I nt er nal Prot ect i ve Coat i ngs . . . . . .Engi nes wi t h Ext er nal Cool i ng . . . . . . . . . . . .GDL Engi nes f o r Fl i ght Vehi c l es . . . . . . . . . . .

T h eRo c k e t o f GDL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Capabi l i t i es and Ar eas of Appl i cat i on of LRE

The For mul a of K . E . Ts i ol kovski y . . . . . . . . .

1. 4. One of t he Pi oneer s of Rocket Technol ogy,

Fuel Feed Syst ems and St ands . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CS Osoavi akhi mUSSR ( MosGI RD) . . . . . . . . .. 9. The Moscow Gr oup f o r t he St udy of React i on Mut i on,

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2.5. Li qui d- Fuel ed Rocket Engi nes and Rocket s of GI RD . . 115The 02 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115The 10 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118The 09 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121The 03 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123The GI RD- 09 Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124The G I R D - X Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125The GI RD- 07 Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127Ai r Br eathi ng React i on Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Mot i on ( LenGI RD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131The Powder Rocket s of LenGI RD . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Li qui d- Fuel ed Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

2.7. The Work of t he Soci et y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

t ut e (RNI I ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1463. 1. Cr eat i on of t he I nst i t ut e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1463.2. The Act i vi t y of t he I ns t i t ut e . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Powder Rocket Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148Li qui d- Fuel ed Rocket Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Ai r - Br eat hi ng React i on Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Fl i ght Vehi cl es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

3.3. Ni t r i c Aci d LRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154The OW- 5 3 . Owl - 63 Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154The OW- 6 4 .OW-70 Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155The OW- 101 . OW- 10 2 Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162The GG- 1 and GG- 2 Gas Gener at or s . . . . . . . . . . . 162The RDA- 1- 150 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164The RDA- 300 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

3. 4. Oxygen LRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169The 12K Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169The 205 Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170The RDK- 1- 150 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172The Engi ne of P. I . Shat i l ov . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

3. 5. Devel opment s by Desi gn Bureau No. 7 ( KB- 7) . . . . . 174

The RD- 1 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179The RD- 1KhZ Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183The RD- 2 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187The RD- 3 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

The RD- 4 Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Desi gn Bureau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190Concl usi ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

2. 6. The Leni ngr ad Gr oup f or t he St udy of React i on

Chapter 3 . The React i on Sci ent i f i c Resear ch I nst i -

Chapt er 4. Li qui d- Fuel ed Rovket Engi nes f or Avi at i on . . 1774. 1. The Li qui d- Fuel ed Rocket Engi nes of OKB- NKAP . . . . 177

4. 2. The Li qui d- Fuel ed Engi nes of RNI I and t he NKAP

i v



F R O M THE AUTHOR

The achievements i n t h e m as te ry o f s p a c e h av e a t t r a c t e d t h ea t t e n t i o n of mankind t o v a r io u s prob le ms o f a s t ro n a u t i c s ,i n c lu d in g prob le ms o f t h e h i s t o r y of i t s development. I n t heUSSR i n r ec en t years w e h av e se e n i n c r ea s i n g i n t e r e s t i n t h es tudy and an a l ys is o f th e documents f rom th e a rch iv es des c r i b in gthe development of d o me s ti c ro c k e t t e ch n olo gy . I t i s g r a t i f y i n gt o n o t e t h a t t h e teams o f s c i e n t i f i c w or ke rs i n t h i s a r ea a regrowing - - t h e h i s t o r y of a s t r o n a u t i c s i s now be ing s tu d i ed n o ton ly be ve t e ran s o f rock e t technology , bu t a l so by youngs p e c i a l i s t s as w e l l .

-3 *

Var ious per iods a r e s t u d i e d - - befo re th e October Revolu-t i o n , b e f o re t h e b eg in ni ng o f t h e Great P a t r i o t i c War, b e f o r eth e launch of t he wor ld ’s f i r s t a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e ( 4 October1957) , be fore and a f t e r t h e f i r s t f l i g h t o f man i n sp a ce ( 12Ap ri l 1961) . Addi t io nal per iod s have been determined by newachievements i n th e mastery and s tudy of space - - b y su c c e s s fu lf l i g h t s t o Venus a nd Mars, s o f t lan di ngs on th e moon and Venus,launching of a u to m at i c i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s , u n iq ue e x p e r i -ments w i t h q a n n e d sp a c e c ra f t , e t c . Wide ly v a r i e d a s p e c t s o f t h eh i s t o r y of a s t r o n a u t i c s are b e in g s tu d ie d d e ep ly: t h e d e v e lop -

ment o f t h e d e s ig n o f ro c k e t s a nd e n g in e s o f v a r io u s ty p e s , t h ework of e x pe r im e nt a l- d es i gn , s c i e n t i f i c r e s ea r c h , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ,par ty and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o ns , t h e a c t i v i t y o f i n d i v i d u a lpersons . There fore , i t i s imp o ss ib l e a t p r e s e n t t o s pe ak of t h eh i s t o r y of rocke t and space technology as a s i n g le th eme, t oa t t e m p t t o w r i t e an all- enco mpa ssi ng book on th e development ofa s t r o n a u t i c s , o r t o p r e t e n d c o mp le t en e ss of p r e se n t a t io n .

This book i s d e d ic a t e d t o t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e c r e a t i o n andd e v e lo p me n t o f S o v ie t l i q u id - fu e l e d ro c k e t e n g in e s [ L R E ] ( a s weknow, LRE are th e mos t impor tan t eng ines i n modern as t r on au t i cs ) .

The a u t h o r h a s a t t e mpte d t o d e s c r ib e t h e c o n t r ib u t i o n made -4by our countrymen K. E . Tsiolkovskiy, Yu. V . Kondratyuk, F. A .

Tsander , V . P . Glushko, S. P. Korolev, M. K . Tikhonravov ando t h er s t o t h e science of rock e ts and rock e t eng ines burn ingl i q u i d f u e l s , as w e l l a s t h e su c c e s s e s a c hie ve d d u r in g th e Gre a tP a t r i o t i c War i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e f un da me nt al b a s i s f o rthe fu r ther deve lopment of rock e t eng ine cons t ruc t io n , and mostimp o r t a n t ly t o show th e b a s i c r o l e of th e gas dynamic la bor a to ry

*Numbers i n t h e margin in d i c a t e p a g in a t io n in t h e f o re i g n t e x t .

1



G D L ) , Group f o r t he Study of Reacti on Engines G I R D ) tid t h ewo r ld ' s f i r s t R ea ct io n S c i e n t i f i c R es ea rc h I n s t i t u t e ( U I I ) .

The author found i t imp o ssib l e t o a n a ly z e a l l o f th eeng ines des igned and produced i n t he USSR. However, i n or de rt h a t t h e r e a d e r mi gh t g a i n a more complete concept of th e in t e r -re la t i on sh ip o f th e wide ly var ie d and h i gh l y complex p roblemsso lv e d i n th e c re a t io n o f eng in es , some L R E d e s ig n s are d e s -c r i b e d r a t h e r c om pl e te ly .

T h e book was w r i t t e n u t i l i z i n g mater ia l s f ro m th e a r c h iv e so f t h e Academy of Sciences USSR, t h e GDL Experimental andDesign Bureau and many o t h e r or g an i za t i on s. Many comrades

k i n d l y p ro vi de d t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r own h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e sand made us ef ul recommendations duri ng t he pre pa ra t i on of th emanuscript . The aut hor i s t r u l y g r a t e f u l t o a l l those com-ra d e s who to ok p a r t i n t h e c r e a t io n o f t h i s bo ok , and p a r t i c u -l a r l y t o N. V. Ivanov, V. M. Komarov and D . A . Shushko.

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F i r s t mst mme thought8 imaqina-t on and dreams. They are

f o l l owe d b y s c i e n t i f i c ca lcu la t ion .

Then8 finally th thought i s

brought to l i f e .

K. E. Tsiolkovskiy

Chapter 1. The Period o f T h e o re t i c a l F ou nd at ion o f t h e

1.1. A t t h e W e l l spr in g s of Soviet Rocket Design

C a p a b i l i t i e s a n d Areas of A p p l i c a t i o n of LRE

The development of r ock et technology bef ore th e 17 thcen tury has been very l i t t l e s t ud i ed . The f i r s t r e l i a b l ein fo rma t io n on th e u se o f ro c k e t s i n R u ssi a r e l a t e s t o t h e l a s th a l f of t h e 1 7 th c e n tu ry . In 1 68 0, a n " in s t i t u t io n " wasc r e at e d i n MOSCOW, where f i rework rocke ts were manufactured.The product ion of powder rock e ts i n Russ ia expanded con t inu a l l ya f t e r t h a t time, b u t t h e s e r o c k e t s were q u i t e p r i m i t i v e , eve nd u ri n g t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e 1 8 t h c e nt u ry .

After t h e u s e of mi l i t a ry ro c k e t s by t h e En g l i sh army i nt h e s ei ge o f Bulon and Copenhagen i n 1805-1807, a m i l i t a r y

s c i e n t i f i c c om mi tt ee beg an t o s t u d y m i l i t a r y rot ; e t s i n R u ss i a.A f t e r a number o f unsuccess fu l exper iments , a member of t h em i l i t a r y s c i e n t i f i c committee named Kartmazov made two t y p e s ofm i l i t a r y ro c k e t s i n 1814 - - i n c e n d ia ry a nd e x p lo s iv e . I n 1815,t h e famous a r t i l l e r y s c i e n t i s t A . D . Zasyadko (1779-1837) begant o p e rfo rm e x pe r ime n ts w i t h mi l i t a ry ro c k e t s . I n 18 32 , a l l t h e: 'r oc ke t i n s t i t u t i o n s " i n R us si a were combined i n t o th e Pe te rb urgRoc ke t In s t i t u t io n , which s e rv ed as a center f o r t h e c r e a t i o nand manufactu re o f domes t ic mi l i ta ry rocke t s . Unt i l th e mid-1 8 4 0 t s , r o c k e t b u i l d in g i n R u ss i a de ve lo pe d s lo wly , p rod u cin glow q u a l i t y r o c k e t s due t o t h e p r i m i t i v e s t a t e o f t h e t ec hn ol og yo f t h e i r p ro d uc t io n . The n, d ue to t h e wid e u se o f ro c k e t sd u r i ng m i l i t a r y a c t i o n s i n t h e C au ca su s, t h e a t t i t u d e t ow ar d

changed sharply . A t t h i s time, t h e g r e a t e s t Russian a r t i l l e r ys c i e n t i s t , Konstantin Ivanovich Konstantinov (1818-1871) begant o work on t h e development of ro ck et s. By 1845, 1 0 0 0 two-inchm i l i t a r y r o c k e t s were d e l i v e re d t o t h e Ca uc asus . The q u a l i t y G f

t h e m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s p r o d u c e d b y t h e P e t e rb u r g Rocket I n s t i t u -t i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t l y i mp rov ed. By t h e m i d - 1 8 5 0 ' ~ ~ i l i t a r yrockets were w id el y us ed a nd pr ov ed t h e i r u t i l i t y .o f t h i s , m i l i t a r y r o c ke t s were made a p a r t of t he armament o fthe Russian army and navy.

/ 6roblems of improvement and pr od uc ti on o f r o c k e t s i n Russ ia

A s a r e s u l t

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I n t h e 1850's and ~ O S , . I . Konstan t inov pub l i sheds ev er al works on problems of t h e p ro d u ct io n a nd u se o f r o c k e t s .K . I . K on st an ti no v f i r s t no te d t h a t t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y o f t h er e a c t i o n f o r c e was o ne o f t h e main r e a s o ns f o r s c a t t e r i n g o fro c k e t imp a ct s . D i sc u ss in g th e p r in c i p l e o f mot io n o f ro c k e t s ,h e n o te d th a t as th e powder burned , th e impulse impar ted t o t hero c k e t was e q u a l t o the impulse of th e exhaus t gasses . Thus,K. I . K o ns t an ti no v f i r s t f o r m u la t ed t h e b a s i c law of motion ofro c k e t s , a l t h o ug h th e ma th e ma t i ca l i n t e rp re t a t i o n a nd p ro d u c t io nof a f or m ul a f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y o frock e ts were no t deve loped i n t he works o f K . I . Kons tan t inov .

T h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r o c k e t mo to rs f o r

human f l i g h t a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n of many of our eng in ee rs ,inve n tor s , des ig ners and s c i e n t i s t s . For example , i n 1845, I . I .Tre te ssk iy (1821-1895) developed pla ns For ro c k e t po wered f l i g h tve hi cl es , t o be Dowered by steam. In 1866. N . M. Sokovnin(1811-1894), i n h i s work Vozdushnyy Kor abl ; [The A i r s h i p ] ,d e s cr i b e d a n a e r o s t a t d e s i g n t o b e d r i v en by r e a c t i o n f o r c e. I n1867, N. A. Teleshev was awarded a p a t en t f o r a j e t a i r p l a n e .I n 1880, t h e t a l e n t e d s c i e n t i s t a nd i n v e nt o r S. S. Nezhdanovskiy,b ased on th e o re t i c a l s tu d i e s , c a l c u la t i o n s an d c o mp u ta t ion s ,c on cl ud ed t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r e a c t i v e l ypowered f l i g h t veh ic le . Between 1882 and 1884, he s t ud ie d th eproblems o f t h e e n e r g e t i c s o f r e a c t i o n mo to rs , a n a l yz i n g t h ep o ss ib i l i t y o f u s in g l i q u i d two-component fu e l s f o r ro c k et s1 .In 1887, F. R . Geshvend i n h i s bro chure "General Basis o f t h e

Design of a Steamship fo r A i r Trave l , " sugges ted a p l a n f o r av e h i c l e w i t h a steam re ac t i on eng ine. In 1896, A. P . Fedorovi n h i s b r o c h u r e A New P r i n c i p l e o f A i r Flight" abandoned theatmosphere a s a su pp or ti ng medium and pr es en te d a d e s c r i p t i o nof a r ea ct io n motor i n which gas was t o f l ow f rom a c e n t r a l t u b e( c y l i n d e r ) .

T h i s h a r d l y e x h a u s t s t h e l i s t of Russ ian rese arc her s andinven t i ons ded ica ted t o p roblems of re ac t i on f l i g h t . Amongth e se e f f o r t s we sh o u ld p a r t i c u l a r ly n o te t h e work o f N . I .Kibal 'chich (1853-1881).

Niko lay Iv a no v ic h Kib a l ' c h i c h , t h e a u th o r o f t h e wor ld ' sp l an f o r a ro c k et f l i g h t v e h i c l e z , was born 1 9 Octoberi r s

1853 i n the c i t y o f Korop. I n h i s s i x t h y e a r i n s c h oo l , h e

'The works of S. S. Nezhdanovskiy were publ i shed on ly in 1964 .The notebooks and drawings of S. S. Nezhdanovsk iy a r c s t o r ed i nt h e N . Ye. Zhukovskiy Museum of S c i e n t i f i c MemorabiliainMoscow .n

L Kib a l ' c h i c h , N. I . , A P la n fo r a n A i r c r a f t , Byloye, 1918,NO. 10-11.

3Here a nd th ro u gh o ut t h e b ook, a l l d a t e s from th e p re re v o lu -t i o n a r y p c r i od a r e g iv en i n t h e o l d s t y l e .

4



t o pe r fo rm e x p e r ime n t s , t h e a u th o r d e ve lo pe d h i s i d e a on th eb a s i s o f g ue ss es a nd s c i e n t i f i c c a l c u l a t i o n s .

We have p resen ted a b r ie f b iography of N . I . Kib a l ' c h i c h ,s i n c e t h e l i f e o f t h i s r em ar ka bl e s on of t h e U k ra in i an n a t i o nh a s be en d e sc r ib e d r e p e a te d ly i n t h e p o p u la r a nd sp e c i a ll i t e r a t u r e . However, even now ce r t a i n fa c t s remain unc l ea r .Some h i s t o r ia ns , f o r example, co ns ider t he ques t ion o f Kiba l 'c h i c h' s p l a c e o f r e s id e nc e du r in g t h e l a s t days o f h i s l i f es t i 11 unanswered.

On 2 0 Ja nu ar y 1960, a memorial museum was opened i n th ehome where Mikola (Nikolay) Ki ba l 'c hic h s pe nt hi s chil dhood.

The name of K iba l 'ch ich has been given t o a cr a t e r on th efa r s ide o f the moon .

1 . 2 . The Works of N . Ye. Zhukovskiy and I . V. Meshcherskiy -/9

During th e second ha l f o f th e l a s t cen tury , 1830-1890 , th ef i r s t works o f two o u t s t a n d in g R uss ia n s c i e n t i s t s a pp ea red - -Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovskiy and Iv an Vsev olodov ichMeshcherskiy . These s t ud ie s were dedi ca t ed t o prob lems ofreaction-powered motion.

The f oun der of modern aeromechanics and hydromechanics,Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovskiy, was born on 5 January 1847. H i s

c h ild ho o d was sp e n t i n t h e v i l l a g e o f Orek hov o, i n t h e Vla d i -mirskaya region. N . Ye. Zhukovskiy re cei ve d h i s secondary edu-c a t i o n a t t h e Fourt h Moscow Gymnasium. A f t e r co mp le ti on of t h egymnasium, he en te re d Moscow Un iv er si ty , where he pa r t i c i p a t e dfrom h i s v er y f i r s t y e a r i n t h e work o f t h e c lu b which l a t e rbecame the Moscow Mathem atica l So ci et y. Gra duat ing from t h eUnivers i ty i n 1868, N . Ye. Zhukovskiy, who always dreamed ofbecoming an eng ineer , en te red t he Pe te rburg I n s t i t u t e o f R a i l -r o a d s l .

Beginning i n 1870, N . Ye. Zhukovskiy was an instructor ofph ys ic s a t t he Second Moscow Women's Gymnasium, u n t i l i n 1872he t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e I m p e ri a l Moscow Technical School (now theMoscow Higher Technical School imeni Bauman). A t f i r s t , N. Ye.Zhukovskiy taugh t mathematics , then f o r 4 7 y e a r s - - mechanics.I t was a t t h i s schoo l t ha t Nikolay Yegorovich began t o s tu dy oneof the most complex and i n t e r es t i ng s ec t i on s o f theoret ica . .phys ics - - h yd ro me ch an ic s. The r e su l t s of h i s f i r s t s t u d i e swere published by N . Ye. Zhukovskiy i n h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n "The

~ ~ ~~~ ~-

' ' 'Astronautics , MOSCOW, Sove tskaya Ents ik lo ped iya [Sovie tEncyclopedia] , 1 9 7 0 .

6



Kinematics of a Liquid Body." Af te r an out st and in g def ense i n1877, Nikolay Yegorovich was awarded the degree of Master ofScience . I n 1879, N. Ye. Zhukovskiy was s e l e c t e d a s a su p e r -numerary pr of es so r of a n a l y t i c mechanics by Moscow Uni ver si ty.In 1882, he publis hed h i s or i gi n al work "On th e React ion ofIn f lowing and Outflowing F lu ids , " i n which he f i r s t p roducedt h e f or mu la s f o r d e t e r mi n a t io n o f t h e r e a c t i o n f o r c e o f a s t reamof f l u i d f lowing from a moving ves sel .St ren gth of Motion," w ri t t en i n 1887, won N. Ye. Zhukovskiythe degree of Doctor of Applied Mechanics.

Ne. Ye. Zhukovskiy was given grea t la t i t ud e f o r comprehen-

s i v e s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y , bo th i n t he t e ch n ic a l s cho ol a d nt h e u n iv e r s i ty where l a t e r , i n 18 91 , N. Ye. Zhukovskiy was madea n o rd in a ry p ro fe s so r .

H i s monograph "The

By the end of h i s l i f e , N . Ye. Zhukovskiy had become t h eorganized l ea de r of t h e domest ic scho ol of hydroaeromechanics .C o ns t an t ly de ve lo pi ng t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o f t h emechan ics o f an incompress ib le f lu id , N. Ye. Zhukovskiy pub-l i s h e d works between 1890 and 1 9 0 7 which l a i d th e fo u n d a t ionf o r a new sc ie nc e - - t h e dynamics o f t h e f l i g h t of a i r c r a f t .In 1902 , under th e le ader sh ip o f N. YS. Zhukovskiy, one of t h ew o r l d' s f i r s t wind t u nn e l s was c re a t e d , i n 1904 - - t h e f i r s taerodynamics i n s t i t u t e i n Europe, and i n 1910 - - the ae rody-nainics l abo ra tor y of IMTU. I n 1908, Zhukovskiy publi shed h i s

work "On t h e Theory of Ve ss el s Powered by t h e R eac tio n Force ofa Stream of Water."

The Great October So c i a l i s t Revolut ion opened a new s t a g ei n th e development of domest ic av ' a t io n sc i enc e and technology .

In 1918, th e Ce ntra l Aerohydrodynamic S c i e n t i f i c Research l oI n s t i t u t e (TsAGI) was organ ize d, headed by N. Ye. Zhukovskiy.The th e o re t i c a l c o u rse s o f MVTU se rv e d as a b a s i s f o r t h e c r e a -t i on o f t he Avia t ion Technica l School , conver ted i n 19 21 t o t h eI n s t i t u t e o f th e Red Air fo rc e [IKVF]. In 1 9 2 2 , based on t h i si n s t i t u t e , t h e M i li t ar y A i r Academy imeni N. Ye. Zhukovskiy,now the Mi li ta ry A i r Engineering Academy imeni N. Y e . Zhukovskiy,was created.

V. I . L en in, b e g inn ing i n t h e ve ry f i r s t d ay s o f S o v i e tpower, con sta nt l y fol lowed the work of N . Ye. Zhukovskiy and h i ss c i e n t i s t s and gave them comprehensive a id . N. Ye. Zhukovskiywas ca l l ed by Vladimir I l ' i c h Len in the " fa the r o f Russ ianAviat ion."

The works o f Nikolay Yegorovich i n t he a r ea of aerodynamicsand f l i g h t s erv e d a s t h e th e o r e t i c a l b a s i s o f modern a v i a t i o ns c i e n c e .

7



In h i s work, N. Ye. Zhukovskiy th eo re t i ca l l y p re d i c te d anumber of p o s s i bl e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r i e s o f a n a i r c r a f t , i n p a r -t i c u l a r t h e "dead lo o p . " In 1 90 4, h e d i s c o v e re d th e law d e t e r -m in in g t h e l i f t o f a n a i r c r a f t wing and p u bl i sh e d t h e r e s u l t sof h i s i n v e s t ig a t io n s o n t h i s prob le m i n 1906.

H i s f i n a l work o n th e th e o ry o f r e a c t io n e n g in es was t h ea r t i c l e "The Theory of Vessels Driven by the Reaction Force ofa Stream of Water ," p r i nt ed i n 1908. I t p r e s e n t s a n o b j e c t i v ea n a l y s i s o f t h e pr obl em o f t h e r e a c t i o n f o r c e f o r vessels of anysha pe, submerged i n a f l u i d a nd moving a t a r b i t r a r y s pe ed , w i t hf l u i d fl ow in g i n and o u t o f t h e v e s s e l . I n t h i s r e - l o r t , N. Y e .Zhukovskiy avoided th e e r r o r o f c e r t a i n s c i e n t i s t s : he no te dt h a t t h e phenomenon of re ac t i on mus t be s t ud i ed t oge the r wi th

the f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e m ot io n of t h eve ss el , and analyzed th e change of t h i s r e s is t a nc e as a func t iono f t h e p o in t where th e l i q u id was drawn i n t o th e v e s se l .

b u ti o n t o t h e theory o f r ea c t io n motion.Ivan Vsevolodovich Meshcherskiy made a s i gn if ic an t co nt r i -

Ivan Vsevolodovich Meshcherskiy was born on 29 Ju ly 1959 i nth e c i t y o f Arkh an ge l' sk . Af t e r s e c on d ary s c h o o l , h e e n te r e dth e Univers i ty o f Pe te rburg i n th e Phys ics and MathematicsDepartment i n 1878. Here Ivan Vsevolodovich showed great in ter-e s t i n s c i e n t i f i c r e se a rc h work a nd, a f t e r h i s g r a d ua t io n i n1882, he remained a t the Univer s i t y . I n 1890, he began h i st e a c h i n g a c t i v i t y as a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t P e t er b ur g UnivP.

s i t y . I n 1891, I . V . Meshcherskiy was selected as the Heat h e Department of Mechanics o f the Peterbury Higher Coursps A u rWomen, and i n 1902 he headed t h e Department of T he o re t i ca lMechanics o f Pe te rburg Po ly t echn ica l I n s t i t u t e , where he workedth ro ug h th e r e s t o f h i s l i f e .

The name of Meshcherskiy hes been giv en t o one of t h ecra ter s on the f a r s i d e o f t h e moon.

The most important works of I . V . Meshcherskiy were d e d i -c a t e d t o a new se c t io n o f t h e o re t i c a l mec ha nics - - the mechanicso f bodies o f va r i ab le mass, t he ba s i s o f rocke t dynamics. Thes i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s science r e s u l t s f rom t h e f a c t t h a t i t

a l l o w s p r e c i s e c a l c u l a t i o n o f th e mot ion o f a rocke t and de te r -minat ion of cond it i ons under which roc ket s w i l l reach g iveno r b i t s o r t r a j e c to r i e s w i th t h e minimum e xp e n d i tu re o f e n erg y,and a l lows many prob lems r e l a t ed t o the c r ea t i on o f ro c k e te ng in es t o b e s o l ve d , l e a d i n g d i r e c t l y t o s u c ce s s i n t h e p en e-t r a t i o n of s p ac e.

I3

9



mankind, and a l l h i s c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y , i n t h e f i n a l a n al y s is ,r a s dedica te d t o seek ing ou t means f o r th e improvement of t hel i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f f u t u r e g e n e r a ti o n s .

I n o rd e r t o so lv e th e p r ima ry p ro b le m - - the overcoming oft h e E a r th ' s g r a v i t y - - t h e s c i e n t i s t h ad t o so l v e many p rob le ms,w i d e l y v a r i e d i n c o n t e n t and complexity.

In 1881, K. E. Tsiolko vskiy worked on problems of t hek i n e t i c t h e or y of g a s se s .o f t h e Animal Organism," he was s e l e c t e d as a member of t h ePhysical-Chemical Socie ty .

For h i s work e n t i t l e d "The Mechanics

Beginn ing i n 1883, Kons tan t in Eduardovich ded ica t ed h i stime p r i m a r i l y t o p ro bl em s o f f l i g h t i n t h e a i r and i n space .On 20 February of t h a t year , Konsta nt in Eduardovich completedt h e ma n u sc r ip t t o "Free Space ," i n which he desc r i bed th ep r o p e r t i e s o f t h e medium and t h e c on di ti on s of movement i nspace. Here h e a n a ly z ed th e d e s ig n o f a " s h e l l f o r voy ages i nf ree space. I

H i s works on th e desi gn of an all-metal c o n t r o l l e dd i r i g i b l e became widel y known.i n g a metal c o n tr o l l ed a e r o s t a t , t u r ni n g h i s a t t e n t i o n t o t h ee s s e n t i a l sh or tc om in g o f d i r i g i b l e s w i t h b a l l o o n s made o frubber ized materials: t h e s e e n ve lop e s wore r a p i d ly , r e p re se n t e da danger o f f i r e , were low i n s t r e n g t h . a nd t h e g as which f i l l e d

them d i f fu s e d thro ug h th e f a b r i c and was r a p i d l y l o s t .

H e se t h i ms e lf t h e t a s k o f crest-

The p r o g r e s s i v e , f o r i t s t i m e , d i r i g i b l e p la n was n o tsu p p or t e d ; t h e a u th o r was not even g iven a s u bs i dy t o c o n s t r u c ta small model. In o rd er t o t es t a number of h i s own ca lc ul a t edd a t a and p ro ve t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n st r u ct i n g h i s d i r i g i b l e ,

K . E. Tsiolkovskiy made a model a t h i s own expense. -16

I n 1897, K. E. T s io lk o v skiy c o n s t ru c t e d th e f i r s t windtunn e l i n Russ ia, deve loped h i s mode l t e s t in g methodology anda ch iv ed i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s . I n 1900, K. E. T s i o l k o v s k i y t e s t e dsevera l models which h e had made i n t h e wind tunn e l and de te r -mined t he d rag fa c t o r s o f bod ies o f va r iou s shapes .

In 1895, h i s s c ie nce f i c t i o n s t o r y "On th e Moon" and t h ework "Dreams of t h e E a r th a nd t h e Sky" were publ i shed .f i r s t work, i n p a r t i c u l a r , de sc ri be s how peop le who found them-se lv es on th e moon would f e el , while th e second work, i n addi -t i o n t o p re se n t in g many o r ig in a l t h o u gh t s , sets f o r t h t h e i d e ao f t h e c r e a t i o n o f a " f a l l i n g l a b o ra t o r y" and d e s c r i b e s v a r i o u sphenomena o ccur r in g i n weig ht le ssne ss .

T h e

1 2



T h i s i d e a o f r e p r od u c t io n of t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f w e i g h t l e s s -n e s s is based on the f a c t t h a t i f a man i s p la c e d i n a f l i g h tve hi cl e which moves toward th e Ear th a t an a c c e l e r a t i o n e q ua lt o t h e a c c e l e r a ti o n of t h e force o f g r a v i t y , t h e f o r c e o f t h ei n t e r a c t i o n of th e man wi th h i s suppor t ( th e w a l l of t h e c a b i no f t h e f l i g h t v e hi c le ) w i l l be ze ro , i .e . , t h e a c c e l e r a t i on w i l lbe equa l t o ze ro, and t h e man w i l l be under con di t ion s o fw e i g h t l e s s n e s s . A s t a t e n e a r we ig h t l e s sn e s s i s experienced bya p i l o t a t t h e pe ak o f a c li mb . " F a l l i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s " a r ep re se n t l y u se d f o r t r a i n i n g o f a s t r o n a u t s a n d t o s tu d y phenomenao c c u r r in g u nd er c o n d i t io n s of we ig h t l e s sn e s s .

The s t y l e o f th e work of K. E. Tsio lkovsk iy i s d i s t i n c t i v eand unique. H i s p e r s i s t e l i c e i n s e e k in g o u t t h e most c o n v in c in gand s imples t (and consequen t ly most p o s si b l e ) s o l u t i o n , h i stendency t o produce a c lea r p i c t u r e bo th from th e p h y s i c a l a ndma th e ma t i c a l s t a n d p o in t s - - t h e s e are t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a -t u res o f t h e s t y l e o f K. E. Tsio lko vski y which have made hi sworks understandable , readable and convincing.

Konstantin Eduardovich wrote, "I have been s tudying reac-t i o n devi ces s i nc e 1895. Only now, a f t e r 34 ye ars o f work, haveI come t o a very s im ple conclusio n concerning t he prope r systern ."lAnd f u r t h e r , "In 1896, I purchased a book by A. P. Fedorove n t i t l e d 'A N e w P r i n c i p l e f o r A i r Trave l ' (Pe te rb urg , 1896).Th i s book seemed t o m e t o be unclear ( s i n c e no c a l c u l a t i o n swere made). In su ch cases, I 2 e rfo rm my c a l c u l a t i o n s in d e p en -

den t l y , f rom t h e very beg inn ing . Th is was t h e b e g inn in g of myt h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i ng r e a c t i o n de v ic e sfor space voyages. ~ 9 2

In 1892, Ko ns ta nt in Eduardovich moved t o Kaluga. Years -17f i l l e d w i th pr od uc ti ve , c r e a t i v e l a b or pa ss ed i n t h i s c i t y .K. E. T s io lk o v sk iy p ro du ce d h i s fo rmu las f o r ro c k e t t r a v e l ,a l lowing him t o s o lve th e p roblem of th e mos t r e a l i s t i c methodo f ma ste ry ( s tu d y ) o f sp ac e i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p l a n e .

Kons tan t in Eduardovich Ts io lkovsk iy l i ve d 29 year s i n thehouse on the corner of what i s now K . E. T s io lk o v sk iy S t r e e t a n dSovkhoznoy St re et . Konsta nt in Eduardovich bought t h i s one-s tor yhouse i n 1904. In 1908, the house was expanded, adding a

se c o n d s to ry - - a sun room and veranda. In t he f a l l of 1933,th e f a mi ly o f t h e s c i e n t i s t moved t o a l a rg e , we l l -b u i l t h o meg iv en t o K. E. Tsiolko vskiy by th e Kaluga City Council ofWorker's Deputies.

'Tsiolkovskiy , K. E., Co ll ec te d Wbrks, Vol. 2 , Academy ofSciences USSR Press, MOSCOW, 1954 p. 296.-' Ib id . , . 179 .

1 3



A. A . Kosmodem yanski y. Thei r books, br ochur es and ar t i cl eshave car r i ed t he i deas of t he sci ent i st t o t he masses, st i mul at -i ng i nt er est i n pr obl ems of t he st udy of space and mul t i pl yi ngt he r anks of r ocket t echnol ogy ent husi ast s.

Begi nni ng wi t h t he f i r st weeks of exi st ence of t he React i onSci ent i f i c Resear ch I nst i t ut e [RNI I ], whi ch was creat ed i nMoscow i n Sept ember of 1933, sci ent i f i c cont act and f r ui t f ulcor r espondence wer e hel d bet ween K. E . Tsi ol kovski y and t heI nst i t ut e. For exampl e, i n Febr uar y of 1934 he composed a "Pr o-gr am f or t he Wor k of t he RNI I , and i n Mar ch of t hat same yearhe wr ot e hi s ar t i cl e "The Ener gy of Chem cal Compounds and t heSel ect i on of Component Par t s f or an Expl osi on, " et c.

I n August of 1935, K . E. Tsi ol kovski y' s heal t h began t o 21det er i or at e. On 13 Sept ember 1935, t he sci ent i st sent a l et t ert ot hecent r a l Comm t t ee of t he Par t y. "Al l my l i f e I havedr eamed that my wor ks m ght move manki nd f or war d, at l east al i t t l e. Bef or e t he r evol ut i on, my dr eam was i mpossi bl e. Onl yOct ober br ought r ecogni t i on t o my works. .. I have f el t a l ovef or t he peopl e, whi ch has gi ven me s t r engt h t o cont i nue my wor k,even i n my i l l ness. However , my heal t h wi l l not al l ow me t of i ni sh t he wor k I have begun. Al l my l abor s on avi at i on, r ocketf l i ght and i nt er pl anet ar y voyages I bequeat h t o t he Bol shevi kpar t y and t he Sovi et government - - t he t r ue l eader s of t he pr o-gr ess of human cul t ur e. I am sur e t hat t hey wi l l successf ul l y

compl et e my l abors. "lExcept i onal l y val uabl e and pr ogr essi ve wor ks of K. E .

Tsi ol kovski y ar e hi s wor ks on r eact i on mot i on, whi ch pr ecededt he devel opment of sci ence i n t hi s ar ea by many decades. K. E.Tsi ol kovski y f i r st devel oped the l aws of mot i on of a r ocket asa body of var i abl e mass, i ndi cat i ng ef f i c i ent pat hs f or t hedevel opment of ast r onaut i cs and r ocket bui l di ng. He f ound a

number of i mport ant engi neer i ng sol ut i ons t o pr obl ems of r ocketdesi gn, he anal yzed and r ecommended f uel s f or use f or r ocketengi nes. K. E. Tsi ol kovski y l ai d t he f oundat i ons of t he t heor yof LRE.

A number of t he t echni cal i deas of K. E. Tsi ol kovski y wer e

appl i ed i n t he cr eat i on of modern r ocket engi nes, r ocket s andspacecr af t .

Si nce 1966 on 17 Sept ember each year i n Kal uga r eadi ngsar e hel d dedi cat ed t o t he devel opment of t he s ci ent i f i cher i t age of K. E . Ts i ol kovski y.

' Tsi ol kovski y, K. E . , Col l ect ed Wor ks, Vol . 2 , Academy ofSci ences USSR Pr ess, Moscow, 1 20.

17



In h i s work " Inv es t ig a t i on o f Space w i t h Reac t ion Devices"(1903). K. E . T s io lko v sk iy d e sc r ib e d t h e p l a n a nd o p e ra t in gp r i n c i p l e o f a n LRE u s in g l i q u i f i e d g a ss e s 3 s components i n thefol low ing words. "The chamber1 co nt ai ns a g r e a t r e s e r v e o fsub st anc es which, when mixed, immediately form an exp lo si ve inass.T he se su b s t a n c e s , f u l l y a nd ev e nly e x p lo d in g in t h e a r e a s e ta s i d e f o r t h i s p u rpo se , t h e n f lo w a s h o t g a se s t h rou g h tu b e swhich expand a t t h e end l i k e a h or n o r o t h e r m u si c al i n s t r u -ment. "2

The combustion chamber of a rocket e n g in e i s the mosti m po r ta n t p a r t o f t h e rocket e n g in e , wh ic h c r e a t e s t h e r e a c t io nfo rc e d ue t o t h e f low o f t h e working f lu id . A modern rocket

i s t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e ro c k e t e n g ine i n which th e th ermalenergy of th e compressed working f l u i d - - the combust ion yro-d u c t s - - i s t r an s fo r me d t o k i n e t i c e n er g y, i . e . , t h e g a s j c t i sa c c e l e r a t e d t o t h c e x ha us t v e l o c i t y .

e n g i n e c o n s i s t s of a combustion chamber and no zzl e. The no zz le 23

F u r t h e r , K. E . Tsio lkovsk iy wrote, "In one, narrow end oft h e t u b e, t h e e x p l o s i v e s ub s t a nc e s are mixed: thence, f laminggases a r e produced here . In th e o t he r , expanding end, t heseg a se s , g r e a t l y r a r e f i e d an d c o o led , b u r s t o u twa rd th ro u gh th eap er tu re wi th t remendous ve lo c i ty . . The two f l u i d gases a r ese p a ra t e d by a b a r r i e r . I t 3

In 1922, K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy wrote an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " St arF l ig h t " f o r t h e m a g a z i n e " Z n a n i y e - S i l a , " i n which he de sc r i bed aro c k e t w i th a n L E des igned t o be uscd as a j e t a i r c r a f t . Fort h i s p ur po se , t h e r o c k e t was equipped with wings.

In 1927 i n Kaluga, K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy pub l i shed h is workKosmicheskaya RaketaT Opytnaya Podgotovka -[Space Rocket. Expcr-;menta l P repara t ion] . T h i s work presents a s t i l l more de ta i ledd e s c r i p t i o n - o f a n L R E ; i t i s p o in te d o u t t h a t t h e fu e l c ompone nt smust be fcd t o t h e combustion chamber by . . two pumps, drivenby 3 s i n g le e n g ine . The f i r s t pumps t h e oxygen compounds t o t h ecombu stion chamber, t h e o t h e r pumps t h e hydrogen compounds . I t 4

Here a l s o w e f i n d t h e i d e a o f m ai n ta i ni n g a c e r t a i n r a t i o offuel components during t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e L R E : " r c g u l a t i o n i s

i m po rt a nt : i f t h e r e i s more oxygen than needed, the combustion

s a v i n g i n mind t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e r o ck e t.

'Tsiolkovskiy , K. E . , Collected Works, Vol. 2 , Academy ofS c ien ce s USSR Press , Moscow, 1954, p . 73.

3Ts io lkovsk iy , K . E . , Collected Works, Vol. 2 , Academy ofS c ie n c e s USS2 Press , Moscow, 1954, p. 261.

4 ~ b i d . ,- p . 75.

19



chamber i t s e l f mig ht b u rn , i f t h e r e i s less - - t h e f u e l w i l l beexpended use less ly . ''

I n t h i s same work, K . E. T s io lk o v skiy d e sc r ib e s t h e o p e ra -t i o n o f an LRE a nd s t u d i e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s ne ed ed t o e n s u r es a f et y . I f a ro c k e t were made accord ing t o th ese p lan s , pub-l i s h e d by T s io lk o v skiy e a r l y i n t h e 2 0 th c e n tu ry , t h e u nu se dvolume o f t h e ro c k e t wo uld b e v e ry s l i g h t , s i n c e e v e ry f r e esp a c e, n o t o c c u pie d by s t ru c t u r a l e l eme nt s , i s f i l l e d wi th f u e l ;t h e LRE i s submerged i n th e f u e l components . This arrangementprovides the minimum mass and s i z e o f r o c k e t .

In his work A S e mi r ea c ti o n S t r a t o p l a n e , " f i r s t p u b l is h e d

i n t h e magazine "Khochu Vse Znat"' i n 1932, K . E . Tsio lkovsk iywro te , " In th e lo we r l a y e r s o f t h e atmosph ere, a n a i r c r a f t

cannot reach a h i g h v e l o c i t y . ...my i d e a s a nd c a l c u l a t i o n s h av e 2 4l e d me a t p re s e n t t o t h e fo l lo win g , most p o s s i b l e t y p e o f h igh -a l t i t u d e a i r c r a f t . " ld e s c r i p t i o n o f a j e t e ng in e2 d r i v i n g a p r o p e l l e r .

F u r th e r , K. E . T s io lk o v sk iy p re se n t s a

The design of 25t h e " se mi re a c t ions t ra top lane" deve l -oped by K . E . T s i o l -kovskiy was asfo l lows . A s t h edev ice moves, a i r

e n t e r s t h e i n t e r n a lpor t io n o f th e bodyth ro u g h a d ju s t a b lei n l e t a p er t ur e 1.The gas stream i sa c c e l e r a t e d b y p ro -p e l l e r 2 , dr iven byg a so l in e e n gin e 3.The spent gases movethrough tubes 5 andf lo w o u t of t h e i re x h a u s t s e c t io n s .The a i r and spen tgases exhaust through

Plan from "Star Fl i ght" by K . E . T s i o l - a d j u s t a b l e n o z z le 9 .kovskiy A i r compressor 8 i s

'Tsiolkovskiy , K . E . , Co ll ec te d Works, Vol. 2 , Academy o fSciences USSR P r e s s , Moscow, 1954, p. 389.

'A j e t e ng in e r e f e r s t o a r e a c t i o n e ng in e which u t i l i z e s t h e a i ra ro un d th e v e h i c l e t o b urn t h e f u e l .

20



L i q u i d , f r e e l y

e v a p o r a t i n g \

Men and/q;ipnent

oxygen at v e r y

Plan of Liquid-Fueled Space Rocket ofK. E . Tsio lkovsk iy

Plan of "Semireact ion S t ra top lan e" o fK. E . Tsio lkovsk iy

Pl an of th e "Steam-Gas Turb ine Enginef o r a D i r ig ib l e " o f K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy

through system 4 - 5 t o a p ro p e l l e r , wh ic hF ur the rmore , t h e ro t a t i o n i s t r a n s m i t t e d

mounted on a commons h a f t w i t h e n g in e 3.A i r from c a v i t y 4p a r t i a l l y e n t e rsc a v i ty 1 0 , t h e nc a v i t y 6 and, througha n n u la r sp a c e 7, i tmoves past tubes 5 .Washing over theset u b e s , t h e a i r i sc o o le d a n d e n te r s

the compressor . The 2 6compressed a i r

f lows through tubes11 t o t h e g a s ol i n eengine.

F i na l ly , i n h i swork A Steam-GasTurbine Engine , 'p u b l i sh e d i n 1 93 4,Konstantin Eduardo-v ich sugges ted aunique turbocompres -s or eng ine , which hesu g g es t e d b e u se d f o rd i r i g i b l e s . T h i s

eng ine i s a p ro to ty p eo f one vers ion o fmodern j e t engines .I n t h i s e n gi n e, t h ei n c i d e n t a i r s treanii s sent by means ofcompressor 7 andd i f f u s o r 1 i n t og e n e r a t o r 2 underp re s su re , wh e re th eo i l f ed i n t o t hegenerator by a pump(not shown on thedrawing) i s burned.

The combustion pr o-d u c t s s p i n m ul t i p l e -s t a g e t u r b i n e 3. Ther o t a t i o n of t h e t u r -b i n e i s t r a n s m i t t e d

d r i v e s t h e d i r i g i b l e .by system 6-7 t o t h e

compressor, -an d by system 8 -9 -1 0 t o a g i t a t o r s - , w h i c h c o n t i n -u a l l y m i x t he o i l i n o rd er t o e qu a li z e i t s t e mp e ra tu re i n t a n k12. The generator i s c oo le d by t h e w at e r f i l l i n g s p ac e 11.

2 1



Thus, K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy sugges ted a p l a n f o r a l i q u i d -fu e l e d ro c k e t a nd p l a n s f o r j e t engines as well . A l l o f t h epl ans which he sug gested were l a t e r u t i l i z e d i n p r i n ci p l e i np r a c t i c e .

The Formula of K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy

The c r e a t io n of t h e most e f f i c i e n t e n g in e d e s ig n c o n t in u est o be one o f t h e most im por tan t problems of rocket engine con-st ru ct io n. The ro cke ts suggest ed by Konsta nt in Eduardovich,n a t u r a l l y , were not deve loped by him t o th e s t ag e of a completeplan. They were more l i k e r e p o r t s of new ideas , inven t ions ,

d i s c o v e r i e s , b u t r e p o r t s b a se d on s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l c a l -c u la tion.

The development of th e theory o f rocke t eng ines and rock e tsi n t he works o f K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy and i n th e works o f o the rau thors a r e based la rg e l y on the fo rmula which i s known by t h ename Df i t s a u th o r - - K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy .

This i s t h e b a s i c fo rmula f o r t h e mot io n o f a ro c k e t ,d e f i n i n g i t s maximum velocity V, e q u a l t o t h e p rod u c t o f t h ea b so lu t e v a lu e o f e x h au s t v e lo c i t y W a o f the combustion

p ro d uc t s f rom th e r e a c t io n n o z z le t imes th e n a tu ra l l o g a r i th m o ft h e r a t i o o f t h e i n i t i a l l au nc h mass o f t h e r o c ke t M o t o i t s

f i n a l mass Mk (cons ide r ing payload) , remain ing a f t e r f ue l massMt i s exp en ded i n f l i g n t :

In ca lc u l a t in g the mot ion o f a rocke t equ ipped wi t h amodern LRE , i f t h e d i f f e r e n c e pa - pH i s o t h e r t h a n 0 , W a i n t he

T s io lk o v skiy formu la mus t b e r e p la c e d by t h e e f f e c t i v e v e lo c i ty ,which i s

where Fa i s t h e a r e a of t h e n o z z le e x i t p la n e ;

2 2



G i s th e mass flow r a t e o f f u e l p e r s ec on d, e q u a l t o t h e

PapH i s t h e p re s su r e o f t h e su r ro u n d in g medium a t t h e f l i g h t

a l t i t u d e H.

flow r a t e o f the combus t ion p roduc t ;i s t h e g as p r e s s u r e a t t h e n o z zl e e x i t p l a n e ;

T h e r a t io Mt/Mk i s ca l l ed th e Ts io l kovsk iy number and i s

represe n ted by the l e t t e r T s .

SP

f o

This formula i s d ev elop ed i n t h e work " In v e s t ig a t io n o face wi th Reac tio n Devices" (1903). Using t 5 e T s io lk o v sk iy

r m u l a ( in h i s 1903 work, K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy c i ? l l ' t h i sfo rmu la th e " r e l a t io n sh ip o f masses i n t h e rockt we canc a l c u l a t e a l s o t h e v e l o c i t y increment o f t h e i? f u a l s t a g e so f mu l t i s t a g e ro c k e t s .

Ts io lkovsk iy ' s fo rmula was re f i ne d by him t o c o n s i d e r t h ei n f l u e n c e o f t h e res is tance of th e su rro undi ng medium and t h ef o r c e s o f g r a v i t y on t h e f i n a l f l i g h t v e l o c i t y o f a rocket .This fo rmula was th e f i r s t s t ep made i n th e deve lopment o f t here q u i r e me n t s fo r L RE ; d ur in g t h e i n i t i a l p e ri od of developmen:of rocke t technology , i t al lowed s c i e n t i s t s t o d et e rm i n e t h epr imary pa th s fo r improvement of th e des i gn o f an eng ine . I ti s underst andable t h a t , when modern e ngines a r e produced, a l lof t he accumula ted exper ien ce o f rock e t co ns t r uc t i on and

e n g ine c o n s t ru c t io n , t h e a ch ie ve men ts i n n e igh b o r in g areas ofs c i e n c e and t ec hn ol og y a r e u s e d , a t t e m p t i n g t o s a t i s f y t h econtinu ously growing demands on th e des ign of roc ket e ngin es .

I t f o l lo ws from th c fo rmula of T s io lk ov sk iy th a t i n o rd e rt o i n c r ea s e t he f l i g h t v e l oc i t y of a rocke t , one m u s t i n c r e a s ethe Tsiolkovskiy number T s and t h e e f f e c t i v e e x h au st v e l o c i t yo f t h e g a se s W e f f

The exhaus t ve lo c i ty o f th e gases f rom the nozz le

where Q i s t h e q u a n t i t y o f h e a t l i b e ra t e d upon c ombu st io n o f au n i t of mass o f fue l ;

q t i s t h e t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y ;

W i n i s t h e v e l o c i t y o f e n t r y o f t h e f u e l c omponents i n t o

4 i s t h e p r o p o r t io n a l i t y f a c t o r .the combustion chamber;

23



The h ig h e r t h e h e a t in g c a p a c i ty of t h e f u e l , t h e more h e a ti s l i b e ra t e d u pon i t s combustion. However, t h e same f u e lc ompo ne nt s, d e pe nd in g on c o n d i t i o n s , l i b e ra t e d i f f e r e n tq u a n t i t i e s o f h e a t w hich , i n p a r t i c u l a r , depends on t h e r a t i oof the components

where G o i s t h e mass flow r a t e o f o x id i z e r p e r s e c o nd ;

G f i s t he mass flow r a t e o f fu e l p e r s e c on d.

The o p t imal r e l a t i o n s h ip , f o r wh ic h th e e x h a u s t v e l o c i tyreaches i t s maximum, depends f o r a giv en pr es su re i n the com-b u c t io n c hamber on th e ty p e o f f u e l , d e g re e o f expansion ofg a se s i n t h e n o z z le a nd a number of o th er fac to rs .

In o rd e r t o i n c re a s e th e c omp le te ne s s o f c ombu st io n int h e smal les t po ss ib le chamber vo lume, th e qu a l i ty o f sp ra y ingand mixi ng of t h e components must be improved. "The probl emi s t h a t t h e f o r c e of t h e e xp l os i on i n a giv en t ub e1 depends onthe completeness of mixing of the combust ion e lements I Z

The more h e a t which i s l i b e ra t e d d u r in g th e c o mb u s t io n o fa u n i t mass o f f u e l , t h e h i g h er t h e m e r g y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o fth e p roduc ts o f combus t ion - - he a t conduct and the p roduc t ofth e gas cons tan t o f th e p roduc ts o f combus tion R = 848/v timest h e i r t e m p e r a t u r e Ti .

of t he combustion prod ucts u d e c r e a s e s , t h e gas t empera tu red e c r e a s e s , s i m p l i f y i n g t h e s o l u t i o n o f one of t h e most complexproblems of rocke t eng ine con s t ruc t i on - - the problem ofe f f e c t i v e c o o l i n g of combustion chamber walls.

With a g iv e n h e a t l i b e ra t i o n , as t h e mean molecula- mass

The the rmal e f f ic iency

-'Having i n mind t l ; combustion chamber of t h e rqcket engine.

'Tsiolkovskiy , K . E . , Co ll ec te d Works, Vol. 2 , Academy ofSc iences USSR P r e s s , Moscow, 195 4, p. 201.

2 4



c h a ra c t e r i z e s t h e c o n v e r s io n of h e a t t o k i n e t i c e ne rg y of t h ecombust ion products f lowing from the nozzle .

I n o rd e r t o se lec t t h e b e s t v a l u e o f g a s p r e s s u r e i n t h enozz le e x i t plane pa , w e u se th e th ru s t formu la

P = G W e f f .

W r e c a l l t h a t i n t h i s f or mu la G rep res en t s t he mass f low offu e l p e r s ec on d, e q u al i n t h e s t a b l e mode t o t h e mass f low ofcombust ion products per second. Analysi s shows th a t i n or de r

t o -, :educe the maximum th r u s t , pr es su re pa shou ld be eq ual t o

the p res sur e of t he surround ing medium pH.

th e surrounding medium changes during th e f l i g h t of a r ock et ,the equa t ion pa = pH can be maintai ned by changing t h e para -

meters of the combustion chamber o r t h e c r i t i c a l c r o ss - s ec t i on a larea, o r t h e n o zz le e x i t p l a ne a r ea .

However, ad j us t ab l e nozz les have no t ye t been c re a t ed f o rL E , f or ci ng us t o u t i l i z e a cer t a in mean v a lu e o f p a, s e l e c t e d

d u rin g t h e p ro c e s s o f b a l l i s t i c pl an ni ng of a r o c ke t t o p ro v i d eth e maximum f l i g h t ve lo ci ty a t the end of th e powered s ta ge off l i g h t w i th a f i x e d p a ylo ad mass a n d th e s e l e c t e d v a lu e ofTsiolkovshiy .number.

I f t h e p re s s ur e of

I f a n e n gin e must o p e ra t e a t v ery h ig h a l t i t u d e s o r inspace, where t he pr es su re o f th e surroun ding medium i s verylow, i n o rde r t o i n c r e a s e t h e t h er m al e f f i c i e n c y , t h e l o w e stp o s s ib l e p re s su re sh o u ld b e ma in tain ed a t t h e n o z z le e x i t p la n e .I f t h i s p r es s ur e i s f ix e d , t h e th e rma l e f f i c i e n c y ca n b eincreased by inc rea s i ng the p re ssu re i n t he combus tion chamber ,which a ls o helps t o improve the combust ion con di t io ns , d e c re a seth e s i z e and mass of th e combustion chamber.

In a n a ly zin g th e o p e ra t io n of a combustion chamber, Y. E .T s io lk o v sk iy b a se d h i s c a l c u la t io n s 03 pressure p i = 100 atm.

This pressure cou ld no t be a ch ie ve d by t h e f i r s t L R E . lexample, i n engine 1 0 of t h e GIRD-Kh ro ck et (1933), t he pr es su rei n the combustion chamber was only 8 t o 10 atm, while th e OW-50and ORM-52 engines ( G D L , 1933) achieved 2 0 - 2 5 atm, t h e RD-107engine (GDL-OKB, 1954-1957) produced 60 atm, the R D - 1 1 9 engine ,

For

'Here and i n t h e fo l lo win g, t h e u n i t s of measurement a r e pre -se n te d a s i n t h e a r ch 2 m a t e r i a l s .

25



de ve lo pe d i n 1953-1962 (GDL-OKB) prod uced 80 atm, and l a t e rengines have produced s t i l l h ig h e r p re s su re s . T hu s, t h ep r e s s u r e i n t u i t i v e l y a s s i g n e d by K. E. T s io l ko v sk i y f o r t h echamber was approximately equal t o th e p ressur es ach ieved bymodern engines.

Corn re hen siv e improvement of en gine s has in cr ea se d th e i reconomy. P

For example, i n engine number 10, t he s p e c i f i c impulsea c h ie v e d in t e s t s ta nd opera t ion (1933) was 162-175 s , i n t h eORM-52 engine (1933) - - 210 s , w h i l e t h e s p e c i f i c i mp ul se o ft h e combustion chamber o f t h e RD-119 i n a vacuum reaches 358 s

(1958-1962).

In o rd e r t o i n c re a se th e T s io lko v sk iy number

Thisne s ho u ld u s e f u e l o f t h e h ; gh e st p o s s i b l e d e n s i t y P

maintains the requirement mentioned above for a h ig h v a lu e o ft h e q u a n t i t y o f h e a t Q l i b e ra t e d i n t h e c ombu st io n chamber i neach second of opera t io n . In order t o decrease Mk, th e pa r t s

of the rocket should be made of s t r u c t u r a l mater ia l s f o r whicht h e r a t i o o f s t r e n g t h ( o r y i e l d p o in t ) t o d e n s i t y i s as h ig has p o s s i b l e .

t '

The Tsiolko vskiy number can be incr -ase d duri ng plann ingof a r o c k et by s u c c e s s f u l s e l e c t i o n of - 3 l a n of motor, r o c k c ti n g e n e ra l a nd in d i v id u a l ro c k e t u n i t s a nd by a s su r i n g op e ra -t i o n o f t h e u n i t s as n e a r as p o s s i b l e t o t h e i r o pt im al o pe r-a t in g modes. I f a p re s su re -e x p u l s io n fu e l - f e e d sys t em i s used ,th e fu e l tanks must be made wi th t h i ck wal l s , b u t i f a pump-feed system i s used , tanks are maintained a t low p re s su re a n dt h e i r wal ls can be made th in . There fore , th e Ts io lkovs k iynumber f o r la rg e rocke ts i s h ig h e r w i th a pump-feed syst em than

wi th a pressure -expuls ion sys tem.

As we have s t a t ed , i n de te rmin ing th e Ts io lkovsk iy numberf o r a r o c k e t , mass Mk r e f e rs t o t h e mass o f t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e

rocket and i t s sy s t ems , i n c lu d in g th e e n g in e , t h e r e s i d u a l

'The economy of a rocke t eng ine i s defined by t h e s p e c i f i ci m pu ls e, t h e r a t i o of t h e t h r u s t o f t h e e ng in e t o t h 2 f u e lconsumption per second.

26



l i q u i d s a n d gases a t t h e e n d of t h e powered p o r t i o n o f f l i g h tand the payload mass H (n o se p o r t io n wi th in s t ru me n t s o r c a b in

p l u s a s t r o n a u t s , e t c . ) . With a given va lue o f Ts io lkovsk iynumber, as the pay load i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e mass o f a l l t h e o t h e relements of t he roc ket must be decreas ed, which i s achieved bycomprehensive improvement and lightening of t h e d e s ig n , o r t h elaunch mass o f t h e r o c k e t (or each s tage) mus t be inc reasedby in c re a s in g fu e l mass Mt .

The Tsiolkovskiy formula a l lows us t o j u dg e t h e e f f e c -t i v e n e s s of u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e f u e l e ne rg y o f a rocke t . I;. E.Tsiolko vskiy def in ed t h e work performed by a ro c k e t

P

- ' M V ;

L p - T k

the work of t h e e x h a u s t e d g a se s

L a = - M W 22 t a '

Pand c a l c u l a t e d t h e e f f i c i e n c y of a ro c k e t as t h e r a t i o of L

t o the sum of L + La.P

The power of engines and frequency of launches have becomeso g r e a t t h a t , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e d ev e lo p ae n t ofrocke t and space technology , th e de te rmina t io n of means fori n c r e a s i n g t h e t u t a l e f f i c i e n c y and i t s c u r r e n t v a l u es , c a l -c u l a t e d f o r various moments of o p e r a t i o n of an engine, havebecome a very pr es si ng problem. The gr ea t consumption of fu ele x p e cte d i n t h e n e a r fu t u re h a s p l a c e d th e prob le m of t h ec r e a t i o n of rock e ts wi th ex te rn a l power supp ly on the agendafo r t h e d a y .

The ana lys is of the fo rmulas p resen ted h e r e l e d K . E.T s io lk o v skiy t o t h e id e a o f sp a c e t r a i n s . Var iou s v e r s io n sof c o n n ec t io n o f ro c k e t s were s t u di e d : s e q u e n t i a l , p a r a l l e land combined; th e so -c a ll ed "second type" of compound rocketof T s io l ko v sk i y c a l l e d f o r p a r a l l e l c o n ne c ti o n o f r o c k et s i ngroups. We know t h a t a l l modern spa cec ra f t boos te r r ocke tsa r e mu l t i s t a g e ro c k e t s , w i th b o th s e q u e n t i a l ly and s imu l t a n -e o u s ly o p e ra t i n g motor s c o n s id ere d t h t most favorable combin-a t i o n .

2 7



Suggest i ons f or L R E Fuel s

Anal yzi ng t he pr oper t i es of f uel s, K. ;i . Ts i ol kovski ywr ot e, "They shoul d perf orm t he maxi mum wor k per uni t of r assdur i ng combust i on. " And f ur t her, " For a r eact i on appar at us,t he gr eat est possi bl e por t i on of t he t her mal or chem calener gy of t he par t i cl es must be conver t ed t o coor di nat e1 i n0t:i c.nof t he par t i cl es. " l

I n hi s wor k, "I nvest i gat i on of Space wi t h Rocket Devi c. ; s, "L. E. Tsi ol kovski y i n 1903 suggest ed l i qui d oxygen and hydr ogenas f uel component s f or LRE. "At t he pr esent t i me, t he convsr -si on of hydr ogen and oxygen t o l i qui ds r epr esent s no gr eat

hydr ocar bons, such as acet yl ene or pet r ol eum "2di f f i cul t y. Hydr ogen coul d be r epl aced by l i qui d or condei i r. Od 32

I n t hi s same wor k, t he sci ent i st st udi es cer t ai n i nor gani ccompounds as possi bl e f uel s. "For exampl e, s i l i con, bur ni ng i noxygen Si + O2 = Si 02), l i ber at es a t r emendous quant i t y of

heat , 3654 cal per uni t of mass of pr oduct pr oduced (Si 02) , but

unf or t unat e1 f orms subst ances whi ch vol at i l i ze wi t h gr eatdi f f i cul t y . 5st udy of t he f uel consi st i ng of l i qui d oxygen and hydr ogen."Accept i ng l i qui d oxygen and hydr ogen as t he mat er i al mostsui t abl e f or expl os i on... he wr ot e i n t he wor k j ust ment i oned.However , t he sci ent i st was hot hered by t he l ow densi t y of

hydr ogen, r equi r i ng l ar ge cont ai ner s, whi ch woul d r equi r e ani ncr ease i n the vol ume and mass of t he r ocket . I n 1927, i nt he wor k A Space Rocket . Exper i ment al Pr eparat i on, " he not ed,"L i qui d hydr ogen i s gener al l y unsui t abl e, par t i cul ar l y f or t hef i r st t i me. Reasons: hi gh cost , l ow t emperat ur e, heat ofevapor at i on, di f f i cul t y of st or age. "4

I n 1903, he wr ot e, ". . . the quant i t y of ener gy per uni tmass of t he product s of a compound depends on t he at om cwei ght s of t he si mpl e subst ances combi ned: t he l ower t he at om cwei ght of t hese el ement s, t he gr eat er t he heat l i ber at ed as

t hey ar e combi ned. "S

L. E. Tsi ol kovski y gave gr eat at t ent i on t o t he

' Tsi ol kovski y, K . E., Col l ect ed Wor ks, Vol . 2, Academy ofSci ences USSR Pr ess , Moscow. 1954, p. 79.

I bi d. , p . 81.

41bid., . 270.

SIbid. p . 81.

L

31bi d.

28



I n 1914, K. E. Tsi ol kovski y suggest ed t hat ozone and ot hercomponent s be used as oxi di zer s i n engi nes. "We must f i ndcompounds of hydr ogen wi t h car bon whi ch cont ai n t he gr eat estpossi bl e quant i t i es of hydr ogen, whi ch ar e f or med as t he)are produced of el ement s wi t h absor pt i on o f heat , f or exampl eacet yl ene, whi ch, unf or t unat el y cont ai ns l i t t l e hydr ogen. I nt hi s l at t er r espect , t ur pent i ne i s mor e sui t abl e, and met haneor swamp gas i s st i l l mor e sui t abl e; t hi s l ast subst ance i sunf avor abl e i n t hat i t i s di f f i cul t t o l i qui f y. " l

Tn hi s wor k " The I nvest i gat i on of Space wi t h React i onDevi ces, " 1926 edi t i on, s L E . Tsi ol kovski y compar es hydr ogenwi t h hydr ocarbons: " I t i s di f f i cul t t u l i qui f y and st or e, s i nce

unl ess par t i cul ar pr ecaut i ons ar e t aken i t evapor at c; r api dl y.

The more vol at i l e t hey ar e, t he mor e hydr ogen t hey cont ai n andt he more sui t abl e t hey are f or t he busi ness at hand. Oxygeni s t ol er abl e i n l i qui d f or m par t i cul ar l y si nce i t can ser veas a sour ce of cool i ng. . . 11 Fur t her , t he sci ent i st not es, "Buti t i s most sui t abl e t o work as fol .ows: st or e most of t her eser ve of oxygen on- boar d i n t he f or m of one of i t s endogeni ccompounds, i . e. , t hose whi ch ar e synt hesi zed ( made up) wi t habsor pt i on of t he mat er i al l t 2

I n t hi s s ame wor k, i n 1926, met hane, benzene and oi l ar er ecommended as f uel s. I n 1927, l i qui d ai r was r ecommended asan oxi di zer : " I ni t i al l y, l i qui d ai r can be used. The ni t r ogenpr esent wi l l yeaken t he expl osi on and decr ease t he maxi mumt emper at ur e. " The i dea of usi ng hi gh- boi l i ng oxygen- cont ai ni ngcompounds was set f or t h by K . E . Tsi ol kovski y r epeat edl y. Heal so not ed t he expedi ency of usi ng hydr ocar bon compounds as t hef uel . He consi der ed t he use of such f uel s i n hi s wor k ASpace Rocket . Experi ment al Pr epar at i on, " of 1927. I n hi swor k, "Reachi ng t he St r at osphere. A Fuel f or a Rocket , "4 Hepr esent s and anal ysi s of t he i nf l uence of t he qual i t y off uel on the exhaust vel oci t y of gases f r om t he nozzl e and t hef l i ght vel oci t y of a r ocket . Her e, i n par t i cul ar , Konst ant i nEduardovi ch wr ot e, " I t i s most sui t abl e t o r epl ace oxygen wi t hN O 2 .

wat er . * t 5

' Ts i ol kovski y, K . E . , Col l ect ed Wor ks, Vol . 2, Academy of

' Ibi d. , p. 24;.

4 Gs c r i p t r ecei ved Osovi akhi m Cent r al Counci l i n 1934.

STs i ol kovski y, K . E . , Col l ect ed Works, ol . 2, Academy ofSci ences USSR Pr ess , Moscow, 1954, p . 3 7 3 .

Most pr ef er abl e ar e l i qui d or easi l y l i t - i i e f i e d hydr ocar bons. 33

Thi s i s a br own, chem cal l y st abl e l i qui d, denser t han

ci ences USSR Pr ess , Moscow, 1954, p. 145.

3 I b i d .

29



Konst ant i n Eduar dovi ch di d not l i m t hi msel f t o t he st udyof t he possi bi l i t i es f or t he use of l i qui d f uel component s al one.I n hi s wor k, A Space Rocket . Exper i ment al Preparat i on, " hespoke of t he possi bi l i t y of usi ng sol i d subst ances as f uel sand suggest ed, i n part i cul ar, car bon p0wder . l Al t hough t hi st ype of f uel i s not used i n LRE at t he moment , t he i dea oft he use of powder ed pr oduct s and component s i n var i ous st at eshas been appl i ed t o some ext ent .

Konst ant i n Eduar dovi ch was not f ul l y sat i sf i ed by t heener gy qual i t i es of chem cal f uel s. He pr esent s a number ofconsi der at i ons concer ni ng t he possi bi l i t y of usi ng nucl earf uel .

I n 1912, he wr ot e, "Ther ef or e, i f i t wer e possi bl e toaccel erat e t he decomposi t i on of r adi um or ot her r adi oact i vesubst ances suf f i c i ent l y, t hi s coul d pr ovi de, wi t h ot her wi seequi val ent condi t i ons , suf f i c i ent vel oc i t y t o a r ocket t hat i tcoul d r each t he f ur t hest sun ( star) i n t en t o f or t y years. "2And agai n, " I f r adi um gi vi ng up i t s ener gy a m l l i on t i mesmor e rapi dl y t han occur s pr esent l y, c ul d be used, i nt er-pl anet ar y f l i ght s woul d be possi bl e. Lat er , i n 1926, t hesci ent i s t wr ot e, "The spl i t t i ng of at oms i s a sour ce of t r e-mendous power . . . Thi s ener gy i s 4 0 8 , 0 0 0 t i mes gr eat er t hant he most power f ul chem cal ener gy. "

However , at t hat t i me i t was i mpossi bl e t o pl an on the use

of ar t i f i c i al r adi oact i ve i sot opes and t he use of f i ss i on orsynt hesi s r eact i ons.

I n hi s wor k " The I nvest i gat i on of Space wi t h React i onDevi ces" ( 1926) , K. E. Tsi ol kovski y convi nci ngl y showed t heundes i rabi l i t y of us i ng ar t i f i c i al r adi oact i ve i sot opes as asour ce of power. However , i n t hi s same wor k he wr ot e, "Butwe cannot be sur e t han i nexpensi ve, r api dl y f i ssi oni ng sour cesof ener gy wi l l not be f ound i n ti me. "S

Now, when ar t i f i ci al r adi oact i ve i sot opes ar e pr oducedeasi l y, when spacecr af t car r y r eact i on engi nes whi ch pr oduceener gy by t he decomposi t i on of ar t i f i ci al i sot opes, t he

' Tsi ol kovski y, K. E. , Col l ect ed Wor ks, Vol . 2 , Academy ofSci ences USSR Pr ess, Moscow, 1954, p. 262.21bi d. , p . 136.

'Ibid., p. 143

4 I b i d . p. 189.

Gi

30



sci ent i f i c f ore thought o f K. E. Tsi ol kovski y on t he possi bi l i t yof accel er at i on of t he spl i t t i ng of i sot opes i s recei vi ng i t sdeserved at t ent i on.

Ar t i f i ci al r adi oact i vi t y i s t he r adi oact i vi t y of ar t i f i -c i al l y pr oduced at om c nucl ei . Some ar t i f i c i al i sot opes haveshor t hal f l i ves, whi ch al l ows si gni f i cant power t o he pr oducedwi t h t hese subst ances.

Cur r ent experi ment al model s of r adi oi sot ope r ocketengi nes ut i l i ze t he ener gy of t he decomposi t i on of a r t i f i c i a lr adi oact i ve i sotopes, such chem cal exampl es as pol oni um 210,st r ont i um 90, pl ut oni um 238, et c . The poss i bi l i t y cannot beexcl uded of t he pr oduct i on and r eal i zat i on of t he ener gy of

extr emel y shor t l i ved i sot opes di r ect l y on- boar d a spacecraf t .

K. E. Tsi ol kovski y st at ed i n 1912 t he i dea of t he possi - 35bi l i t y of c reat i on of el ec t r i c rocket engi nes : "Possi bl y el ec -t r i ci t y m ght i n t i me be used t o at t ai n a t r emendous vel oci t yi n t he par t i c l es ej ected f r oma r eact i on devi ce. ** lpr esent t i me, el ect r i c r ocket engi nes of var i ous t ypes ar e i nuse. Modern r adi oi sot ope and el ect r i c r ocket engi nes devel opl ow t hr ust and ar e desi gned f or i nst al l at i on on spacecr af t .

Konst ant i n Eduardovi ch st udi ed a l arge gr oup of chem caloxi di zer s and f uel s f or LRE, not ed t he poss i bi l i t y of usi ngr adi oact i ve i sotopes and el ect r i c power . I n hi s wor ks, hel ai d t he f oundat i ons of t he sci ence of f uel s f or r ocket engi nes.

At t he

Recommendat i ons f or t he Desi gn of Combust i on Chamber s

Dur i ng t he years when K E. Tsi ol kovski y wor ked on pr obl emsof t he t heor y of r ocket - and engi nes , i t was di f f i cul t t oi magi ne t he desi gn of a combust i on chamber and pr oduce anysor t of pr eci se i d e a of t he pr ocesses occur r i ng wi t hi n i t .General machi ne bui l di ng di d not have a si ngl e devi ce i n anywas si m l ar i n i t s operat i ng mode or magni t ude o f t her mal anddynam c l oads t o an ),RE combust i on chamber . The desi gn of t hi snew t her mal engi ne had t o be devel oped, det er m ni ng t he nat ur eand mode of i t s oper at i on, anal yzi ng t he pecul i ar i t i es of t he

desi gn of t he i ndi vi dual el ement s and sel ect i ng t he st r uct ur ealmat eri al s t o be used.

From one quest i on, K. E. Tsi ol kovski y went over t o anot her ,t hen, af t er achi evi ng a sol ut i on, he ret ur ned t o ear l i er prob-l ems, cont i nui ng deeper st udi es, consi der i ng t he r esul t spr oduced ear l i er .

' Tsi ol kovski y, K . E. , Col l ect ed Wor ks, Vol . 2, Academy ofSci ences USSR Pr ess, Moscort , 1 9 5 4 , p. 36.

31



Let us s ee how Konst ant i n Eduar dovi ch i magi ned t he desi gnof a combust i on chamber , whi ch he cal l ed t he " expl osi ve" chamber .I n hi s wor k "I nvest i gat i on of Space wi t h React i on Devi ces" (1903),K. E. Tsi ol kovski y, speaki ng of t he r ocket , not ed that i t". . . has a gr eat r eser ve of subst ances whi ch, when m xed, i mme-di at el y f or m an expl osi ve mass. These subst ances, r egul ar l yand evenl y expl odi ng i n t he pl ace set asi de f or i t , f l ow i n t he / 36

I l lor m of hot gases t hr ough t ubes expandi ng t oward t hei r ends. . .

f ol l ows, " I n essence t her e i s no shar p di f f er ence bet ween t hepr ocess of expl osi on of a subst ance and si mpl e combust i on.Act ual l y, bot h amount t o more or l ess r api d chem cal combi na-

t i on. Combust i on i s sl ower combi nat i on, expl osi on i s rapi dcombust on. 1 2

K. E . Tsi ol kovski y descri bed t he bur ni ng of t ne f uel as

K. E . Ts i ol kovski y wr ot e of t he poss i bi l i t y of cont r ol l i ngt he mot i on of a rocket by changi ng t he t hr ust vect or as f o l l o w"We see J r udder s ervi ng t o cont r ol t he mot i on of t he r ocket . "Thi s suggest i on of Ts i ol kovski y was pr act i cal l y real i zed i n t hef or mof gas r udder s, as used pr esent l y to cont r ol t he f l i ght ofa number of Sovi et geophysi cal and ot her r ocket s. K . E.Tsi ol kovski y al so suggest ed anot her means of cont r ol l i ng f l i ght .He xrote: "Fi nal l y, by r ot at i ng t he end of t he t ube, we coul dal so keep our vehi cl e movi ng i n t he pr oper d i r e~t i on. " ~These met hods wer e st udi ed by desi gner s. Some moder n r ccket scont r ol t he t hr ust vect or by r ot at i on of t he pr i mary combust i onchamber or wi t h cont r ol engi nes as, f or exampl e, on t he boost errocket o f t he Vost ok spacecr af t .

Ther mal and t her modynam c cal cul at i ons, i . e. , cal cul at i onsof t he t her mal pr ocesses of conver si on of t he wor ki ng f l ui d i nt he combust i on chamber and i n t he nozzl e of t he r eact i on engi ne,per f or med by K . E. Tsi ol kovski y, not ed t he necessi t y of cool i ngt he wal l s of t he combust i on chamber. A s one ver si on of cool i ng,he suggest ed a ci r cul at i ng syst em ". . . the ci r cul at i on of amet al l i c l i qui d i n t he ai r sur r oundi ng t he t ube i s necessar y f oranot her pur pose: t o mai nt ai n an even, l ow t emper at ur e of t het ube, i . e. , to r et ai n i t s s t r engt h. "S To assur e r el i abl e pro-

t ect i on of t he chamber , Konst ant i n Eduar dovi ch r ecommended t hat

r ef r act or y i nsul at i ng cover i ngs be used:I t . . .

t he i nner por t i on' Tsi ol kovski y, K. E . , Col l ect ed Wor ks, Vol . 2 , Academy of

' I bi d. , p. 368.

These

ci ences USSR Press, Moscow, 1954, p. 7 3 .

3I bi d. , p . 7 4 .

4 G . , p. 75.

5 G G. , p. 79.

3 2



of t he t ube wi l l be cover ed wi t h some sort of speci al r ef r act or ymateri al : car bon, t ungsten. . . Some met al s ar e made st r onger bycool i ng; t hese ar e the sor t of met al s whi ch must be used,f or exampl e copper. "l I n 1911, i n t he wor k " I nvest i gat i on ofSpace wi t h React i on Devi ces. The React i on Rocket of K. E.Tsi ol kovski y, " he di scussed t he need t o cool t he combust i onchamber , t he " expl osi on tube, " wi t h l i qui d hydr ogen and oxygen.

cool i ng wi t h bot h component s as f ol l ows: " Fur t hermore, t het ube i s cont i nual l y cool ed on bot h the out si de and i nsi de.Act ual l y, a cont i nuous st r eam of t wo ver y col d l i qui ds i sspr ayed i nt o t he i ni t i al sect i on of t he t ube: l i qui d oxygen

and oi l cool ed by t he l i qui d oxygen. The out er wal l s of t het ube ar e cool ed by t he col d oi l , whi ch i t sel f i s cool ed by t hel i qui d oxygen whi ch sur r ounds i t * ( 2

37

The sci ent i st i magi ned a syst em of i nt er nal and ext er nal

K . E. Tsi ol kovski y emphasi zed t h a t i r on coul d not be usedto make t he nozzl e. He st at ed t hat more r ef r act or y mat er i al swere r equi r ed, f or exampl e t ungst en: " I t does not seem i mpossi bl et o f i nd mat er i al s whi ch coul ; wi t hst and t hi s t emper at ur e. Herear e a f ew of t he mel t i ng poi nt s of mat er i al s known to me:ni ckel - - 1500, i r on - - 1700, i ndi um - - 1760, pal adi um - - 1800,pl at i num - - 2100, i r i di um - - 2200, osm um - - 2500, - t ungst en - -3 2 0 0 , whi l e car bon does not mel t even at 3500' C . I t 3

The r ecommendat i ons of Konst ant i n Eduardovi ch f or t he

desi gn of t he combust i on chamber and sel ect i on of mat er i al sto assure a normal t hermal oper at i ng mode of t he wal l s ar ci nt erest i ng. "The expl osi on t ube shoul d be made of a mat er i alwhi ch i s st r ong ( even at hi gh t emper at ur es) , r ef r act or y and non-f l ammabl e; i t woul d al so be good f or i t t o be a good heatconduct or . I t seems most f avorabl e t o make t he t ube of t woenvel opes: t he f i r st - - i nner envel ope - - of a l ess r ef r actorybut st r ong, good conduct i ng mat er i al . "4be usef ul t o cover t he st eel t ube wi t h a l ayer of a metal whi chconduct s heat wel l , f or exampl e cu r i t e, al um num and ot her s

been ver y wi del y used i n domest i c r ocket engi ne const r uct i on.

And agai n, " I t woul d

( f or bet t er cool i ng of t he tube). Copper - based al l oys have 38

' Tsi ol kovski y, K , E., Col l ect ed Wor ks, Vol . 2 , Academy ofSci ences USSR Pr ess, Moscow, 1954, p . 7 9 .*LI bi d * P . 271.

31bi d. , p . 133.

41bid., . 263.

Ibid 9 Y - 272.

3 3



Oth er works of K. E . T s io lk o v sk iy a r e known, ded ic ate d t ot h e p r ob le ms o f d e s i gn a nd r e l i a b l e o p e r a t i o n of the combust ionchamber of a rocket e n g in e , as well as t h e s e l e c t i o n of m a t e r i a l st o ass ure normal the rmal mode of t he walls .

Many of t h e i d e a s o f K. E . Tsio lko vsk iy have been used i nthe design of modern LR E; i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h ey al mo st a l l havee x t e r n a l c o o l i n g w i t h t h e o x i d i z e r o r f u e l , and i n t e r n a l c o ol -i n g i s a l so u se d. For e xa mp le , t h e e n g in e s o f t h e VZA , VSVgeop hysi cal r oc ke ts , t h e RD-107, RD-119 and o t h e r eng ine s havein ne r wa l l s coo led by enr ichment o f th e combus t ion p roduc ts wi thf ue l s i n t h e l a y e r s n e a r t h e walls a nd b y t h e u s e o f n a t u r a lf low- thro ug h c o o l in g . The h e a t l i b e ra t e d from th e wa l l s i s

re tur ned t o th e combust ion chamber. Thi s method o f c o o l in g i sc a l l e d r e g en e r a ti v e ; i t was a l s o suggested by K. E . T s io lk o v sk iy .Materials w i t h hi g h h e a t c o n d u c t i v i t y , h i g h l y r e f r a c t o r y and w i t hgood s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e c u r r e n t l y u se d t o m a nu fa ct ur ecombustion chambers.

Thus, K. E . T s i o lk o v sk i y , i n o r d e r t o a s s u r e a r e l i a b l ethermal mode of the combustion chamber w a l l , s u g g es t e d t h a th i gh s t r e n g t h , t h er m al l y s t a b l e m a t e r ia l s b e u se d, t h a t t h es t e e l wa l l b e c l a d wi th c o p p e r , t h a t c op pe r b e u sed a s as t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l , t h a t t he chamber be equ ipped wi th a hea ti n s u l a t i n g r e f r a c t o r y l i n e r a nd t h a t t h e o u ts i d e b e cooled byf lowin g fu e l c ompon en ts o r a c i r c u la t i n g sy s t e m wi th l i q u idm e ta l , t h a t t h e h e a t f l u x f rom th e gases t o t he wal l be reduced

by means of i n t e r n a l c o o l i n g .

h av e a l s o l e d t o r eco mm end at ion s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o fK. E . Tsio lkovsk iy .

Modern methods of i n . d e s t ig a t io n o f L R E cool ing sys tems

Let us take f o r example a chamber wit h ex te rn al f lowingc o o la n t . Let u s assume th a t t h e in n e r su r f a c e o f t h e wall i shea ted by convec t ion . In o rd er t o i n c r e a s e t h e p e r m i ss i b l et e mp e ra t ur e o f t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e of the chamber wal l , h igh-s t r e n g th , t h e rma l ly s t a b l e ma te r i a l s sh o u ld b e u se d. Tod e c re a se th e wall t e mp e ra tu re, t h e h e a t c o n d u c t i v i ty o f t h ewall mater ia l should be inc reas ed , which i s p o s s i b l e i f c op pe ro r c op pe r a l l o y s a r e u s ed , i f t h e e x t e r n a l c o o l i n g i s i n t e n -

wall t o t h e f l u i d . T hi s i s a c hie ve d by s e l e c t in g a l i q u i d wi tho p ti m al c o o l i ng p r o p e r t i e s , by i n c r e a s i n g t h e f l ow r a t e ofc o o l in g f l u i d p e r s e co n d, which i s p o s s i b l e i f a c i r c u l a t i n gc o o l in g system i s used. The wall temper ature can a l so be reducedby d e cr e a s in g t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r f a c t o r from t h e gases t o t h e w al l( u s i ng t h e p r i n c i p l e of i n t e r n a l c o o l i n g) . The t e mp e ra t ur eo f t h e g a se s i n t h e l a y e r n e x t t o t h e wa l l i s d ec re as ed i n t h i scase , a l s o l e a d in g t o a d e cr e as e i n the t empera tu re o f t h e wall .

s i f i e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e h e at t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t f rom t h e 39

34



T si ol ko vs ki y pu b li s he d t h e f i r s t r e su l t s of thermochemicalc a l c u i a t i o n s i n 1 90 3, p r e s e n t i n g d a t a on t h e t h e rm a l e f f e c t ofcombustion of hydrogen snd oxygen. In 1914, i n th e work "Inve s-t ig a t io n o f Space wi th Rocke t Devices ," he spoke 0 ; t h e d e t e r -mina t ion o f t he tempera tu re o f t he combus t ion p roduc ts cons ider -in g d i s s o c i a t io n . C o n s id e ra t io n o f d i s s o c i a t io n a l lo ws morepr ec is e de te rm ina t ion o f t he va l ue o f t he thermodynamic para -meters, t h e m ost pr o p e r ap pr oa ch t o a n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r a lelements. Ba se d on n o n r e l a t io n s h ip s , h e c a l c u l a t e d th e in s , a n -taneous va lues o f t he tempera tu re o f the expanding gas stream.I n 1926, h i s c a l c u l a t i o n s were c on ti nu ed t o t h e p o i n t o f d e t e r -min a t io n o f t h e p a ra mete r s o f t h e gas and t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h eengine depending on t he degr ee of expansion o f th e gases i n t h enozz le .

An a ly z in g th e o p e ra t in g c o n d i t io n s of a combustion chamber,K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy conc luded tha t i t s weight and volume wouldbe low. In h i s work A S pa ce S h ip , " wr i t t e n i n 1924, the com-bust ion chamber i s d e s c r i b e d as fol lo ws : "Only t h i s chamber andi t s c o n t i n u a t i o n - - t h e e x plo s io n tu b e , i n to wh ic h th e p ro d u c t sof t h e e x p l o s i o n w i l l f low, gra dua l l y expanding and cool ing duet o t h e c o nv e rs i on o f d i s o r d e r e d t he r ma l e ne rg y i n t o k i n e t i cenergy - - w i l l e x p e ri e n c e t h e p r e s s u r e o f t h e l f a s e s . ..and explosion chamber are ver y low i n volume.

t i o n Dev ic es , comparing po ss ib le modes of op er at io n of chambers,h e wrote " th e p r e s su re

o ft h e e x p lo s iv e su b s t a n c e s c a n b e v a r i e d

from 5 , 0 0 0 atm t o a de s i ra bl e lower val ue." And ag ai n, "Themixing may be s o complete , s o c l o s e , t h a t t . h e e x p l o s i o n w i l l be

b u s t i o n . . . ' 1 2

The tLbes

In 1 92 6, i n h i s work " In v e s t i g a t i o n o f S p ac e wi th Reac-

a lmos t i n s t a n ta n e o u s o r , c o n v e r se ly , i t can be a5 slow as com- 40

S tu d y in g th e o p e ra t io n o f a combustion chamber i n i t si n t e r a c t l o n w i th t h e f u e l f e ed s ys te m, t h e s c i e n t i s t . c o m e s t ot h e c o nc l us i on of t h e n e c e s s i t y t o l i m i t t h e p r es s ur e i n t h echamber: "We can now i nd ic at e t h e re qui re d minimum pre ssu re . "And the conc lus ion , " In any case , we can l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o 100atm."J

I n t h e work j u s t c i t e d , T s i o lk o v s ki y d e s c r i b e s t h e

process o f convers ion o f hea t , l i be ra te d on combus t ion o f t he

'Tsiolkovskiy , K . E . , Co ll ec te d Works, Vol. 2 , Academy ofSciences USSR Press , Moscow, 1954, p . 164.

' Ib id . , p. 201.

3 I b i d 9 P * 202 .

35



f u e l , t o k i n e t i c e ne rg y i n t h e g as s t r ea m an d p r e s e n t s t h er e s u l t s o f h i s c a l c ul a t i on s .

I n t h i s same w or k, t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e d e s ig n o f somep a r t s o f t h e r o c k e t an d i t s engine a re noted . A s concerns then o z z le , t h e fo l lo wing s t a t eme n t s were made: "However, t h egr e a t e r i t s a n gl e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e l o s s of e n erg y, s in c e th emot ion o f the gases i s d e f l e c t e d t o t h e s i d e. S t i l l , w it h anangle of l o o , th e lo ss es a r e a lmost unnotic eable ." l However,i n 1927, he recommends t h a t th e opt im al va lue of t h e a n g l e ofexpansion of t he nozzle be determined by experim entat i on.

In 1927, i n the work A Space Rocket. Experi menta l

P re p a ra t io n , " t h e me.chod o f i n j e c t io n o f fu e l t o t h e chamberand i t s p re p a ra t io n f o r c ombu st io n i s d e sc r ib e d as fo l lo ws :" . . .g r a t in g s w i t h s l a n t e d h o l e s f o r b e t t e r mix in g o f t h ehydrocarbon with the oxygen mixture. T h e beginning o f t h ee x p lo s io n tu b e i s div ided by a channe l. Along one h a l f flowsth e oxygen mix tur e, along t h e o t h e r h a l f - - the hydrocarbon."2

Development of Feed Systems

The plan o f th e system which feed s f ue l t o th e chambero f t h e ro c k e t e n gin e was developed by K . E . T s io lk o v sk iy in1903. In h i s work "The I nv es t i ga t i on of Space w i t h ReactionDevices , K . E . Tsio lkovsk iy sugges ted and h imse l f desc r ibed

a system of f ue l feed wi th un loaded tan ks , i . e . , t anks i n whicht h e f u e l i s s to re d u n d e r ].ow p r e s s u r e .

sures in the combust ion chamber, K . E. Tsiolkovskiy concludedt h a t i t would be necess ary t o use a pulsed fuel flow mode.In 1914, he wrote , "Ordinary types of pumping sho ul d not beused. I t would be s im ples t o f a l l t o p l a ce a c e r t a i n c h a r g ei n the tube and a l low i t t o burn and f l y ou t . Then, when thepre ss ure i n th e tube had dropped , ano ther charge would b ei n j e c t e d , etc."3 Here a l s o he s t a t e d t h e i d e a o f t h e p o s s i -b i l i t y o f us in g a g a s - j e t e j e c to r : " Th ere sh o u ld b e a b ra nc ha t th e very mouth of th e tu be, through which t h e gases wouldb e r e tu rn e d o nc e more t o t h e mouth a n d, due t o t h e i r v e lo c i t y ,

e n t r a i n a nd fo rc e :he e x p lo s iv e ma te r i a l i n a cont inuous s t ream

A t f i r s t , c o n s id e r i ng t h a t t h e r e would be ve r y h i gh p r e s -

lT s io lk o v sk iy , K . E . , Co ll ec te d Works, Vol. 2 , Academy ofSciences USSR Press , Moscow, 1954, p . 2 4 7 .

' Ib id . , p . 2 6 3 .

31bid.,- p. 147.

36



in to the very mouth o f the ex p los ion tube . , , I

A na l ys i s o f t h e we ig ht q u a l i t i e s o f t h e f e e d sy st em l e d t h es c i e n t i s t t o t h e i d e a o f t h e n eed t o r educe t h e p re s s ur e i nth e chamber, t o s e l e c t i t s opti lnal value . A t h ig h p re s su re , "Konstant in Eduardcvich wrote i n 1926, " th e use o f the energyi s gr ea t , bu t impossib ly g re a t work i s r e q dl r e d t o f o r c e t h emasses in t o th e expl osi on tub e. Ther efor e , th e maximum pre ssu rei n th e tu b e sh ou lG b e r ed uc ed a s g re a t ly a s p o s s ib l e , w i th o ut10s n g e f f i c i e n c y . ( ( 2

The idea of pu ls at in g feed was formula ted by him asfo l lows: " . . . i t could be made so t h a t t h e p re s su r e a t t h ebeg'nning of the tube var ied pe r i od ic a l ly , f o r example , f rom

200 atm t o 0 and from 0 b x k t o 2 0 0 atm. The v a r i a t i o n wouldoccur i n waves. v3

K . E. T s io lk o v skiy b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e wa l l s o f t h e t a n ksh ou ld a l so fo rm th e sh e l l o f t h e ro c k e t . "The main sh e l l o fth e rock e t , " Kons tan t in Eduardovich wro te i n 1926 , ' t shou ldwi th s t a n d wi th o ut da n ge r a p r e s su re o f a t l e a s t 0 .2 a tm, i ff i l l e d w i t h l i q u i d o xy ge n. 1t 4 " Then, t o s t o r e t hem ( i . e . , t h efu e l coi iponen ts ) o rd i nary tanks o r even th e rocke t i t s e l f couldbe used."5 These ro cke ts have been widel y used. Thus, K . E .T s io lko v sk iy sug g e s t ed t o so -c a l l e d " lo a d -b e a r in g t a n k s ,i . e . , f u e l t a n k s , t h e s i d e s u r f a c e o f which i s a t t he s a r etime t he o u t e r s h e l l of t h e f u e l s e c t i o n , r e c ei v i n g e x t e r n a llo n g i tu d in a l fo r c e s a n d it. nding moments a ct in g on the se ct io n.

The use o f l oad-bear ing tanks a l l ows th e mass o f a r o c k e t t o b egr ea t l y reduced i n many cas es .

In 1927, zhe sc i e n t i s t sugges ted t h a t a pumping un i t be 4 2i ns t a l l e d between th e tanks and the chamber : I ( . . . - - two pumps,dr iv e n by a colnmon moto r. The f i r s t pumps th e oxygen compounds

Calc u la t ions have shown th a t th e f ue l consumption f o r th epump d r i v e would b e i n s i g n i f i c a n t : " , . . t h e motor would u sese v e ra l h un dred t ime s l e s s fu e l t h a n th e e x p lo s io n tu be ." 7

'Tsiolkovskiy , K . E . , Col lec te d kork s , Vol . 2 , Academy ofS c ie n c e s USSR Press , Moscow , 1 9 n . 47-148.

i n t o th e e x p los io n tu b e , t h e se co nd - - the hydrogen compounds. f '6

-

-L I b i d-• p. 201.31bid* ' p. 202.

41bid., p. 243.

'Ibid., p . 2 4 6 .

61bid. p. 261.

z.,_ p . 2 6 5 .

37



As a r e s u l t o f h i s s t u d i e s of t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s andc o n d i t i o n s of o p e r a t i o n o f i n d i v id u a l u n i t s and sys t ems o ft h e r o ck e t, i n 1 9 2 7 , ir. h i s work A Space Rocket, Experi mentalP re p a ra t io n , " K . E. T s io lk o v sk iy p re se n te d a d e s c r i p t i o n o ft he launch and opera t io n o f t he motor i n f l i g h t .

Konsta nt in Eduardovich Tsiolk ovskiy was an out s ta ndin gre se a rc h e r , whose s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i ty was u nu su a l ly bro ad .

made many di sc ov er ie s i n th e ar ea o f rocket dynamics ,a erod yn amic s, t h e th e o ry of a v i a t io n , t h e th e o ry of i n t e r -p l a n e ta r y vo ya ge s, t h e th e o ry o f e n g in e s , e t c . The work on

rockets performed byK .

E . Tsio lkovs k iy , d id no t amount t oa comple ted techn ica l p lan . Ne c an g a in a n id e a o f h i sd e s ign o n ly by 1 oo k;ng a t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n s a nd d e sc r ip t i o n s .

The most important th in g i n t he works o f Tsiolko vskiy wast h e pr oo f o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a l a r g e , pacerocke t wi th an LSE, conf i rmed by ca lc u l a t io ns . K . E .Tsio lkovsk iy po in ted th e way i n t o space . Sov i e t and fo r e i gnsc i e r i t i s t s r ec og ni ze t h e p r i o r i t y o f T s io l ko v sk i y as the foundero f t h e o re t i c a l a s t ro n a u t i c s . The name o f Tsiolkovskiy has beengiven t o a c r a t e r on th e f a r s id e o f th e moor,. Kons tan t inEduardovich Tsiolkovskiy i s rer3gni zed as t he ' lead o f a newtr end i n sc ien ce and technology - - a s t ro n a u t i c s a n d ro c k e tb u i l d i n g .

In connec t ion wi t h th e launch of t k *. ior ld ' s f i r s t a r t .f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s , a go ld "T si ol ko v. v :.all' was foi ind ed,awarded by t h e Academy of Sc ie nce s USSk t ~ iu t s t a n d in g wcrki n t h e a r e a o f i n t e r p l a n e t a r y v oy ag es . I n 3.95&, t h e f i r s tmedal was awarded t o t he Chief Designer f o r Rockets snd Space-c r a f t , Academician Sergey Pavlovich Korolev, while the secondmedal was awarded t o th e Chief Desi gner o f Rocket Engines.

1 . 4 , One ,3f the Pioneers of Rocket Technology,Yu. V, Kondriityuk

The attempts of h i s t o r i a ns t o w ri t e a d e t a i l e d b io gr ap hy

of Yu. b. Kondratyuk, a ta le nt ed and g i f t e d man, a remarkables c i e n t i s t , me ch an ic and in v e n to r , and ih e a u th o r o f t h e w e l l -known works "Mastern of I n t er pl an et ar y Space" ami ' ' T k J s c WhoW i l l Read i n Order t o Build ," have not ye t been f u l l y s u c c e s s -f u l , Too few documents have been re ta in ed i n the ar chi ves .

Yu. Vasil 'yevich Kondratyuk was born i n 1897 i n t h eUk ra in e, i n t h e c i t y o f Po l t a v a . The u n fo r tu n a t e c o n d i t io n s o fh i s i i f e d i d n o t a ll ow him t o c o mp le te h i s e d u c a t io n : Y d . V .Kondratyuk worked a s a h i r e d la bo re r, chopped firew ood, andworked as a l u b r i c a t o r a nd me ch an ic a t mil ls . He s t ud ie d

40



ematics, physics and chemistry independently . In h i s yY. k"Dndrat).uk became interested i n the t h e o ry of i n t c r -c t a r y v o y a g e s . In 1918, looking over some o l d magazines:

h e came upon one o f t h e a r t i c l e s of K. E . Tsio lkovsk iy o n h i ss t r a t o p l a n e , w h i l e h c r e n d t h e o t h e r works of Tsiofkovskiy,p a r t i c u l a r l y his a r t i c l e "The In v e s t ig a t io n o f Space w i t hReaction Deviccs (which was w r i t t e n in 1911) on ly i n 1925.

bS

lems and phys ica l p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r p l a n e -e t f o r t h b y Yu. V Iiondratyuk i n h i s wo r k

"Those Nho Will Read i n Order t o . i f d ,t'ic work on t h i s manuscript was I gun i n1916 and completed i n 1919. This xorkof Yuriy i ' a s i l ' yev ic was first publishedi n f Y 6 4 . Bas ed on his own s t u d i e s and

f a m i l i a r i t y w it h some of t h e works. 1 . Tsio lkovsk iy , klu. V . Kondratyuk

reworked th is a r t i c l e several times.He perforaed care fu l s t u d i e s o f a nu

ockct and space roblcms, presensolutions and performed many c a l

roduced theocke t b y h ienden t ly of

olkovskiy, w i t h t h e works owhom he became f am il ia r only l a t e r .

t o i n c r e a s e t h e h e a t o f cgmbustion, and in o r d e r t o usc

J 1



combust ible tanks which, a f t e r t h e y are e mp ti ed o f l i q u i d f u e l ,are themse lves p rocessed and se n t t o th e fu rnace. Th is samesu g g e s t io n was made by engineer F. A, Tsander in a r e p o r t a t t h eThe ore t i cal Sec t i on of t h e Moscow Soc ie ty o f Astronomy Enthu si-as t s i n December of 1923, bu t t h i s sug gest ion was i n c l u d e d i n t h emanuscript of Yu, V, Kondra tyuk before the repor t of Tsander.

He f i r s t p r es en te d a formula c o n s id e r i n g th e in f lu e n c e o f 4 sth e weight o f t h e t anks f o r f ue l and oxygen (p ro por t iona lp a s s iv e t o u se t h e t e rmino log y of t h e a u th o r ) on t h e t o t a lweight o f t he rock e t , and p roved th a t a rock e t which d id no tj e t t i s o n o r b urn i t s t a n k s d ur i n g f l i g h t c o ul d n o t e s c a pe t h ebonds of t h e E a r t h ' s g r a v i t y .

He a l so f i r s t made th e su g g e s t io n t o make a ro c k e t w i thwings and f ly it i n t h e a i r l i k e a n a i r p l a n e . T h i s s u g ge s t i o nh a s n o t ap pe ar ed i n t h e f o r e i g n l i t e r a t u r e a t a l l ( i t be ingra th e r su g g e s t e d t h a t parachu tes be used t o r e t u r n t h e r o c k e tt o t h e Ea rt h) , w hil e Russian works have seen t h i s s u g g e s t i o n ,s t a t e d by F. A . Tsander a t t h e same meeting and l a t e r p r i n t e dby K. E. T s io l ko v sk i y, b u t o n ly a f t e r i t appeared i n t h e manu-s c r ip t o f the au thor . However, t he s tu d i es o f Yu. V. Kondratyukgo f u r t h e r , s i n c e he n o t o n l y i n d i c a t e s t h e ne ed f o r t h e u s e o fwin gs , b u t a l s o p re s e n t s a r a t h e r d e t a i l e d s t ud y as t o t h ea c c e l e r a t i o n s a t which wings w i l l be u s e f u l , t h e t r a j e c t o r ya n g le s of t h e ro c k e t t o t h e ho r i z on f o r t h e u se o f w in gs , an dg iv e s th e most f a v o ra b le fo rc e o f r e a c t io n o f t h e ro c k e t d u r in gf l i g h t i n th e a i r ; i t is found t o be on t h e same o r d e r as t h ei n i t i a l wei ght of t h e r o c k e t .

" Gen e ra l ly, t h e dyna mics o f t h e t a k e o f f o f t h e ro c k e t r e p re -- e n t t h e most d i f f i c u l t p o r t io n o f t h e p ro blem, and Yu. V.Kondratyuk has solve2 it more complete ly than any other author .

"Here a l s o i s - p r e s e n t e d a s t ud y o f t h e h e a t i n g of t h e forewardp o r t i o n o f t h e rocke t by th e a i r cons ider ing bo th ad i ab a t ic com-p r e s s i o n of t h e a i r , and r a d i a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r o c k e tand of th e hea ted a i r i t s e l f . T h i s pr obl em was a l s o s t u d i e d byno one.

"Allnumbers were given by Yu. V. Kondratyuk, a l though ra t he rroughly (which he himsel f mentions i n t he foreword) , but a lwaysw i th h i s e r r o r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n u nf av or ab le t o t h e d e s i g n e r.

T h i s book can serve a s a desk reference book f o r a l l t h o s einvolved i n prob lems of rocke t f l igh t . "

I n t h e ea r ly 1930 's , Yu. V . Kondra tyuk , wi thou t in te r rup t ingh i s work on rocket techno logy, began st udy in g high power wingi ns t a l la t i on s. Supported by th e Peop le ' s Committee f or HeavyIndus t ry and TsAGI, h e headed t h e plann ing of a wind power plant

4 2



at the Ukrainian Scientific .search Institute for Industrial

Academy of Sciences USSR. To bring it to life, "Teploenergostroy"Trust (Moscow) was directed to construct a wind power plant witha capacity of 12,000 kw in the Crimea, under the leadership ofG. E. Ordzhonikidze. In 1938, Kondratyuk was named Chief of theTechnical Section of "Teploener~ostroy" Trust, then Chief of thePlanning Section of the "Planning and Experimental Office forElectric Power Plants." In later years, Yu. V. Yondratyukstudied the construction of powerful wind power plants, asbefore without interrupting his studies on interplanetary voy-ages.

Power Engineering (Khar'kov). The plan was approved by the 46

In 1947, the book of Yu. V. Kondratyuk "Mastery of Inter-planetary Space" was reissued. Some of the conclusions ofYu. V. Kondratyuk agreed to some extent with those made byK. E. Tsiolkovskiy. However, Kondratyuk's book contained agreat deal of new and original material. The young scientistwas the first to develop: the energetically most favorabletrajectories for space flights, problems of the theory of multi-stage rockets, designs for intermediate filling stations on theartificial satellites of the planets, particularly the moon,the conditions for economical landing of rockets on the Earthusing atmospheric braking, approximate methods of calculationof the heating of a rocket as it moves through the atmosphere.He recommended that a number of types of oxidizers be used,particularly ozone, while recommending metals, metalloids and

their hydrogen compounds such as boron hydrides as fuels.After suggesting that winged rockets be used, Yu. V. Kondratyukindicated the areas of their application and performed studieson the selection of the most suitable aerodynamic character-istics.

Our attention is drawn to the idea of Yu. V . Rondratyukof the utilization of solar energy: solar heat is converted b yelectricity, then thrust is created b y expulsion of elementaryparticles.

On 7 June 1941, Yu. V . Kandratyuk enlisted in the People'sVolunteer Core. Leaving for the front, he gnve his friends asuitcase and portfolio with his manuscripts for safekeeping.

Yu. V. Kondratyuk was a soldier in the €onmunicationsCompany of the 2nd Regiment of the People's Militia Division ofthe Kiev Region of Moscow. He took part in battles with theGerman Fascist invaders and died at the front in 1942.

The name of Kondratyuk has been given to a crater on the farside of the moon.

4 3



The Works o f Yu. V. Kondratyuk on*R ocket Engine s

Like K . E . T s io lk o v sk iy , Yu . V. Kondratyuk came t o t h e con- 4 7elusion t h a t ro c k e t s sh o u ld b e d r iv e n by LRE and shou ld havemore t h a n one s t a g e . In h i s book " Ma stery o f In t e rp l a n e ta rySpace," he wrote t h a t t h e r e s e rv e of energy t o be used t o impartspeed t o a f l i g h t v e h i c l e c an b e c a r r i e d on b oa rd i n q u i t ev a r i e d forms, but t h a t on ly t h e chemical energy of th e compoundsof c e r t a i n s u b st a n c es would b e s u f f i c i e n t t o allow f l i g h t i np ra c t i c e . P l an n in g on th e u se of a m u l t i s t a g e rocket , Yu. V.Kondratyuk ob je c t iv e l y s tu d i ed i t s d e s i gn , f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s andprov ided a founda t ion €or t h e s e l e c t i o n o f f u e l s , s u g g es t i n g a narrangement of t h e combustion chamber and nozz le and in di ca t i ngth e n ee d t o use a t u r b i n e pump u n i t .

Sugges t ions fo r LRE Fuels

I n s e l e c t i n g a f u e l , Yu. V. Kondratyuk f i r s t t u r n e d h i sa t t e n t i o n t o i t s e f f i c i e n c y . F u rth ermo re , h e b e l i e v e d i t n e c e s -sary t o c o n s i d e r a l l o f t h e v a r i e t y o f p r o p e r t i e s o f a f u e l , a sw e l l as t h e d e s i gn of t h e rocket a nd t h e s p e c i f i c s o f t h e c on -d i t i o n s o f i t s u se . I f t h e r o c k e t i s composi te , i . e . , 3 m u l t i -s tage rocke t , a grea t e r q u a n t i t y o f f u e l i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h eo p e ra t i on o f t h e f i r s t s t a g e s t ha n f o r t h e l a t t e r s t a g e s .

In s e l e c t i o n o f fu e l , Yu. V. Kondratyuk noted, one must

a l s o t u r n a t t e n t i o n t o i t s cos t . According t o Kondratyuk, theu se of t h e l e a s t e x p e ns iv e fu e l s would b e e x p e d ie n t f o r t h ef i r s t s t a g e s of t h e rocket , wi th more e f f i c i e n t a n d cos t lyf u e l s t o b e u se d in l a t e r s t ag es . Hondratyuk suggest ed a formulac o n s i d e r i n g t h e cost o f t h e f u e l , i t s mass a n d t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c yt o e s t i m a t e t h e " c os t o f reaction."

He c o n s id e re d l i q u i d a i r , oxy gen 3nd oz on e to h e t h e moste f f e c t i v e o x i d i z e r s , w i t h p et r ol eu m p r o d u c t s , l i q u i d a c e t y l e n e ,methane-based f u e l , hydrogen and i t s compounds, as wc11 3 sprod ucts c ont ai nin g aluminum, magnesium, s i l i c o n and boron t ob e th e b e s t fu e l s . The l a s t fu e l cou ld be used as an amorphouspowder, p ul ve ri ze d i n t he combustion chamher by a s t ream ofhydrogen o r methane or added t o o i l b e f o r e i t was f e d i n t o t h e

as a f u e l .combus tio n chamber. Yu. V. Kondratyuk su gges ted boron hydr ide --148

Yu. V. Kondratyuk studied seve ra l g ro up s o f f u e l s : f i r s t ,l i q u i d a i r - pe t r o le u m o r l i q u id o xy ge n-pe t ro le um, th e n l i q u i dace t y len e , then l iq u i d hydrogen . H e t h en s t u d i e d t h c p o s s i b i l i t yo f u s i n g s e v e r a l m e t a l l o i d s and metals. Kondratyuk calcula tedt h e t h er m al e f f e c t o f a v a r i e t y of f u e l s , a s well as t h e i rcombus t ion p roduc t exhaus t v e l oc i t y f rom th e nozz le and o t he r

44



paramete rs . Kondratyuk s t a t ed h i s doubts concern ing th eexpediency of us in g l i qu id hydrogen, due t o i t s low d e n s i t y .

Recommendations f o r th e Design of the Combustion Chamber

Kondratyuk turned a good deal of a t t e n t i o n t o problems ofth e o rga n iz a t ion o f combus tion i n LRE combustion chambers.As e a r l y as 1918-1919, s tud ying t h e combust ion of hydrogen andoxygen, he wrote th a t th e combus tion of t h e f u e l c o u l d b eorganiz ed by t hr ee methods - - e i t h e r a prepared mix ture cou ldb e i g n i t e d , or t h e g a se s ne ed n o t be mixed u n t i l t h e a c tu a lmoment of i g n i t i o n , o r t h e y would b e o nly p a r t i a l l y mixed ,

with the best method t o be determined by exp erienc e.

a checkerboard placement of the fu e l component sp ra yers i n th espray head of the combustion chamber. He a l s o s u g g e s t e d a" s t r a t i f i e d " v e r s i o n . In t h i s case , t he s pra yer s would bep la c e d a lo n g wa l l s of t h e chamber i n b e l t s , a l t e r n a t i n g w it heach o th er . In h i s thermodynamic ca lc u l a t io ns , Yu. V. Kondra-tyu k co n s ide re d th e d i s s o c i a t i o n of the combus t ion p rcduc ts ;h e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p ro c e s s i n t h e c hamber i s n e a r l y i s o t h e r m a l ,wh i l e a d i a b a t i c e x pa n sio n o f t h e g a se s oc c u r s i n t h e n oz z le .

According t o Yu. V. Kondratyuk, t h e "combustion chamber"and "expul sion tube," i . e . , t h e n o z z le , sh o u ld be made i n one

p ie c e , a nd h e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e su r f a c e s ex po se d t o gases a tt e mp e ra tu re s h ig h e r t h a n those which could be withstood by t h er e f r a c t o r y m a t e r i a l a p p l i e d t o th e wal l s o f th e chamber , shou ldbe made of metal - - copper o r one of t h e r e f r a c t o r y m e t a ls(chromium or vanad ium) , and th a t th e wa l l s shou ld be in te ns iv e l y 4 9c o o led on th e in s i d e by l i q u i d gases fed i n t o the combus t ionchamber.

To assure comple teness of combustion, Mondratyuk suggested

S tu d yin g th e d e s ig n o f t h e n o z z le , Yu. V . Kondratyuk wroteth a t the most favo rab l e nozz le shape approximates a p a ra b o lo ido f r o t a t i o n , b u t n o t a q u a d r a t i c p a r a b o l o i d , r a t h e r o ne o fh i g h e r o r d e r ; t ow ar d t h e n o z zl e e x i t p l a n e , i t should be con-ver ted t o a cy l in der . The flow of combus t ion p roduc ts l eav i ngth e nozz le would then by one d imens iona l , no t d ive rg in g , i norder t o a c hi ev e t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e e f f i c i e n c y a n d, c on se -q u e n t ly , t h ru s t . Yu. V . Kondratyuk pointed out t h a t t h e f i n i s hof t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e o f t h e n o z z le sh su ld b e su c h a s t o p r ov i det h e minimum loss due t o f r i c t i o n of t h e Combustion productsa g a i n s t t h e w a l l , a nd t h a t t h e p r o f i l i n g o f t h e n oz z l e and c a l -c u l a t i o n o f c r o s s s e c t i o n s sh o u ld be b ased on th e c o n d i t i o n o fc o n se rv a t io n o f c o n s t a n t f l o w r a t e ( c o n t i n u i t y of f low) o f th ecombust ion products .

4 5



S tu dy in g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s on t h e o p e ra -t i o n o f a n L E , Yu. V. Kondratyuk recommended t h a t , i n o r d e rt o a v oi d d e c r ea s i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y as t h e e n g i ne o p e r a t e d a tlow a l t i t u d e s , t h e c r o s s - s e ct i o n a l area be decreased, i . e . ,th e nozz les shou ld be equ ipped wi t h an a d d i t i o n a l d e v i c e i n t h eform of a c o n s t r i c t i n g cone a t t h e e x i t p l a n e of t h e n o z z l e , t ob e used i n t h e lo we r l a y e r s o f t h e a tmosph ere th e n j e t t i so n e d ast h e a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e d . As a n o th e r v e r s i o n o f t h r u s t r e g u l a t i o nwi t h a l t i t ud e , he sugges ted th a t th e combust ion chamber beequ ipped wi t h a d ua l nozz l e - - t h e f i r s t t o p ro v id e o p t ima lp a ra m et e rs f o r o p e r a t i o n a t low a l t i t u d e , t h e se co nd t o be useda t h i gh a l t i t u d e a nd t o b e g in o p e ra t io n a f t e r t h e f i r s t n oz zl ei s j e t t i s o n e d .

d e s ig n of combus tion chambers have been r ea l i ze d i n p ra c t ic e .Many of t h e q u g g e s t io n s o f Yu. V . Kondratyuk concerning the

Development of Feed Systems

I n h i s work "Those Who Read i n Ord er t o Build ," he notedt h a t a ro c k e t e n g in e wi th a chemical s ourc e o f energy shouldc o n s i s t o f vessels , ta nk s, t h e combustion chamber tube anddev ices t o feed t he fu e l components from the tanks t o the combus-t i on chamber of t he roc ket engine. Yu. V. Kondratyuk suggestedt h a t pump syst ems be us ed t o feed both s ingle-component and two-component fuels. A t f i r s t , h e pl a nn e d on th e u se o f p i s to n

pumps. La te r, he wrot e t h a t pumps could a l s o be made p is to n l es s . /50Kondratyuk's pumps were t o be s i ng le -c yc le pumps, and each com-ponent was t o have i t s own pump. The l i q u e f i e d ga se s fe d by t h epumps were t o be u se d p r i m a r i l y f o r co mb us ti on , p a r t i a l l y t op re s su r i z e th e t a n k s c a r ry in g th e fu e l c o mp o n e n t s .

To assu re normal ope ra t i on of t he engi ne, Kondratyuksugges ted a fue l - f eed reg u l a t i on system. The sens ing e lementused wcs a d e v ic e s i m i l a r t o a n a n e r o i d b ar om et er , r e a c t i n g t ot h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e t a nk s .

The a c tu a t in g e le men t r e g u l a t in g th e t a n k p re s s u r i z in gsystem i s a choke v al v e i n s t a l l e d b e f or e t h e i n l e t f o r g a sproduc ts in t o the tank . Yu. V. Kondratyuk a l so sugges ted th a t

a mi xt ur e q u a l i t y r e g u l a t or be i n s t a l l e d be f or e t h e i n l e t t oth e combus tion chamber , a l though th e in t ro duc t io n o f th e regu la -t i o n sy s te m c o mp li c a t e s t h e d e s ig n o f t h e c n g ine .

Furthermore, Yu. V . Kondratyuk t u r n ed p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o nt o th e need f o r pre l imi nar y development and expe rim enta l check-ing o f the e lements o f th e eng ine . Thus , Y u . V. Kondratyuksugges ted methods o f ass ur i ng t he requ i red oper a t in g mode of th eengi ne by i t s ad jus tment t o a f ixe d mode and reg u la t i on dur ingoper a t io n , now used in p r ac t i ce .

46



l i t t l e , u nd er t h e i n f l u e n c e of RY c a l c u l a t i o n s I h a d a l r e a d ybegun t o hope f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f l i g h t s i n s pa ce ." 1In 1909, F. A. Tsander was an i n i t i a t o r i n t h e cr e a ti o n i nth e In s t i t u t e o f t h e "Second Riga S tu d e n t ' s S o c ie ty fo r A i rTravel and Fl i gh t Technology," and i n t h a t same yea r he con-s t r u c t e d a g l id e r w i th h i s comrade s.

F. A. Tsander advanced from the idea of r e a c h i n g g r e a ta l t i t u d e s by means o f a n a i rp l a n e a nd p ro p e l l e r mo to r t o t h ei d e a @E t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n t e r p l a n et a r y sp ac e f l i g h t w i t h ar o ck e t e ng ine . I n o r d e r t o a t te m pt t o r e a l i z e h i s p l a n s , F. A.Tsander began work a t Moscow Aviation P l a n t No. 4 , "Motor"

i n February of 1919 as t h e he ad of t h e technical bureau. Latei n 1921, F. A. Tsander p resen ted t o t h e Moscow Gov erno r' sConference of Inventors a p l a n f o r an e ng in e f o r a n i n t e r p l a n e -t a r y a ir plan e-s pace ship . From June 1922 through Ju l y 1923,Tsander , on temporary leav e from t h e pl an t , worked a t home.He c o n s t a n t ly f e l t t h e su p p o r t o f t h e wo rk e rs , who g av e hims i g n i f i c a n t material a s s i s t a n c e . F. A. T sa n d e r v a lu e d th i sr e l a t i o n s h i p , and r e p o r t e d t o t h e wo rk er s. For example, i nApril of 1923, a t a plantwide meeting of workers of "Motor"P l a n t , h e r e p o r t e d h i s hope t o u e a b l e t o g iv e h i s p la n t o t h ep l a n t f o r c o n s t r u c t o n.

f i r s t pr in te d work o f F. A. Tsander appeared - - t h e a r t i c l e" F l i g h t s t o O t he r P l an e ts . " I n t h i s a r t i c l e , h e p r e s e n t e d h i sb a s i c i d e a - - the combinat ion of a ro ck e t w i th an a i rp l a n e ,wi th subsequen t burn ing o f the metal p a r t s o f t h e a i r p l a n e.In 1924, F. A. Tsander wrote t h e a r t i c l e " De sc r ip t io n o f t h eIn te rp la ne ta ry Spaceship-Ai rplane System of Tsander ," which wasse n t t o t h e C ommittee f o r In v e n t io n s o f t h e Al l -R u ss i a n C ou nc ilo f t h e Nat ion al Economy 8 July 1924.l i s h e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n "Raketnaya Tekhnika" [Rocket Technologyi n 1937. F. A . T sa nd er b e l i e v e d t h a t a n a i r p l a n e w i t h ap i s to n e n g ine c o uld ac h ie ve a n a l t i t u d e o f a b o ut 28 km and aspeed of 350 t o 450 m/sec. A f t er t h i s , t h e s hi p i s swi tchedfrom th e p i s t o n e n g in e to a rocke t eng ine .t h e a i r p l a n e i s pul led p ie ce by p iec e (wings , t a i l , c h a s s i s ,p i s t o n e ng in e, e t c . ) i n t o a sp e c ia l d e v ic e , where i t i smelted and used as a n a d d i t i v e t o t h e l i q u i d f u e l . A t the endo f t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n r u n , a t an a l t i t u d e of 85 km, o n l y t h ero c k e t w i t h small rudders and wings as needed for a g l i d i n gdescen t would be l e f t .

In 1924, i n th e j ou rn al "Tekhnika i Zhizn'", No. 13, t h e

T h i s a r t i c l e was pub-

No longer needed,

At tempt ing t o ge t h i s works pub l i shed , F. A. Tsander sen tsome o f them, p a r t i c u l a r l y "The U t i l i t y o f Ac c e ler a t io n of t h eFl ig ht of a Rocket a t Moments when t h e Al igh t Vel oc it y of t h e 5 3

'Autobiography of F. A . Tsander , fami ly a rch ives .

4 8



Rocket i s Great," " F l i g h t s t o O t he r Planets,**and "Calcu la t ion oft h e F l i g h t o f a n I n t e r p l a n e t a r y S h i p i n the Atmosphere" t o t h eS c ie n t i f i c C ou nc i l o f t h e P e o p le ' s C ommissar ic t f o r E d u c a t io n,RSFSR, Professor V. P. Vetchinkin. I n h i s r e v i e w of 8 February1927, which was sent t o t h e S c ie n t i f i c Depa rtmen t o f t h e MainA d a i n i s t r a t i o n f o r S c ie n c e , V. P. Ve tc h in k in , n o t in g t h e v a lu eof the ideas and works of F. A. Tsander , cons idered i t q u i t en e ce s sa r y t o h e l p F. A. T sa nd er t o p re p a re and p u b l i sh h i s works ,some c h a p t e r s of which had a lre ady been p res ent ed t o t h e Admin-i s t r a t i r > n €or S c ie n c e , as r a p i d l y as p o s s i b l e . A c t u a l l y , due t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c works was not g iveni t s p r o p e r s i g n i f i c a n c e , i n t h o s e y e a r s w e l o s t p r i o r i t y even i nth o se cases when i t f a c t u a l l y a nd u nd i sp uta b ly b e lon ge d t o o u r

coun try . For example, i n 1925 t he work o f eng in ee r Gochman waspublished abroad, i n which h e suggested f l ight on wings andgl id in g descen t . The ideas developed by Yu. V. Kondratyuk andF. A. Tsander were publ i shed i n th i s work .

A few days a f t e r h e r e c e iv e d a rep ly f rom V. P. Vetch ink in ,F. A. Tsander sent t h e S c i e n t i f i c D i vi si on of t h e Main Adminis-t r a t i o n f o r Sc ie nc e a n announcement, i n which he r eq ues ted t ob e a l lowed t o work a t t h e C e n t r a l I n s t i t u t e f o r Aerodynamics andHydrodynamics (TsACI) o r t h e A v i a t i o n T r u s t e x c l u s i v e l y i n t h earea of i n t e rp l a n e ta ry vo ya ge s, and p e rmiss io n t o p re p a re f o rp r i n t i n g a book on i n t e rp l a n e ta ry v oy ag es . In J u l y of 1927, theAdmin is t ra t ion sent a message t h a t t h e r e q u e s t o f F. A. Tsanderwas not approved.

development of s p a c e f l i g h t , F. A . Tsander had e a r l i e r , i nOctober of 1 9 2 6 , t r a n s fe r r e d t o work a t A v i a ti o n P l a n t No. 4 i nthe Cent ra l Des ign Bureau of t h e Avia t ion Tru s t a s a S e n i o rEngineer. F. A . Tsander repor ted t h e r e su l t s o f h i s works o nproblems of t h e t h e o r y of r o c k e t e n g i n e s i n a r e p o r t " P re l imin a ryWork on t h e C o n s t ru c t io n of a Reacti on Apparatus," which he rea don 30 Novmbet 1928 a t th e 15 th Sess ion of t h e Commission onS c i e n t i f i c A i r Travel of t h e Moscow Ae rol ogi ca l Obs ew at ory . I n1929-1930, F. A . Tsander , a t t h e r e q u e s t of t h e Av ia t io n T ru s t ,prepared a r e p o r t on t h e b a s i s of h i s s t u d i e s e n t i t l e d "Problemsof Superaviation and Immediate Problems on t h e P r e p a ra t i o n f o rIn t e rp lan e ta ry Voyages" fo r tho F i f t h In t e r na t i on a l Co,;gress on

Air Travel, which was planned f or September of 1930 a t t h eHague. A f t e r a number of r e v i s i o n s o f t h e material which formedthe b a s i s o f t h i s r e p o r t , F. A. T sa nd er p re p a re d h i s book "TheProblem of Fl ight with React ion Apparatus ,*'w h i c h was p u b l i sh e di n 1932.

I n December o f 1930 , F. A . Tsander began t o work a t t h eCentral I n s t i t u t e of Aviation Motor Building ( T s I M ) , where i n1931 he began t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e OR-1 a v i a t i o n r e a c t i o nengine , followed by t he O R - 2 LRE. The OR-1 engine opera ted on

In o rd er t o make h i s employment more c lo se ly re l a t ed t o th e

/54

49



compressed a i r (su ppli ed from cyl in de rs o r by a compressor) andg a s o l i n e ; t h e OR-2 LRE a t f i r s t ( i n 1933) was t e s t e d w it h l i q u i doxygen and gasoline. #e can t r ace t he sequence of work i nt h i s d i r e c t i o n i n t h e di a r y of F. A. Tsander.

On 15 September 1931 i n h i s d i a r y he comments on h i s workon t h e a i r p l a n e w i t h t h e r e a c t i o n e n gi n e; on 1 October, hediscussed with Yu. A. P ob ed on os ts ev " i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h ere ac t ion eng ine on th e a i rp l ane , " and on 2 October he wrotei n h i s d i a r y " ab ou t t h e o i l - o x ys e n r o c k et f o r t h e a i rp l an e "1 ;on 7 October he noted th e conduct o f th e 32nd t e s t o f th e O R - 1 ,h e l d i n t h e p r e s en c e o f S. P. Kor ol ev a nd o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t s ,wh il e on 19 October we see t h e f i r s t mention o f t h e O R-2 engine ;on 18 November 193 1, F. A . Tsander concluded a S o c i a l i s t c o n t r a c t

wi th t h e Aviat ion Technology Bureau of t h e S c i e n t i f i c ResearchSector of tne Osoaviakhim CC f o r t h e p l a n ni n f o f a r e a c t i o ne n g in e , i n c lu d in g i t s i n s t a l l a t i o n on an a i r c r a f t . 2

f o r t h e OR-2 r e a c t i o n e n gi ne f o r t h e R P - 1 j e t a i r c r a f t i n t h efo l lo win g p e r io d s o f time: combustion chamber wi th n oz zle ,t an ks f o r f u e l w i t h s a f e t y va l v e , t a nk f o r g a s o li n e - - by 25November 1931; compensator fo r co oli ng of n ozzl e and he at in g ofoxygen - - by 3 December 1931.. The times f o r completion ofca lc u l a t io n o f t he tempera tu re i n th e combus tion chamber ,e x ha u st v e l o c i ty a nd a x ia l p r e s su re o f t h e j e t i n t h e n oz zl ea t v a ri o us p r e s s u re s i n sp ac e, w e ig ht s o f t h e p a r t s , f l i g h td u r a t i o n o f t h e R P - 1 r e a c r i o n a i r c ra f t w i t h various oxygenc o n te n t s , c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e h e a t in g a nd c o o l in g sy st em, a pp ro x-imate c a l c u la t io n o f t h e t e mp era tu re o f t h e walls of the com-bustion chamber - - a l l c or re sp on de d t o t h e time fo r comple t ionof the d rawings .

F. A. Tsander ag reed t o pla n and produce working drawings

Manufac ture and tes t ing of t he no zzl e and combustionchamber were planned for 2 December 1931; th e f u e l tanks f o rl iquid oxygen and gasol ine - - by 1 J a nu a ry 1 932; i n s t a l l a t i o nof t h e OR-2 on the R P - 1 a i r c r a f t and f l i g h t t e s t i n g were p la nn edf o r t h e end of 1932.

An addendum t o t h e agreement noted t h a t i f t h e p la nn edimproved nozzle included a d i r e c t a nd r e v e r se c o ne , c a l c ul . a t i on s

and drawings were t o be completed by 1 5 Jan uar y 1932. Thi sex txsmely sho r t pe r i od OF time f o r completion of a complex prob-

lem o f l a rg e volume, i n c lu d in g th e o re t i c a l s tu d y , c a l c u la t i o n , 5 5

I F , A . Tsander family archives .

'Archives o f Academy of Sc ie nc es USSR, F 573, d 2 6 9 , p. 1 0 ,

50



plann ing , manufac ture and te s t i ng , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b o t h t h e e n t h u-siasm a nd o pt imism o f t h e c o n t r a c to r , a nd t h e u n d e re s t ima t io no f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s which would ar ise i n complet ing th e ob l ig a -t i o n s u n de r ta k en . T h i s was a r e s u l t o f t h e l a c k of e x p er i e n cei n development of LRE, a s well as the mismatch between the com-p le x t e ch no log y o f ma nu fa ctu re o f t h e e n gin e an d th e r e l a t i v e lylow product i on c ap ac i t i es which could be found a t t h e time.

In 1931, Osoaviakhim al located F. A. Tsander 1000 rublesfo r t h e s tu d y o f r e a c t i o n mo tion , on 25 February 1932 another13,000 r u b l e s - f o r t h e e s t i n g o f r o c k e t a i r c r a f t , f ol l ow ed by80,000 r u b l e s i n March of the same y e a r .

I t soon became clear t h a t t h e pr e p a r a t i o n of de ta i led work-ing drawings and the complet ion of f u l l c a lc u l a t i o ns o f - a reac-t i o n e n gi n e w i t h a complex control system were simply too muchf o r F. A. Tsander a lone . The need thu s a ros e t o conc en t r a tet h e e f f o r t s o f s c i e n t i s t s a nd e n gi n e er s worki ng i n t h e area ofreac t ion technology .

F. A. T sa nd er a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t f o r p r a c t i c a l d ev el op me ntof rocke t technology , th e la r ge s t poss ib l e number o f eng ineer inga nd t e c h n ic a l wo rke r s, p a r t i c u l a r ly t a l e n t e d young p e op le , wouldbe needed. We w i l l d i s c u s s i n d e t a i l t h e c r e a t i o n a nd d ev el op -ment of t h e c r e a t i v e team headed by F. A. Tsander .

I n 1932, Tsan der 's work "The Problem of Fl igh t Us ing

Reaction Apparatus' ' was p u b l i sh e d as a separate book. Here,i n a dd i t i on t o t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e t h eo ry of t h e f l i g h to f r o c k e t s a n d a i r p l a n e s , w e f i n d meth ods o f s e l e c t i o n of f u e land d e s ig n of v a r io u s r e a c t i o n e n g ine s .

I n 1932, F. A. Tsander began working on th e c re at io n ofh i s f a r s t LRE, c a l l e d t h e O R - 2 . The e n g i n e was t e s t e d f o r t h ef i r s t time i n 1933 , burn ing l iq u i d oxygen and gas o l in e . Later,a t t h e RNII, t h e d e s ig n o f t h e engine was s i g n i f i c a n t l y c hangedi n o r de r t o improve i t s e f f i c i e n c y , and i n v e r s i o n 02 i t usedl i qu id oxygen and h igh ly concen t ra ted e t hy l a lcoho l .

L iqu id oxygen ( l i k e l i q u id € lu o r in e , l i q u id h yd ro ge n) i sa cryogen ic rocke t f u e l componeirt. I t i s a compressed gas,coo led t o a low (c ryogen ic ) tempera tu re . Cryogen ic fu e l mustbe used when t h i s i s j u s t i f i e d by t h e i n c re a s ed s p e c i f i c i mp ul sewhich i t p ro v id e s , fo r e xample in t h e b o o s t e r s o f sp a c e c ra f t .Cryogen ic fue l i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r l on g- te rm s t o r a g e , d ue t o t h ee v a p o ra t io n lo s se s .

A t G I R D from the very f i r s t days o f o r g a n i z a t i on o f t h i sgroup and formation of t he f i r s t team, F r id r ik h Ar tu ro v ic hworked on o t he r problems a s well. He t u rn e d h i s a t t e n t i on t oth e co ns tr uc t i on of a roc ket , l a t e r cal le d th e GIRD-X. Work was

5 1



begun on th i s rocke t i n January o f 1933, and i t was launched on2 5 November of t h e same year , bu t wi thou t Tsander . The c r ea t i onof t h e CIRD-X ro c k e t was preceded by many calcula t ions, roughpl an s and experi ments , performed and conducted by Fri dr ik hArturovich.

/56

F. A. Tsander spent most o f h i s day i n c a l c u l a t i o n , w h i l ea l s o working on produ ct io n, hel pin g th e mechanics who encoun-t e r ed s l i g h t d i f f i c u l t i e s i n the manufacture and tuni ng ofapparat us new f o r th e time. The eng ineers and des igners , wi thF. A. Tsander as t h e i r c h i e f , w orked t o g e t h e r i n a small room.They worked morning, noon and night, whenever needed, as longas t h e y ha d s t r e n g t h .

th ou g ht a bo ut t h e d e s ign of i n d iv id u a l u n i t s o f t h e ro c k e t , wh ichh e c a l l e d a "spaceship."

I n a d d i t io n t o h i s p l a n t a s k s , F. A . Tsander ca lc u l a t ed and

"Forward t o Mars " " F a s t e r t o Mars" - - th es e words symbol-i zed t h e go al of h i s l i f e . He f r e q u e n t l y s h a r e d h i s t h ou g ht sw i t h h i s co wo rke rs on t h e f i r s t team, toss ing o f f d rawings dfi n d i v i d u a l p a r t s o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t . G r ad u al l y, t h e form o f t h efuture rocket developed, the rocket which Tsander dreamed wouldf l y t o o u r n ei gh bo r p l a n e t .

During the l a s t months of h i s l i f e , F r id r ik h Ar tu ro v ic hworked es pe c i a l ly hard . As a r e s u l t of o v e r f a t i g u e , s y s t e m a t i c

lack o f s lecrp, poor and i r r eg u l a r feed ing , F. A. Tsander begant o l o s e h i s a b i l i t y t o work. On t h e i n s i s t a n c e o f h i s co wo rk er s,Fr id r ik h Ar tu rov ich t r av e l ed t o Kis lovodsk f o r t rea tm ent . Ont he way, he con tr act ed typhus and die d on 28 March 1933.

publ ' shed under t he t i t l e "The Problem of Flight Using RocketApparatus." The co l l ec t i on was re i ssu ed i n 1961 , expanded t oin c lu d e many works p u b l i sh e d f o r t h e f i r s t t ime .

In 1947 1 c o l l e c t io n o f t h e works of F. A. Tsslnder was

The ar chi ves co nt ai n many more un pw li sh ed works of t hes c i e n t i s t . Most o f the remain ing manuscr ip ts requ i re long andte d iu s work t o translate Tsander ' s shor thand t o o rd in a ry t e x t .The d i f f i c u l t y o f d ec od in g is e x pl a in e d by t h e f a c t t h a t F. A.

Tsander used a long -f org ott en typ e of short han d, which he him-se l f a l te r ed somewhat, wr i t in g on sp ec i f i c p roblems of t heth eor y of engin es and roc ket s i n German. Thus, t he work wi thth e manuscr ip ts o f F. A. Tsander r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l i s t s f a m i l i a rw i t h h i s s y st em o f w r i t i n g , f l u e n t i n German and f am i li ar wi throcket technology.

The f i r s t d e c ip h e r in g o f t h e workseof F. A . Tsander wasperformed a t RNII.d i r e c t i o n o f Ye. K. Moshkin decoded sev er al notebooks f i l l e d

In 1934, a group o f s tenogr aphers under the

52



with wr i t i ngs recorded by F. A. T sa nd cr d u r in g th e e a r l yp e r i o d o f h i s a c t i v i t y . Up t o 1 96 0, t h e s t u d y of t h e h e r i t a g eo f F. A. Tsander was conducted with no s t r i c t plan, unsystem-a t i c a l ly . The a pp ea ra nc e o f e a r l i e r u n pu b li sh ed id e a s o f F. A.T sa nd er i n p r i n t and th e o rg a n iz a t io n o f a number of meetings,ju bi le es and conferences de dica ted t o th e memory of F. A .

T sa nd er , t h e d a u g hte r of t h e s c i e n t i s t , who a l s o p re p are d J

c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e works o f F. A. Tsander "From h i s S c i e n t i f i cHer i tage" f o r p r in t i ng (Nauka Press, 19 6; ). The documents i nt h i s c o l l e c t i o n , from t h e a r c h i v e s o f T sa nd er , are i n t e r e s t i n gi n many r e s p e c t s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t i s n o te d h e re th a t T sa n d e r

began planning the O R - 1 e a g in e i n 1928. A method of the cal -culation of llHydrogen-Oxygen Rockets** i s p re se n te d (Ap r i l , 1 9 2 ? ),i n which t he thermodynamic ca lc ul a t io n of LRE i s a c c u r a t e l yexp la ined .

Tsander are l a r g e l y due t o t h e e f f o r t s o f Astra Fridr ikhovna /57

Since 1965 , t he d r c iph er in g and s tudy of th e works ofF. A. T sa nd er ha ve be en in c lu d e d i n th e p l a n o f t h e I n s t i t u t e oft he Hist ory of Na tura l Scie nce and Technology of t h e Academy o fSciences, USSR.

In May of 1970, th e f i r s t " readings" ded ica t ed t o the s tudyand r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c h e r i t a g e o f F. A . Tsander werehel d i n Riga, and adopted a res o lu t io n t o hold "Tsander readings1 's y s t e m a t i c a l l y . The second "readings" were h e l d i n May of 1972

i n Leningrad.

s i d e o f t h e moon.The name of Tsander has been g iven t o a cra ter on t h e f a r

The Works of F. A. Tsander on Rocket Engines

F. A. Tsander, a g r e a t s c i e n t i s t i n t h e a r e a of t h e de ve l-opment of a broad range of problems on th e the ory of spa cef l i g h t , d e d i c a t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t io n o f h i s s c i e n t i f i c andt e c hn i c al a c t i v i t y t o t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o fc o ns t ru c ti n g hi gh ly e f f i c i e n t r e a ct i o n f l i g h t v e h i c l es , as wellas t h e o re t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l work on th e ma s te ry o f l i q u id -

f u e l ed r o ck e t e ng in es d u r in g t h e i n i t i a l p e r io d o f t h e i r d e v el -opment i n t h e USSR.

Many of th e t he or e t ic a l and exper imenta l works of F. A.Tsander are d e di c at e d t o t h e f i n d i n g of means f o r achievemento f h i s b a s i c i d e a , t h a t t h e c om bust ion o f t h e metal p a r t s oft h e r o c k e t a lo ng w i t h t h e l i q u i d f u e l a l t e r t h e p a r t s were nolonger needed cou ld inc rea se t he exhaus t v e l oc i t y o f th e combus-t i on p roduc ts and a l so i n c r e a s e t he r a t i o o f t h e mass o f f u e lb ur ne d d u ri n g t h e pr o c e ss o f a f l i g h t t o t h e f i n a l mass o f t h erocket

53



This idea at t r ac ted F. A . Tsander as e a r l y as t h e 1 9 2 0 t s ,b u t was most complete ly presented by him i n h i s work "TheProblem of Fl i gh t Using Reaction Apparatus."p r e s e n t s a d e s c r i p t i o n of two f l i g h t v e h i c l e s : an airplane w i t .a rock e t eng ine , the wings of t h e a i r p l a n e an some o t h e r p a r t sbe ing drawn i n t o the veh ic l e and mel ted t o be used as f u e l , a n drockets surrounded by a se t o f c o n t a i ne r s f i l l e d wi+h f u e l com-p o ne n ts , w i th th e c o n ta in e r s d rawn i n t o th e c e n t r a l r o c k e t a f t e rt h e i r fuel c o n te n t was exhausted, then melted and used as f u e l .

In t h i s work h e

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F. A. Tsander be l ieve d t h a t on ly t he des igns which he sug-g e s t e d c a u ld ac h ie v e i n t e rp l a n e ta r y spe ed s.

F. A . Tsander ' s P lan f o r t h e I n t e r p l a n e t a r y

S p a c e c ra f t

Li

4'

Plan of Central Rocket Surrounded by S i d eRockets and Fuel Tanks After F. A . Tsander

54



H i s t e t a l c on fi de nc e i n t h e c o r r e ct n e s s o f t h e s c i e n t i f i cand t e c h n ic a l d i r e c t i o n h e had s e l e c t e d a l s o de t ermine d th en a tu re o f h i s t h e o r e t i c a l a nd p r a c t i c a l de ve lo pmen ts . H eturned h i s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d y of p o s s i b l e means o fin c rea s in g t h e s e p c i f i c impu lse o f h i s e n g in e a nd th e e f f i c e n cyof i t s i n d iv id u a l u n i t ; t h e o re t i c a l s tu d y and e x pe r ime nta ldevelopment of poss ibl e a pp l i ca t i on of metals as a d d it i v e s t ofu e l ; and th eo re t i ca l s tudy and exper imenta l deve lopment o f L E .

I n t h e e a r l y 3 0 ' s , t h e l e v e l of t e c hn o lo g y a nd a v a i l a b l es t r u c t u r a l materials di d no t a l low a ro c k e t w i th a high r a t i o ofl au nc h weig ht t o f i n a l weig ht t o b e c o n s t ru c t e d ( f o r e xa mp le ,i n t h e f i r s t Sovie t rocke t wi th L E , t h e GIRD-X, t h i s r a t i o was

approximately 1 . 4 ) , s o t h a t t h e i d e a of F. A. Tsander was pro-E is ing , bu t was fou nd t o be p r a c t i c a l l y impo ss ibl e .

In the bes t modern ro cke ts , thanks t o t h e u se o f t h e l a t e s ts t r u c t u r a l materials, opt imal des ign o f a l l ro c k et u n i t s a ndo p e rat io n i n t h e most s u i t a b l e modes, v e ry h ig h r a t i o s oflaunch weight t o f i n a l weight have been achieved.

In v e s t ig a t io n o f F u e l s

F. A. Tsander was a proponent of t he use of f u e l s wit h low-b o i l i n g o x i d iz e r s . H e b a se d t h i s o p in ion o n th e f ac t t h a tt h i s t yp e of f u e l h as e x c e p ti o n a ll y g r e a t c a p a b i l i t i e s as con-

c e rn s f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s i n s p e c i f i c i mp ul se . As a n o x id i z e r ,he bel ieved i t d e s i r a b l e t o us e l i q u i d oxygen, w i t h l i q u i dhydrogen, gasoline or a lc o h o l as t h e f u e l . G as ol in e, i n p a r -t i c u l a r , drew T sa nt ie r' s a t t e n t io n not only by i t s h ig h h e a tc o n ten t , b u t a l s o -che p o s s ib i l i t y of i t s u se i n t h e a v i a t i o nand rocke t eng ines which he p lanned f o r i n te rp l ane ta r y f l i g h tv e h ic l e s .

As we h a v e s t a t e d , F. A. Tsander pe r fo rmed in ves t ig a t i onson the pos s i b i l i ty and exped iency of u s in g metals as a d d i t i v e st o l i q u i d f u e l . As w e know, when some metals burn, more heat i sl i b e ra t e d th a n when l i q u id fu e l s are burned, even such l iqu idsa s g a so l in e ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e a d d i t i o n of metal t o a l i q u i d f u e lu nd er c e r t a in c o n d i t io n s migh t ca use an in c re a se i n t h e sp e c i f i cimpulse

.

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For e xa mp le , t h e h e a t in g a b i l i t y o f COL. u s t io n p ro d u c t s i noxygen, per k g o f f u e l , a c co rd i ng t o F. A. Tsander, are asfol lows: fo r gaso l in e - - 2350 kc al , f o r aluminum - - 3730 k c a l ,f o r l i t h iu m a s h ig h a s 4710 kcal.

oxide pa r t ic le s a r e gene ra l l y formed. I t i s t h e re f e r e i s rp o s s ib l et o c a l cu l a te t h e e x ha u st v e lo c i t y , t h ru s t a nd sp e c i f i c imp ul se

However, a t t h e t em pe ra tu re s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r L R E , s o l i d



by t he formulas designed on th e assumption of gas flow a lo n e .F. A. T sa nd er s t u d i e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s of motion of products con-s i s t i n g of a mix tu re o f g a se s a nd so l i d o x ide s . For example,i n h i s a r t i c l e , "The Use o f Netal Fuels i n Rocket Engines ," l hep r e s e n t s an approximate de te rmin a t ion of t h e r e a c t i o n forceproduced by an e ng in e e x p e l l i n g p a r t i c l e s from i t s n o z z l e a t twos i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t v e l o c i t i es . " I t i s p o ss ib l e , " F. A.Tsander wrote , "to burn metal w i th l i q u i d f u e l s i n p r o p or t io n ss uc h t h a t no d ec r e as e i n t h r u s t i s observed."2

I n o r d e r t o c heck h i s c a l c u l a t i o n s and t h e p r a c t i c a lp o s s i b i l i t y o f u t i l i z i n g t h e bu rn in g of metal i n th e chambersof r eac t i m engines , F. A. T san d er f i r s t p er fo rmed a nueber o fs imple labora to ry exper iments on the ign i t ion and combus t ion o fmetals. Then, t h e combustion of metals was s t u d i e 1 u si ng t h eOR-1 . Later, t h e program of experiments was expanded.

F. A. T san d er su g g e s t e d th a t t h e metal f u e l be made o ft h o s e p a r t s and units which had per formed the i r func t ions andwere no longer needed for f l i g h t or l a nd i ng o f t h e a i r p l a n e -r oc ke t o r c e n t r a l rocket with many s i d e rocke t s t;nd l i qu id fu e land oxygen tanks which he designed.

For t h i s r e a s o n , F. A. Tsander a t tempted t o d e te rmin e th ep o s s i b i l i t y o f p r oc e ss i ng i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l el eme nas i n t opowdered or melted metal (magnesium, aluminum) and de vel op ed

p l a ns f o r e n g i ne s a ll o wi n g t h i s idea t o be r e a l i z e d . F. A.Tsander came t o t h e c o n c lu s io n t h a t i t was e x p ed i e n t t o u s el i t h i u m as n o t o n ly an a d d i t i v e t o t h e f u e l , b u t a l so a s , t h es t r u c t u r a l material o f a s p a c e c r a f t .

In h i s a r t i c l e , "Problems of t h e Design of a Rocket UsingMetal Fuel ," pub l i she d in 1937 , the requ i rements are se t f o r t hf o r metals o f w hich t h e s t r u c t u r a l e l em en ts l a t e r t o be burnedi n t h e combust ion chamber were t o be made. They are asfo l lo ws : t h e metal s h ou l d b e s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g a t n or mal tem-p e r a t u r e s , t h e l i g h t and hea t of me l t in g sh o u ld n o t b e to og r e a t , t h e h e a t g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y sh o ul d be as g r e a t as pos-s i b l e ; t h e m e lt i ng p o i n t - - low. H i s w o r k p r e s e n t s a method forde te rmina t ion and se lec t ion o f t h e optimal dependence between

t h e mass of a metal on t h e one hand, and of t h e l i q u i d o x i di z e rand f ue l on th e o t he r ; between th e masses o f a l l s t r u c t u r e s a ndof t h e metal burned, between th e s o l i d and gaseous combust ionp ro d u c t s .

'Raketnaya Tekhni ka, 1936, No. 1.

'Tsander, F. A. , Problema Poleta p r i Promoshchi Reaktivnykh [TheProblem of F l i g h t Using Reaction Apparatus - - C o l l e c t i o n ofWorks], Moscow~Oboroniiz Press , 1961, p. 2 4 1 .

56



I n h i s work #'The Problem of Fl ig ht Using Reaction Appara- .

tu5,'#t h e f u e l , s ug ge st e d ea r l i e r by Yu. V. Kondratyuk, was s tu d ie d .eeHowever, boron w i l l probably be used only as a powder fo r ins u-l a t i on (amorphous boron) o r i n t h e form of rods s ub j ec t t o com-p re s s io n ( c ry s t a l l i n e bo ro n) . L iqu id b oron h y d r ide co u ld a l so b etaken i f ke pt ver y cold."1 When boron b u m s i n oxygen, th e min-i m u m q u a n t i t y o f s o l i d p ro du ct i s produced with very high heatl i b e ra t i o n , which T san d er c a l c u la t e d a t 3900 kcal/kg.

th e u se of boron or l i q u id b o ro n h y d r id e a s an a d d it i v e t o

This work a l s o s u g g es t s t h a t s o l i d n o n m et a l l i c materialssuch as c e l l u l o i d , etc . be used as a d d i t i v e s t o l i q u i d f u e l ."Exper i ren ts cou ld also be conducted t o f i n d p r e s se d masses,

u s e d i n almost a l l areas of chemica l technology and poss ib lef o r our purposes as w e l l . And f ur t he r ... "We can imaginemasses c o n t ai n i n g na p ht h al e ne o r o t h e r f u e l s i n mixture withmaterials which, when heated, would m e l t and the n be f ed fromth e mel t ing vess e l i n t o the motor pumps of th e rock e t as l i q u i dfuel.e*2

Study of Processes Within the Chamber and Cooling Conditions

F. A. Tsander developed methods f o r thermal and the rao-

62

dynamic ca l cu la t i on o f a r e a c t io n e n g ine , p r e se n te d i n twoa r t i c l e s un de r t h e t i t l e "Thermal Calculation of a Liquid-Fueled Rocket Engine," f i r s t published i n 1936-1937.

In t h e s e a r t i c l e s , t h e a u t h or p r e se n t e d ex am pl es of cal-c u l a t i o n s f o r a f u e l c o n s i s t i n g o f a i r enri ched i n oxygen andg a so l in e . T he re a l so h e a n aly ze d th e in f lu e n c e of t h e a d i a b a t i cindex, gas cons ta nt , gas temperatur e and degree of expansion ont h e i d e a l ex ha us t v z l o c i t y of gases f rom th e nozz le ; he p resen te da method f o r de te rmi na t ion o f t he a r ea o f th e c r i t i c a l a n d e x i t -p l a n e c ro s s s e c t io n s o f t h e n o z z le; h e s tu d ie d th e f lo w o fa c t u a l g a se s c o n s id e r in g lo se s an d c o n s id e r in g th e i n f lu e n c e o f

g as f r i c t i o n on t h e wall on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e n oz zl e.

F. A. Tsander determined the combust ion temperature con-s id e r i n g d i s so c i a t io n o f g a se s and c o n s t ru c t e d g rap h s c h a r a c t e r -iz in g the the rmal pa ramete rs o f an eng ine

asa fu n c t io n of t h e

oxygen con ten t i n the ox id ize r .

In these a r t i c l e s , F. A . Tsander performed his calculationsnot only analytically, but also using entropy diagrams.

'Tsander, F. A . , Problema Poleta p r i Promoshchi Reaktivnykh [TheProblem of Flight Using Reaction Apparatus - - Co l l e c t i o n ofWorks], Moscow, Oborongiz Press, 1961, p. 1 1 9 .

' Ib id. ' p. 1 1 7 .

57



A number of the works of F. A. Tsander have been dedicated

t o d e t e r a i n a t i o noL

t h e h e a t i n g a nd c o o l i n g of t h e walls of arock et engi ne combust ion chaaber . These works a n a l y z e t h ep e c u l i a r i t i e s o f h e a t t r a ns f e r from t h e gases t o t h e walls ofLRE. The most d e t a i l e d t he rm al c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e c o o l i n gs y s t e m f o r a ro c k e t e n g in e i s p r es e nt e d i n t h e a r t i c l e "ThermalC a l c u l a t i o n of a Rocket Engine Designed f o r Liquid Fusl."lIn i t , t h e h e at t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i sof t h e formula of Nu sse l t , a f t e r wh ic h fo rmu las f o r de t ermina -t i o n o f t h e e x t e rn a l , i n t e rn a l an d a v era ge t e mp e ra ture of t h eengine chamber wal l are given, methods are s t u d ie d f o r d e t c r -minat ion of t h e p h y s i c a l p a ra me te r s of coo l i ng media and t herequ i red f low ra tes .

C a lc u la t i o n o f t h e c o o l in g sy s te m h e lp ed F. A . Tsander t o

d e t e r n i n e t h e l i m i t i n g p o s s i b l e p r e s s u r e i n t h e chamber f o re a c h sp e c i f i c fu e l c omp os i ti o n. Using th e resu l t s of c a l c u l a -t i o n s , h e d et er mi ne d t h e t he rm al e f f i c i e n c y , t h r u s t of t h eeng ine , exhaus t ve loc i ty and se lec ted the volume of t h e com-bu st io n chamber. Thus w e see t h a t t h e p l a n nin g a nd c o n s t ru c -t i o n o f t h e O R - 1 and OR-2 engines were preceded by c a l c u l a t i o n .

63

T h e s c i e n t i s t s e t himself th e problem of t r a n s f e r i n g rockettechnology from t he area of theory t o t h e area of e n g in e e r in gp r a c t i c e . " I am p r i m a r i l y a mathematician," F r id r ik h Ar tu ro v ic hs a i d of himse l f . However, ana lyz ing th e r e s u l t s of h i s a c t iv i t y ,we can brave ly s t a t e t h a t F. A. Tsander was a g r ea t s c i e n t i s t ,inven tor , eng ineer , des igner and exper imente r . He c r e a t e d anumber of e x p e r i m e n t a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s , a f l ame s t a n d , c r e a t e d

and exper imenta l ly deve loped the O R - 1 r e a c t io n e n g ine , d e v e l -oped the OR-2 r oc ke t e n gi ne a nd t h e i n i t i a l v e r s i o n of t h eGIRD-X rocket with the type 10 rocke t eng ine .

In c re a s in g S p e c i f i c Imp ul se a n d E f f i c i e n c y

F. A. T sa nd er s tu d i e d v a r io u s means f o r i n c r e a s i n g sp e c i f i cimpulse . Giving t h i s problem prime importance, he based h i5s tu d ie s o n t h e use of ii f u e l w i t h hi gh s p e c i f i c h e a t c o n t e n t ,c o n s i s t i n g of l i qu id oxygen and gaso l ine , and cons idered t h euse of oxygen most p ro mi si ng . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e u se o f metalas an a d d i t i v e t o f u e l i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e i t s hea t -p roduc ingc a p a b i l i t y , he a l s o su gg e st e d th a t s p e c i f i c imp ul se be in c re a se dby a c t i n g d i r e c t l y on t h e ga se s lea vin g t he chamber of th erocke t eng ine by i n s t a l l a t i o n of r e s t r i c t i n g f i t t i n g s a t t h e e n dof t h e e xp an din g n o z z le , t h e so -c a l l e d reverse cone.

'Raketnaye Tekhnika, No. 1, 1936.

58



As h e a t i s t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e s u p e r s o n i c stream t o t h e

The increment i n work of th e cy cl e i s obta ine d by t he

c o n s t r i c t i n g f i t t i n g , t h e ga s v e l o c i t y s ho ul d i n c r ea s e .

a d d i t i o n a l a d i ab a t ’ c e x pa ns i on ( l i n e CE) and subsequent i so -thermal compressiot . ( l ine E F ) . F. A. Tsander c a l l e d t h i scyc le the improved working cycl e . The pr es su re a t t h e o u t l e to f th e nozz le pa remains a t t h e d e s ig n l e v e l , a nd o p t imal

t h r u s t i s a c hie ve d ; t h e t e mp e ratu re o f t h e g a se s l e a v in g th en o z z le Ta i s decreased, c o nse qu e nt ly in c re a s in g th e h e a t d ro p

ge ner at ed in t h e combustion chamber. However, F. A. Tsanderd i d n o t c o n s i d e r t h e p r es e nc e of compression jumps in the super-s o n i c stream a nd d i d no t s t u dy t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of producinge f f e c t i v e c oo li ng o f t h e e n t i r e mass of exhaus t gases .

A t t h e p r e s e n t time, t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y i s i n c re a se d b y

i n c re a s in g t h e d e g re e o f e x p a ns ion o f t h e g a s by in c re a s in g t h op re s su re i n t h e c hamber wi th t h e o p t ima l g a s p re s su re a t t h eex i t p la n e of t h e n o z z le .

Results of Thermodynamic Calcula-t i o n s o f t h e O R - 1 Reaction EngineAf te r F. A . Tsander

i n t h e USSR by V . P. Glushko, A . P . Vand o t h e r s c i e n t i s t s .

The O R - 1 Reaction Engine

I n 1930, F. A. Tsanderdeveloped an approximatemethod f o r ca l cu la t i on .,f ar e a c t io n e n g in e . He gavep a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h ecalcula t ion of thermodynamic

processe s i n t he combust ionchamber, a l lowing him t odetermine t h e b a s i c p a r a -meters of t h e LRE w i t h t h enecessa ry accuracy as theywere planned. During th es ey e a r s , t h e a pp ro ximatemethod of d e s ig n of a ro c k e teng ine was developed andsuccess fu l ly used by V. P.Clushko a t GDL. L a t e r ,methods of thermodynamicc a l c u l a t i o n c o n s i d e r i n gd i s s o c i a t i o n were improved

’anichev, A . I . Polyarnyy

T h e f i r s t e x pe r im e nt a l r e a c t i o n e n gi n e ( O R- 1 ) used com-p re s se d a i r and gaso l ine . The planning and construct ion o,C t h eOR-1 were preceded by l abor a to r y exper iments and cqre fu l ca l cu-la t ions per fo rmed by F. A . Tsander. In 1917, h e performed

59



e x e r ime n t s on the burn ing o f metal; beginni ng i n 1922, he

sePe c t e d a nd sy s t e ma t i z e d th e c a l c u l a t io n de pe nd en ce s, w i th o u twhich i t was i m po s si b l e t o create the method of c a l c u l a t i o n o fL E , deve loped p lan s and drawings f o r an exper imenta l re ac t i on

a t Moscow Univ ers it y e n t i t l e d "Pr eli min ary Work on th e Construc-t i o n o f a Rocke t Appara tus ," i n which he p resen ted t he r e s u l t sof p re l imin a ry c a l c u la t io n s a n d a p la n which s e rv e d a s t h eba s i s fo r development o f th e O R- 1 .

engine, and on 30 November 1928, F. A. Tsander read a r e p o r t /65

In October of 1929,F. A . Tsander begand e t a i l e d d es i gn c a l c u -l a t i o n of t h e O R - 1engine .

b The i n i t i a l c a l c u l a -t i o n d a t a were: g a s o l i n econsumption 350-400 g/hr,

E t h e o r e t i c a l a i r consump-

consumption was approx i -In d i ca to r Diagram of The ore t ic a l l y mate ly 1 .6? g /sec .Improved Engine of F. A. Tsander Thermodynamic ca l cu l at i on s

de te rmined the compos i t ionof th e combust ion p roduc ts , gas tempera tu re i n th e combus t ionchamber, approximately 2440 K, t he rm al e f f i c i e n c y , or, t h e o r d e rof 0.105-0.125, exhaus t ve l oc it y, about 840

in/sec,and design

t h r u s t - - 0 . 1 4 5 kg.

P

1 -- t i o n p e r kg of g a s o l i n e - -?I 1 4 . 2 kg. T hu s, t h e fu e l

F. A. Tsander began assembling h i s eng in e immediate ly a f t e rcompletion of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a nd m a nu fa ct ur e o f t h e p a r t s . 1

On 30 Septe mber 192 9, he wr ot e: "Due t o t h e funding problem,I suddenly got t h e i de a t o r ed es ig n t h e t o rc h f o r t h e f i r s tr e a c t i o n e ng in e... I r e d e s ig n ed th e f i t t i n g an d su rro un d ed i twi th a s l e e v e , i n t o which a i r was blown under p res sure . Ins idet h e s l e e v e was a sp ec ia l tube forming th e space fo r combus t ion.A t t h e e nd of t h i s t u be was an i n t er c ha n ge a bl e c o ni c a l f i t t i n gt o pr od uc e e x ha u st v e l o c i t i e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s p e ed o f sound.

"The copper tube f o r l i qu id g aso l in e was rep lac ed L- i th alonger one, w h i c h was wound a ro un d th e c o n ic a l f i t t i n g t o p re h e a tth e gaso l ine . Fur thermore, th e tank was equipped with a mano-meter t o measure t h e g a so l in e f e e d p re s su re a n d a n i p p l e t o l e t

'The do sc ri pt io ns of t h e O R - 1 presented by a number of authorsinc lude many ind iv i dua l e r ro rs ; we t h e r e f o r e c o ns i de r ed i te x p e d ie n t t o p r e s e n t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e O R - 1 given by Tsanderh imse l f .

60



o u t a i r . A thermometer was a t t a c h e d t o t h e t a n k t o me asure th et a n k cover temperature . A s p e c i a l v a l v e was f i t t e d t o r eg ul at ethe consumption of f u e l .

''The compressed a i r f o r combustion and cool in g of th e com-bustion chamber was f e d i n t o t h e c o o li n g l in e th ro u g h a n i p p l ea t t a c h e d t o t h e sl e e v e i n f r o n t a f t h e n o z z l e . he mixture wasign i ted by a spark p lug so lder ed in t o th e head." T

The f i r s t tes tso f th e O R - 1 wereconducted by F. A.Tsander i n the

l a b o r a t o r y f o r a i ra v i a t i o n e ng ine s o fthe screw-motor sec-t i o n o f TsAGI i n 1930.The engine was s u s -pended s o t h a t t h egases e x i t i n g f ro mth e n o z z le wered i r e c t e d to wa rd asmall metal d i sc c o n -nec ted t o a balance .The ind ica t ions o fth e b a l a n c e were usedt o de te rmine the p res -

su re o f t he gases on

- -The F i r s t Reaction Engine - t h e O R - 1 t h e d i s c .

In 1931, the O R - 1 engine bas f i n a l l y deve loped and beg in-n ing i n 1932 i t was used t o s t u dy t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a d d i t i o nof metals t o t h e l i q u i d f u e l on t h r u s t .measurements c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e time and t h e i n s u f f i c i e n tt h r us t developed by th e O R - 1 di d not a l low any in f lu ence o f thesead di t i ve s on th e opera t in g mode of th e engine t o be measured, butc a l c u l a t i o n s s t i l l ind ica ted the exped iency of th e use o f metala d d i t i v e s t o t h e f u e l . T h er e fo r e, s t u d i e s were c o nt in ue d i nl a t e r years .

T h e low accuracy of t h e

The OR-2 Rocket Engine

The OR-2 engine was developed by F. A. Tsandcr. The p la n -n i n g o f t h e e n b i n e was begun i n September of 1931, but preliminaryc a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e u n i t s a nd o f t h e e n g i n e as a whole had beenconducted by Tsander even e a r l i e r . The engine was designed f o r

'Tsander, F. A . , Problema Poleta p r i Promoshchi Reaktivnykh [TheProblem of F l i g h t Using Reaction Apparatus - - C o l l e c t i o n ofWorks], Moscow, Oborongiz Press, 1961, p. 47 .

6 1



i n s t a l l a t i o n on a p i l o t e d v e h i c l e - - t h e R P - 1 "flying wing"

g l ide r des igned by V. I . Cheranovskiy. Th is g l i de r was manufac-tured by Osoaviakhim ac t iv i s t s .

Thus, the OR-2 i s t h e f i r s t domest ic LRE d e s ig n e d fo r aLiquid oxygen and gasoline were s e l e c t e d asi l o t e d v e h i c l e .

th e fue l . The oper a t in g t i m e of the engine was d es ig ne d t o be30 sec, wi th a t h r u s t o f 50 kg and a chamber pressure of 6 t o 8atm. However, the OR-2 was never in s ta l le d on the RP-1 g l i de r ,s i nce th e eng ine was never s ucLessfu l ly deve loped. Later, n o ta t G I R D b u t r a t h e r a t RNII, a modif i ca t ion o f t he eng ine ( 02 ) wasdeve loped , d i f f e r in g from the OR-2 i n des ign and f u e l used.

The combustion chamber of t h e O R - 2 had an e lenga ted cy l in -

d r i c a l shape , th e nozz le was con i ca l and superson ic . The a i x i ngh ea d c a r r i e d sp ra y e r s a nd an i n l e t v a l v e f o r t h e fue l .v a lv e al lowed th r u s t t o b e v a r i e d by g ra d u a l ly c h a ng in g th e fu e lconsumption. Igni t ion was by an elec t r ic spa rk plug. Thec y l i n d r i c a l p o r t io n o f t h e chamber of t he engine was cooledex te rn al ly by t h e l i qu id oxygen, which ent ere d the chamber i ngaseous form, and t he nozz le was coo led wi th water.

T h is same

The e x t r a c t iv e f e e d sy st e m inc lu d e d p e ar - sh a pe d fu e l t a n k s ,which were t o be suspended i n t h e i n t e r n a l s e c t i o n s of t h e g l i d e r .The f u e l components were f ed t o t h e chamber under pressurecrea ted by gaseous n i t r ogen . Th is was achieved by t he use ofa "nitrogen compensator" - - a s e p a r a t e t a nk c o n ta i n i ng l i q u i d

l i qu id oxygen evapora to r s , the n i t roge n compensa tor hea texchanger, a wa te r tank and p u p . The wate r , hea ted i n t h enozz le coo l ing ca v i ty , passed th rough th e pump and tank i n t o theni t rog en compensator and evap orat ors . Heat exchange between thewater and t h e l i q u i d n i t r o g e n c au se d t h e l a t t e r t o e v ap o ra t e.Addi t iona l coo l ing o f the wate r occurred i n the oxygen evapor-a t o r s .The cold water was r e t u r ne d t o t h e n o z zl e c o o l in g c a v i t y . A l lp a r t s of t h e OR-2 were p l ac e d i n t h e g l i d e r .OR-2 engine was compl eted i n December of 1932.

nitrogen. The water c o o l in g s y s t e m fo r t he nozz le inc luded two /69

The oxygen gas was used t o pr es su ri ze th e oxygen tanks .

Assembly of t h e

By e a r l y March 1933, t he engine was i n s t a l l e d o n a t e s ts t a n d a t th e Nakhabinsk range and prepare d f o r t e s t i ng .Fr i dr ik h Artu rov ich was then i n Kis lovodsk f o r t rea tment , the

flame t e s t s were performed by h i s working col league s.

T h e f i r s t t e s t of the OR-2 was he ld on 1 8 March 1933. T h ef e e d p re s su re was f i r s t h e l d ra the r low - - from 3 t o 4 atm. Thef u e l i n th e chamber ig ni te d, but th e combust ion was u n s t a b l e andrough and i n a few seconds the e n g i n e h ad t o be sh u t o f f . Duringt h e second t e s t on 2 1 March 1933, one oxygen evaporator operated.During the seventh secbrid , th e motor b u r s t i n t h e r e g io n of t h ehead. The t h i r d t e s t was co nd uc te d on 26 March. The f e e d

Since

/70

62



.---=E.- -

= Fuel

- Water- - Nitrogen

Diagram of the OR-2 Engine and External Viewof Its Chambers: 1, Gasoline Tank; 2, SafetyValve; 3, 20, Oxygen Tanks; 4, Evaporator; 5,Combustion Chamber; 6, Valve; 7, Puinp; 8, WaterTank; 9, Additional Heating; 10, Roller; 11,Line; 12, Nitrogen Under Pressure; 13, Evapor-ator; 14, Control Panel; IS, Manometers; 16,Thermometers; 17, Valves; 18, Magnito; 19,Valves; 21, Cylinder of Hot Water; 22, NitrogenCompensator

63



system was opera te d wi t h two evapora to rs , bu t th e combus tion oft h e f u e l i n t h e c hamber was rough, and i n a few seconds thechamber burst on a welded seam. The cooling jacket burnedthrough. During th e fo urt h tes t , on 28 A p r i l 1933, t h e p r e s s u r ei n the chamber changed sudden ly, bu t a t times b r i e f l y s t a b i l i z e dand he ld a lmos t con s tan t a t 8 a tn ; t h e f e e d sy st e m o p e rat e d wi thtwo evapora to rs .loads developed, th e engine was shu t down i n th e 35th second.

In danger of damage due t o t he g re at dynamic

Diagram of Placement of OR-2 Engine

Components on t h e RP-4 Gl id e r

a t i o n and c l e a r e r de t e r mi a a t i on o f t h ep ro c es se s o c c u r r in g i n t he engine.

i n

During the f i r s ttes ts o f th e OR-2, t h emembers of the teamh e l d t o t h e working

s t y l e of F. A. Tsanderand fo l lowed h i si n s t r u c t io n s t o t e s tt h e en t i re motor a tonce, i r e . , t h e com-bust isn chambersto g e th e r w i th t h ef u e l feed system andsupplementary appa-ra tu s . This methodo f t e s t i n g i s morecomplex than s tage-by - s age dev e opmentof u n i t s b u t , as

F r id r ik h Ar tu ro v ic hb e l i e v e d , i t al lowedmore complete c ons ider -

: e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a l l

I t i s h a rd t o d e c id e w h a t p la n of f u r t h e r t e s t i n g F. A.Tsander would have suggested a f t e r a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e su l t s oft h e f i r s t f lame tes ts . W know th a t he did not deny th e pas si -b i l i t y o f us i ng o xy ge n- al co ho l f u e l ; t h e r e f o r e , a f t e r p ro c e s s in gof t h e e x p e r i n e n t a l d a t a, g a s o l i n e was r e p la c e d by e th y l a l c o h o li n f u r t h e r e x p e r b en t : .

The combustion chamber was s imp l i f i e d a n d e q u ip p e d wi th ar e f r a c to r y h e a t i a s u l a t in g l i n in g c o n s i s t i n g o f aluminum o x id eand magnesium oxide; an e x t r a c t i v e fuel component feed systemwas i n s t a l l e d , c o n si s t i ng of t h e f u e l t a n k s and a gas accumula-t o r - - a h igh p re s su re c y l in d e r .i n s t a l l e d be twee n th e c y l i n d e r and t a n k s i n o r d e r t o reduce t h epres sure . This new vers ion of t h e engine was c a l l e d t h e 4 2 .Subsequently , only th e combust ion chamber, ra t he r than t h ee n t i r e e n g i n e w i t h a l l o f i t s u n i t s was developed. The d e s c r i pt i o n of t h e 02 engine i s presented below.

A vohre an reducer were

64



nP l a n s of Rocket

Engines

I n a dd i t i on t ot'ie OR-2 e n g ine wi tht h e e x t r a c t i v e f e e dsystem, F. A .T s ander developeds e v e r a l o t h e rd e s i gn s w i t h i n j e c -tor fuel componentfeed . K. E. T s i o l -kovsk iy be l ievedt h a t i n j e c t o r sc o u ld u se a p o r t i o nof the energyl i b e r a t e d i n t h ecombustion chambert o fe ed l i q u i d f u e lcomponents by meansof a s tream of gas .F. A. Tsander d idnot produce suchsystems.

Diagram of Second Ver sio n o f ST RocketEngine After F. A. Tsander: 1, LiquidFuel; 2 , Oxid ize r ; 3, I n j e c t o r ; 4 , Heatero r I n j e c t o r ; 5 , Combustion Chamber; 6 ,Oxid ize r Evapora to r ; 7 , Compensator

F. A. Tsander made up a g e n e ra l e n g in e p l a n wi th a t u r b i n e -pump fu el -f ee d system, and suggested t h a t a gas tu r b in e be usedt o dr iv e t he pump, th e working f l u i d f or which would be th e com-

bu st io n produc ts of t he f u e l , drawn away from th e main combustionchamber. A t t h e p r e s en t time, i n o r d e r t o p ro du ce t u r b i n e g as ofr e l a t i v e l y low te m pe r at u re , t h e t u r b i n e s tare su p p l i e d n o t by th ecombustion chamber, but r a t h e r by ga s g e n e ra to r s .

/ 7 2O n e i n t e r e s t i n g

design developed byF. A. Tsander i s ane n g ine p l a n i n which ,i n a dd i ti o n t o t h eu su al l i q u i d f u e l ,powdered and liquidm e t a l f u e l were t o beused . The powdered

metal was t o b e f e di n t o t h e combustionchamber by an injec-

Diagram o f Third Version of 5T Rocket t o r . The l iq u idEngine After F. A . Tsandcr: 1, I n t o m e t a l was t o b eEvaporator ; 2 , 02 o r NgO4 o r Ozone, 3, produeed by meltingAlcohol o r Other Fuel ; 4 , Pumps; 5 , Com- metal s t r u c t u r a lbustion Chamber; 6 , Gas Turbine; 7 , elements o f t h eEvaporator ; 8 , Double Cone; 9 , Water rocke t no lon erCompensation Tank; 1 0 , Water Pump n e c e s sa ry i n ? l i g h t .

65



The s tudiesperformed i n the30's and 4 0 ' s within jec to rs showedt h a t , i n s p i t e ofsome promisingt h e o r e t i c a l d a t a ,they opera te on lya t ve ry low e f f i -c i e n c i e s .

At tempts todevelop an accep-

t a b l e e ng ine d e s ig nus ing meta l as ana d d i t i v e t o t h eprimary fuel wereunsuccess fu l .

to cor.-s t r u c t u n i ts f o r

D i t g r m of Engine 10 f o r I n i t i a l Ve rs io nof Liquid Fuel Rocket After F. A.Tsander: 1, Powdered Metal Fuel ; 2 , Pump;3, Sol id Fue l ; 4 , Liquid Fuel

me l t ing o r y u lv e r -iz i ng o f meta l were a l so unsucces sful . Therefor e , two veryi n t e r e s t i n g i d e a s f rom t h e p l a n s o f F. A. Tsander , th e use ofin j e c to r s a n d o f metal f u e l , h a v e n o t as y e t b e e n p r a c t i c a l l yr e a l i z e d .

Fr id r ikh Ar tu rov ich Tsander was one of th e p ioneers o f

rocke t technology , combining th e ta l e n t of a g r e a t t h e o r e t i c a ls c i e n t i s t and t h a t of a g i f t e d experimenter and engirreer .d ev elop ed th e p r in c ip l e s o f t h e th e o ry m d d e s ig n of LRE andp er fo rme d d e t a i l e d c a l c u la t io n s of h i s f i r s t e xp er im en ta l s p e c i -mens. The th eo re t ic al and experimental developments of Fr idr ikhArturovich a ided fu r th er development of resear ch on LRE andro c k e t s , wh i l e t h e p ro p a g a nd i s t i c a c t i v i t y o f T sa nd er a nd o th e re n t h u s i a s t s l e d no t o n ly t o t h e c r e a t i o n of GIRD i n Mescow, b u ta l so i n many o t her c i t i e s of th e country . Thanks t o t h e p r a c t i c a la c t i v i t y of F. A. Tsander a t GIRD, t h e f i r s t S o vi e t r oc k e t w it hLRE was crea ted and t h e OR-2 engine was developed.

He

66



kkve forward bravely g r e a t and

small laborers of th world and

know tha t w a l h o f y ou r work

w f l J be l e a i b u t w i l l bear foryou great f r u i t .

K. E. Tsiolkovskiy

Chapter 2 . The F i r s t Rocke t Sc i e n t i f i c Research andExper imenta l Des ign Organ iza t ions in t h e USSR

74

The works o f t h e e a r l y s c i e n t i s t s o f o u r c o un t ry , t h e i rs tudents and fol lower5 formed a ba s i s f o r th e development o fs c i e n t i f i c r e se a rc h a nd e xp e r imen ta l d e s ig n work on th e c r e a t io no f rocke t eng ines and rocke ts i n t h e ear ly 1920's.

The r e a son fo r t h i s d e ve lo pmen t was n o t o n ly tkc s u c c e s s f u lr e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d i e s o f o ur s c i e n t i s t s , b u t a l s o , t , a s i g n i -f i c a n t ex te nt , t h e demands of v a r io u s b ra n c h e s of sc ience andt ec hn ol og y, p a r t i c u l a r l y a v i a t i o n and a r t i l l e r y

T hu s, i n t h e 2 0 ' s t h e time h ad come fo r t h e ty a n y t t i o n t oexper imenta l Work, fo r th e c re a t io n o f crea t ive teams a d t h ee x pa n sio n o f t h e r a ng e o f s c i e n t i f i c r e se a rc h work. R oc ke t

t e ch n olo gy had t o be b rou g ht f ro m th e a r e a of t h e o ry t o t h ea r e a of e n g i ne e r i ng p r a c t i c e , had t o b e g iv en s t a t e w i d e s i g n i -ficance. "But w e must undertake experiments . W must c n s i d e rn o th i ng i n o u r t h e o r e t i c a l w orks t o b e a b s o l u t e l y t r u e , t t P s a i dK. E. Tsio lkovsk iy .

The development of th e na t i on al economy, th e ra pi d growth ofsc i enc e und technology i n the USSR, th e succ ess fu l f u l f i l l me nt o ft h e f i r s t f i v e - y e a r p l a n a ll ow ed s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h o r ga n i z a-t i o n s t o be s o t up on t he counary f o r t h e development of rocketsa n d l i q u id - fu e l e d ro c k e t e n g in e s .

During these same y e a r s i n i t h e S o v ie t Union , many p u b l i c Lo r g a n i z a t i o n s were developed which were of g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n ce

i n th e popu la r iz a t i on and development o f rock e t and space tech-n olog y. Some in d i v id u a l s c i e n t i s t s made g re a t c o n t r ib u t io n s t ot he deve lopment and popu la r iza t io n of t h e s c i en c e o f ro c k e t s a n dengines

The l e a d in o rg a n iz a t io n s i n t h e USSR were t h e Gas DynamicsLabor at ory (GDLP under mi l i ta r y ausp ic es , which began i t s

'T s io lkovs t iy , K. E., Co ll ec te d Works, Vol. 2 , Academy ofSc iences USSR Press, Moscow, 1954, p. 274 .

67



a c t i v i t y i n t h e s p r i n g of 1921, t he Group f o r t he Study ofRocket Motion (GIRD), a p u b l i c a l l y su p p c r t e d g rcu p begu, i n.~ie f a l l of 193 1, a nd t h e R e ac ti on S c i e n t i f i c Re se ar ch I n s t i -t u t e (RNII) , deve laped nn the ba s i s o f GDL and G I R D l a t e i n1935. The rocke t o r sa i l i t a t i ons expanded , changed t h e i r purposes ,new l a r g e g ove rn me nt e n t e rp r i s e s were developed, solving complexproblems of t h e mastery of space .

Now, probably, i t would be s imply impossible t o l i s t a l lo f th e l a rg e a n d small problems, the en t i r e range of problemss t ud ie d by th e subduers o f space .nology which has n o t b ee n u t i l i z e d t o some e x t e n t i n t h e s t u d yo f s p a c e ; i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o name a s ci e nc e whose development

h a s n o t b ee n in f lu e n c e d by th e r e su l t s o f t h e s tu d y of space .The performance of such a g r a n di o s e pr ogra m o f d i f f i c u l t i n v e s-t i g a t i o n , l e a d i n g t o t h e a cc um ul at i on o f a new wealth of know-le dge by mankiird, r eq ui r es t h e harmonious development or ' a l lareas of s c ie nce and technology, lcadino, t r ap avalanche ofi n v e n t i o n s and d i s c n r e r i e s .

There i s n o s c i e n c e o r t e c h -

However, things were d i f f e r e n t d u ri n g t h e f i r s t years o fdevelopment o f rocke t technology . I t vas imposs ib le then t obegi n immediate ly t o so lve problems of cosmic sca le ,Sergey Pavlovich Korolev bel ieved t h a t d rea ms o f f l i g h t s t o t h emoon and of new speed rec ords by rocket a i rp la ne s no t ye t i ne x i s t e n c e were u s e le s s u n t i l s c i e n t i s t s c ou ld create a t l eas ts m a l l l i q u i d - f a e l e d r o c k e t s . For t h i s r e as o n , e v er y r e s e a r c h e r ,

e v e ry worke r i n t h e a r e a o f ro c k e t r ec hn olog y ha d t o h o ld th er e a c t i o n e ng in e a t t h e c e n t e r of h i s a t t e n t i o n, I f a r e l i a b l ee n g ine c o u ld b e b u i l t , S e rg e y P a vlo vic h b e l i e v e d , a l l o t h e rp ro bl em s a r i s i n g i n t h e p r oc e s s o f work w i th t h e f l i g h t v e h i c l e scou ld be suc ces s f u l l y so lved , "Our success," S. P . Korolevw ro te , "r e qu i re s f i r s t of a l l a r e l i a b l e , h ig h q u a l i t y mo to r. "l

I t i s t h e r e f o r e q u i t e c lea r t h a t t h e main t a s k o f G D L ,GIRD and RNXI w a s t h e c r e a t i o n of L R E c o r r e s p o n d i n g f u l l y t o t h er eq ui r em en ts p l a ce d u p a them.

Even

--75

2 .1 . The I n i t i a l P e ri o d of Development of GDL - - t h eN. I , Tikhomirov Laboratory

Nikolay Ivanovich Tikhomirov and h i s immediate col l eag ues ,Vla dim ir Andreyevich Artem'yev, Ce ort iye y Eri kho vic h Langemak,Boris Sergeye; ich Petropa vlovskj y and many ot he rs made a gre atc o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e p ro ble m o f c r e a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y r o ck e ts w i t hpowder rocket engines,

'Korolev, S. P., Raketnyy Polet v Stratosfere ERock1. t . F l ight int h e S t r a t o s p h e r e ] ONTI Press, Moscow,199/. -

6 8



of military rockets in 1913. At that time, he was serving atthe Brcst-Litovskaya fortress and, as head of a laboratory, wasstudying the improvement of the three-inch rocket flares producedby the Nitiolayevskiy Plant and used by the armed forces.

-7 8

In 1921, shops, a pyrotechnical laboratory and a chemicallaboratory were set up. This complex was called the N. I.Tikhorirov Laboratory" and was subordinate to the MilitaryOepartment. However, the work on the creation of militaryrockets moved forward very slowly; difficulties arose primarilydue to the lack of high-enetgy, slow-burning powders. It becomeobvious that development of self-powered mines would require sig-nificant funds and tire. Therefore, in April of 1923 the inven-tors were ordered to perform experimental tests of the applica-

bility of reaction power for existing mines in order to increasetheir range.

3etween 22 March and 3 April 1924, 21 launches of theserockets were conducted at the main artillery range in Leningradunder the direction of V. A . Artem'yev, showing a ten-timesincrease in range of the mortar shells used, These experimentaltests confirmed the promise of the new type of shell and the needto perform further work in this direction.

The experience of preceding investigations had indicatedthe inapplicability of available powders for the manufacture ofrockets, since they did not burn evenly, or were not sufficientlyeffective. Smokeless pyroxylin powder, widely used in artillery,did not yield positive results.

Smokeless powder (pyroxylin cartridge powder) was firstsuggested for rockets in 191s by I. P. Grave, but the rocketsbeing developed required slow-burning powder charges with greattop thickness.formulas for pyroxylin powder based on volatile solvents cncoun-tered unswmountable difficulties. The charges were warped andcracked during drying, resulting in variations in burning timeand speed. Consistent results also could not bc achieved in thepercent conterbt of solvent remaining in the charges after drying.During storage of the charges, the solvent evaporated, alsocausing variation in the parameters of combustion of the powder

charges.

The preparation of such charges using known

In order to avoid these shortcomings, N. I. Tikhoairovdecided to try smokeless powder with a nonvolatile solvent.development of this smokeless powder was undertaken in 1922 underthe leadership of N. I. Tikhomirov in Leningrad with the partici-pation of 0. G. Fillipov aqd S. A. Serikov. This work was ofgrea+ scientific and practizal significance for the developmentof rockets and space technology. The first specimens of thick-top powder drains of the new formula - - trotyl-pyroxylin powder

The -7S

70



(using trotyl as the nonvolatile solvent) - - were produced in1924. This powder, called PTP, was then manufactured in thepowder shops of the Leningrad Steamship Port.assigned to N. I. Tikhomitov, and became a part of the laboratory.Powder testing was conducted at the Scientific Research ArtilleryRange near Leningrad.Nilitary-Technical Academy ireni F. E. Dzerzhinskiy in Leningrad.

The basic model used in testing and experimental develcpmentof charges was a grain with an external diameter of 24 and aninternal channel 6 u n diameter. Later, the grain diameter wasincreased to 100 m

These shops were

Powder studies were continued at the

The creation of a stable high-energy smokeless grain powderwith great top thickness was a great achievement, providing aqualitative jump in the development of solid-fuel rocket design.

All of the most important work of the laboratory, related tothe development and manufacture of a smokeless powder, teststand operation and experimental firing, was conducted atLeningrad. As a result, in 1925 the laboratory was transferredto Leningrad completely.

After careful development and testing of grains and launchingdevices, on 3 March 1928 the first firing of rockets with chargesof smokeless trotyl pyroxylin powder was conducted at the mainartillery range.

found indicating that foreign armies successfully tested rocketsusing smokeless powder earlier than our own.

tion for the design of the "Katyusha" military rockets.

In his memoirs, V. A . Artem'yev wrote that no data have been

The creation of a smokeless powder rocket laid the fcunda-

2.2. The Gas Dynamics Laboratory -80Following the successful launch of smokeless powder rockets

in 1928, the N. 1. Tikhomirov Laboratory was expanded andrenamed the Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL), subordinate to the

Military Scientific Research Committee of the RevolutionaryMilitary Council, USSR. The first task o f the GDL was thedevelopment of solid-fueled rockets utilizing high-qualitysmokeless powder charges.of powder takeoff assist and landing brake rockets for airplanes.Based on the successful results of experimental work b y N. 1.Tikhomirov and V. A. Artem'yev involving the creation of rockets,the Main Artillery Administration of the Red Army decided tosend specialists to the GDL and to expand its production andlaboratory base.

Soon, GDL also undertook the creation

71



less powder was developed, the principles of design of solid-fueled rockets were determined and flight testing was begun; inthe second stage (1930-1933), rockets were produced, passedofficial testing and during the third stage (1933-1941), theKatyusha rocket launcher was developed.

Experimental work with solid-fueled aircraft takeoff boos-ters and landing braking devices began in 1927 using a powdercatapult, then later with the U-1 training aircraft. Beginningin late 1931, work on a solid-fueled takeoff assister wasconducted with the TB-1 aircraft. On 14 October 1933, theTB-1 aircraft, equipped with a rocket-assisted takeoff device,successfully passed state testing; the use of RATO reduce takeoffrun length by 77% with a flying weight of 8 t. RATO devices

were developed by B. S. Petropavlovskiy, G. E. Langeraak andother. V. N. Dudakov, pilot S. I. Mukhin and mechanic A. 1.

Critskevich assisted significantly in the development oftakeoff techniques.

-82

In 1933, work was begun on a RATO device for the TB-3aircraft, flying weight 20 t. In 1934 , the Red Army Air ForceCommand decided to conduct tests of reaction takeoff boosters onthree TB-1 aircraft. One test aircraft undertook a special testtrip from Leningrad to Moscow and back. On the whole, the testsconfirmed the effectiveness of the use of such boosters. Theadvantages of aircraft takeoff with boosters became obvious toall.

In addition to the development of rockets and rocket enginesbased on solid fuels, beginning on 15 Nay 1929, GDL began to workon the first domestic rocket engines: electric engines E R E ) andliquid-fueled engines L R E ) . In 1931, GDL was divided into sevensectors (called sections after 1932) : 1 - - Pokder Rockets (Chief6. E, Langemak); 2 - - Liquid-Fueled Rockets (Chief V. P. Glushko);3 - - Aviation Applications of Rockets (Chief V. I. Dudakov); 4 - -Military Rockets (Chief N. A. Dorovlev); 5 - - Powder Production(Chief I. I. Kulagin); 6 - - Production Section (Chief Ye. S.Petrov); 7 - - Administrative and Financial Section. Between1930 and 1933, the number of workers increased from 23 toapproximately 200 persons.

The organizer and leader of the work ofERE

and LRE, thedesigner of the world's first electrothermal rocket engine andthe first domestic L E , was Valentin Petrovich Glushko.

tion of V. I. Serov, A . L. Malyy, Ye. N. Kuz'min, I. I. Kulagin,Ye. S. Petrov, P. I. Mitrayev, B. A . Kutkin, V . P. Yukov, N, G.Chernyshev, V. A. Timofeyev, N. M. Mukhin, I. 4. Pan'kin andothers.given to craters on the far side of the moon.

The development of the ERE and LRE involved the participa-

The names of many of the scientists of GDL have been

73



V. P. Clushko was born on 2 September 1908 in Odessa. Hebegan to study probleas of rocket flight in 1921. In 1923, hebegan corresponding with K. E. Tsiolkovskiy, who mentionedV. P. Glushko in the foreword to his books "Investigation ofSpace with Reaction Devices" (1926), "Space Rocket Trains" (1929)and other publications among those persons facilitating thepopularization of the ideas of star flight by their publications.

From 1922 to 1924, V. P. Glushko worked at the Odessaastronomical observatory as an astronomical observer. Theresults which he produced were published in 1924-192s in theAstronomical Bulletin and the Journal of "Mirovedeniye" Society.The young astronomer was selected as an Associate Member, then

an Active Member of the Russian Society of Astronomy Enthusiasts(ROLM). Upon completion of his studies at the Department ofPhysics and Mathematics of ieningrad State University (1925-1929), V. P. Glushko began work at the Gas Dynamics Laboratory.His thesis, dedicated to the development of rocket engines,attracted interest and was approved by the experts of theDepartment of Military Inventions (N. I. Tikhomirov and M. V .Shuleykin). The materials of his thesis served as the firstbasis for the development of experimental ERE and LRE at theGas Dynamics Laboratory. V. P. Glushko is the author of anumber of scientific articles and fundamental works, includingthe books "Rockets, Their Design and Application" (together with6. E. Langemak, 1935), "Liquid Fuel for Reaction Engines" (1936),etc.

A leading scientist in the area of physical and technicalproblems of energetics, V. P. Glushko was selected in 1953 asa Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences USSR, in 1958as an Academician. He has been twice named a Hero of SocialistLabor, is a Lenin and State Prize Laureate. Valentin Petrovich

Soviet. In 1972, the International Aviation Federation (FAI)avarded V. P. Glushko an international certificate as a greatSoviet scientist in the area of development of rocket technologyand investigation of the physical and technical problems ofenergetics. The FA1 resolution is an international acknowlcdgementof the great contribution of Our cor*-try to the study and investi-gat ion of space.

has been repeatedly elected as a deputy to rhe USSR Supreme a4

A t the Gas Dynamics Laboratory, the possibility of practicalcreati.on of an electric rocket engine was proven in 1929-1930.However, it was not possible at that time to solve the entirerange of problems related to the final development of ERE.

tory was concentrated on the development of LRE and the investiga-tion of processes of operation of these engines. In 1930, V. P.Glushko suggested and subsequently strldied various "uel

Therefore, the primary attention of the Gas Dynamics Labora-

74



components: nitric acid, solutions of nitrogen tetroxide innitric acid, tetranitromethane, hydrogen peroxide, perchloricacid, beryllium, liquid fuels and powders with dispersedberyllium; in 1933, he suggested a mixture of liquid oxygen andliquid fluorine as oxidizer, and solutions of pentaborane inkerosene as fuel, as well as a fluorine-hydrogen fuel and manyothers.

The fuels used included gasoline, kerosene, toluene, benzene andothers.

In 1931, he suggested hypergolic fuel and chemical ignition. 1

During these same years, experimental development of indivi-

dual elements of liquid-fueled rocket engines was conducted.Ceramic insulation based on zirconium oxide and magnesium oxidewas tested in the combustion chambers of experimental powderengines (1930). These combustion chambers were also used forballast pendulum tests to determine the most favorable for thetime exponential nozzle contour (1930). Measurement apparatuswas created for test stand studies of engines: spring and capaci-tive pressure recorders and thrust recorders, inductive flow-rate sensors and time recorders utilizing magnetoelectricoscilloscopes, etc. L R E devices with automatically controlledvariable thrust with constant pressure in the combustion chamberwere developed.

ORM-1 laboratory engine was designed.

Unitaryfuels, solutions of a fuel (toluene or gasoline) in nitrogentetroxide, were tested in the ORM laboratory engine.3 The O W - 1 ,manufactured in 1930-1931, was designed to use nitrogen tetroxideand toluene.

8 5

in 1930, the first LRE developed in the Soviet Union, the

In 1931, flame testing of engines was begun at GDL.

Test stand operations were performed with liquid

'A hypergolic fuel is a two-component liquid rocket fuel whichignites at room temperature when the two components contact eachother.

Chemical ignition raeans ignition of the basic fuel in anLRE, in which the basic fuel cons'ists of hypergolic componentsor a hypergolic supplementary starting fuel is used, introducedto the combustion chamber only during the initial period ofoperation of the engine.

'The basic designation O M was given to all LRE develcped underthe leadership of V. P. Clushko in the GDL and at RNII.

3Nitrogen tetroxide is a high-boiling-point oxidizer for L R E .provides greater specific impulse than nitric acid, but isinferior in tne operational respect, since it has a narrowerliquid-state storage temperature interval.

It

75



oxygen and gasoline, since experiments performed earlier with theORM showed that it was very dangerous to start the engine with ahigh-boiling oxidizer, particularly considering the complexshape of the O W - 1 combustion chamber.

In 1932, eiigines from ORM-4 to ORM-22 were developed, con-structed and tested for experimental purposes. Liquid oxygen,nitric acid, nitrogen tetroxide and solutions of nitrogen tetrox-ide in nitric acid were used as oxidizers. Nitrogen tetroxidewas produced on a pilot-scale installation at the laboratory,developed and put in use in 1931. Fuels tested included gasoline,benzene, toluene and kerosene.

During the tests, start-up was developed and the organizationof processes within the chamber was improved, and methods weredeveloped for reliable cooling of the combustion chamber.

In 1933, experimental LRE from ORM-23 to ORM-49 were pro-duced at the GDL and used to continue studies of problems ofLRE design. In order to create LRE providing sufficientlyhigh specific impulse and operating stably with identical indi-

/86ators in a scries of tests, i.e., reproducibly, reliably and

devcloping the required thrust, it was necessary to select fuelcomponents and the most favorable ratio of components, to developmethods of feeding the fuel to the combustion chamber, and tolearn to mganize the process of its combustion. This sameyear, practicgi LRE were produced - - the OW-50, ORM-S1 and ORM-52,

burning kerosene and nitric acid both in pure form and mixedwith oxides of nitrogen.chemical ignition developed at JPL, i.e., ignition by means ofhypergolic fuel. A number of experimental rocket-powered flightvehicles were planned in 1932-1933 to test the engines underflight conditions.

These engines used the principle of

2.3. Liquid and Electrical Rocket Engines and Rocketsof GDL

The Gas Dynamics Laboratory studied and developed an electricrocket engine (ERE), liquid-fueled rocket engines (LRE), calledat that time O W , and experimental models of rockets, called RLA.

Step by step, the design of the individual elements and ofthe engine as a whole was improved, which finally led to thecreation of a rather good liquid-fueled rocket engine for thetime, the ORM-52.

"Of particular promise,'I wrote M. N. Tykhachevskiy in1932, "are the experiments at GDL on a liyid-fueled reaction

76



cool i ng, and t he desi gn of cer t ai n i ndi vi dual par t s and sec-t i ons was si mpl i f i ed. The OMl-2 part i al l y used t he same typeof cool i ng as OMf - 1, i . e. , capac i t i ve cool i ng ( l i berat i on o fheat i nt o nat ur al l y ci r cul at i ng l i qui d sur r oundi ng t he engi ne) ,so- cal l ed s tat i c cool i ng.

By t he t i me ORN-2 was f i ni shed, new and bet t er desi gnshad been devel oped, and so O M - 2 was never t est ed.

The 0. W- 1 and ORTI-2 engi nes wer e desi gned f or el ement -by- el ement t est i ng of some of t he mai n i deas upon whi ch t heURN- 3 engi ne was based. Thi s engi ne cal l ed €or mai nt enanceof const ant pr essure i n t he combust i on chamber wi t h changi ngt hr ust , an exponent i al nozzl e, i nt ensi ve (dynam c) cool i ng oft he combust i on chaaber by f uel , heat i nsul at i on of t he combust i on chamber on t he i nsi de, sl i t - t ype spr ayer s and chem cals el f i gni t i on.

The exponent i al nozzl e devel oped at G D L i s a pro f i l ednozzl e i n whi ch t he i nner surf aces are gi ven t he pr oper geo-met r i c shape t o assur e opt i mal f l ow char act er i st i cs of t hecombust i on pr oduct s. The best cont our af t he nozzl e i s t hatwhi ch achi eves the ext r eme of speci f i c i mpul se.

The met hods of cal cul at i on of t he nozz l e wer e f i r s tpubl i shed i n t he USSR i n 1957 by Yu. D Shmygl evsk i y and L . Ye.

St er ni n. Si mpl i f i cl i pr of i l i ng met hods ar e f r equent l y used- -

t he nozzl e cont our i s a c i r cul ar ar c, par abol a, exponent i alcur ve, etc .

The OW- 3 engi ne used hyper gol i c f uel , el i m nat i ng t heneed f or speci al i gni t i on devi ces. Const ancy of pressur e i nchamber 1 was achi eved by movi ng nozzl e 5 , seal ed ar ound t wobel t s 3 wi t h a hydr aul i c or pneumat i c devi ce. As t he nozzl emoved, t he cr i t i cal cross sect i on changed, s i nce t he r el at i veposi t i on of t he pr qf i l ed pr oj ect i on at t he cent er of t he headof t he chamber whi ch ent ered t he nozz l e was changed. I n 1930-1931, exper i ment al and desi gn work was cont i nued on t hedevel opment of i ndi vi dual el ement s of t hi s engi ne, i n par t i cul arusi ng t he ORM- 1 engi ne.

component s, had j et - t ype sprayer s and r epr esent ed f ur t herdevel opment of t he desi gn of annul ar ( sl i t - t ype) combust i onchambers. They wer e devel oped and pr oduced i n 1932.

96

The CRM- 6 and ORM- 7 engi nes wer e cool ed by t he f ucl

The O m i - 3 , O R M - 6 and ORM- 7 engi nes wer e not t est ed, si nceby t hat t i me t he dat a f r om t est i ng of t he ORM- 1 i ndi cat ed t hatannul ar c ombust j m chambers wer e undesi r abl e, as was l at erconf i rm d. Act ual l y, t he r at i o of heat ed sur f ace ( wal l s) tovol ume wher e combust i on occur s i s gr eat er i n an annul ar



combust i on chamber t han i n a cyl i ndr i cal chamber ; dur i ng combus-t i on, t he combust i on pr oduct s change t hei r di r ect i on of mot i onby 180°, whi ch does not occur i n cyl i ndr i cal chambers . Bot hof t hese f act or s cause over heat i ng of t he wal l s , par t i cul ar l y

s i gni f i cant di f f i cul t y i s i n t he or gani zat i on of processeswi t hi n t he chamber .

/ 97he end por t i on, and compl i cat e cool i ng condi t i ons. The most

Fur t her mor e, t he cr eat i on ofan engi ne wi t h const ant pr essurei n t he chamber but var i abl e t hr ustwas f ound t o be an i ndependentpr obl em of some di f f i cul t y.

Exper i ment s conduct ed i n 1929-1931 conf i r med t he possi bi l i t y ofcr eat i on of r el i abl e LRE. However ,i t was al so qui t e obvi ous t hat anengi ne of const ant t hr ust shoul d becreat ed f i r s t , r equi r i ng t hat amul t i t ude of new pr obl ems besol ved; t hey i ncl uded or gani zat i on

Di agr am of Regul at i on of of hi gh qual i t y m xt ur e f or mat i on,ORM- 3 Engi ne: 1, Combus- pr ovi si on of compl et e f uel COI I I U~S -

t i on Chamber ; 2 , Cool i ng t i on, assur ance of hi gh speci f i cFl ui d; 3 , Seal i ng Bel t ; i mpul se, or gani zat i on of r el i abl e4 , Cont r ol l i ng Gas or chamber wal l cool i ng, et c.

Li qui d; 5, Nozzl e Ther ef or e, t he pr ogr am of f ur t herst udi es cal l ed f or s t age- by- st age

devel opment of desi gn el ement s and or der l y, deep s t udy of t hei ndi vi dual pr ocesses.

Engi nes wi t h Radi al l y Pl aced Nozzl es

Thi s group of engi nes i ncl udes t he ORM- 4, ORM- 5, ORM- 8,ORi i - 10 and CMl - 13, devel oped i n 1932.

These engi nes wer e cr eat ed t o st udy t he processes of m xi ngof f uel component s, i gni t i on, st ar t i ng and shut down. I n or dert o si mpl i f y t he desi gn of t he combust i on chamber and t est st and,t o t est t he engi ne i n the posi t i on wi t h t he head upwar d, t henozzl e was made i n t he for,l i of t wo r adi al l y pl aced aper t ur esopposi t e each ot her i n t he l ower por t i on of t he combust i mchamber wal I.

The engi nes used pyr ot echni c or el ect r i c- spar k i gni t i on,wi t h t wo spar k pl ugs wi t h massi ve copper el ect r odes i nst al l edt o ; . ' . r - ease t he r el i abi l i t y o f i gni t i on. I n the f i r s t t hreemoc?t i 3 of t hi ; gr oup of engi nes, t he f uel component s xer e f eddi r ect l y i nt o t he combust i on chamber , where t hey wer e m xed.

85



., : . - q’ . - L? engi nes di f f er ed f r om each ot her i n

The ORM- 4, ORM- 5 and ORM- 8, .

, ‘

spr ayer desi gn, wi t h t he spr ayer sl ocat ed on t he ht ad of t he cyl i ndr i calcombust i on chamber : t he ORM- 4 engi nehad s l i t - t ype spr ayer s , ORM- 5 wasequi pped wi t h j et - s l i t spr ayer s k i t hi nt er sect i ng st r eams, whi l e i n ORM- 8t he component s wer e f ed i n t hroughj et - t ype spr ayer s , al so wi t h i nt er -sect i ng st r eams. I n al l t hr eemodel s, t he t hi ck- wal l st eel bodyof t he cyl i ndr i cal chamber wasat t ached by means of a t hr eadedj oi nt at i t s end t o t he pl at e of t het est st and. The i nt er nal di amet erof t he combust i on chamber of t heseengi nes was 4 0 mm

t est i ng i n 1932. Li qui d oxygen,l i qui d ai r , ni t r i c ac i d, ni t r ogen

t et r oxi de i n ni t r i c aci d wer e used

98

These engi nes under went f l ame

The ORM- 6 Engi ne t et r oxi de and sol ut i ons of ni t r ogen

as oxi di zer s ; gasol i ne, a m xt ur e of gasol i ne wi t h benzene andt ol uene wer e i qsed as f uel s.

El ect r i c spar k i gni t i on wasf ound t o be unr el i abl e. Met al -ni t r at e caps wer e devel oped t oassure rel i abl e i gni t i on o f f uel swi t h hi gh- boi l i ng oxi di zers , whi l et ro tyl pyroxyl caps , el ect r i cal l yi gni t ed, wer e used f o r f uel s wi t hcr yogeni c oxi di zer s.

These t est s yi el ded val uabl emat er i al on pr obl ems of saf e st ar t i ngand stoppi ng of engi nes, r el i abl ei gni t i on and st ar t - up when oper at i ng

wi t h var i ous f uel s. The dat a f r omt est i ng of t he ORM- 4, ORM- 5 andORM- 8 engi nes al l owed a compar at i veeval uat i on of t he qual i t y of engi nesequi pped wi t h j et and sl i t spr ayer s.

Tn t he basi c oper at i ng mode, t hepr essur e i n t he chamber r eachedsever al at mospher es, t he oper at i ngt i me - - some t ens c - seconds. Dur i ng

The ORM- 10 Engi ne

86



i ndi vi dual , br i ef t est s, t he pr essur e i n the chamber reaci . ed50 atm

I n or der t o st udy the possi bi l i t y of hi gh qual i t y m xi ngof f uel component s i n t he l i qui d phase bef ore t hey wer e f ed t o

and ORM- 13 engi nes wer e pl anned wi t h prechamber s.

t he combust i on chamber and at om zed, t hus i ncr ea i ng t he com 99pl et eness of combust i on and t he t hr ust per l i t er 3 , he ORM- 10

The f or e- chamber or pr echamber was a smal l chamber i n whi chpr el i m nar y m xt ur e f or mat i on and part i al combust i on of t hef uel componont s occur r ed, af t er whi ch t he component s wer edel i vered t o t he mai n chamber , wher e combust i on wascompl et ed.

I n t he ORM- 10, t he pr echamber was made i n t he f or m of anaxi symmet r i cal channel ; sect i ons of i dent i cal l engt h but di i -f er ent di amet cr al t er nat ed al ong t he l engt h of t hi s chamber ,t o i mpr ove m xi ng of t he component s whi ch wer e f ed i n t hr oughspr ayer s , t he i nt er nal cavi t i es of khi ch cont ai ned spi r alsnakes t o spi n t he st r eam of l i qui d f l owi ng f r om t he spr ayer .The combust i on pr oduzt s f l owed out t hr ough t wo opposi t el y pl acedr adi al aper t ur es.

t r i cal l y pl aced sl i t sprayer s i nt o an annul ar pr echamber . Af t erm xi ng, t hey wer e t hen sent t o t he spher i cal por t i on of t he

pr echamber and t hen, t hr ough t he expandi ng por t i on, i nt o t he mai ncombust i on chamber , whi ch WES cyl i ndr i cal .

I n ORM- 13, t he f uel component s wer e f ed i n t hr ough concen-

I n one ver s i on, ext r a- r i ch or ext r a- pur e l i qui d f uel m x-t ur e of oxi di zer and f uel , i ncapabl e of expl odi ng due to i t scomposi t i on, was f ed i n t hr ough one s pr ayer , whi l e t he ot hersprayer suppl i ed t he r emai ni ng component r equi r ed f or compl et ecombust i on.

The di f f i cul t y of manuf act ur i ng engi nes wi t h t hr ee chamber s, t he possi bi l i t y of over heat i ng of t he heads and expl osi ondur i ng st ar t - up, l ed t o new desi gn sol ut i ons and st opped t hemanuf act ure and t est i ng of t he ORM- 10 and ORM- 13 engi nes.

However , as we know, pr echamber s di d come t o be used i ncer t ai n engi nes pr oduced i n t he f i r st f ew years af t er t he war ,par t i cul ar l y i n t he engi nes of t he V2A and V S V geophysi cal1- ocket s. Thi s resul t ed f r Dm t he achi evement of pos i t i ve r esul t s

The t hr ust per l i t er r ef er s t o t he r at i o of t hr ust devel opedby t he engi ne i n kg t o t he vol ume of t he combust i on chamber i nl i t e r s .



The OW-9 engine had a combustion chamber with an internaldiarreter and height of 90 m , covered on the inside with a layerof ceramic heat insulation 10 u hick of zirconium dioxide ormagnesium dioxide mixed with binder materials.the engine, located in the flat cover, was clad with a layer ofcuprite 8 nm thick; its critical cross section was 15 mm in dia-meter.was of the critical cross section.

Fuel(gasoline) entered through a center channel with several out-put apertures, while the oxidizer (liquid oxygen) enteredthrough a multiple-jet sprayer, the channels of which werelocated around the central channel, parallel to its axis.output apertures of the central channel were tilted to make thestreams of fuel components intersect.in a steel cup in the test stand and tested with nozzle upward.Several firings of some tens of seconds each were performed in1932. One of these was visited by Professor V. P. Vetchinkin(TsAGI), who concluded: "The most important part of the work forthe manufacture of a rocket - - the production of a liquid-fueledreaction motor - - has been performed at GDL... FTOIRthisstandpoint, the achievements of the GDL (primarily of EngineerV. P. Glushko) must be considered outstanding.**l

The nozzle of

The entry to the nozzle was rounded, the exit planeThe two-cor onent sprayers

were located in the head of the combustion cham r.

The

The engine was placed

1102

In ORM-11, the chamber and nozzle were also clad withcuprite. The sprayers were also two-conponent jet type sprayerswith concentric placement of the fuel-feeding channels.

Frovided fine, even atomization of the fuel; two-componentsprayers were found to be the best and are successfully usedin a number of LRE designs to.:ay.

They

The ORM-12 engine had the same dimensions as the ORM-9.The chamber and nozzle in this engine were also clad withcuprite, but the fuel components entered the combustioa chamberthrwgh individual snake sprayers located opposite each otherapproximately at the middle cross section of the chamber. Backvalves were placed bsfcie the entry to the sprayers.ORM-11 and O W - 1 2 engir.es were tested on oxygen-gasoline andnitric acid-kerosene fuels.

The .

The ORM-14 and ORM-15 engines were planned but not manu-

factured, since their design, similar to certain foreignPodels, was considered to be clearly unpromising. The primaryshortcoming of the engines was the fact that the fuel componentswere fed into the combustion chamber from the direction of thenozzle rather than toward the nozzle as is usuallv done.

~~. ~~~~~ ~

'**Cosrnonautics,'* Moscow, The Soviet Encyclopedia, 1970, p. 93.

89



The next model was the O W - 1 6 engiire. It has a supersonicconical nozzle.improved centrifugal sprayer. OW-16 underwent flame testingin 1932.

The fuel entered the chamber through an

The OW-1 7-OR M- 21 engines, developed in 1932 on the modelof the OW-16, differed only in length of cylindrical portion ofthe combustion chamber and were designed to study the influenceof chaber v o m m e on processes within the chamber.

The O W - 2 3 engines with two centrifugal sprayers, thedelivery of which wa9 regulated by a hydraulically movedneedle, had a combustion chamber placed between the sprayersand could be repeatedly started.

fed to the chamber and ignited by two spark plugs.was successfully tested with nitric acid fuel in early 1933.

/lo3n air-gasoline mixture was

This engine

The centrifugalsprayer, first used byGDL in rocket engine con-struction, allowed a sig-nificant improvement inthe quality of LRE andpractically almost COY-

pletely solved theproblem of preparationof the fuel for completecombustion. In

centrifugal sprayers,the fuel components,fed under pressure, aretwisted as they passthrough a nonmovingmultipass spiral in theinner cavity of thesprayer or by tangentialinjection of the liquid

cavity of the sprayer.As they fly from the sprayer into the combustion chamber, thecomponents form a so-called atomization cone, consisting of athin film which rgpidly breaks down into tiny drops of various

diameters. V i s new sprayer, used on the ORM-12 and ORM-16,assured fill -~tomization f the components and good mixing and,as a result, complete combustion of the fuel.property, spiral sprayers later became widely used and were /lo4firmly fixed in domestic rocket engine construction.

The ORM-16 Engine into the inner cylindrical

Due to this

At the same time, it was established that even when ceramicheat insulation is used, the operating time of a rocket engineis quite limited, and that it is more promising to use copper

90



alloys with good heat conductivity for the manufacture ofnozzles, particularly in the area of the critical cross s e c f i . . i ,

However, in either case unchanging design temperature t,Fthe chamber wall can be achieved only if a portion of the heatis carried away from the outer surface of the wall.studies of combustion chambers and nozzles cooled from withoutwere planned.

Therefore,

Engines with External Cooling

A. Air Cooling

This series includes the first LRE beginning with theOW- 24 developed and tested in 1933. Experiments with precedingengine models confirmed the need to equip the LR E with a coolingsystem which would carry the heat away fron the walls of thechamber continuously during its entire operating time to providestable thermal conditions for the engine.

The OW-24 Engine The ORM-26 Er?gine

At first, attempts were made to cool the engine with anair stream. Therefore, the OW-24, ORM-25, OW-26 and OW-30engines were maae with air-cooled nozzles. The chamber of the

91



ORM-24, like the OM -16, was cylindrical in shape; the subsonicportion of the nozzle was conical and ended in a flat nozzle ofcritical. diameter.ribbed cuprite radiator. Spiral sprayers with ball back valveswere used to feed the fuel components.head was a device to detersine the maximum pressure in thecombustion chamber.

The upper portion of the nozzle carried a

At the center of the

ORM-26 had a shaped nozzle with a well-developed super-sonic portion and longitudinal external fins to cool the air

Thecooling fins encompassed both the subsonic and the supersonicportions of the nozzle.

massive, short nozzles with air cooling. In ORM-30, the innersurface of the nozzle was not coated and was protected fromrupture by a film along the wall created by aiditional fuelsprayers installed at the entry to the nozzle. This method ofheat protection of the nozzle walls was found tq be effectiveand has been widely used in practice.

/lo6tream drawn by the gas stream of the operating engine.

he ORM-29 and ORM-30 engines had

Tests of the ORM-24,ORM-2S, ORM-26, ORM-29 andORM-30 engines showed thatair cooling could not pro-vide for long-term operationof noz-les.

/lo7B. Liquid Cooling

n external dynamicliquid cooling system iscapable not only of assuringreliable operation of theengine, but also of improvingthe conditions of processeswithin the chamber due to theheating of one of the fuelcomponents in the coolingcavity.

of sue: engines - - ORM-2 withfluid cooling of the head byfbel and ORM-3, ORM-6-0,ORM-3 and ORM-7 - - had

The ORM-30 Engine practically complete coolingby the oxidizer and fuel.

Due to t xe difficulty of manufacture of engines with fluid cool-ing and the nocessity in the first stage of repeated short-term

The first representatives

92



start-ups to develop fuel spraying and ignition systems, start-up and shut-down modes, the development of a reliable coolingsystem for long-term operation was delayed to the second stage.Element-by-element development of engines accelerated itscreation.

OW-27 is also a fully cooled engine. The nozzle ofOW-27 had longitudinal finning; the combustion chamber hadexternal fluid cooling. The internal wall was made massiveand had an elongation temperature compensator.

Beginning with model OM-34, all nozzles of engines devel-oped had flobting fluid cooling.

critical cross section of the mz z l e was cooled by liquid flow-ing through a line at insufficient speed. In order to improvecooling, the contour of the fluid-carrying portion of OW-35was somewhat improved, and the speed of the liquid was increased.The nozzle of O W - 3 9 had an initial section with transversefinning, cooled by liquid. The fully nitric-acid-cooled nozzleof O W - 4 0 was found to be more stable in tests. In OW-40,the cooling fluid flowed in a spiral pattern through a thincooling jacket over the ribbed nozzle wall. Heat transfer fromwall to cooling fluid was increased by further increasing theflow speed and its turbulization, a result of the ribbing inthe flow line.

In O W - 3 4 , the region of the

As the design of OW- ser ie s engines improved, the pressure

in the combustion chamber and specific impulse increased, and itbecame possible to increase the operating time and thrust ofthe engines. For example, OW-39 and O W - 4 0 developed thrustsof 100-150 kg. The critical cross section of the nozzles ofthese enpines were 25 mm in diameter, the pressure in the com-bustion chamber reached 2 0 - 2 5 atm.

lo8

The nozzle of O W - 4 4 andall subsequent engines hadspiral ribbing, washed withnitric acid. In thesedesigns, in order to givethe fluid-carrying portionthe necessary shape, a splitaluminum insert was installed.A gap was formed between theouter surface of the nozzlewall and the inner surface of

Diagram of External Liquid the insert, through which theCooling of ORM-44 Nozzle cooling fluid flowed. The

diameter of the criticalcross section of the ORM-44 nozzlc was 3 2 mm. The enginedeveloped a thrust of 250 kg. The ORM-45 and ORM-46 engines,

93



designed for the same thrust, were sealed by the temperatureexpansion of the nozzle.

The combustion chambers of all the engines mentioned fromO W - 3 4 to O W - 4 6 were cylindrical in shape with an internaldiameter of 120 mm and were cooled from without by the fuelcomponents, fed by centrifugal spray pumr;.

controlled centrifugal sprayers with back valves and filters.Studies performed with O M - 4 8 allowed the concepts of thenature of the distribution of pressure over the length of

the nozzle to be refined. The experimental installation onwhich this engine was tested was simple and quite convenient;these installations were later widely used in scientificresearch organizations and educational institutions.

The O M - 4 7 engine utilized four supercritical mechanically

The OM - 4 9 engine had centrifugal sprayers with plate-type lo9back valves. In order to assure soft start-up of the engine,some of the output apertures of the sprayers were sealed withlow-melting Wood's alloy.

was by 7-second metal-nitrate pyrotechnic caps, suitable forall oxidizers. Furthermore, in 1933 5-second chlorate caps40 m m in diameter and height, consisting of 505 Berthollet's

salt and 508 sugar were developed, which left no residue uponcombustion and were also suitable for all oxidizers. Thechlorate caps were also suitable for chemical ignition, sincethey ignite spontaneously upon contact with nitric acid.caps were used in 1933 in a number of ORM-series engines forchemical ignition by early oxidizer feed upon engine start-up.Starting in mid-1933 (OM-44, OW-50 , etc.), chemical ignitionwas provided using a start-up fuel developed at GDL whichignited spontaneously when mixed with nitric acid.fuel included a solution of phosphorus in a mixture of carbondisulfide and turpentine. The hypergolic fuel was firstcarried in a starting tank on the mtin fuel line near theentry to the combustion chamber; t.ater, it was supplied onlythrough the lines feeding the kerosene sprayers.

became common in rocket engine construct-on.

Ignition in the O W - 2 4 2nd immediately subsequent engines

These

This

Chemical ignition, developed and I - . , . sed at GDL, later

GDL Engines for Flight Vehicles

The result of the scientific research and experimentaldesign development at GDL prior to 1933 was the creation of theORM-SO, O W - 5 1 and O M - 5 2 rocket engines.

94



The si t uat i on was qui t e di f f er ent at t hat t i me as concer nsre l i ebl e cal cul at i on of l i qui d f uzl ed r ocket engi ne cool i ngsystems. I n hi s r epor t , *%eat Losses and Cool i ng of R M , I t

publ i shed by V. P. Gl ushko on 2 J ul y 19311, t he aut hor pr e-sent s t he r esul t s of t heor et i cal and experi ment al work on t hecool i ng of ORM per f or med at LDL up t o that t i me. The r epor tpr esent s a met hod f or cal cul at i on of t he cool i ng ..i t he ORMcombust i on chamber , and t he aut hor not es t hat " t he nat ur e oft her modynam c cal cul at i on of cool i ng of r ocket engi ne combus-t i on chambers wi t h l i qui d i s wel l known. However , t hepr obl em cannot be sol ved by t heor et i cal cal cul at i ons f or asi ngl e speci f i c case i n whi ch heat t r ansi er f r om t he gas t o

t he i nt ernal wal l occur s at t he pr es' ; ur es and +emper at ur eswhi ch ar e f ound i n r ocket engi ne combust i r . ' ch. i rnbers. Ourl ack of knowl edge of t he hest t r ansf er coel ? i c i mt s makes t hecumber some t her modynam c cal cul at i ons usel ess J.i?d f nr zes u s t ot ur n t o exper i ment at i on as t he onl y sat i si act or y aet hod f orsol ut i on of t hese pr obl ems. "

Ac tual l y, we know t hat over est i mat i on of t he accur acy ofanal yt i c cal cul at i on of cool i ng syst ems r esul t ed i n dest r uct i onof bot h of t he LRE of E. A. Tsander ( OR- 2 and 10) dur i ng t hei rf i r st t est sr and oper at i on ( i n 1933).

The cool i ng syst emdevel oped at GDL by t he exper i mencalmet hod al l owed engi nes t o be oper at ed r epeat edl y.

The OM-50 engi ne was devel oped at GDL f or t he 0 5 r ocket ,pl anned and bui l t at GI RD.

The OW-50 engi ne bur ned ni t r i c aci d and ker osene, hada r el at i vel y shor t , spi J *al l p i nned, oxi d. . er - cool ed n. >zzl e

l i qui d oxi di zer heat ed i n t he cool i ng j acket was f ed t o t wospi r al spr ayer s , pl aced radi al l y on the cyl i ndr i cal por t i onof t he combust i on chamber . The f uel ent er ed t he chambei . , al sor adi al l y, t hr ough t wo cent r i f ugal spr ayer s. Al l spr ayer s hadback val ves, The m ddl e cyl i ndr i cal por t i on of t hp combust i onchamber : . ad no ext cr nal l i qui d cool i ng, Lut was cool ed by arAi nt ernal cur t ai n; i gni t i on was chem cal ,

/ l l Zpr oduci ng a gas ptessur:? a t t he exi t pl ane of 1 st m The ---

Thc O R M - 5 0 engi ne, of 1vl hc. h a s i ngl e model was bui l t ,pasoed t hr ee r ei i nement , opGr at i ng l i f e and accept ance st and

r ocket ver e conduct ed, powered by t hi s engi ne, t o t est t hef uel f eed syst em

/ 113tests i n 1933. Then, i n 1934, f i ve t est l aunches of t he 0 5

.- _ -.' The Pi oneer s of Rocket Technol ogy.Xorol ev, Ti khonr avov, Sel ect eG Yor ks, Moscow, 1972, pp. 2 0 8 -212, 770 .

Vet chi nki n, Gl ushko,

96



Fuel Feed Systems and Stands

Beginning in 1929, together with the search for efficientcombustion chamber designs, work was performed on the creationof stand measurement and fuel component feed systems. In 1930,

based on analysis ofweights, it was estab-lished that the mostefficient type of fuelfeed for low-thrust LREis an extractive (cylin-der) system, using eithercompressed gas from apressure accumulator orliquefied gas evaporatedin an evaporator. Itwas clear in the 30'sthat a pump feed systemwas preferable for high-thrust LRE. Let usrecall that K. E. Tsiol-kovskiy planned thistype of fuel feed systemin his theoreticalstudies.

compact turbine-pumpunits and the applica-

064- tion of the latest struc-tural materials hasallowed pump feed systemsto be used not only inlarge engines, but also

The development of

Cross Section of the OW-52 Engine

in LRE producing relatively low thrust, in recent years.

At GDL, a feed system was developed both for flame teststands and for engines installed in flight vehicles ofvarious types.in which the fuel components were driven from their tanks by

compressed nitrogen.fuel were large-caliber artillery cartridges, lined on theinside with aluminum if they were to contain nitric acid orother corrosive fuel components.

The 20-liter liquid oxygen tank was placed in a sealedbrass jacket, made from the cartridge of a 12-inch shell; thegap was filled with carbon dioxide and activated charcoal.When the tank was filled with liquid oxygen, the gaseouscarbon dioxide was frozen, and the other gaseous products

In 1930-1932, LRE were tested at GDL on a stand

The test stand containers for oxidizer and

99



pr esent as i mpur i t i es wer e absor bed by t he char coal , cr eat i ng / 117a hi gh vacuum t o i nsul at e t he tank.

Dur i ng 1931- 1932, wor k was per f or med at GDL on a s peci alf uel f eed syst emusi ng pi st on pumps. I n 1931, a f uel f eedsyst emwas devel oped usi ng a pi st on uni t consi st i ng of f ourdoubl e- act i ng pi st on pumps pl aced r adi al l y ar ound t he combust i onchamber . Thi s pumpi ng uni t was pl anned f or use wi t h ORM- 3.

I n 1931, t he ORM- A engi ne was const r uct ed accor di ng t oa pl an suggest ed by B. S . Pet r opavl ovski y. Thi s engi ne had apumpi ng uni t dr i ven by t he combust i on pr oduct s; a char ge of

smokel ess t r ot yl pyr oxyl i n powder was bur ned i n t he chamberf or t he f i r st f ew seconds i n or der t o pr oduce t he pr oduct s f orengi ne st ar t .

I n 1931- 1932, a pi st on pumpi ng uni t was devel oped, manu-f act ur ed and t est ed t o f eed a ni t r ogen t et r oxi de- t ol ueneengi ne wi t h a t hr ust of 300 kg.

One common f eat ur e of pump f uel f eed syst ems i s t he use ofa por t i on of t he energy of t he gases i n t he combust i on chamber ,causi ng a cer t ai n i ncrease i n the ef f i c i ency of t he ent i r eengi ne. However , t hese sys t ems have been f ound pr act i cal l yi nconveni ent , pr i mar i l y due t o t he unevenness of f uel f eeddur i ng t he cour se of one cycl e. Theref ore, i n 1933 t he devel -

opment was begun of a turbi nepump uni t f or a ni t r i c aci d-ker osene engi ne devel opi ng 300 kg t hr ust wi t h a f uel componetf eed pr essure of up t o 75 at m ( shaf t r ot at i on speed 25, 000 rpm.A desi gn pl an was sel ected f or t he TPU [ t ur bi ne pump uni t ] ,consi st i ng of a gas t ur bi ne wi t h one st age and t wo si ngl e-st age cent r i f ugal pumps ( f or oxi di zer and f uel ) seat ed on acommon hor i zont al shaf t .

The vanes had bi di r ect i onal i nput t o rel i eve t he axi alf orces .al l oy. The t urbi ne was power ed by t he combust i on product s oft he f uel at a t emper at ur e of 500' C and a pr essur e of 15 at m

The body and vanes of t he pump wer e made of an al um num

Dur i ng t est i ng o f an exper i ment al model at a t est st and

of t he met al pl ant , a s i ngl e- st age pump pr oduced a guagedel i ver y pr essur e of 75 at m whi ch many had consi der ed i mpos-

suppl ement ar y mar i ne engi ne. Accor di ng t o an ai r f or ce or der( 1932) , t hi s TPU was desi gned t o be i nst al l ed t oget her wi t h a300 kg- t hr ust combust i on chamber on t he 1 - 4 ai r cr af t .

/ 119si bl e at t he t i me. The gas t ur bi ne r ot or was t aken f r om a

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I n ear l y 1934, t he document a-t i on and mat er i al s sect i on of t heRLA pr oj ect was t r ansf err ed t oRNI I , where a sect i on f or devel opmentof l i qui d- f uel ed r ocket s was set up.Si nce by t hi s t i me RNI I al r eady hadan appr oved pl an of oper at i ons, t heRLA r ocket s wer e never devel opedf ur t her .

Thus, t he basi c r esul t of t hesci ent i f i c r esear ch and exper i ment al -desi gn wor k per f or med at GDL i n1929- 1933 w?s deep and compr ehensi vest udy of t he pr ocesses occur r i ng i nL E , t he devel opment of good, eco-nom cal and r el i abl e engi nes ( f ort he t i me) and t he sol ut i on of a br oadr ange of pr obl ems r el at ed to r ocketengi ne cont r uct i on. Li qui d r ocketf uel s wer e devel oped and st udi ed,as wel l as met hods of f uel f eed t ot he combust i on chamber , condi t i onsof m xt ur e f ormat i on and pr eparat i onof f uel s f or combust i on, and met hodsand means wer e devel oped f or pyr o-

t echni cal and chem cal i gni t i on i nengi nes, as wel l as t he st ar t - upand s hut - down of engi nes, pr ocesseswi t hi n t he combust i on chamber wer est udi ed, met hods of cool i ng of combust i on chamber s wer e devel oped,t he condi t i ons of f l ow of t he com

Di agr am of t he RLA- 100 bust i on pr oduct s f r om nozzl es ofRocket var i ous shapes wer e st udi ed, and

f act or s i nf l uenci ng t he thrust andspeci f i c i mpul se were det er m ned. Fi nal l y, GDL mast er edt echni ques of exper i ment at i on and oper at i on of LRE, devel opedt est st and equi pment and appar at us f o r r ecor di ng of par amet er sdur i ng t est i ng and devel oped t he desi gn of engi nes devel opi ng

t hr ust up to 300 kg wi t h speci f i c i mpul ses of up t o 210 sec atgr ound l evel wi t h r epeat ed st ar t - up capabi l i t y.

The vi abi l i t y of LRE was convi nci ngl y pr oven by ext ended,r el i abl e and econom c oper at i on of t he ORM- 50 and ORM- 52. Thepat h was shown f o r f ur t her i mprovement of engi nes. The cr eat i on 124of t hese model s was of deci si ve si gni f i cance f or f ur t her devel op-ment of Sovi et r ocket engi ne const r uct i on.

103



/121

D’. ;ram o f the RLA-1Rocket

Diagram o f the R L A - 2Rocket

104



* .. .

Memor i al Pl aque I nst al l ed on t he Bui l di ng oft he I oannovski y Ravel i na of Pet r oyavl ovskayaFort ress. [ Tr ansl at i on of Pl aque:

I n 1932- 1933, here a t I oannovskaya Ravcl i na were l ocat ed

t he t est st ands and shops of t he USSR' s f i r st experi ment al - desi gnor gani zat i on f o r t he devel opment of r ocket engi nes -- t he Gas

Dynamcs Laboratory (GDL) of t he M l i t ary Sci ent i f i c Research Comm t t ee of t he Revol ut i onar y M l i t ary Counci l , USSR. Her e were con-duct ed t est st and operat i on o f t he worl d' s f i r st el ectr ot her malr ocket engi ne and t he f i r st Sovi et l i qui d- f uel ed r ockct engi nes,devel oped by CDL i n 1929- 1933. GDL l ai d the f oundat i on f or domes-t i c r ocket engi ne const r ucti on. The team whi ch grew out of GDL, B

par t of t he tw ce awar ded Experi ment al - Desi gn Bur eau, creat cd t hepower f ul engi nes of t he boost er r ocket s whi ch pl aced satel l i t es i nor bi t ar ound t hc Ear t h, no 7 and sun, sent aut omat i c spacecraf t t ot he moon, Venus and Mar s, and l aunched t h c manned spacecr af t Vost ok,Voskhod and Soyuz.]

/ 1 2 3

1 0 5



I t has been 44 years si nce t he subdi vi si on f or devel opmentof ERE and LRE was c r eat ed at GDL ( 1929- 1933) , bebi nni ng t hel ong and di f f i cul t pat h of devel opment t hr ough subdi vi si ons i nRNI I ( 1934- 1938) t o t he f or mat i on of t he i ndependent gr oup( 1939- 1940) , whi ch i n 1941 was expanded i nt o t he Exper i ment alDesi gn Bur eau. Thi s was t he cr eat i ve pat h of devel opment f r omGDL t o Exper i ment al Desi gn Bur eau of t he or gani zat i on cal l edGDL- OKB. The f oundat i ons of domest i c r ocket engi ne const r uct i onwer e l ai d down at GDL. Most of t he wor ker s who hel d cr eat i vepos i t i ons i n t he t wi ce- awar ded Exper i ment al Desi gn Bur eau GDL-OKB, whi ch cr eat ed t he power f ul l i qui d- f uel ed r ocket engi nesf or al l Sovi et boost er r ocket s whi ch have f l own i n space, came

f r om t hese wal l s .V. P . Gl ushko, t he gr eat l eader of GDL- OKB, was t he

desi gner of t hese engi nes.

I n cel ebr at i on of t he 40t h anni ver sar y of GDL- OK3 ( 1929-1969), memor i al pl aques were i nst al l ed on t he bui l di ngs of t heMai n Adm r al t y and t he I oannovskaya Ravel i na of Pet r opavl ovskFor t r ess ( Leni ngr ad) , wher e GDL was l ocat ed i n t he 1930' s whent he ERE and LRE wer e i nvent ed.

2 . 4 . The Moscow Gr oup f or t he St udy of React i on Mot i on,CS Osoavi i khi m USSR ( MosGI RD)

By t he ear l y 19301s, ef f i c i ent f or ms of par t i c i pat i on ofsoc i et y i n t he sol ut i on of pr act i cal pr obl ems of ast r onaut i cshad been f ound. Par t y and st at e or pani zat i ons pr ovi ded gr eatai d to i ndi vi dual cl ubs and gr oups i nvol ved i n t he st udy ofr eact i on equi pment .

A si gni f i cant st ep i n devel opment of wor k on r ocket t ech-nol ogy i n t he USSR consi st ed of t he or gani zat i onal measuresper f or med by Osoavi akhi m USSR, whi ch cooper at ed great l y i n t hedevel opment of new m l i t ary t echnol ogy.

From t he ver y begi nni ng of t he act i vi t y of Osoavi akhi u,i t s t heme and st r uct ur e i ncl uded t he conduct of sci ent i f i cr esear ch wor k, whi ch was t hen br oadl y devel oped. I n par t i cul ar ,t he Sci ent i f i c Resear ch Cent er of t he CS Osoavi akhi m i ncl udedt he Bur eau of Ai r Technol ogy (BVT), t he t ask of whi ch i ncl udedsci ent i f i c r esear ch work and t he devel opment of new t ypes of

set up f o r t hi s pur pose.

pr obl ems of r ocket t echnol ogy, based on t he wor ks per f or medsi nce 1921 i n t he l abor at or y of N. I . Ti khom r ov, and somewhat

f l i ght vehi cl es. Desi gn bur eaus, shops and l abor at or i es wer e / 125

I n par t i cul ar , ser i ous at t ent i on was gi ven to t he study of

106



l at er i n t he sect i ons, c l ubs and soci et i es of r ocket t echnol ogyent husi ast s.

The f i r st publ i c gr oup f or t he st udy of r eact i on mot5.ertbegan f orm ng i n Moscow i n connect i on wi t h t he wor ks of F. ',.Tsander , who was di scussed sbove. I n December of 1330, wor ki ngat T s I M, F. A. Tsander at t empt ed t oget her wi t h CS Osoavi akl i i mt o cr eat e such a gr oup of r ocket t echnol ogy ent husi ast s whi chcoul d sol ve i ndependent l y t he gr eat sci ent i f i c r esear ch pr ob-l ems and per f or m t he necessar y pl anni ng and exper i ment al work.

On 18 . J ul y 1931, t he f i r st meet i ng of t he new Osoavi akhi m

Or gani zat i on, cal l ed t he Bur eau f or t he St udy of React i onM o t i m (BI RD) , was hel d, under t he chai r manshi p of F. A.Tsander . The pl an f or t he wor k of BI RD cal l ed, i n par t i cul ar ,f or organi zat i on of BI RD cel l s at ent erpr i ses, and a r epor t byF. A . Tsander at a gener al meet i ng of member s of cel l s on t hecondi t i ons of i nt er pl anet ar y voyages.

or gani zat i on by t hi s dat e ( 18 J ul y 1931).Thus, BI RD, whi ch l at er gr ew i nt o GI RD, was a f ul l y f or med

The name GI RD i s f i r st encount er ed on 20 Sept ember I 351 i na l et t er by one of i t s members , comr ade For t i kov, t o K. E.Tsi ol kovski y, who was f am l i ar wi t h t he pr act i cal and or gani za-t i onal af f ai r s o f GI RD.

Accor di ng t o anot her poi nt of vi ew, GI RD was f ounded on18 August 1931, on t he i ni t i at i ve of F. A. Tsander andN. K. Fedor enkov, who spoke t o Osoavi akhi m USSR on t he cr ea-t i on of an " I nt er pl anet ar y Soci et y. " N. K. Fedor enkovannounced t hr ough the pr ess l at e i n 1930 and ear l y i n 1931 t hatal l t hose i nt er est ed i n pr obl ems of i nt er pl anet ar y voyages wer ei nvi t ed t o j 0i r . t t oget her and wr ot e i n a l et t er t o Ya. I.Per el l man t hat "t he dr oup f or t he st udy of r eact i on mut i on"was or gani zed on 18 August 1931. Thi s dat e i s ment i oned i nt he ar t i cl e "The Rocket and i t s Devel opment " (1935) .

Fi nal l y, a t hi r d poi nt of vi ew i s def ended by t hose who

consi der t he dat e of f oundi ng of GI RD t o be t he day of t hebegi nni ng of pr act i cal work on react i on equi pment , namel y 18November 1931, when F. A. Tsander , who at t hat t i me headed t hest udy of r eact i on mot i on i n MOSCOW concl uded a "soci al i stagr eement f or s t r engt heni ng t he def ense of t he USSR" wi t h t heBur eau of Ai r Technol ogy of t he Sci ent i f i c Resear ch Sect i on ofCS Osoavi akhi m f or pl anni ng and devel opment of worki ng dr aw-i ngs, manuf act ur e and pr oduct i on of model s of a react i on engi ne,i nc l udi ng i ns tal l at i on of t hi s LRE on an ai r craf t .

sel ect ed by a group 0 4 : vet er ans of r ocket t echnol ogy of t heWe not e t hat i t i s t hi s dat e, 18 November 1931, whi ch was

107



Sovi et Nat i onal Uni on of Hi st ori ans of Nat ur al Sci ence and

i ng dedi cat ed t o t he 40t h anni ver sar y of t he or gani zat i on ofGI RD i n Moscow. Thi s di sagr eement i n t he det er m nat i on of t hepr eci se dat e of or gani zat i on of GI RD i s expl ai ned by t he factt hat t he gr oup was cr eat ed gr adual l y, i t s or gani zat i onal f or mschanged, wer e i mproved and st r engt hened wi t h each new st ep.

1126echnol ogy, Academy of Sci ences USSR, t o hol d tl cr eat i ve meet -

I n 1932, CS Osoavi akhi m adopt ed a r esol ut i on cal l i ng f orbr oad devel opment of wor k i n t he ar ea of avi at i on t echnol ogy.I n par t i cul ar , t he Tsander gr oup was encour ated t hr oughout1932 t o compl et e work on t he cr eat i on of a r eact i on engi ne f oran ai rcraf t . I n J une of 1932, t he Pr aesi di umof CS Osoavi akhi madopt ed a resol ut i on cal l i ng f or t he or gani zat i on of an exper i -ment al sci ent i f i c r esearch base ( GI RD) , whi ch was gi ven t het ask of pl anni ng, const r uct i on and t est i ng of engi nes androckets of var i ous t ypes,

Thus, t he gr oup, whi ch worked up t o J une of 1932 by popul arsuppor t , was conver t ed t o a sci ent i f i c r esearch and experi ment al -desi gn or gani zat i on wi t h i t s own st af f and base.bot h t hr ough Osoavi akhi m and t hr ough t he Adm ni st r at i on f orM l i t ary I nvent i ons (UVI ) of t he Peopl e' s Comm ssar i at fo r t heNavy.

Fi nanci ng was

I n 1932, GI RD was gi ven space f or t he cr eat i on of asci ent i f i c r esear ch pr oduct i on desi gn base beneat h No. 19

Sadavo- Spaskaya St r eet i n Moscow.By J ul y of 1932, t he basi c t r ends i n t he act i vi t y of G i b

and i t s st r uct ur e had been det erm ned. An or der of CS Osoavi a-khi m of 14 J ul y 1932 names Ser gey Pavl ovi ch Kor ol ev as t he headof GI RD, begi nni ng 1 May 1932.

The st r uct ure of GI RD whi ch had devel oped by m d- 1932r ef l ected t he t r ends of i t s act i vi t y. Four i nt er r el at edt r ends of wor k ar e char act er i st i c:- - sci ent i f i c r esear ch and experi ment al wor k on t he appl i ca-t i on of r eact i on engi nes;- - br oad t echni cal popul ar i zat i on of t he appl i cat i on ofr eact i on engi nes;

- - t r ai ni ng of wor ker s i n r ocket t echnol ogy;- - l eader shi p and coar di na i on of t he act i vi t y of t heGI RD cr eat ed acr oss t he country , al l wi ng t he Moscow gr oup t obe cal l ed t he cent r al gr oup (TsGI RD) . ?

'By t hi s t i me, some 100 gr oups had been f ormed f or t he st udy ofr eact i on mot i on.

'The name TsGI RD i s f i r st encount er ed i n of f i ci al document s on31 Mar ch 1932.

108



"Fr om t he shores of t he uni ver se, whi ch our Ear t h has nowbecome, " Ser gey Pavl ovi ch sai d, "Sovi et shi ps wi l l r epeat edl yf l y f ar i nt o space, l i f t ed by power f ul r ocket boost er s. Eachf l i ght and r et ur n wi l l be a hol i day f or t he Sovi et peopl e, f oral l f or war d- t hi nki ng nanki nd - - a vi ctory of i nt el l i gence andpr ogr ess. "

The out st ar di ng or gani zat i onal capabi l i t i es of Ser geyPavl ovi ch, t he br i l l i ant m nd of t hi s gr eat sci ent i s t , al l owedhi m t o sol ve a number of i mpor t ant pr obl ems of r ocket const r uc-t i on. Dur i ng t he post war per i od, S . P. Kor ol ev di r ect ed t hewor k of t he desi gn, sci ent i f i c resear ch or gani zat i ons andt est f i r i ng r anges f or many year s.

of S P. Kor ol ev i s connect ed t o epochal achi evemec: s. Thesci ent i f i c and t echni cal i deas of Ser gey Pavl ovi ch have beenbr oadl y r eal i zed i n pr act i ce. Many bal l i st i c and geophysi ca:r ocket s, boost er r ocket s, manned spacecr af t and aut omat i ci nt er pl anet ary spacecraf t ( AI S) and ar t i f i c i al Ear t h sat el l i t eswer e cr eat ed under hi s l eader shi p. Ser gey Pavl ovi ch Korol evdi r ected t he l aunchi ng of t he wor l d' s f i r s t ar t i f i c i al Ear t hsat el l i t e, creat ed t he space r ocket syst ems used f or t he f i r stmanned f l i ght i n space, t he f i r st f l i ght s of aut omat i c space-cr af t t o t he moon, Venus, Mar s and t he l andi ng of an AI S on t hemoon.

I n t he hi st ory of t he st udy and mast ery of space, t he name

S . P. Kor ol ev was made a Cor r espondi ng Member of t heAcademy of Sci ences USSR i n 1953, an Academ ci an i n 1958.Ser gey Pavl ovi ch Kor ol ev, a CPSU member , i s a t wi ce Her o ofSoci al i st Labcr and a Leni n Pr i ze l aur eat e.

The name of Kor ol ev, one of t he f ounder s of ast r onaut i cs,has been gi ven to t he l ar gest f ormat i on on t he f ar si de of t hemoon.

i ntanmas

GI RD consi st ed of f our pl anni ng- desi gn t eams, combi nedo sect i on I , pr oduct i on shops and a test st at i on ( sect i on I V),adm ni s t r at i ve di vi s i on (11 ) and t he or gani zat i onal ands oper at i ons di vi s i on ( 111) . GI RD was subor di nat e t o CS

Osoavi akhi m Sect i ons I , I 1 and I V wer e l ocat ed i n t he base-ment of No. 19 Sadovo- Spasskaya St r eet and wer e a secret ent er -pr i se; sect i on I 11 f unct i oned as an open and somewhat i nde-pendent or gani zat i on i n Osoavi akhi m

The f i r st t eam was headed by F . A . Tsander . The t eami ncl uded L . K . Kor neyev ( who l at er became t he t eam l eader i nMar ch 1933) , A . I . Pol yar nyy, L. S. Dushki n, A. V. Sal i kov,S. S. Sm r nov, V . V. Gr i yaznov, Ye. K. Moshki n, I . I . Khovanski y, / I 30N. M Vever , L. I . Kol basi na and A . I . Podl i payev. Thi s t eam

110



tested the OR-1, worked on the preparation of suspensions ofmetal slid kerosene, experiments on the ignition of metallicfuel in air.gested for the engines designed by F. A. Tsander as fuel.The suspension was produced using ball mills, and also by meansof an electric arc. The OR-2 engine was tested with liquidoxygen and gasoline, the LRE 02 aviation-type engine wasplanned and tested, burning liquid oxygen and ethyl alcoholas well as the L R E 10, designed for the GIRD-X rocket.

A suspension of magnesium and kerosene was sug-

/129

'

echnical

Cnief of GIRD Counci

artyOrganizat on

Organitat onal Production

Operat ionsAdministrative and Mass

entific Researchand Experimen-

Organizational Plan of GIRD

The second team was headed by M. K. Tikhonravov. Itincluded: V. A . Andreyev, V. N. Galkovskiy, Ya. A . Golyshev,N. 1. Yefremov, V. S. Suyev, Z. I. Kruglova, 0. K. Parovina,Ye. I. Snegirev, V. A . Fedulov, N. I. Shul'gina and F. A .Yakaytis.

Under the leadership and according to the plan of M. K.Tikhonravov, the second team developed the GIRD-09 rocket withthe 09 hybrid-fuel engine. The second team developed the 07rocket, flight tested in 1935. This team ,ttempted to createan aviation engine with pump feed o f liquid oxygen and gasoline.Other developments were also conducted.

111



part y on pr obl ems of mast er y of t echnol ogy. We have i n m ndher e t he r esol ut i on of t he CC VEP(b), adopt ed i n 1931- 1932 anddesi gned t o encour age br oad devel opment of t echni cal pr opagandai n whi ch, i n par t i cul ar , t he need f or compr ehensi ve encour agementof al l t ypes of i ni t i at i ves advanci ng t he devel opment of domest i csci ent i f i c and t echnol ogy was emphasi zed.

Bet ween 30 J anuar y and 4 Febr uar y 1932, t he 17t h Conf er enceof t he par t y gave par t i cul ar at t ent i on t o t he need f or t hedevel opment of ext ensi ve sci ent i f i c and t echni cal pr opaganda.

Cour ses or gani zed by GI RD i n 1932 on r ocket t echnol ogy and / 133t he hi s t or y of ast r onaut i cs wer e par t i cul ar l y s i gni f i cant i n

t he t r ai ni ng of speci al i st s i n t he new t echnol ogy. The cour seon t he t heor y of r ocket engi nes was r ead by F. A . Tsander, t hecour se on t he dynam cs of r eact i on appar at us by V. P. Vet chi nk i n,t he cour se on t he t heor y of ai r br eat hi ng r eact i on engi nes byB. S St echki n, t he cour se on hydr odynam cs and gas dynam cs byB. S . Zemski y, whi l e N. A . Zhur avchenko r ead the cour se ofl ect ur es on experi ment al aer odynam cs.

I n or der t o act i vat e wor k i n t he f i el d, t he organi zat i onaland mass oper at i ons sect i on of GI RD devel oped a pr ogr am ofcour ses f or pr opagandi st s i n 1932, desi gned f or 4 0 hour s. Thet r ai ni ng pl ans of t he cour ses were s ent out t o per i pheral or gan-i zat i ons .

I n Apr i l of 1932 t here wer e si x communi st s at GI RD,or gani zed i nt o a par t y gr oup. The f i r st par t y gr oup or gani zerwas L. K Kor neyev. I n ear l y 1933, an i ndependent part yor r hni zati on was set up at GI RD. The f i r st secret ar y of t hepaLt y bur eau was t he Deput y Chi ef of t he second t eam of GI RD,Ni kol ay I vanovi ch Yef r emov.

The communi st s of GI RD wer e t he f i r st combat det achmentof t he or gani zat i on. The communi st s act i vel y i nf l uenced t hesci ent i f i c and pr oduct i on l i f e of al l subdi vi s i ons of GI RD,and were: l eader s i n t he shock movement and i n soci al i st compet i -t i o?. When di f f i cul t i es ar ose i n t he wor k of any t eam t hepa n, or gani zat i on al ways mobi l i zed t he communi st s and gaveb+ p t o l aggi ng sect i ons.

Dur i ng t he t i me of most i nt ensi ve wor k, t he communi st sgave personal exam?l es, wor ki ng di y and ni ght , as f or exampl edur i ng the t i me of t he f i r st l aunchi ng of t he 09 and GI RD- Xr ocket s .

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2. 5. Li qui d- Fuel ed Rocket Engi nes and Rocket s of GI RD

The pr i mar y r esul t s of t he wor k of t he f i r st and secondt eams of GI RD wer e t he 02 r ocket f or t he RP- 1 gl i der , t he 10,09 and 03 engi nes f or t he GI RD- X, GI RD- 09, GI RD- 07 and GI RD- 05r ocket s. Fur t her mor e, exper i ment s wer e per f or med wi t h OR- 1 andi :di vi dual LRE uni t s.

Cr oss Sect i on of 02 Engi ne wi t h Pr echamber

The 0 2 Engi ne

Sergey Pavl ovi ch Kor ol ev ( even bef ore t he organi zat i on ofGI RD) at t ached gr eat si gni f i cance t o t he cr eat i on of a pi l ot edf l i ght vehi cl e wi t h an LRE. Thi s i s i ndi cat ed by hi s i nt er esti n t he pl ans of F. A . Tsander , hi s gr eat suppor t o f t he wor kper f or med i n t he f i r st t eam of GI RD on t he OR- 2 engi ne, t he

cr eat i on and per sonal l eader shi p of t he f our t h t eam of GI RD,whi ch devel oped t he r ocket pl ane f l i ght vehi cl e, on whi ch t heOR- 2 l i qui d f uel ed r ocket engi ne was t o be i nst al l ed.

t he f or m i n whi ch i t was pl anned by F. A . Tsander.The 02 engi ne' was f i r s t t es ted i n t he OR- 2 ver s i on, i . e. ,

Af t er t hr ee t est s ( 18, 21 and 26 Mar ch 1 9 3 3 ) , i n or der t oi mpr ove t he operat i ng capaci t y of t he 02 engi ne, f ur t her t est i ngwas per f or med wi t h a f uel wi t h l ower heat cont ent , consi st i ngof l i qui d oxygen and 85% et hyl al cohol . Fur t her mor e, t hedesi gn of t he l i qui d- car r yi ng por t i on of t he cool i ng systemandof t he combust i on chamber i t sel f was si mpl i f i ed; t he cool i ngagent used was t he l i qui d oxygen, t he heat i ng and par t i alevapor at i on of whi ch i n t he cool i ng chamber had a f avor abl ei nf l uence on pr ocesses wi t hi n t he chamber ; t he chamber wasequi pped wi t h cer am c i nser t s, r equi r i ng st udi es on t he sel ec -t i on of r ef r act or y heat i nsul at i ng mat er i al s . Thus, t he 02engi ne di f f er ed s i gni f i cant l y f r om t he OR. 2 desi gned by F . A .

Tsander.

/134

' In many document s t hi s engi ne i s cal l ed t he ORD-2.

115



Dur i ng i t s devel opment , t he desi gn of t he 02 engi ne changed / 135f r om model t o model . Accor di ng t o t he speci al pr ogr am ofi nvest i gat i ons, i n J ul y of 1933 a chamber was t est ed wi t h agr aphi t e i nser t , whi ch bur st dur i ng t he 55t h second of oper a-t i on due t o t he pr esence of i mpur i t i es i n the gr aphi t e mass.I n Oct ober , t he chamber was t est ed wi t h an i nser t made ofcar bon el ect r odes; t he i nsert bur ned out dur i ng t he 62nd secondof oper at i on. The i nser t or l i ni ng was a separ at e par t ( ofgr aphi t e, al um numoxi de or magnesi um oxi de) , pl aced t i ght l yi n t he chamber and nozzl e dur i ng assembl y. I n many cases, t her ef r actory i nsul at i ng mat er i al was appl i ed i n t he f or mof at hi ck mass t o t he i nner surf aces of t he chamber ai d nozzl e,t hen subj ect ed t o t he r equi r ed heat and mechani cal t r eat ment s.I n subsequent exper i ment s, t he gr aphi t e f aci ng was cover ed by apr ot ect i ve r ef r act or y mass i n or der t o avoi d oxi dat i on of t hecar bon.

By December of 1933 when t he f i r st t eam of G I R D hadbecome a par t of t he RNI I , i t was f i nal l y est abl i shed t hat t hechamber shoul d be l i ned wi t h cor undum t he nozz l e wi t h magnesi umoxi de, and on 20 December 1933 a chamber wi t h t hi s i nsul at i onoper at ed 2 m nut es 40 seconds wi t hout damage.

At GI RD, t he devel opment and t est i ng of t he 02 engi ne wer econduct ed by A . I. Pol yar nvy ( Chi ef Desi gner ) , L . S Dushki nymL . K . Korneyev and ot her member s of t he f i r st t eam The devel -

opment of heat i nsul at i ng r ef r act or y coat i ngs i nvol ved t he par -t i c i pat i on of Ye. K Moshki n. Fi nal devel opment of t he engi newas per f or med i n t he oxygen t eam of RNII, headed by M. K.Ti khonr avov. Test i ng of t he 6 mai n ver si ons of t he 02 engi neon t he st and of t he t hi r d l abor at or y of RNII was conduct ed byL. S . Dushki n, A . I . Pol yar nyy, B . V . Fr ol ov and ot her s.

bust i on chamber made of sheet copper 1. 5 mm t hi ck. The combust i on chamber was l i ned on t he i nsi de wi t h al um num oxi de,t he nozzl e - - wi t h magnesi um oxi de. The shel l of t he chamberand t he nozz l e wer e made of l ow- car bon st eel . The head of t heengi ne car r i ed a pl at e ( cal l ed t he j et pl at e) act i ng as asprayer . The pl at e had 3 5 aper t ur es 0. 5 mm i n di amet er , t hr ough

whi ch t he al cohol was spr ayed. The oxygen, heat ed i n t he cool i ng / 136sect i on and par t i al l y vapor i zed was f ed i nt o t he combust i onchamber t hr ough t wo t ubes wel ded t o t he assembl y r i ng i n t hearea of t he ent r y t o t he cool i ng sect i on and apert ur es ( wi ndows)l ocat ed i n t he cyl i ndr i cal por t i on of t he chamber wal l neart he head. I gni t i on wasby s par kpl ug, i nt r oduced t o t he combus-t i on chamber bef ore s t ar t - up t hr ough t he nozzl e.

The f i r s t ver s i on of t he 02 engi ne was a cyl i ndr i cal com

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Cross Sec t ion o f F ina l Vers ion o f0 2 Engine

The second ver s i on had a shaped noz zl e , ca lc ul a t ed by t h emethod of Professor F . I . Franke l . Cons ider ing th e complex i ty

of manufac tu re o f shaped nozz les and the mul t i tu de o f problemsn o t y e t s o l v e d , GIRD d i d n o t c on t in u e t o u s e t h i s t y pe ofnozzle . Shaped noz zl es became widely used only durin g t h ep o s t war y e a r s .

v e r s io n , b u t w i th a b ro a de r c on e a n g le . The fo u r t h a nd f i f t hv e r s i o n s were e qu ip pe d wi th t h e n o z z le o f t h e t h i rd v e r s io n a nda prechamber. After a long s e r i e s o f t e s t s performed i n 1934-19 35, t h e f i n a l v e r s i o n - - t h e 0 2 - s engine - - was des igned .T h i s engine underwent t e s t in p in 1935.

The bas ic da ta of t h e f i n a l v e rs i o n of t h e 0 2 - s enginea r e as fol lows. Length 5 7 0 m m , o u t s i d e d i a m e te r 9 0 mm, diamete rof c r i t i c a l n o zz l e c r o s s s e c t i o n 2 6 mm, volume of combustionchamber 930 cm3.the consumption of 9 6 % e th y l a l c o h o l wa s 0 . 1 6 2 kg/sec . With af e e d p re s su re o f 20 atm, th e p re s su re in t h e c o mb us tion c h mb e rreached 11 atm. The eng ine deve loped a t h r us t of 100 kg andope ra te d wit hout damage up t o 60 sec. The c y l i n d r i c a l p o r t i o nof t he combus tion chamber was l i ne d wi th a r e f ra c t o r y hea tin su la t i ng ma te r ia l based on aluminum oxi de , th e nozz l e wasl i ne d wit h magnesium o xid e.

The th i r d vers io n o f t he eng ine had a nozz le l i k e t h e f i r s t

The l i q u i d oxygen consumption was 0.338 kg/sec,

Thus, an LRE was c r e a t e d a s a r e s u l t of work begull a tGIRD and completed a t R N I I .

The 0 2 - s engine was t e s t e d in 1936 on the 216 wingedroc ket . This roc ket was launched from a c a t a p u l t t r u c k a c c e l - /137e ra t e d by so l i d fu e l e d e n g in e s . Four t e s t s were conducted;i n two c a se s , t h e 2 1 6 r oc ke t l e f t t h e t r u c k n o rmal ly , c l imb in gone time on an i n c l i n e d , s t r a i g h t t r a j e c t o r y t o an a l t i t u d e ofabout 5 0 0 m .

1 1 7



The 10 Engi ne

The f i r st t eam cr eat ed t he 10 engi ne f or t he GI RD- X r ocket .I t was desi gned t o devel op a t hr ust of 60- 70kg f or a dur at i onof 30 sec wi t h a chamber pr essur e of 8- 10 at m The wor k on t heengi ne was begun i n J anuar y of 1933 under t he di r ect l eader shi pof F. A . Tsander .

The f i r st ver si on, devel oped by F. A . Tsander , was anengi ne whi ch bur ned l i qui d oxygen and gasol i ne wi t h t he addi t i onof met al , whi ch was t o be f ed i nt o t he combust i on chamber i npowder ed and mel t ed f or m I n par al l el wi t h t he pl anni ng of t he

engi ne, st udi es of t he f eedi ng and i gni t i on of met al f uel wereconduct ed, as a r esul t of whi ch i t became cl ear t hat t he pr epa-r at i on of met al f uel f or coni busLi on and use i n t he engi nei nvol ved t oo gr eat t echni cal and oper at i onal di f f i cul t i es .Ther ef or e, t he f i r st ver si on of t he engi ne was not manuf act ur ed,and t he second ver si on was desi gned onl y f or l i qui d oxygen andgasol i ne, wi t hout t he addi t i on of met al f uel .

The sccond ver si on was an al l - met al wel ded st r uct ur e.The i nner wal l of t he chamber was made of st ai nl ess st eel , t heout er wal l ( j acket ) of or di nar y struc: . ral s t eel . The engi newas pear - shaped and f eat ur ed ext er nal l i qui d cool i ng. I tconsi st ed of a m xi ng chamber wi t h spr ayer s, a di f f user , and acent r al por t i on, i . e. , t he combust i on chamber i t sel f , and t he

nozzl e. Li qui d oxygen was f ed t o t he l ower port i on of t henozzl e through a col l ect or i nt o a cool i ng cavi t y 3 mm wi de, t henwashed over t he out si de of t he chamber wal l and ent er ed t hechamber t hr ough j et - t ype spr ayer s. Gasol i ne was f ed i nt o t heupper port i on of t he m xi ng chamber t hr ough j et - t ype spr ayer s,f or med by dr i l l i ng hol es i nt o t he si de surf ace of t he chamber .The wor ki ng m xt ur e t hus f ormed passed t hr ough a di f f user i nt ot he cent r al por t i on of t he chamber .

/ 138

Second Ver si on of t he 10 Engi ne

The t est i ng of t he 10 engi ne, begun i n August of 1933, andt he i mpr ovement of i t s desi gn wer e per f or med by L. S. Dushki n,L. K . Kor neyev, A. I . Pol yar nyy, V. P. Avdoni n, M G. Vorob' yev

118



and ot her s. Dur i ng f l ame t est i ng, changes were made i n t hedesi gn of t he chamber .+- ped cont our was used; t he pr echamber was connect ed wi t h t hechamber by means of a di f f usor . The engi ne was t est ed onl i qui d oxygen and gasol i ne. Dur i ng f l ame t est s, t he excesspr essure i n t he chamber var i ed l i t t l e and di d not exceed 2. 5atm

A zhamber wi t h a pr echamber wi t h a

The assi gned t i xe f or f ul f i l l ment of t he pl an came t o anend, and t he engi ne had not yet been devel oped. Rupt ure of t hecombust i on chamber r equi r ed t hat f ur t her t est i ng be per f ormedusi ng a f uel consi st i ng of l i qui d oxygen and et hyl al cohol . Theconcent r at i on of t he al cohol ( most f r equent l y an 85% sol ut i on

i n wat er ) was sel ect ed as a f unct i on of t he assi gned oper at i ngmode of t he engi ne, and oxygen was used as bef or e as t he cool i ngf l u i d .

The t hi r d ver si on of t he 10 engi ne had a m xi ng chamber ,i . e. , a pr echamber wi t h a f l at bot t om car r yi ng t he j et - t ypesprayer s f or al cohol f eed. The f uel used was 78% et hyl al cohol .The oxygen spr ayer s were l ocat ed on t he cyl i ndr i cal surf ace oft he chamber , cl oser t o t he component m xi ng zone. The cool i ngof t he cent r al por t i on of t he combust i on chamber was i nt ensi f i edby addi t i onal i nput of l i qui d oxygen t o t he cool i ng cavi t y i n t her egi on wher e t he combust i on chamber was j oi ned to t he nozz l e.Dur i ng f l ame t est i ng, t he combust i on chamber bur st due toexcessi ve t her mal st r esses.

The f our t h ver si on of t he engi ne, made of SKh- 8 st eel , wast est ed on 2 Oct ober 1933 on t he powder t est st and at RNI I .The pr essure i n t he chamber r eached 8 at m t he t hr ust - - 75 kg.Dur i ng t he t est , t he peak of t hr ust was r ecor ded when t he oper -at i ng mode was r eached, t hen t he t hrust decr eased dur i ng t he16t h second. The engi ne was shut down af t er 21 seconds. Ani nspect i on r eveal ed a cr ack i n t he i nner wal l o f t he cent r alport i on of t he chamber .

/ 139

Oxygen

park p l u g hole Fuel

measurementLIJ

ni -asurement

Four t h Versi on of t he 10 Engi ne

119



The next model of t hi s engi ne was made of ENERZh- 7 st eel .I t was t est ed t oget her wi t h t he f uel f eed syst em on a bal ancef r ame whi ch car r i ed t he t anks, el ement s of t he f eed syst emand combust i on chamber . The f or ce devel oped by t he engi ne wast r ansm t t ed by t hi s f r ame t o t he t hr ust - measur i ng devi ce.

The basi c dat a of t he engi ne wer e as f ol l ows. Lengt h312 mm out si de di amet er 92 mm nozzl e cr i t i cal cr oss sect i ondi amet er 24 mm vol ume of combust i on chamber 450 cm3. Theconsumpt i on of 85% et hyl al cohol was 0. 280 kg/ sec. W t h apr essur e i n t he chamber of 10 at m t he t hr ust was 65- 75 kg.The speci f i c i mpul se, accor di ng t o t he dat a of t hr ee successi vet est s, was 162- 175 sec.

Based on t he r esul t s of t he t est i ng, t he deci si on was madet o i nst al l l t he engi ne i n a r ocket . The t est r epor t i nc l uded t hef ol l awi ng: " Si nce t he desi gn dat a have been exceeded and at hr ust of 75 kg achi eved, wi t h a pr essur e i n t he combust i onchamber of 10 am operat i ng t i me of 20 sec, and keepi ng i n m ndt he sl i ght , easi l y r epai r ed damage t o t he chamber occur r i ngdur i ngZt wo t est s, i t i s consi der ed possi bl e t o l aunch t he 10r ocket bur ni ng l i qui d f uel i nt o t he ai r usi ng t he mot ort est ed.

Wor k wi t h t he 10 engi ne was cont i nued at RNI I . Begi nni ng / 140i n Febr aur y 1934, adj ust ment t est s and f ur t her st udi es of t hi sengi ne wer e conduct ed on t he RNI I t est st and. The f uel wasf ed i nt o t he combust i on chamber t hr ough j et - t ype sprayer s.Two speci mens wer e devel oped: an al l - met al and a cer am c, i . e. ,wi t h cer am c l i ni ng. The al l - met al chamber di f f er ed l i t t l ef r om t he l ast GI RD chamber.

The ot her ver si on of t hi s engi ne had a nozzl e wi t h ar ef r act or y cer am c i nser t . The oxygen cool ed onl y t he cent r alpor t i on of t he chamber and t he m xi ng chamber . On 25 November1934, dur i ng test i ng of t he engi ne at RNI I , i t was consi der edposs i bl e t o use t he 10 mot or wi t h cer am c nozzl e t o l aunchr ocket s wi t h power ed f l i ght t i mes of 25- 30 sec, s i nce t het hr ust pr oduced exper i ment al l y was 70 kg. The f l ame r esi st anceof t he nozzl e made of cer am c was consi der ed sat i sf act or y,

si nce no mel t i ng was obser ved af t er 25- 30 sec oper at i on of t heengi ne.

The f eat ur es of t he 10 combust i on chamber i ncl uded t heuse of l i qui d oxygen and et hyl al cohol as f uel component s, t he

GI RD Ar chi ves, d. No. 3- 050, p. 3 .

'A GI RD, t he r ocket was cal l ed t he 10.GI RD- X l at er .

I t was gi ven t he name

120



pr esence of pr ezhamber s, t he pear shape of t he combust i onchamber , and t he exter nal l i qui d oxygen cool i ng.

The 10 l i qui d- f uel ed r ocket engi ne was t he f i r st Sovi etLRE t est ed by rocket f l i ght .

The 09 Engi ne

The second t eam devel oped t he 09 engi ne f or t he GI RD- 09r ocket . Af t er l ong sear ch f or t he most expedi ent desi gn, i . e. ,t he most r el i abl e desi gn pr ovi di ng f or t he most r api d devel op-ment , t he t eam sel ect ed a hybr i d f uel engi ne. Thi s was f ac i l i -

t at ed by t he suggest i on t hat sol i di f i ed (gel l ed) gasol i ne beused as f uel . Thi s gel was pr oduced by di ssol vi ng col ophonyi n gasol i ne. Li qui d oxygen was used a s t he oxi di zer . Theent i r e frJel r eser ve was pl aced i n t he i nner cavi t y of t he combust i on chamber , whi l e t he l i qui d oxygen was pour ed i ntcj t hef uel t ank.

Dur i ng pl anni ng of t he GI RD- 09 r ocket , use of t hi s pl anal l owed a r educt i on i n r ocket wei ght , s i mpl i f i ed t he desi gn f 141of t he f uel f eed syst em ( onl y t he oxi di zer had to be f ed i nt ot he chamber ) . Tr ue, t he devel opment of t he mode of pr ocesseswi t hi n t he chamber was made mor e compl ex, and t he evenness,st abi l i t y and repr oduci bi l i t y of combust i on of t he f uel wer er educed.

The chamber of t he 09 r ocket engi ne was made and t est ed i nvar i ous ver s i ons di f f er i ng i n t he des i gn of i ndi v i dual el ement s.

The f i r st model sui t abl e f or t est i ng was compl et ed on 31December 1932, f l ame t est s wer e begun i n Apr i l of 1933.

The chamber of t he r ocket engi ne consi st ed of a sprayerdi sc, a cyl i ndr i cal port i on ( combust i on chamber ) wi t h a scr eenand t he nozzl e.

The spr ayer di sc was a di sc wi t h t i ny apert ur es t hr ough

The combust i on chamber i ncl uded a cyl i nder wi t h aper t ur es

whi ch t he l i qui d oxygen was spr ayed i nt o t he combust i on chamber .

cal l ed t he scr een. The di amet er of t he cyl i nder was l esst han t he di amet er of t he combust i on chamber . The sol i di f i edgasol i ne was pl aced i n t he cavi t y bet ween t he scr een and t hechamber wal l bef or e st ar t - up. The oxygen f l owed t hr ough t hesehol es i n t he scr een t o t hc gasol i ne and t he combust i on pr oduct sf l owed back t hr cugh t hese hol es i nt o t he cent r al por t i on oft he combust i on chamber and t o t he nozz l e.

121



The chamber di d not have ext er nall i qui d cool i ng. The wal l s of t hechamber wer e pr ot ect ed f r om bur ni ng bya l ayer of asbest os and by t he f ueli t sel f , whi ch bur ned r adi al l y, i . e. ,i n t he di r ect i on f r om t he screen / 142t owar d t he chamber wal l . Thus, i ft he gasol i ne bur ned evenl y, t he combust i on pr oduct s coul d cont act andheat t he chamber wal l onl y dur i ng t hel ast i nst ant s of mot or oper at i on.

The nozzl e wzs f astr ri rd t o t he

cyl i ndr i cal por t i on 0 e chamber ;i t al so had no ext er n i qui a cool i ng .

as f ol l ows . Thr ust 25- 53 kg, l i qui doxygen f eed pr essur e 13. 5 at m pr essur ei n t he combust i on chamber 5 - 6 a t ml engt h of chamber 320. 5 mm ma: , i mumdi amet er 145 mm di amet er of nozzl ecr i t i c al cr os s sect i on 26 mm

Fi nal Ver s i on of t he

Fl ame t est s of t he engi ne wer e9 Engi ne

used t o devel op i t s i ndi vi dual uni t s. I n May of 1933, t het eam t est ed t he combust i on chamber f or st r engt h under st zt i cl oad and hydr aul i c shock condi t i ons. I n Apr i l and May of' 1933,t he oxygen val ve, r educt i on val ve and ot her uni t s weret est ed.

The basi c dat a ox engi ne a?e

I n Apr i l of 1933, work was per f ormed on t he sel ect i on oft he t ype of i gni t i on. F i r s t , pyr ot achni cal i gni t i on wast est ed. The i gni t er consi st ed of gun powder , wood char coaland a ( t hi r d) bal l ast componcnt . Consi der i ng t he i nsuf f i c i entrel i abi l i t y of t he pyro t echni c al i gni t i on s ys t em i t wasdeci ded t o use el ect r i c spar k pl ugs powered by a magni t of or i gni t i on.

The engi ne was t est ed under t he l eader shi p of S. P.

Kor ol ev and M K. Ti khonr avov wi t h t he par t i c i pat i on ofN. I . Yef r emov, V. S. Zuyev, Yu. A . Pobedonost sev, Z . I .Kr ugl ovaya and ot her member s of t he gr oup.

The chamber was f i r st made of st r uct ur al st eel , t hen ofcopper. Seven t est s per f or med begi nni ng i n J ul y of 1973showed t hat t hese chamber s di d not pr ovi de t he r equi r ed oper -at i ng t i me, even when l i ned wi t h asbest os. Chamber s made ofENERZh st eel wer e t hen t est ed. The f i nal ver si on of t hechamber was made o f br ass ,

122



The nozzle, first made of structural steel, was replacedwith a copper nozzle, then with nozzles of ENERZh steel.nozzles worked fairly well, although in some cases they wereburned through in the region of the critical cross section.

Chambers with screens of various types were tested - -with ribs, to hold the solid gasoline in place and facilitateeven burning, and wi*Lhout them; the material of t h e screenwas varied (celluloid, aluminum, structural steel, chromesteel, etc.).

These

The chambers tes-ed were equipped with heads of varioustypes, differing in the direction of the jets, structuralmaterial and number of apertures, which was varied from 5 to14. Each number of apertures produced a different thrustleve'

Some tests resulted in explosions, as for example on28 April 1933.

The pressure in the oxygen tank was developed by evapora-tion of a portion of the liquid oxygen in the tank due toheat exchange with the surrounding medium, and the designpressure was maintained in the tank by means of a safetyvalve.

Stable and reproducible gressure was not achievedimmediately, resulting in repeated changes in the design ofthe oxygen valve, safety valve and other elements.

By mid-August 1933, the rocket engine, in the form in whichit was installed in the rocket, passed final adjustment testing.

The 03 Engine

The 03 engine was designed for the GIRD-07 rocket devel-oped in the second team by M. K. Tikhonravov, N. I. Yefre.irov,V. S. Zuyev and other workers of GIRD. I t was constructed in

1933.

In this engine, spiral sprayers similar to the sprayers

The combustion

used in 1932 in the ORM-12 engine were used to inject thefuel (gasoline). The combustion chamber of the 03 engine wasconnected to the nozzle by a threaded joint.chamber did not have external liquid cooling. Testing of theengine began 17 0cr jber 1933. Beginning in February of 1934,ethyl alcohol was used as the fuel rather than gasoline.

The engine had i;he followin design data; pressure inchamber 18-20 atm, thrust 80-85 g, operating time 22-27 sec.

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After a number of unsuccessful tests, work on the 03engine was halted, and the 10 engine was installed on theGI RD- 07 rocket.

One of the peculiarities of the operation of GIRD wasthe assignslent of each LRE developed to a given rocket in orderto power its flight. Therefore, in analyzing the activity ofGI RD, we cannot limit ourselves to analysis of work performedwith LRE on the test stand. GIRD set itself the primary task

frequently called the rocket organization./144f achievement of rocket flight with LRE. It was therefore

The GIRD-09 Rocket

The first Soviet experimental rocket, with the 09 hybrid-fuel engine, was created in the second team of GI RD under theleadership of M. K. Tikhonravov.

In August, 1933, the GIRD-09 rocket passed preliminarytests and attempts were made to launch it, unsuccessful forvarious technical reasons. After elimination of individualproblems, on 17 August 1933, under the direct leadership ofS. P. Korolev, the rocket was launched and the first hybridfuel rocket in the world flew.

This date has entered the history of astronautics as theday of the launch of the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket.

The basic data on the GIRD-09 rocket are': length 2.4 m,diameter 0.18 m, launch weight 19 kg, including 5 kg of fuel,payload weight (parachute and several instruments) 6 2 kg.The 09 engine installed on the rocket developed a thrust onthe order of 25-33 kg.

alloys.which carried four stabilizers.oxygen tank, made of a pipe.between the tank and the body acted as thermal insulation.Between the oxygen tank and the chamber of the rocket enginewas a manually operated starting valve. The nose portion ofthe rocket carried the parachute and its ejector.

as follows. After it was placed on its vertical guides, therocket was filled with liquid oxygen.

The main parts of the GIRD-09 rocket were made of aluminumThe rocket consisted of a body, the lower portion of

Inside the body was theThe large annular clearance

The launch of the rocket on 17 August 1933 was conducted

Heat exchange with the

'At GIRD, this rocket w-given the rocket signifAlantly later.

called the 09. The name GIRD-09 was

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five to six persons. The scientific secretary of the oblastOsoaviakhim Soviet, V. I. Shorin, took part actively in theformat ion of LenGIRD.

In 1932, courses on rocket technology organized by LenGIRDwere conducted.

In 1932, three rockets were planned at LenGIRD with po w d xengines (a photographic, illumination and recording rocket), aswell as a recording rocket with LRE, and in 1933, high altituderockets with LRE were planned.

In order to develop rocket engines, two sections wereorganized in the Planning-Design Group of LenGIRD.headed by V. A . Artem'yev, created a number of solid-fueledrocket engines between 1932 and 1935, which were installed onall the experimental rockets of LenGIRD which were successfullyflight tested. The second section, headed by A. N. Shtern,developed a rotary reaction LRE, the LRD-D-1, which burnedliquid oxygen and gasoline. However, this engine was nevercompletely constructed.

One of these,

LenGIRD maintained communications with MosGIRD. MosGIRDhad as many as 400 members.

The Powder Rockets of LenGIRD

The photographic rocket, planned on the order of theLeningrad section of the Scientific Research Institute forGeodesy and Cartography, carried foru SRE designed by V. A .Artem'yev.

Calculated data: altitude of flight 10 km; total weight26 kg, inciuding 6 kg powder; total length 1.32 m; diameter ofbody 0.25 m; launch thrust 270 kg; engine operating time4.33 sec; fuel - - smokeless trotyl pyroxylin powder.

The illuminating rocket was designed to supplement orreplace searchlights, and also to blind enemy aircraft, as an

air defense measure.made of aluminum, the combustion chamber and nozzle of theSRE - - of heat-resistant steel.

The nose portion and stabilizers were /157

The calculated data of the illuminating rocket were:altitude of flight 5 km; total weight 18 kg, including 3 kgpowder; total length 1.2 m; body diameter 0.15 m; launchthrust 81 kg; operating time of engine 4.35 sec; fuel - -smokeless trotyl pyroxylin powder.

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The LenGIRD

Recording Rocket

Liquid-Fueled

The plan for the rocket was completedin February of 1932. September of thissame year, several experimental models weremade at the Leningrad Mechanical Plant,which successfully passed flight testingat the Osoaviakhim range.

The recording rocket was designed torecord data on the pressure and tempera-ture of the atmosphere at altitudes of upto 10 km.

The rocket consisted of a nose portionwith the required instruments, a body withstabilizers and rudders and four V. A .Artem'yev SRE.

rocket are: total weight 30 kg, including10 kg powder; total length 2.11 m; bodydiameter 0.23 m; launch thrust 148 kg;engine operating time 12.7 sec; fuel - -trotyl pyroxylin powder.

was produced in March of 1932 for the

Leningrad Geographical Institute. Later,the dssign of the rocket was simplified.the dimensions were reduced and threeversions were built: a high altituderacket, an agitation rocket (with leaf-lets) and a shrapnel rocket. They wereflight tested at the firing range in theOsoaviakhim camp. After summarizing theexperience produced, the group of M. V.Gazhala planned, then manufactured in themechanical shops another 20 rockets withsimilar SRE. The rockets, designed toreach an altitude of 1 km, were tested atthe Aerological Institute in Slutska.

The calculated data of the rxo rd in g

The plan for the recording rocket

Engines

For the recording rocket, LenGIRD developed a plan for two-chamber LRE, the LRD-D-1, which was to use liquid oxygen andgasoline. The nozzles of the two chambers had an inclinedcross section, causing the rocket to rotate about its longitu-dinal axis; the centrifugal force caused the fuel componentsto enter the combustion chamber.rotating reaction engine. The basic element: of the LRD-D-1

The engine was called a

3

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rocket were made of steel. The walls of the combustion chamberand nozzle were to be cooled with the liquid oxygen, evaporatingin the cooling spaces.

The calculated data of the rocket with LRE are: maximumaltitude 5 km; launch thrust 200 kg with ai;,aust gas velocity2000 m/sec; total weight 90 kg, including 17.5 kg oxygen, 4.89 kggasoline; weight of engine 16.0 kg; total length 2.665 m; diameterof body 0.35 m.

The rocket was manufactured in 1932. Individual parts ofthe engine, combustior1 chamber and nozzle were exhibited duringthe first All-Union conference on the study of the stratosphere,

hela 31 March-6 April 1934 at Leningrad. Since the engine wasnever completely constructed and developed, the rocket waslaunched to determine its aerodynamic characteristics late in1934 using the V. A. Artem'yev SRE.

of the design of two recording rockets with design altitudes of60 and 300 km with L R E burning liquid oxygen-gasoline fuel.The combirstion chamber and nozzle were cooled with liquid oxygen,evaporated in the cooling space. The fuel component feed systemwas by compressed gas cylinder.

In 1933, the group of V. V. Razumov began the development

The calculated data for the rocket designed to reach analtitude of 60 km are: totpl weight 90 kg, including fuel 43.7 kg;total length 3.62 m; body diameter 0.35 m; launch thrust 1000 kg;engine operating time 28 sec.

tudes up to 300 km: total weight 150 kg, including 110 kg fuel;total length 5.9 m; body diameter 0.5 m; launch thrust 1571 kg;engine operating time 51 sec.

1158he calculated data far the rocket designed to reach alti-

Since the necessary production base and funds were notavailable, this rocket was never manufactured.

During these years, a great deal of attention was given inLenGIRD to the selection of fuel for LRE, the search for the mostfavorable flight trajectories, the search for efficient rocketand engine element (combustion chamber, nozzle)forms, the gasdynamic studies of LRE, and the selection of materials for rocketsand engines.

The workers of LenGIRD constantly conducted extensiveexplanatory work and gave consultation and practical aid inproblems of reaction motion both to various teams which arosewithin the walls of military and civil e'ucational institutions,and to individual enthusiasts.

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In 1934, LenCIRD was converted totho section for reaction motion, which,under *:he leadership of M. V.Machinskiy, continued propaganda work,performed experiments on the effects ofaccelerations on animals and continueddevelopment and testing of LRE androcket models right up to the beginningof the Great Patriotic War.

2.7. The Work of the Society

Problems of interplanetary voyagesattracted the interest of manyspecialists. In addition to the stateenterprises and groups for the study of

Diagram of Rotating reaction motion, indil-idual perbons,Reaction Engine societies, sections, and clubs worked

across the USSR, making no small contri-bution to the development of domestic rocket engine construction.

On 20 January 1924, at a session of the thedtetical section /lGOof the Moscow Society for Astronomy Enthusiasts, P. A . Tsanderread a report "On the Design of an Interplanetary Ship and FJight\to Other Planets," and suggested that a "Socjety for the Study ofInterplanetary Voyages)) (OIMS) be formed in the USSR.

imeni N. Ye. Zhukovskiy created a sectioii AI ,,.terp anetaryvoyages in the Military Scientific Society of the Academy. Thefounders and most active participants in the section Mere V. P.Kaperskiy, M. G. Leyteyzen and M. A. Rezmov. The work of thesection was supported by K. E. Tsiolkovskiy, F. A, Tsander andV. P. Vetchinkin.

In April of 1924, students at the -, Iy Air Acadcny

On 30 May 1924, in the Great Auditorium o f the PolytechnicalMuseum, a lecture was read by a great engineer and widely educatedscientist, Mikhail Yakovlevich Lapirov-Skoblo, the subject ofwhich was interplanetary voyages. The lecture showed how modernscience and technology were capable of solving this problem.

Then, members were signed up for the "Society for the Study ofInterplanetary Voyagesff OIMS)

in the building of the Astronomical Observatory of the MoscowDivision of Popular Education - - at 13 Bol'shaya Lubyanka (nowF. E. Dzerzhinskiy Street). The society set very difficult tasksbefore itself - - the unification of all organizations, allscientists involved in problems of the study of interplanetaryvoyages, and the creation of a scientific research laboratory.

First, the society had some 200 members. They were located

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The first, organizational meeting of OIMS was held on 20June 1924. The officers of the society were elected at thismeeting - - a presidium consisting of: President-- the thenwell-known publicist and old Bolshevik G. M. Kranarov, Secre-tary - - M. G. Leyteyzen, members - - F. A. Tsander, V. P.Kaperskiy, M. A. Rezunov, V. I. Chernov, M. G. Serebrennikov.K. E. Tsiolkovskiy was elected as an honorary member. Thesociety attracted the attention of talented scientists,engineers and designers to problems of astronautics and helpedto popularize the ideas of rocket building and igrterplanetaryvoyages. K. E. Tsiolkovskiy, V. P. Vetchinkin, M. Ya.Lapirov-Skoblo and other famous scientists took part in the - rkof the society.

OIMS systematically held scientific-popular lectures. Whenit was reported that the USA planned to launch a shell designedby Professor Goddard to the moon to celebrate Independence Day,July 4, OIMS held a debate on 1 October 1924 on the theme "Fligthto Other Worlds." Although the auditorium was large, it was notsufficient to contain all those who wanted to attend. Therefore,the debate was repeated twice - - on 4 and 5 October - - in theGreat Auditorium of the First University Physics Institute. F. A.Tsander appeared on 4 October 1924 to report on a new ship whichhe had invented for space flight.

propaganda activity. On 31 October and 2 November 1924, V. P.Vetchinkin read lectures in the Great Auditorium of the Poly-technical Museum on the possibility of interplanetary flight.Here also an informative report was read by V. I. Chernov on theconstruction of a rocket which he had designed. Lectures wereread on interplanetary voyages at aviation plants, in the clubof the Moscow Higher Technical School imeni N. E. Bauman, atthe Astronomical Institute imeni Shternberg and elsewhere.Journeys by specialists were organized to read reports andlectures in other cities: Leningrad, Khar'kov, Saratov, Ryazan'and Tula.

161

The society worked for comprehensive expansion of its

OIMS existed but a single year, then broke up due to thefact that the tasks which the society had set before itself couldnot be performed with the funds available or the help provided by

other organizations.

In June of 1925, Academician D. A. Grave spoke on thesubject A Request for Clubs to Study and Master Space.I1same year, D. A. Grave, together with the great scientists Ye. 0.Paton, B. I. Sreznevskiy, K. K. Seminskiy, V. I. Shaposhnikov andother enthusiasts, created a "Club for the Studv of Space (theCosmos)11 in Kiev. The efforts of this club resulted in the open-ing o f an exhibit dedicated to problems of the study of inter-planetary space in the section of inventors of the Kiev Associa-tion of Engineers and Technicians on 19 June 1925.

That

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organi zat i on was cont i nued b. t he r eact i on gr oup of t heM l i t ar y Sci ent i f i c Comm t t ee of CS Osoavi akhi w, f ounded i nJ anuary of 1934. The r eact i on gr oup, soon r eor gani zed as ther eact i on sect i on, was subor di nat e t o t he M l i t ar y Sci ent i f i cComm t t ee i n the Osoavi akhi m syst em

On 6 J anuar y 1934, t he f i r st meet i ng of t he react i on gr oupwas hel d, headed by I . A. Merkul ov.

From 31 Mar ch t hrough 6 Apr i l 1934, t he react i on gr oup,on t he i ni t i at i ve of t he Acadertl y of Sci ences USSR, hel d t hef i r st Al l - Uni on Conf er ence on t he St udy of t he St r at ospher e i nLeni ngr ad. Pri mar y at t ent i on was tur ned at t hi s conf erence t o

pr obl ems of t he cr eat i on of hi gh al t i t ude r ocket s.

I n 1935, t he r eact i on sect i on hel d t he f i r st USSR con-f er ence on t he appl i cat i on of r ocket s and rocket pl anes f or t hest udy of t he st r at ospher e. I n 1935- 1937, exhi bi t i ons on r ockett echnol ogy at t he pl anet ar i um Cent r al Par k of Cul t ur e andRest i meni M Gor ' ki y and Cent r al Hal l of t he Red Ar my wer e qui t esuccessf ul .

The l ect or s gr oup, cr eat ed i n t he r eact i on sect i on r eadsever al hundr eds of r epor t s on r eact i on mot i on and i nt er pl ane-t ar y voyages dur i ng t he t i me of i t s exi st ence. The wor k of t hesect i on was publ i cal l y suppor t ed, and i nvol ved t he act i vepar t i ci pat i on of A . I . Pol yar nyy, I . A. Mer kul ov, L. S. Dushki n,0 S. Oganesov, L. E. Br yukkcr , G V. Over bukh, as wel l aspr of essors B. S. St echki n, V. P. Vet chi nki n, F. I . Fr ankel ' ,A V. Kvasni kov, K. L. Bayev, B. M Zemski y and others.

col l ect i ons on "r eacti on mot i on, " i ncl udi ng t he ar t i cl es ofdomest i c sci ent i st s - - K. E. Tsi ol kovski y, M K. Ti khonr avov,V. I . Dudakov, Ye. S . Shet i nkov, V. S. Zuyev, I . A. Merkul ov,F. D Yakayt i s, N. G Cher nyshev and others. A t extbook onLRE was pr epar ed. The USSR' s f i r st t ext book on t he desi gn ofl i qui d- f uel ed r ocket engi nes was wr i t t en by Ye. K. Moshki n and / l 64publ i shed i n 1947. I t was used i n many hi gner educat i onali nst i t ut i ons i n t he count r y f or some 10 year s.

act i vi t y of t he r eact i on sect i on of CS Osoavi akhi mwas t hesci ent i f i c l eader shi p of t he l eadi ng sci ent i st s of RNI I .Especi al l y hel pf ul wer e G. E. Langemak, M. K. Ti khonr avov, V. P.Gl ushko, S. P. Kor ol ev, Yu. A. Pobedonost sev and A. P. Vani chev.

Between 1935 and 1938, t he r eact i on sect i on publ i shed t hr ee

One of t he pr i mar y condi t i ons resul t i ng i n t he successf ul

The r eact i on sect i on al so perf or med desi gn devel opment .For exampl e, i n t he f al l of 1934 under t he l eadershi p of A. I .Pol yar nyy, a weat her r ocket wi t h LRE was pl anned. The f uel component s used wer e ethyl al cohol and l i qui d oxygen.

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In this rocket, liquid oxygen was supplied from the tank tothe combustion chamber under its vapor pressure; alcohol - - undercompressed nitrogen pressure, with nitrogen occupying 65% of thevolume of the alcohol tank. The LRE was made of stainless steeland cooled externally by its fuel. The fuel was electricallyignited.proper altitude was reached and a parachute was ejected from thenose, returning the rocket smoothly to Earth. The tail sectionof the rocket carried four stabilizers.

The nose portion of the rocket was opened when the

In 1937, the reaction section created a second rocket withL E , also burning ethyl alcohol and liquid oxygen, but water wassprayed into the combustion chamber to improve cooling. This

naturally reduced the specific impulse and increased the weightof the rocket.

In 1938-1939. the reaction section planned the firstSoviet two-stage rocket. I t was nade and tested under theleadership of I. A. Merkulov. The first stage had an engine /166which burned a solid fuel - - smokeless powder. The second stageutilized an air breathing reaction engine (ARE). The launchweight of the rocket was 7.07 kg, the first stage weighing 3.51kg, the second stage - - 3.56 kg.

The first successful launch was conducted 5 March 1939.During a flight on 1 September 1939, the engine of the firststage lifted the rocket to an altitude of 625 m, and achieved aflight velxity of 105 m/sec. After this, the first stage wasseparated by aerodynamic braking and the ARE of the second stagewas ignited. It lifted the rocket to 1800 m; the rocket achieveda velocity of 224 m/sec. In 1939, t5ese rockets were launched16 times. All launches were conducted from a special vertical-type launch support unit with four guides.

During this time, there was yet another reaction sectionin Moscow, a part of an independent organization called theStratosphere Committee of the All-Union Aviation ScientificEngineering and Technical Society "Aviavnito." This publicorganization was also involved in the study of the stratosphereand the development of the problem of reaction motion.

and technical propaganda and the development of a rocketltrans-ferred there from RNII, called the 05 rocket until 1935 . Atfirst, the rocket carried the ORM-50 engine designed by GDL, andutilized nitric acid and kerosene as fuel. In the reactionsection, the 05 was renamed the Aviavnito rocket, and a type 12Koxygen engine was installed.

The reaction section of Aviavnito was involved in scientific

'Planning of the O S rocket was begun in the second team of GIRDunder the leadership of M. K. Tikhonravov.

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The Avi avni t o r ocket had 3 st r eam i ned shape, t he nose por -car r i ed a par achut e and pyrot echni cal devi ce, whi l e t he t ai l por -t i on car r i ed t he engi ne and equi pment . The m ddl e por t i on of t her ocket car r i ed f our t anks made of dur al i um t ubes: t wo t anks f oret hyl al cohol and t wo f or l i qui d oxygen.

The desi gn dat a of t he r ocket are as f ol l ows: l engt h 3. 2 mmaxi mum di amet er 0 . 3 m l aunch wei ght 97 kg; dr y wei ght 6 4 . 8 kg;f uel wei ght 32. 6 kg ( et hyl al cohol 13. 4 kg, l i qui d oxygen 19. 2kg); engi ne t hrust 300 kg; engi ne oper at i ng t i me 21 sec; f l yi ngal t i t ude 10 km

The wal l s of t he engi ne wer e pr ot ect ed f r om overheat i ng by / 167

a cer am c l i ni ng, cpnsi st i ng of a m xt ur e of magnesi um oxi de andal um num oxi de. The f uel was i gni t ed by an el ect r i c spar k pl ug.

on 15 August 1937. Dur i ng t he second l aunch, t he r ocket cl i mbedsmoot hl y upward, af t er whi ch i t l ost st abi l i t y and began t odescent r api dl y wi t h t he engi ne oper at i ng.par t s and assembl i es f r om ear l i er r ocket s. A l aunch suppor t48 m hi gh was const r uct ed t o l aunch t he rocket .

The f i r st l aunch was conduct ed 6 hpr i l 1937, t he second - -

The r ocket uti l i zed

The r eact i on sect i on of Avi avni t o pl anned t wo mor e l i qui d-f uel ed r ocket s. One at a maxi mum desi gn f l yi ng al t i t ude of4 0 km t he ot her - - 6 km Subsequent l y, work was cont i nuedonl y on t he second pl an, but t he rocket was never bui l t due t ot he l ack of suf f i c i ent f unds.

I nt er pl anet ar y and r eact i on sect i ons and gr oups wer e devel -oped i n many hi gher educat i onal i nst i t ut i ons and ot her or gani za-t i ons.

For exampl e, i n 1930 a st udent avi at i on bui l der s cl ub metat t he Pal yt echni cal I nst i t ut e i meni M 1 . Kal i ni n.

I n 1 9 3 8 a r eact i on sect i on was or gani zed at t he MoscowI nst i t ut e f or Mechani zat i on and El ectr i f i cat i on of Soc i al i stAgr i cul t ur e ( M MESSKh) , i nvol vi ng some SO st udent s i n t he seni orcl asses. One r esul t of t he wor k of t hi s sect i on was a pl an f or

a mot or vehi cl e wi t h an LRE.The begi nni ng of t he Gr eat Pat r i ot i c War hi nder ed t he

cont i nuat i on of exper i ment al wor k. Af t er t he war , an engi ne wasconst r ucted and ut i l i zed i n cer t ai n hi gher educat i onal i nst i t u-i i ons f or a number of year s f or t he per f or mance of sci ent i f i cr esear ch and l aboratory wor k.

The soci et y was ver y ef f ect i ve i n i t s wor k of sci ent i f i c andt echni cal pr opaganda, publ i cat i on of sci ent i f i c l i t er at ure andt r ai ni ng of engi neer i ng and t echni cal wor ker s i n t he ar ea ofr ocket t echnol ogy.

1 4 3



and N. G. Belov. Improved launchers were later developed by I. I.Gvay, A. S. Popov and others. In July of 1938, military tests /174of the RS-132 missiles, to be installed on bombers, were con-ducted. The tests were successful, and the RS-132 was also putin military use.

Air-to-air powder-fueled missiles were used in combat forthe first time on 20 August 1939 by Soviet troops fighting theJapanese militarists in the region of the Khalkhyn-Go1 River,when 5 1-153 fighters (**Chayka**), ach armed with eight missiles,attacked a larger detachment of Japanese fighters.

The five first Soviet missile planes were led by test pilotCaptain N. I. ivonarev. This group, on five missions, shot down10 fighters, 2 heavy bombers and 1 light bomber, without losinga single aircraft.

In 1938, RNII began workink on a surface launcher for theRS-132 missile.were mounted across the chassis of a truck. In the summer of1939, considering the experience accumulated, a 16-missilelauncher with guides directed along the chassis of a three-axletruck, was created. By late 1940, W I I had constructed six suchinstallations. The missiles were fired, after jacking up thevehicle, in the forward direction, and the launcher was loadedfrom the rear. These devices, developed by engineers I. I. Gvay,V. N. Galkovskiy, A . 3. Pavlenko, A. S. Popov and others, wereprototypes of the BM-13-16 or Katyusha launchers.

series manufacture of rocket launchers was signed in June of 1941.

The first models, with a capacity of 24 missiles,

A resolution of the State Defense Committee calling for

laic BM-13-16 launcher was first used in combat on 14 July1941 in the battery of Captain I. A. Flerov, a graduate of theArtillery Academy imeni F. E. Dzerzhinskiy. The German fascisttroops occupying the railroad station at Crsh were quite sur-prised by a barrage of uncommon force at 15:30 hours. The entirestation went up in flames, and powerful explosions went off oneafter another.

During the years of the Great Patriotic War, combat rocketlaunchers were used successfully in massive numbers, carried bywheeled and tracked vehicles as well as combat aircraft.

The rocket artillery fully confirmed its high combatqualities - - mobility and maneuverability, the capability forsudden concentration of fire at high densities over large areaswith a rapid rate of fire,

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Liquid-Fueled Rocket Engines

As we have noted, the second section of the institute worked

The nitric acid team, headed by V. P. Glushko, continued the

175on the study and development of LRE.

study and development of LRE begun at GDL, using nonvolatilenitrogen-containing compounds, primarily nitric acid with 0xidr.sof nitrogen, as well as tetranitromethane, as Qxidizers.

Between 1934 and 1938, this team developed engine modelsfrom O W - 5 3 to O W -7 1 , plus the ORM-101 and OM -1 02.

The primary task of this team was the creation of rocketengines and supplementary devices.also given to problems related to the use of promising materialssuch as stainless, heat resistant, aluminum and other materials.New methods of welding and soldering were introduced, and experi-ments were conducted on increasing service life by chrome platingof worn surfaces.manned and unmanned flight vehicles, one important task performedb y the team was reduction of the period required to reach nominaloperation and automation of the launch.

The ORM-53 through O W - 6 3 engines were planned in 1934 anddeveloped in 3935, followed by the ORM-64 and ORM-65.

The O M - 6 5 engine succes-fully passed adjustment and officialtesting in 1936, followed by surface testing on the RY-318 rocketplane and the 212 winged rocket in 1937-1938.

Considerable attention was

Since the engines were desiczned for both

In 1939, the ORM-65 engine passed flying tests on the 212winged rocket quite successfully and was highly evaluated.

After processing of a great deal of experimental data andconducting a series of scientific research operations in 1936-1938, the team developed the ORM-66, ORM-67, ORM-68, O M - 6 9 andO M - 7 0 engines with higher characteristics.

Furthermore, the team created various systems for LRE:

turbine pump units, gas generators, automatic control elements,etc. In 1935-1936, for example, the first domestic gas

fluid for the TNA turbine, was developed under V. P. Glush 0 .

generator, the GG-1, designed for production of the workin

This gas generator passed official interdepartmental testssuccessfully in 1937.

subdivision of the Aviation Motor Plant, separated from RNII.Therefore, the work of V, P. Glushko at RNII ended in 1938.

In 1939, V. P. Glushko was made thc leader of an independent

/176

1 o



1By 1939, after further testing, the RDA-1-150 liquid-

fueled rocket engine for the RP-318-1 engine was pl amed on thebasis of the ORM-65 engine, under the leadership of L. S.Dushkiri.

However, the RDA-1-150 engine, due to its low thrust, wasfound to be unsuitable for unaided takeoff of an aircraft.Therefore, a more powerful nitric acid engine, the RDA-300, wasplanned and manufactured in the first half of 1939.same year of 1939, the RDK-1-150, burning alcohol and oxygen,was created.

During this

The oxygen team, headed byM.

K. Tikhonravov, developedengines burning liquid oxygen and an aqucous solution of ethylalcohol. Means were sought to assure the most complete possiblecombustion of the fuel and increase the .,herma1 efficiency. Theresults of theoretical and experimental work indicated that thisrequired an increase in combustion chamber pressure. Therefore,even Lhough increasing the pressure complicated the cooliagproblem, new engines were designed for combustion chamberpressures of around 15 atm, in place of the 5-8 atm used earlier.

Several versions of the 12K engine were first tested; in1936, the cxygen team began deve1opmar.t of the 205, 206, 207 and208 engines, designed, like the 12K, for installation inrockets. The technical assignment for planning of the engines

noted the need to eliminate the shortcomings of alcohol-oxygenengines developed earlier. It was also required to increase thereliability c,id reproducibility of test results and the yccificimpulse.

development of GIRD engines in order to increase the reltabilityand reproducibility of test results, was separated from RhII.Some of its workers later took part in tht t i - - k of Design BureauNo. 7 (KB-7), organized as a part of the Main Artillery Adminis-tration of the Red Army and headed by L. K. Korneyev.

In early 1934, the group of L. K. Korneyev, working on the

Air-Breathing Reaction Engines

In 1934-1935, RNII performed experimental work with directflow air-breathing reaction engines (PVRD). Preliminary calcu-lations and testing of PVRD models were performed at GIRD in 1932-1933. The experiments performed at RNII confirmed that PVRD,based on the theory of B. S. Stechkln, were suitable for use forflight at supersonic speeds. This work was performed under the

'The symbol RDA-1-150 stands for "Rocket Engine, Nitric Acid,No. 1, Thrust 150 kg,))

151



Flight Vehicles

W I I , under the leadership of S. P. Korolev, continued workon winged rockets - - air torpedos - - with both solid- and liquid-fueled engines, following the work undertaken on his initiativeat GIRL).winged rockets were performed by Ye. S. Shchetinkov and A.hrkin under the leadership of A. V. Chesalov. The first rocketswith L R E , called the 06 rockets, were flight tested in early1934.

Frelirinary calculations of tho flight stability of

During the process of work on unmanned winged rockets,

several flying versions of the 216 winged rocket with the 02alcohol-oxygen -RE Rere created, then (1936) the improved 212rocket, with the OW - 6 5 engine.testing of the various units of the engine and 212 and 301 rocketswas undertaken, followed by flight testing of improved versions.

ing sections: nose section, carrying the payload and parachute;instrument section, for the statilization and control systemapparatus; fuel section, carrying the tanks; nitrogen section,carrying the pre.;sure cylinder; m d the engine section.

An extensive program of stand

The 212 rocket, an all-metal device, consists of the follow-

The fuel and oxidizer tanks, tubular in shape, were locatedThe fuel components were fed to the combustionithin the wing.

chamber by compressed nitrogen pressure, The pressure reducers 179for the nitrogen which was fed to the tanks from the pressurecylinder and the fuel valves were located at the plan center ofthe rocket.

The OW-65 engine was carried in the tail portion of therocket on a frame and covered by a fairing with a metal sleevelocated above the nozzle exit plane to protect the rudders fromthe flame.

The device was launched from a catapult truck powered by apowder-fueled rocket, the combustion chamber of which containedpackets of trotyl pyroxene powder (15 packets measuring 75 x 10

x 92 mm). The catapult truck rode on r a i l s 1SO w in length.The takeoff run required for the winged rocket during flighttests was 26 w .

The planned flight range of the winged rocket, with a launchweight of 210 kg and a fuel reserve of 30 k g , was 50 h.

The design of the RP-318 rocket plane was a s follows: wooden,free flying monoplafte, fuselage of oval cross-section with mid-section area 0.75 m ; length 7.44 m , wing span 17 m, bearingsurface of wing 7.85 I . Initial flying weight 700 kg.from Earth as normal for gliders.

Launched

153



The steel fuel tanks located behind the metal back of thepilots seat carried 75 kg of fuel, sufficient for 100 sec con-tinuous operation of the engine at a thrust of 150 k .scat, was 20 11, while the two oxidizer tanks, located at thecanter of gravity of the aircraft, had a capacity of 40 L. Incase of leakage, the oxygen tanks were contained in duraluminbaths with a drain la8ding outside the aircraft. The oxidizerand fuel uerc fed to the engine under compressed air pressure,with the air carried in four tanks of S liter capacity, two neach wing.reducer. The engines were started by rotating a control laver,which mechanically opened the fuel valves located in the tail por-tion of the fuselage immediately before the engine.valves were opened when a signal lamp installed on the pilot'sinstrument panel lit up.

Thecapacity of tho fuel tank, located directly behind t e pilot's

The air was fed to the fuel tanks through a pressure

The fuel

The RP-318 rocket plane designed by S. P. Korolev wastested with LRE about 40 tines.

The en ine was carried on a frame in the tail of thefuselage an lounted beneath a metal shield to protect the tailsection frona the flare.the rudder closest to the engine was covered with a sheet ofstainless steel 0.3 mm thick.

of the creative workers and specialists in the area of rockettechnology labored within its walls.of rockets and engines were developed, operating models werecreated, which later saw practical application and development.RNII made a significant contribution to widely varied areas ofrocket technology, thus providing a reliable foundation forSoviet rocket science.

For this same purpose, the portion of

During the pre-war period of activity of RNII, almost all /I80

The principles of tho theory

3.3. Nitric Acid LRE

The OW 53 - OM - 6 3 Engines

The nitric acid tear worked on the crzation o f engines,utilizing the last LRE of the Gas Dynamics Laboratory, the QRM-52,as a prototype.engines developed, as before, were nitric acid and kerosene.Suarnariting the experience of the work of GDL, the designers cameto the conclusion that the reliability of engine starting in a11nozzle positions would have to be improved, by using chemicaland pyrotechnical ignition, that the fuel feed system would haveto be developed to bring the engine up to full design thrustmore rapidly, that the operating time o f the ensins would haveto be increased, as well as the spscific impulse, by inproving

The basic fuel components utilized in the

154



aixture formation.the feed pressure had t e be reduced by improving the hydraulicchlrracteristics while corrserving the sa- pressure in the cmbus-tion chanber.

In order to decrease the weight of the engine,

Taking these initial ideas, RNII developed a series of

In the OW-S3 engine, a number of design elsreirts wereTho OW-S4 had external C6Oling of

engines fro. OW-53 through OW-63 in 1934-1935,

improved over the OW-S2 .the nozzle by the oxidizer and higher spiral ribbing; the sprayhead and combustion chamher, as before, were pratected from thaeffects of the high heat fluxes by an internal film (vapor cur-tain).

The OW-57 8-sprayer high-thrust engine had a critical laozzlecross section diaueter of 40 BUU, an ex3t

consisted of 6 parts.tured. The first domestic two-chamber engine was the OW-58,designed for a thrust o € 600 kg.

from OW-53 to OW-62, the designers selected the best featuresand created the O M - 6 3 engine.

lane diameter of l O i iIP with a cone aperture angle of ZOO. T c aluminum i r o t ~ l o nsert

This engine wa& planned but n o t ranufac- 1181

Summarizing the experience gained in planning the engines

The OW-63 was a fully cooled experimental engine developinga thrust of 300 kg, It underwent elerent-by-element technologicaldevelopment in production in order to assimilate a n w b c r of newtechnological operations: roller electric welding of the corpen-sator, stamped from a sheet of stainloss steel, to the nozzle andits jacket, butt electric welding at the critical cross section ofthe nozzle, high temperature hermetic soldering of various jointswith high-temperature solder, etc, Particular attention wasgivea to the uality of manufacture of parts, testing of sub-assemblies an t h e quality of assembly of the entire engine.

The combustion chamber of the GW-63 utilized Membrane-typehydraulically controlled spiral sprayers,braires were stamped of sheet stainloss steel.

The corrugated gem-

The OW 64 - OW-70 Engines

In early 1936, tactical and technical requirements weredeveloped for an engine for use in the RP-318 rocket plane andthe 212 remote controlled winged rocket.develop a thrust of 150-160 kg, to operate continually for atleast 75 sec per start and develop a s acific impulse of at least180 sec; its weight was limited to 10 E 8.mean thrust from start to start of the engine during the period

The engine W P . ~ u

The variation in



of stable operation was not to exceed i3 kg; the differencebetwtert values of mean thrust and m u i n n and minimum thrustduring a single s t m t of the engine during the period sf stableoperation should not ex-eed i3 kg; the fuel f e d pressure wasnot to be over 35 atr. .he engine should operate normally inthe horizontal and vertical position, and also with the inletpressure choked from 35 to 12 8tr by aoration of fuel flow rate.Particular attention was given to the assarance of high relia-bility of starting and operation. According to these require-

OR#-6S engine, as the basic operating version, were planned,constructed and tested in 1936.

mats, the OM-64 engine, as an experimental version, and the 1182

The OW-61 was an experimentalengine with a thrust of 1SO kg,siailar in design to the OW -S 2el rine; It was a four-sprayerengine, combustion chamber volume2.23 L, diameter of nozzle criticalcross section 20 mm, exit planediameter 40 II nozzle expansionangle Z O O . At the center of thehead was a device for ignition con-sisting of a sleeve carrying acurrent conductor (ES-Kh sparkplug),an electric cap and a 6-S secondretal-nitrate ignition cap, seated

on a rod. The material of thechamber was carbon steel, the nozzlewas made of EYa36 steel.

the ORM-64 engine in the vertical

positions, the required technical andtechnical characteristics wereachived, including the weight, which

With a pressure in the combustion chamber of 22 .5 atm

During test stand operation of

-- - (nozzle downward) and horizontkl

The ORM-64 Engine

was 10 kg.and a feed pressure of 27.5 atr, the engine developed a specificimpulse of 216 sec.

The combustion chamber operated for a total time of SO 2 secwithout defects; start-ups were shock-free, the engine operated atits design mode stably, without oscillations. With a continuousengine operating time reaching 120 sec, the cylindrical portion ofthe combustion chamber, due to the intensive process of fuel cor-bustion, glowed bri ht yellow. This was due to the fact that the

walls being cooled only by the spraying of the fuel components onits inner surface, In later designs of O W , in order c3 assurehigher reliability of the cylindrical portion of the combustion

/183

combustion chamber aad not external cooling, the combustion chamber



chamber, it was cooled by a flow of nitric acid on the outside.Based on analysis of the results of these tests, the main ver-sion of the engine, the OM - 6 5 , was developed, and successfullypassed official stand tests in 1936, also in the vertical(nozzle downward) aad horizontal positions. The OW-dS enginewas the most highly developed engine of its time.

The main data produced in the tests of 1936 were superiorto the assigned tactical and technical requirements, excapt forWeight, and Were as fOllOUS.

Thrust at ground level in maximum mode 175 kg, in nominald e 55 kg, in mininal mode SO kg; specific impulse in maximum

node 195 sec, in nominal node, average node for the entire timeof stable operation, 215 sec; combustion chamber pressure inuutiru rode 25 atm, in nominal rode 23 atm and in minimal rode8 a m ; fuel consumption in maximum mode 0.900 kg/sec, in nominalrode 0.738 kg/sec. Method of start-up manual on signal lamp orautoratic.

The OM - 6 5 combustion Chamber, with a voluae of 2.01 8 con-sisted of three steel rain parts: the spray head, chamber nozzleand jacket, sealed with an asbestos liner. The chasber head,designed to prepare the fuel for combustion, with internalfilm cooling, hold an operating surface temperature of 300-400° C.The combination chamber and nozzle consisted of the cylindricalportion of the combustion chamber, made in one piece with the

nozzle. I t was equipped with external flow cooling; in order toincrease heat transfer, the chamber-nozzle had spiral ribbing intwo places. The pressure drop throu h the cooling fluid line was3.5 atr when operating in nominal 10e.

The necessary jacket gap at the nozzle was provided by the

The nozzle was equipped with a compensator - - a lead liner,

186installation of two shaped aluminum inserts.

held under pressure by a threaded ring.thermal elongation of the chamber and nozzle relative to thecooler jacket (with the lead flowing into the circular c ~ pbetween the jacket and Ch~ber-nOZZle), while raintainia,; thetightness of seal. After each test, the pressure ring hhd to

be tightened up to restore the seal.

This compensator allowed

Tho fuel components were sprayed into the combustion chamberthrough centrifugal-typo sprayers (three oxidizer sprayers andthree fuel sprayers alternating at intervals of 60O). Theoxidizer sprayers were installed in the head portion of thechamber at an angle of 60' to the axis and directed opposite tothe nozzle.perpendicular to its axis.

The fuel sprayers were installed in the head

157



combustion chamber. In contrast to the ORM-66, the ORM-67engine could be completely disassembled; the joints between thehead, combustion chamber-nozzle and their jackets were sealedwith asbestos strips. The head and chamber-nozzle were made ofEYa3A steel, the jackets of duralumin. The engine weighed aboutS kg.

V i e w A

View B

6-

The ORM-66 Engine

The ORM-68 (1937) differed from the ORM-67 in that the head,chamber-nozzle and their jackets were made of duralumin, furtherdecreasing the weight of the device to 3.5 kg. The ORV-67 andORM-68 engines underwent only hydraulic testing and developmentof a new ignition device in early 1938.

The 3RM-69 engine was developed in 1938 and differed from

the ORM-68 in that larger, fuel-cooled ribs were used on thehead and an improved ignition device was fitted, following manu-facture and refinement testing in early 1938.

In 1937, the ORM-70 design was developed. This was anexperimental engine with a thrust of 300 kg, burning nitricacid-kerosene fuel. The design of the ORM-70 is similar to theORM-67. Eight sprayers are used. The maximum diameter of thecombustion chamber is 200 mm, the length is 500 mm. The material

/189

/191

161



used is stainless and low-carbon steel, and duralumin. Theengine was manufactured in 1937-1938, but was never tested.

/190

The ORM-70 Engine

The ORM-101 - ORM-102 Engines

These experimental engines were planned in 1937 in or.;er tostudy the possibility and expediency of using tetranitromethaneas an oxidizer. Corrosion testing of various metals in tetra-nitromethane allowed structural materials stable in thisoxidizer to be selected.danger of tetranitromethane in operation were conducted.was selected as the fuel. The ORM-101, with a thrust of 80 kg,

was designed for brief operation.100 kg at the same combustion chamber pressure (28 atm) wasfully cooled. The engines were manufactured in 1937-1938, butdid not undergo flame testing due to the determination that thedetermination that the use of tetranitromethane was dangerous.

Experimental tests of the explosionKerosene

The ORM-102, with a thrust of

The GG-1 and GG-2 Gas Generators

The gas generators (GG) developed were designed to feed theThe zones of com-orking fluid for a piston engine or turbine.

bustion of the fuel components (nitric acid and kerosene) and the

162



zones of mixink with the cooling agent (water) were separate;diaphragms were used to separate the liquid films from the wallsof the chamber.produced, preference was given to a two-chamber system, althougha one-chamber version was also constructed and underwent standflame testing.

Due to the requirement for high purity of the gas

In the GG-1 gas generator, the fuel components weresprayed into the combustion chamber by 6 sprayers: three oxidizersprayers fed through the lower circular collector, three fuelsprayers fed through the upper circular collector; water wassprayed in through the two top sprayers. The gas generator wasdesigned for internal cooling of the walls by a protectivefilm of fuel components. Overheating of the combustion chamberwalls next to the sprayer belt and connecting collar betweenthe c..ambers (to 700 ' C) required that external flow cooling ofthe spirally ribbed walls of the chamber with water, which wasthen sprayed into the chamber, be used; the GG-1 F..ssed acceptance

193

testing in this form.

/192

The ORM-102 Engine

Design and dimensions of the GG-1: material of combustionchambers, mixing chambers and sprayer nipples - - EYa3S; ofjackets and collectors - - ST4; of sprayers and tubing - - dur-alumin. Jackets sealed with asbestos cord soaked in liquidglass.with simultaneous injection of f&el components and water. In thewinter, antifreeze (75% water and 25% ethyl alcohol) was used inplace of water.

The GG-1 was started after a signal lamp or automatically,

163



component s wer e di r ect ed toward t he cent er o r t he hem spi l er e, t r ,- he zone wher e t he head was connected t o t he cyl i ndr i cal por t i onof t he chamber . I n th. 3 upper por t i on of t he head, on t he axi sof t he chamber , was 3 t hr oat f or t he i gni t er devi ce. The headwas f ast ened to t he cyl i ndr i cal por t i on of t he chamber by meansof a t hr ead. At t he j unct i on poi nt t her e was a l i near expansi oncompensat or gl and.

Cr oss- Sect i on of t he GG- 1 Gas Gener at or

The cyl i ndr i cal coi i i busti on chamber had doubl e spi r al cool i ngr i bs. ' I he ni t r i c aci d ent er ed t he cool i ng cavi t y at t he poi nt ofconnect i on of t he chamber t o t he nozzl e, t hen passed t hi - ough t heapertures i n t he head di r ect l y to t he spr ayer s.

t he j acket at t he nozzl e end and l ef t at t he poi nt where i t wasconnected t o t he chamber. The out si de sur f ace of t he nozzl ecar r i ed a doubr e spi r al set of not ches, t he l ands of whi ch wer ei n t i ght cont act wi t h t he nozzl e j acket . I n t he l ower por t i on oft he nozzl e (at t he exi t pl ane) was a l i near expansi on compensat crgl and.

was t he al t ered pl acement of t he f uel spr ayer s i n the engi nehead. Wher eas i n t he ORM-65 t he f uel component s wer e spra;edr adi al l y or at a sl i ght angl e away f r om t he nozzl e, i n t he

The r emsvabl e nozz l e was cool ed by ker osene whi ch ent er ed

The basi c di f f er ence bet ween t he RDA- 1 . S O and t he ORM-65

165



RDA-1-150, all of the fuel was directed toward the center of the /198chamber, toward the nozzle, and the sprayers were located around acircle at identical angles to the chamber - x i s . However, thisdifference caused a significant reduction in the primary character-istics of the engine.

/196

Cross-Section of the GG-2 Gas Generator

Stand tests of the RDA-1-150 engine began in the secondhalf of 1939. Two identical models were tested, and about 20starts were made.ated 200 spc without damage. During March through September of1939, combined tests were performed on a rocket plane, togetherwith the fuel feed system and the control system. During thispe-i-.d of time, :he engine withstood 108 flame tests, showingthe following results: thrust 140 kg (compared to 175 kg for theORM-65), specific impulse with chamber pressure 18 atm reachcd186 sec (as compared to 210-215 sec for the OW-65).

In January of 1939, one of these models oper-

As a result of the tests of the RDA-1-1S0, reliable operationcf the engine w3s achieved, and the procedure for start-up, modecontrol and shut-down of the engine from the cabin of the rocketplane was developed.engine, allowing the evrr menters to begin flight testing of theengine following the g - w 1 i f . testing.

Exy-ience was gaine in the operation of the

The first flight tests of the RDA-1-150 engine were conductedby pilot V. 2. Fedorov on 28 February 1940, using the RP-318rocket plane.

166



The RDA- 1- 150 Engi ne

An or di nar y ai r cr af t wi t h 3 pi st on engi ne t owed t he r ocketpl ane t o an al t i t ude of Z O O 0 m where t he pi l ot di sengaged t her ocket pl ane f r om t he pi st on- cngi ne pl ane, and began to gl i de.Af t er separ at i ng a suf f i c i ent di s tance f r om t he t ow pl ane, t het est pi l ot t ur ned on t he r ocket engi ne, whi ch cont i nued t ooper at e unt i l i t s f uel was f ul l y espendcd. Af t er shut - down oft he engi ne, t he r ocket pl ane cont i nued to gl i de and l anded att he i i i r f i el d.

Thi s was t he f i r st manned f l i ght of a f l i ght vehi c l e wi t hLRE i n t he USSR.

The RDA- 300 Engi neThe RDA- 300 engi ne was desi gned t o devel op a t hr ust of 300

kg, and was al so i nt ended f or t he RP- 318 r ocket pl ane, i n ordcrto al l ow i ndependent t ake- of f , i . e. , wi t hout r equi r i ng o t o wpl ane.

/ 197

Th- HDA- SO0 engi ne, devel oped i n 1939 under t he l eader shi p 199cf L. S . Dushki n, di f f er ed f r om t he RI M- 1- 150 onl y i n i t s di men-s i ons. I n or der t o i ncrease t he speci f i c i qpul se t o 200 s cc ,t he desi gn pr essur e i n t he RDA- 300 was i r cr eased. By the m ddl eof 1939, t hc pl anni ng and manuf act ure of thc engi ne wer e compl et ed. At t he same t i me, anot her ver si on of t he RDA- 300 was

167



I n i t s second ver si on, t he engi ne t.ad a spher i cal combust i onchamber of st ai nl ess steel , al l owi ng a r educt i on i n the speci f i cwei ght of t he st r uct ur e. The upper hem spher e was l i ned wi t hccr am c made of r oast ed al um num oxi de. The l ower por t i on oft he chamber and nozzl e wer e made of st eel , and were gi venext ernal f l ow cool i ng. The l ower hem spher e of t he chamberbur ned t hrough dur i ng t he 19t h second of ;I t est conduct ed i n Mayof 1935.

I n i t s thi r d ver si on, t he engi ne di d not have est er nal f l ow / 2 0 2cool i ng, but t he ent i r e chamber was l i ned wi t h an al um num oxi decer am c, t he nozzl e was l i ned wi t h a magnesi um oxi de cer am c. Thest r eams of f uel component s wer e di r ect ed agai nst each ot her , whi ch

achi eved good m xi ng. The engi ne was t est ed i n Mar ch of 1 9 3 5 .The engi ne was shut down af t er 2 7 seconds f or i nspect i on, whi chr eveal ed smal l cr acks i n t he cer am c l i ni ng.

The r esul t s of t est i ng of al l t hr ee vcr s i ons of t he engi newere used 3s a basi s f or anal ysi s of t he r easons why t he r equi r edspeci f i c i mpul se and st abi l i t y of t her mal i node of t he combust i onchamber had not been achi eved, l eadi ng t o t he concl usi on t hat i norder to achi eve a thr ust of 300 kg wi t h a pr essur e i n t he chamberof about 12- 16 atm, t he chamber vol ume woul d have t o bo about2 E. Fur t her mor e, s i nce al l of t he cool i ng and heat pr ot cct i onsyst ems t est ed had f ai l ed t o assur e ext ended r el i abl e operat i on,t hese engi ne ver si ons wer e a knowl edged t o he sui t abl e onl y forbr i ef exper i ment al oper at i oni .

I n t he f our t h ver s i on, consi der i ng t hat t he regi on of t hecr i t i cal c ross sect i on had f ai l ed i n ear l i er t es t s , t he nozz l ewas an al l - met al copper par t wi t h ext er nal f l ow cool i ng but wi t h-out r i bs. I n order t o avoi d t he t her mal st r esses whi ch f r equent l ycaused f ai l ur e of t he st r uct ur e, t he nozzl e was cool ed by t heal cohol f uel r at her t han b y t he l i qui d oxygen oxi di zer . tiowevcr,dur i ng f l ame t est s t he nozzl e f ai l ed af t er 30 seconds. Thi s was3 resul t o f t he i nsuf f i ci ent cool i ng i nt ens i t y, a r esul t of t hel ow vel oci t y of movement of t he 3l cOhOl t hr ough t he cool i ngchannel s.

The 205 Engi nes

Based on bal l i st i c pl anni ng of wi ngl ess r ocket s and t her esul t s of f l amc tes t i ng of t he 12K engi nes, i t was consi der ednecessary t o assur e const ant t hr ust , decr ease t he ampl i t udc off l uc tuat i ons o f chamber pr essur e, r educe t he t i me r cqui r ed t or each t he nom nal mode t o 2. 5 sec, i ncrease t he speci f i c i mpul set o at l east 2 1 5 sec at il chamber pr essur e o f 2 0 at m pr ovi de

Lat er , t he 12); engi ne was t est ed on t hc Avi nvni t o r ocket .

1 7 0



i mpr ove t he pr ot ect i on of t he wal l s f r omhi gh heat f l uxes.

The l i qui d oxygen evapor at ed i n t he cool i ng syst emwas sentt o t he t urbi ne whi ch dr ove t he f uel pump. The oxygen f r om t het ur bi ne was t hen sent t o t he combust i on chamber i n gaseous f orm

Thus, t he engi ne of P. I . Shat i l ov f eat ur ed t he pr ogr essi vei deas of t he por ous combust i on chamber and a f eed syst em whi chal l owed t he spent t ur bi ne gas t o be bur ned.

RNI I encount er ed t echni cal and t echnol ogi cal di f f i cul t i eswhi ch wer e i nsur mount abl e at t he t i me i n i t s at t empt s t o const r uct

t he P. I . Shat i l ov engi ne. Theref or e, wor k on t hi s engi ne washal t ed i n 1936.

3. 5. Devel opment s by Desi gn Bur eau No. 7 ( KB- 7)

I n August of 1935, a desi gn bur eau ( KB- 7) was set up i n t heMai n Ar t i l l er y Adm ni st r at i on of t he Red Ar my. Thi s bur eaui ncl uded some of t he worker s f r om t he oxygen t eam of RNI I pl usa number of speci al i st s f r om var i ous gener al machi ne bui l di ngent erpr i ses. KB- 7 was headed by L. K. Kor neyev; ot her wor ker si ncl uded A . I . Fol yar nyy, E. P. Shept i t ski y, P. I . I vanov,M G Vorob' yev, A. S . Rayet ski y and ot her . KB- 7 had a smal lpr oduct i on base, t wo l abor at ori es and a t est i ng st at i on. Thel abor at or i es and t est i ng st at i on wer e equi pped wi t h modern ( f ort he ti me) measur ement appar at us, si nce t he f l ame t est st and ofKB- 7 was consi der ed a very s i gni f i cant i ns t al l at i on.

Toget her wi t h t he devel opment of LRE, KB- 7 per f or med f l i ght / 209t est i ng of r ocket s bur ni ng l i qui d oxygen- et hyl a l cohol f uel .F i r s t , t he pl anni ng of t he LRE was based on t he exper i ence oft he wor k wi t h t he 0 2 and 10 engi nes (G RD) , t hen on cer t ai nachi evement s of t he t eams at RNI I .

The f i r st model s of engi nes i n t he M f am l y were desi gnedf or t he R- 03 and R- 06 r ocket s. They wer e most r em nescent of t he10 engi ne of GI RD, wi t h i t s pear - shaped combust i on chamber wi t h

cer am c l i ni ng and pr echamber wi t h j et - t ype sprayer s. One suchengi ne, wi t h a desi gn t hr ust of 100 kg, was i nst al l ed on t heR- 03 r ocket .

The l engt h of t he r ocket was 2. 18 m; di amet er 0 . 2 m l aunchwei ght 30- 33. 5 kg, i ncl udi ng 8 kg of oxygen and 4. 5 kg of al cohol ;ext r act i ve f uel component f eed was used.

1937, Af t er modi f i cat i on of t he r ocket ( i t WDS now cal l ed t heR- 03- 02) , i t was t est ed wi t h t he same engi ne i n f l i ght 6 t i mes.

The f i r st l aunch of t he r ocket was conduct ed i n Apr i l of / 210

174



The R- 03 Rocket

( f i r st stage). At t hel i qui d f uel component s

The R- 06 r ocket , t he f i r st ver s i on / 208of whi ch was pl anned and manuf act ur edi n 1934 by A. I . Pol yarn' i y f or Osoavi a-khi m ut i l i zed an engi ne wi t h a cyl i ndr i -cal combust i on chamber and a peaked head.The nozzl e had a shaped cer am c i nser t .Af t er moder ni zat i on at KB- 7, t he rocket ,wi t h a l aunch wei ght of 39 kg, was t est eda number of t i mes i n 1937- 1938 wi t h anengi ne wi t h a desi gn t hr ust of 100 kg.

A number of ver si ons of t he M- 29engi ne wer e pl anned f or t he R - O S r ocket ,made i n 1938- 1933 on or der f r om t heGeophysi cs I nst i t ut eof t he Academy ofSci ences USSR. I n t hi s engi ne, bot hf uel component s ent er ed t he combust i onch2mber t hr ough spi r al sprayer s wi t hbal l back val ves. The f uel was ext r act edf r om t he t anks by means of a powderpr essur e accumul at or devel oped by A . B.I onov. The combust i on chamber wasconi cal i n shape; t he head had a cer am cl i ner . I n ot her ver si ons, t he chamberwas cyl i ndr i cal . The nozzl e of t he

engi nes had ext ernal f l ow cool i ng byal cohol f l owi ng t hr ough a spi r al r i bbedchannel space. The M- 29s engi ne, whi chpassed st and t est i ng, was desi gned f ort he R- 05 r ocket ; t he desi gn t hr ust was175 kg.

KB- 7 devel oped and t est ed a combi nedengi ne whi ch was t r ansf err ed f r om RNI I .As a r esul t , t he M- 17 combi ned engi ne,an LRE whi ch car r i ed a charge of s ol i df uel i n i t s combust i on chamber , waspl anned under t he l eader shi p of V. S .Zuyev. The sol i d f uel bur ned f i r st ,

pr ovi di ng hi gh t hr ust f or sever al secondsend of t he bur ni ng of t he sol i d char ge,wer e f ed t o t he combust i on chamber and t he

engi ne went over t o i t s mai n oper at i ng mode ( second stage) . Thesol i d f uel char ge of t he M- 17 engi ne consi st ed of t wo one- channelcaps and was hel d i n pl ace at t he nozzl e end by an easi l y burn:doak pl ug. Bl ack powder i gni t ers wer e pl aced at bot h t he nozzl eand head ends. The head of t he chamber carr i ed spi r al spi - i yer swi t h bal l back val ves. The exi t aper t ur es of t he spr ayer s were

cool ed by al cohol , whi ch began movi ng when t he engi ne shi r t cd t ot he LRE mode. Dur i ng combust i on of t he sol i d f uel , t he powder

/ 211pl ugged wi t h powder on t he chamber end. The nozz l e was f l ow- ..--

175



plugs and the oak plug were fully consumed. The engine passedtesting in 1938.

Since the volume of the combustion chambers of modern LREwould allow the placement of a solid fuel charge incomparablysmall in comparison to the quantity necessary for first stageoperation, combined engines have not been further developed.

The activity of KB-7 did notyield the expected results, and i twas disbanded in 1939, its test standand equipment transferred to RNII.

One Version of the M-29Engine

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The f i r s t great step of mankind w i l l

be when he f l i e s beyond his atmos-

phere and orbi ts the Earth .

K. E. Tsiolkovskiy

Chapt er 4 . Li qui d- Fuel ed Rocket Engi nes f or Avi at i on

i ncreases i n t he speed, al t i t ude and maneuver abi l i t y of al lt ypes of combat ai r craf t .

The Gr eat Pat r i ot i c War , f r om i t s ver y begi nni ng, r equi r ed

/ 212

One sol ut i on t o t hi s pr obl em was t he use of r ocket engi nesas pr i mar y or suppl ement ar y ( accel er at or ) engi nes. Theref ore,t he suggest i on of l eadi ng speci al i st s i n t he ar ea of rockett echnol ogy t hat LRE be used i n t hi s manner was act i vel ysuppor t ed.

3ngi nes i nt ended t o be t he mai n engi nes f or combat ai r cr af tmust devel op rat her hi gh thr ust - - about 1000 kg, whi l e r eact i onaccel er at or s must devel op 300 kg or mor e. These engi nes were t opr ovi de hi gh speci f i c i mpul se, l ong- t er m ( t ot al l i ng sever al hours)r el i abl e oper at i on, mul t i pl e r est ar t capabi l i t y, pl us t he capa-bi l i t y of bei ng r ef uel ed r api dl y. Theref ore, t hese engi r es wer e

onl y desi gned t o ut i l i ze nonvol at i l e oxi di zer s.Li qui d- f uel ed r ocket engi nes f or combat f i ght er s ( i nt er -

cept or s) were devel oped at OKB under t he l eader shi p of V. P.Gl ushko, at RNI I under L. S. Dushki n and at t he Desi gn Bur eau L

t he Peopl es Comm ssar i at f or t he Avi at i on I ndust r y ( NKAP) by at eamheaded by A . M I sayev.

4. 1. The Li qui d- Fuel ed Rocket Engi nes of OKB NKAP

I n 1934- 1938, V. P, Gl ushko cont i nued t o devel op LRE (ORM-53-/ 213 iORM- 102) and gas generat ors ( GG- 1, GG- 2) i n t he subdi vi si on of - .

RNI I whi ch he headed, whi ch had been t r ansf er r ed f r omGDL and

r ei nf or ced wi t h addi t i onal engi neer s and t echni ci ans - - F. L.Yakayt i s, S. S. Ravi nski y, D. P. Shi t ov, V. N. Gal kovski y andot her s.

Begi nni ng i n 1939, accor di ng t o a t ask assi gne. 1 by t hePeopl es Comm ssar i at f or t he Avi at i cn I ndust r y, t he team ofdesi gner s headed by V. P. Gl ushko began t o speci al i ze pr i mar i l yi n t he creat i on of ai r craf t LRE - - accel er at or s. By t hi s t i me,some exper i ence had been gai ned wi t h such engi nes, si nc: asear l y as 1932 GDL had begun devel opment of exper i ment al LRE f orai r craf t . Pl ans cal l ed f or t he i nst a1, l at i on of t wo LRE wi t ht hr ust of 300 kg each beneat h t he wi ngs of an 1- 4 ai r cr af t .

177



I n 1940- 1946, a ser i es of LRE were produced wi t h pumpf uel f eed: RD- 1, RD- l KhZ, RD- 2 and RD- 3. Some of t hese engi nespassed f l i ght and st at e t est i ng and wer e put i n seri es pr oduct i on.The pl anni ng and devel opment of t hese engi nes wer e precede(; byt he devel opment of i ndi vi dual LRE pl ans and pl ans f or subuni t s.For ex3mpl e, i n 1940 t he Desi gn Bureau devel oped a pl an f or at wo- chamber LRE- accel er at w wi t h a t hr ust of 2 x 300 kg f or i nstal -l at i on on t he S- 100 ai r craf t . Thi s engi ne was t a bur n ni t r i caci d and kerosene. The f uel component s wer e t o be f ed by a pumpuni t dr i ven by one of th.e mai n ( pi st on) engi nes of t he ai rcraf t .

Dur i ng t hi s same year , a si ngl e- chamber ni t r i c- aci d LRE wi t h

a t hr ust of 300 kg was pl anned.engi ne had a s i ngl e- st age t ur bi ne, a speed r educer , oxygen, ker o-sene and oi l pumps.

The t urbi ne pump uni t of t hi s

I n 1940, dev2l opment was begun on a f our chpmber ni t r i c aci d-ker osene LRE wi t h a thr ust of 1000- 1200 kg wi t h a si r gl et ur bi nepump uni t .

I n 1942- 1945, t hi s t r ubi ne pump uni t was const r uct ed, but i twas never f ul l y devel oped, si nce by t hi s t i me the t est i ng of gearpumps dr i ven by t he i nai n ( pi st on) engi ne was compl et ed.

A t wo- chamber L - shaped gas generat or , t he GG-3, del i ver i ng2 kg/ sec gas at 450' C and 25 at m pressur e, was pl anned i n 1939-

1940 f or pl anned t ur bi nes of mar i ne torpedos. The gener at orbur ned ni t r i c aci d and ker osene, but water was spr ayed i nt o t hecombust i on pr oduct s i n order t o r educe the gas t emperat ur e. Al ltf i ree component s wer e suppl i ed t o t he gener ator by mens of asuppl ement ary t urbi nepump uni t .

chamber of t he gener at or t hr ough spi r al sprayer s. The combust i onchamber of t he generator was cool ed wi t h wat er f l owi ng over t hespi ral r i bs i n t he space bet ween the chamber wal l and j acket ,t hen was sprayed i nt o the gas st r eam i n t he ar ea where t he combust i on chamber and m xi ng chamber wer e connect ed.chamber was al so cool ed by wat er f l owi ng t hr ough a spi r al channel .The wat er was t hen f ed t hr ough cent r i f ugal spr ayer s i nt o t he

combust i on chamber ; her e i t evapor at ed, addi t i onal l y r educi ngt he t emper at ur e of t he gener at or gas and cool i ng t he wal l s oft he m xi ng chamber .

The suppl ement ary t urbi nepump uni t , desi gned t o f eed t hez ener at v, consi st ed of a t ur bi ne whi ch dr ove t he wor ki ngwheel s of t hr ee r otat i ng bl ade pumps t hr ough a r educi ng gear uni t .The t ur bi ne was t o be st ar t ed hy a pyrot echni cal st ar t er wi t h acap of t r ot yl pyr oxyl i n powder . The consumpt i on of gas andvapor f or t he t urbi ne pump uni t amounted t o 3 % of t he del i ver yof t he g w generator ; t he power of t he suppl ement ary t urbi ne was

214 .

The ni t r i c aci d and ker osene were sprayed i nt o t he combust i on

The m xi ng

178



15 hp at 2 8 , 6 0 0 r pm t he GG- 3 i ncl udi ng turbi r te pump uni t wei ghed54 kg. The pl an was never br ought t o l i f e.

i

I n 1942, t he combust i on chamber of an RD- 1 engi ne wi t h pumyf eed operat ed f or 1 hour and 10 m nut es wi t hout bei ng rcti l ovedf r om t he t est st and, and servea as a pr ot ot ype f or t he combus-t i on chamber f or t he RD- 1- RD- 3engi nes. I n 1947, t he desi gn oft he RD- 4 engi ne, suppl i ed by a t ur bi nepump uni t , was devel oped.

The RD- 1 Engi ne

The s i ngl e- chamber RD- 1 r eact i on engi ne was desi gned as asuppl ement ar y engi ne - - an accel er at or f or ai r craf t i n or der t obr i ef l y i mpr ove t hei r f l yi ng, speed and : i i t i t : - L3e har act e, i st i cs .

The cal cul pt ed dat a of t he RD- 1 ar e as f ol l ows: f uel I

ni t r i c aci d ( OST- 701- 41) and t r actor ker osene ( OST- 6460) ; maxi mumt hr ust at gr ound l evel - - 300 kg; f uel consumpt i on i n maxi mumt hrust mode - - 1. 5 kg/ sec; pressure i n combust i on chamber - -2 2 . 5 at m t i me of cont i nuous oper at i on at maxi mum t hr ust - - 30m n; nump shaf t r ot at i ng s p e a d - - 2000 r pm oper at i ng t i me unt i lf i r sk di sassembl y - - 4 5 m nut es.

The RD- 1 engi ne consi st ed of t he f ol l owi ng uni t s, separ at el yi nst al l ed on t he ai r cr af t : the engi ne i t sel f ( combust i on chamber 215 '

wi t h st ar t i ng and cont r ol uni t s), l ocat ed i n t he t ai l por t i on oft he f usel age or mot or gondol a or i n the wi ngs of the ai r c raf t ;t he pump uni t , dr i ven by t he mai n engi ne of t he ai r cr af t ei t herdi r ect l y or t hr ough a t r ansm ssi on shaf t ; t he choke val ve uni tand ni t r i c aci d and ker osene l i nes. The choke val ve uni t wascont r ol l ed by t he pi l ot f r om hi s i nst r ument panel , whi ch P I S O

car r i ed a di spl zy and t he t est i ng and cont r ol i nst r umsnt s.

The engi ne mode cont r ol syst emwas suppl i ed by t he el ect r i cbat t er i es and compr essed ai r cyl i nder s of t he ai r craf t .engi ne coul d be st ar t ed as many as f i ve t i mes i n one f l i ght( l j m t ed by capaci t y of st ar t i ng tank).

The combust i on chamber was mount ed on t he f r ame of t he rocketengi ne t oget her wi t h the f ol l owi ng uni t s: st ar t i ng uni t , s f * i n <car bur et or , aci d and ker osene f i l t er s, aci d and ker osene vc i t :

and el ect r omagnet i c pneumat i c cont r ol val ve. The cornbust i onchamber of t he engi ne consi st ed of t he i gni t i on chamber and i becombust i on chamber i t sel f pl us i t s nozzl e. The i gni t i on chamberwas spl i t ; i t s f or war d hal f was f i nned and ai r cool ed, it : rearhal f was cool ed by ker osene. The combust i on cham xr r nnsi st ed o ft he ker osene- cool ed head, and t he chamber - nozz l e c r -o l eG by ni t r i caci d. A l i qui d f l ow gap was mai ntai ned bet ween t ; w j , ~- . ketu r -r oundi ng t he head and chamber - no: - l c and t he spl i t , si i Ppedi nser t s .

The

The m ddl e port i on cf t hP chamber head car r i ed t he

179



was designed to increase the life of combustion chamber walls.

Schematic Diagram of RD-1 Engine

Installation

Beginning in 1941, methods were de?reloped for intensifica-tion of heat exchange by decreasing the thickness of the boundarylayer and elimination of the products of vapor formation andgasification from this layer.

stressed sections of the chamber - - the area of inflow and thecritical cross section of the nozzle - - was achieved by drillinga system of apertures in the aluminum liner of the nozzle, allow-ing components to be withdrawn from areas with elevated pressure.

The pump unit was attached to the plate of the iroxtt flange.Two stainless steel shafts made in one piece with the gearsdelivering the nitric acid were placed in the split aluminum bodyof the pump unit. Splines on these shafts carried the drivinggears which delivered the kerosene, and a guaranteed minimum gapwas maintained between the teeth of the acid gears, to preventthem from contacting and wearing.type journal bearings and two ball thrust bearings on one end.A guaranteed minimum clearance was also provided between thebody and the -rids of tne gears of the oxidizer pump.provided by graphitized asbestos glands.through the glands was carried away through internal drilledapertures to the intake cavity of the pump.

Turbulization of the boundary layer in the most highly

Each shaft had three middle-

The seal was

The Pump unit carried

The fluid which soaked



reducing valves, which also acted as safety valves protecting thelines from hydraulic shock.

S. P. Korolev worked in the special design bureay headed byV. P. Glushko (1942-1946 as Deputy Chief Designer for Flight

D. D. Sevruk, subunit leaders V. A . Vitka, N. N. Artamonov, A. S.Nazarov, C. N. List, N. L. Umanskiy, N. S. Shnyakin, A. A .Meyyerov N. A. Zhelr-rkhin, M. A. Kolosov and other highly quali-fied specialists.

nitro oils and lubricants which did not react with the nitricacid. They were sixcessfully used in the seals and ball bearingsof the RD-1, RD-lKhZ, RD-2 and RD-3 engines.

/219Testing], as did Deputy Chief Designers G. S. Zhiritskiy and

In 1944, the special design bureau of A. A. Meyerov developed

In order to continue development of the RD-1 under flyingconditions and accumulate operating experience, S. P. Korolev in1943 developed an installation for this engine for the Pe-2 series-produced aircraft. The engine was installed in the tail portionof the fuselage. The pump unit, compensation and drainage tankswere carried in the left motor gondola behind the forwardlongeron. The engine had dual controls, carried in the pilotscabin and the radio operator-gunner's cabin.

The Pe-2 aircraft conducted 24 flight tests at altitudes of

up to 7000 m to develop the ignition system. After ground flametests were conducted, in 1943 this same aircraft performed 18start-ups of the RD-1 engine on the ground and 11 in flight.The longest time of continuous operation of the RD-1 engine atfull thrust in flight was 10 minutes, determined by the capacityof the fuel tanks.

Flight testing was performed by test pilots A . G. Vasil'chenkoand A. S. Pal'chikov, with S. P. Korolev and D. D. Sevruk flyingas experimental engineer.

The tests of the Pe-2 aircraft continued in 1944-1943 inorder to increase the reliability and altitude capability ofthe ignition system, with 49 flame tests on the ground and 38 inflight. Preference was given to the system of repeated chemicalignition, which was well-developed by that time, rather than theether-air ignition system with glow plug and oxygen feed usedearlier.

In 1944-1945, the RD-1 engines passed ground and flighttests on fighter aircraft designed by S. A . Lavochkin (La-7),A . S. irriwlev (Yak-3), P. 3. Sukhoy (Su-6) and the aircraftdesigiitu by V. k. Yetl ya kw (?e-2).

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The RD-lKhZ Engine /220

A n improved version cf theRD-1 engine, with chsmicalignition and a number of designinnovations, came to be called

221

the RD-1KhZ.

The two internal partsof the combustion chamber ofthe RD-1KhZ - - the chsmber-nozzle, mzde of EZh-2 stainless

steel, and the head, made ofheat resistant DPS aluminumalloy - - were connected by meansof steel jackets of EZh-2.Between the jackets and theinternal parts of the chamberthere was a passage for nitricacid in the chamber-nozzle andkerosene in the head. Longi-tudinal and spiral fins weremade on the outer surfaces ofthe chamber-nozzle and head ofthe combustion chamber in orderto improve cooling conditions.

Split aluminum sleeves with aninterior profile correspondingto the profile of the chamberparts were placed around thethroat of the head and theno?zle.

jacket of the combustionchamber head and moved, coolingthe chamber, to its middle por-tion, toward the belt ofsprayers. The nitric acid wasfed into the jacket aroundthe chamber-nozzle through a

One Version of the Combustion nipple at the critical crossChamber of the RD-1 Engine section, then flowed first

toward the exit plane of thenozzle, then through the spaces between fins between the insertand chamber-nozzle to the sprayers.

The kerosene entered the

The sprayers were located at the head of the combustionchamher, inclined to its axis and directed away from the nozzle.The sprayers were o f the same design as those u:.~d in the RD-1engine.

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The starting sprayer / 2 2 3as located on the axis

of the chamber. Thestarting fuel was fed inthrough the central por-tion of this sprayer, withnitric acid fed in throughthe annular space aroundthis valve.

The starting fuelused in the RD-1KhZengine was product B23-75,

hypergolic in combinationwith nitric acid, developedat OKB in 1945 by A. A.

Overall View of the RD-1KhZ Engine

Meyerov. This product consisted of 75% (by weight) carbonal and2 5 1 type B-70 gasoline. Chemical ignition of the RD-1KhZ enginewas first tested on the stand, then on the PE-2 aircraft.

One Version of the Combustion Chamber ofthe RD-1KhZ Engine

The pump unit of the RD-1KhZ engine consisted of two sections:the nitric acid and kerosene pumps. A gear-type pump was used,the kerosene gears serving as the driving gears, allowing aguaranteed minimum clearance between the teeth and gear ends inacid pump.

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39751649 Development of Russian Rocket Engine Technology

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