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Rice (Paddy)

Author: R.B. Lestari

1 Introduction

Rice is life for thousands of millions of people. It is strongly anchored in the cultural heritageof their societies. Rice is the staple food for more than half of the world population. In Asia,more than 2,000 million people obtain 60 to 70 percent of their calories from rice and itsproducts. It is the most rapidly growing source of food in Africa, and is of significant impor-tance to food security in an increasing number of low-income food-deficit countries. (FAO2004)

As the world population grows, the demand for food material does also grow. Aside of that, abig interest for renewable material arises in the industry. It does also increase the demand onrice as a renewable resource. Therefore, the rice production should increase with better and

more efficient use of water, land and labour, while reducing the losses incurred during pro-duction, transportation and processing. Environmental pollution due to the inappropriate ap-plication of inputs - especially pesticides - has caused concerns. Science and technology canenhance rice production through more efficient use of natural resources especially water.Modern biotechnology can increase the productivity of rice varieties and provide protectionagainst pests, diseases and climatic variations. World rice production in 2005 is 614.7 milliontons. (FAOSTAT 2006)

2 Share of material use

Most of the rice is used as food. FAOSTAT provides for the year 2002 a global rice produc-tion of 575 million tons, 1.9 million tons of which are reported to be used for non-food pur-poses. This is a share of one-third percent. Based on this, we estimate a value of 0,5 % formaterial uses. (FAOSTAT data 2006)

2.1 Material Use

2.1.1 Plant Definition

Rice refers to two species (Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima) of grass, native to tropicaland subtropical south-eastern Asia and to Africa, which together provide more than one fifth

of the calories consumed by humans. Rice is an annual plant, growing to 1-1.8 m tall, occa-sionally more, with long slender leaves 50-100 cm long and 2-2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30-50 cmlong. The seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5-12 mm long and 2-3 mm thick. The word rice derivesfrom the Tamil word arisi. The wordpaddy is derived from the Malay wordpadi, rice.

Rice is often grown in paddies shallow puddles carefully controlled to ensure the appro-priate water depth (typically 15 cm). Rice paddies sometimes serve a dual agricultural pur-pose by also producing edible fish or frogs, a useful source of protein. The farmers take ad-vantage of the rice plant's tolerance to water: the water in the paddies prevents weeds from


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outgrowing the crop. Once the rice has established dominance of the field, the water can bedrained in preparation for harvest. Paddies increase productivity, although rice can also begrown on dry land (including on terraced hillsides) with the help of chemical weed controls.(Wikipedia, 2006)

Abbildung 1: Mature Rice and Rice Harvest

Source for both images: Wikipedia (2006)

Abbildung 2: Cross-section of rice grain

Image source: ISI (2001)


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The FAO provides statistical data about rice paddy Oryza spp., mainly Oryza sativa, whichis Rice grain after threshing and winnowing. It is also known as rice in the husk and rough rice. Used mainlyfor human food. (FAOSTAT 2006)

Rice is cultivated in most countries of East Asia. Egypt and the countries of southernmostEurope, the southern United States and Brazil are other important rice-producing regions.

Lowland rice, which is the most commonly grown type, requires an extremely moist soil, ei-ther rain-fed or artificially flooded. A few varieties, known as upland rice, do not requireflooding. In the rice-growing developing countries, almost all cultivation is performed byhand. In more developed countries much of the work is aided by the use of machinery. Low-land rice is grown in a flooded field, or paddy, which is kept under water during most of thegrowing season. It is drained only at harvest time. In favourable conditions, rice needs onlyabout three months between sowing and harvesting, and three or even four crops can be har-vested annually. Rice mills are usually located near the growing regions. Brown rice is driedand cleaned before it is packed. When white rice is desired, the bran is removed in specialmachines and care is taken not to break the white kernel. The rice kernels are then polishedwith glucose and talc in order to enhance their appearance. Rice is classified into three types:short-grain rice, which is no more than 5 mm (3 in) long; medium-grain rice, which is 5 to 6

mm (3 in) long; and long-grain rice, which is 6 to 8 mm (2 in) long. The majority of rice va-rieties grown in tropical regions are long grain, while most of the varieties of milder climatesare short or medium grain. (ISI 2001)

2.1.2 Possible Material Use

Rice starch can be used in textile industry, laundry industry, paper industry, pharmacy indus-try and adhesive industry, etc. in addition to the food sector. The general application of starchis shown in the following table.

Tabelle 1: Possible Starch use in non-food industries

Industry branch Application

Adhesives hot-melt glues

stamps, bookbinding, envelopes

labels (regular and waterproof)

wood adhesives, laminations

automotive, engineering

pressure sensitive adhesives

corrugation

paper sacks

Explosives Industry wide range binding agent

match-head binder

Paper Industry internal sizing

filler retention

surface sizing

paper coating (regular and colour)

carbonless paper stilt material

disposable diapers, feminine products

Construction Industry concrete block binder


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asbestos, clay/limestone binder

fire-resistant wallboard

plywood/chipboard adhesive

gypsum board binder

paint filler

Metals Industry foundry core bindersintered metal additive

sand casting binder

Textiles Industry warp sizing

fabric finishing

printing

Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Industry

dusting powder

make-up

soap filler/extender

face creams

pill coating, dusting agenttablet binder/dispersing agent

Mining Industry ore flotation

ore sedimentation

oil well drilling muds

Miscellaneous biodegradable plastic film

dry cell batteries

printed circuit boards

leather finishing

Medical surgical glove

(FAO 2006), (freepatentsonline 2006)

Other part of the plant that useful is rice husk and straw. Rice straw is usually used in paperindustry, rice husk will be processed as rice husk ash, but since they are not included in thedefinition of rice/paddy, this material will not discussed here.

2.1.3 Primary Final Product

The primary final product is rice starch. Starch has a 70% share of the rice-grain mass.(Wikipedia 2006a)

2.1.4 By-productRice husk ash is of use in steel production, but of extremely low value. Transport costs are sohigh in relation to its value that the overall industrial use is insignificant (Singhania 2006).

2.2 Energy

Rice starch is not used other than in material and food applications.


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2.3 Use in Food Applications

Rice is as already mentioned in the introduction a staple food, essential for the nourish-ment of billions of people.

3 Harvested area

3.1 Harvested area worldwide

Tabelle 2: Rice: Major cultivating countries

Country 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

India 45.160.000 44.712.000 44.900.000 40.280.000 42.410.000 42.300.000 43.000.000

China 31.637.100 30.301.490 29.144.019 28.508.800 26.780.124 28.616.015 29.300.000

Indonesia 11.963.204 11.793.000 11.500.000 11.521.166 11.477.357 11.922.974 11.800.901

Bangladesh 10.712.955 10.801.214 10.661.000 10.771.000 10.824.000 11.000.000 11.000.000

Thai land 9.969.920 9.891.200 10.125.300 9.988.090 10.193.440 9.200.000 10.200.000

Viet Nam 7.653.600 7.666.300 7.492.700 7.504.300 7.452.200 7.443.800 7.339.500

Myanmar 6.210.787 6.302.492 6.412.537 6.381.000 6.527.975 6.000.000 6.000.000

Philippines 3.999.839 4.038.080 4.065.440 4.046.318 4.006.400 4.126.645 4.115.000

Brazil 3.813.270 3.655.290 3.142.640 3.145.870 3.186.820 3.733.160 3.936.150

Nigeria 2.191.000 2.199.000 2.207.000 3.160.000 3.531.000 3.704.000 3 .704.000

Pakistan 2.515.400 2.376.600 2.114.200 2.225.000 2.461.000 2.519.500 2.500.000

Cambodia 2.079.442 1.903.159 1.980.295 1.994.645 2.242.036 2.108.840 2.150.000

Japan 1.788.000 1.770.000 1.706.000 1.688.000 1.665.000 1.701.000 1.680.000

Nepal 1.550.990 1.560.044 1.516.980 1.544.660 1.559.436 1.541.729 1.510.000

USA 1.421.271 1.230.364 1.341.700 1.297.840 1.212.860 1.345.590 1.352.880

(FAOSTAT 2006)

Rice is worldwide harvested in about 9,8 million hectare area. Rice cultivation is the principalactivity and source of income for millions of households around the globe, and several coun-tries of Asia and Africa are highly dependent on rice as a source of foreign exchange earningsand governments revenue. Small-scale farmers in low-income and developing countries growabout 80% of the worlds rice. (FAO 2004) The leading countries are India China and Indo-nesia.


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3.2 Harvested area based on regions

Tabelle 3: Worlds harvested area base on regions

Harvested area (average from 2002-2004)Region

(in 1000 ha)South Asia 57,315

South East Asia 42,843

East Asia 31,260

Black Africa 8,104

South America 5,341

North America 1,285

Central Africa 893

Central America and Caribbean Countries 715

Arabic Countries and Israel 669

Europe 439

Russia 133

Australian and Oceania 93

(FAOSTAT 2006)

4 Growth and Yield

The growth of the rice plant is divided into three phases:

1. Vegetative (germination to panicle initiation)

2. Reproductive (panicle initiation to flowering)

3. Ripening (flowering to mature grain)


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Abbildung 3: Growth Phase of Rice (IRRI 2006)

In the tropics, the reproductive phase is about 35 days and the ripening phase is about 30days.

The differences in growth duration are determined by changes in the length of the vegetativephase. For example, IR64, which matures in 110 days, has a 45-day vegetative phase, whereasIR8, which matures in 130 days, has a 65-day vegetative phase. (IRRI 2006)

Abbildung 4: Period/growth phase (IRRI 2006)

The yield in industrialized countries area is practically higher than in developing countries

because of high intensive of mechanical input and soil stability.


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5 Production

5.1 Production worldwide

Abbildung 5: World Rice Production (FAOSTAT 2006)

World's Rice Production

0

100,000,000

200,000,000

300,000,000

400,000,000

500,000,000

600,000,000

700,000,000

1961

1963

1965

1967

1969

1971

1973

1975

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

Year

Tabelle 4: Rice: Major producer countriesCountry 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

China 200.403.308 189.814.060 179.304.887 176.342.195 162.304.280 180.522.603 184.254.000

India 134.495.904 127.400.000 139.900.000 116.500.000 130.500.000 128.000.000 129.000.000

Indonesia 50.866.388 51.898.000 50.460.800 51.489.696 52.137.600 54.088.468 53.984.592

Bangladesh 34.430.000 37.627.500 36.269.000 37.593.000 39.090.000 39.754.000 40.054.000

Viet Nam 31.393.800 32.529.500 32.108.400 34.447.200 34.568.800 35.887.800 36.341.000

Madagascar 2.570.000 2.480.470 2.662.465 2.603.965 2.800.000 3.030.000 30.300.000

Thailand 24.172.000 25.844.000 26.523.000 26.057.000 27.038.000 23.860.000 27.000.000

Myanmar 20.126.038 21.323.868 21.916.000 21.805.000 23.146.270 22.000.000 22.000.000

Philippines 11.786.600 12.389.400 12.954.900 13.270.653 13.499.900 14.496.800 14.800.000

Brazil 11.709.700 11.089.800 10.184.000 10.457.100 10.334.600 13.276.900 13.140.900

Japan 11.468.800 11.863.000 11.320.000 11.111.000 9.740.000 10.912.000 10.989.000

USA 9.343.954 8.657.819 9.764.495 9.568.996 9.033.610 10.469.730 10.012.190

Pakistan 7.733.417 7.203.900 5.823.000 6.717.750 7.271.400 7.537.100 7.351.000

Republic of Korea 7.032.757 7.196.582 7.406.517 6.687.225 6.015.000 6.945.000 6.418.000

Egypt 5.816.960 6.000.490 5.226.703 6.105.456 6.176.266 6.352.373 6.200.000


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Country 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Cambodia 4.040.900 4.026.092 4.099.016 3.822.509 4.710.957 4.170.284 4.200.000

Nepal 3.834.290 4.216.465 4.164.687 4.132.600 4.455.722 4.289.827 4.100.000

Nigeria 3.277.000 3.298.000 2.752.000 3.192.000 3.373.000 3.542.000 3.542.000

Iran 2.348.241 1.971.462 1.990.223 2.888.000 2.930.000 3.400.000 3.500.000

(FAOSTAT 2006)

World production of rice steadily is about 200 million tons of paddy rice in 1961 to 600 mil-lion tons in 2005. Milled rice is about 68% of paddy rice by weight. In the year 2005, the topthree producers were China (31% of world production), India (21%), and Indonesia (9%).

Tabelle 5: Rice yields

Region

Yield, average from2002-2004

[tons/hectare]

Arabic Countries and Israel 9.5

Australian and Oceania 8.0

North America 7.5

Europe 6.5

East Asia 6.2

Central Africa 4.6

South America 4.0

South East Asia 3.7

Russia 3.5

Central America and Caribbean Countries 3.4

South Asia 3.1

Black Africa 1.5

(FAOSTAT 2006)

There are significant differences between yields in different regions. This can be caused bymany factors. Beside of that, these figures show that the rice yields have not reached the po-tential yield yet (which about 10-11tons/ha) (FAO 2004). This difference is called yield

gap. The FAO has documented the important causes of the yield gap:


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Abbildung 6: The Causes of Yield Gaps (FAO 2004a)

Zur Anzeige wird der QuickTimeDekompressor TIFF (LZW)

bentigt.

5.2 Rice production by regions

Tabelle 6: Rice Production by regions

Production (Average from 2002-2004Region (in 1000 tons)South Asia 57,315

South East Asia 42,843

East Asia 31,260

Black Africa 8,104

South America 5,341

North America 1,285

Central Africa 893

Central America and Caribbean Countries 715

Arabic Countries and Israel 669

Europe 439

Russia 133

Australian and Oceania 93

(FAOSTAT 2006)


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6 Cost and value along value added chain

6.1 Harvesting

Rice is an annual plant. Base on IRRI information there are some ways to decide when the

rice can be harvested:

Grains should be firm but not brittle when squeezed between the teeth.

When 80-85% of the grains are straw-colour (yellow in colour).

In the dry season, harvest 28-35 days after heading. In the wet season, harvest 32-38 daysafter heading.

(IRRI 2006)


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Abbildung 7: Rice Harvesting Systems (IRRI 2006)

6.2 Starch extraction

Reis enthlt 70-75 Prozent Strke neben 7-9 Prozent unlslichen, eiweiartigen Stoffen, dieaber durch einweichen des Reises in ganz schwacher Natronlauge grtenteils gelst werden.Man zerreibt den Reis dann in einer Mhle unter bestndigem Zufluss schwacher Lauge,behandelt den Brei in einem Bottich anhaltend mit Lauge und Wasser, lsst kurze Zeitabsetzen, damit sich grbere Teile zu Boden senken, und zieht das Wasser, in welchem reineStrke suspendiert ist, ab. Aus dem Bodensatz wird die Strke in einem rotierendenSiebzylinder durch Wasser ausgewaschen, worauf man sie durch Behandeln mit Lauge undAbschlmmen vom Kleber befreit. Die zuerst erhaltene reinere Strke lsst man absetzen,entfernt die obere unreine Schicht, behandelt das brige auf der Zentrifugalmaschine undtrocknet die reine Strke. (Wikipedia 2006a)


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6.3 World Trade

6.3.1 Rice, Milled

World trade in rice does expand strongly, with a growing number of countries relying on im-ports to meet their domestic needs, especially in Africa.

Abbildung 8: Global rice trade volume and share in global production (FAO 2004a)

Abbildung 9: Export price for rice (AO 2004a)

Developing countries are the main players in world rice trade, with shares of 83 percent oftotal exports and 85 percent of total imports. The concentration is particularly high on theexport side, since five countries (Thailand, Viet Nam, China, the United States and India)supply about three-quarters of the trade. (FAO 2004)


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Rice prices have nearly doubled from their cyclical lows in mid-2001 and are nowexpected to decline as production increases in response to the high prices. Better grow-ing conditions, as the El Nino subsides in Southeast Asia, should also raise yields. Globalproduction is expected to be up only 0.7percent in 2005 compared to the previous year, butnearly all major producers are expected to have record or near-record crops. Imports areexpected to decline 5 percent in response to increased domestic production which putspressure on prices. Consumption is projected to increase less than 1.0% in 2005, while

global stocks will decline as China continues to reduce surplus stocks. China and India, theworld's largest rice consuming countries, are expected to have good harvests. Major riceexporters, Thailand and Vietnam, are expected to have large but not record crops in 2005.The weak U.S. dollar has contributed to higher world rice prices in the past several years asthe Thai Baht has strengthened about 15percent against the dollar since 2001, but has weak-ened significantly since March 2005. Prices of Thailands 5% broken rice are projected toaverage $285/ton in 2005 and then decline to $275in 2006, $265 in 2007, and $255 in 2008.This would return prices to about the midpoint of the range of nominal dollar prices overthe past 20 years of $253/ton. Over the longer term, prices are expected to decline in realterms as supplies continue to increase more rapidly than demand. (World Bank 2005)

Abbildung 10: Rices Price (World Bank, 2005)

6.3.2 Rice Starch

Lindsey Partos reported that the US starch product supplier Penford Food Ingredients targetedat a growing demand for rice starch, for the first time adding a variety of rice starches to itscurrent portfolio of potato, tapioca, and corn starch products.

The firm said the initial introduction includes a variety of unmodified and modified ricestarches that conform to non-GMO standards, meeting EU rules on food.

We are already well known in the industry as the leading domestic supplier of potato-based starches for food in North America. The addition of rice starch is an important step inexpanding our leadership, said John Randall, vice president & general manager for Pen-

ford Food Ingredients.

Rice starch, a soft, white powder over twice as expensive as wheat and corn starch, is usedby the food industry for its gel strength, gelling temperature and starch granule rigidity.

Key applications for the ingredient with a tiny granule size, neutral taste, and soft mouthfeel include baby food, extruded products, soups, dressings and meat preparations.

But one of the fastest growing markets for rice starch are functional foods, forecast to dou-ble within five years in the UK alone from 1.2 billion to 2.47 billion.


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Rice starches are significantly more expensive than their corn and wheat alternatives, rang-ing from about 0.9 to 1.5 per kilogram.

Long-, medium-, and short-grain rice contain varying ratios of the two starch components,amylose and amylopectin. Amylopectin is found in highest concentrations in short-grain(also called sticky' or waxy') rice. Amylose is highest in long-grain riceenabling thesegrains to be separate and fluffy when cooked. Each possess its own unique chemistry, these

rice starches have different applications in industry. With cosmetics and tableting, the kindof starch used is not necessarily important, but with foods, starch type does matter.

Starch from waxy rice, for example, exhibits high freeze-thaw stability. Consequently, be-cause this starch holds water well, a food product like Buffalo wingswill not lose valu-able moisture or juices when it is frozen and then thawed (Asiarice 2005)

When aiming at functional properties in starch, most commercial companies examine thecharacteristics of competitive starches in particular applications. This sets the target toshoot for, says Morton Satin in a recent report for the UN-backed Food and AgricultureOrganisation. (FAO 2004).

Market analysts SK Patil and Associates estimate that total use of starch will hit 70 million

tons by 2010 on annual (global) growth of 2.2 per cent. Growth in the US at 0.65 per cent,the EU at 0.2 per cent and Japan at 0.18 per cent will be very slight, while for the rest of theworld the market rise is pitched at 2.25 per cent.

The US department of agriculture predicts global production of rice at 401.8 million tons(milled basis) in 2004/05, up 10.8 million tons from 2003/04. (Asiarice 2005)


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7 Outlook

Rice is very important plant and cultivated worldwide. Sufficient investment in cultivationand research about rice is to be expected in the future.

The harvested area and production of some industrialized countries does depend on subsidies.If such subsidies were removed, the rice production might shift between regions.

Rice starch is used for producing pulp and paper as potato, wheat and maize starches alike.The demand for these starches is likely to rise together with demand for pulp and paper ifthese products will gain some shares of the packaging market against plastics.

Starch is also one of the raw materials that can be used for the production of bio-plastics.

According to the Fachverband Strke-Industrie, the second largest non-food application ofstarch in Europe is in Chemie/Fermentation/brige technische Industrie (FSI 2005). It isdifficult to predict much about this without a further thorough investigation of this sector,

Starch is very interesting as raw material for various biotechnological applications, as they are

expected for the next decades. These might be in 2030 and 2050 far off the value addedchains as they are known to us today. This does at once mean a great potential for growth, butalso a great source for uncertainty.

For all three scenarios, we first had a look at the pulp and paper markets. How do these mar-kets develop?

In the low scenario, we assumed a long-term decrease due to new technologies (electronicinstead of paper media). The pulp and paper demand would however rise in the reference sce-nario and the high scenario more strongly than the overall economy due to a partial substitu-tion of plastics in the packaging markets.We did see a second strong influence factor in the market for bio-plastics.A rising price for crude oil (reference and high scenario) could enable bio-plastics to takeover large market shares from crude-oil based plastics. Starch is a primary resource for bio-plastics, a fact that leads to a strong growth of the production of starch plants in these scenar-ios.


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8 Data Situation

8.1 Data Source

The statistic data for cultivated area and production as well as yield is taken from FAOSTAT

(2006), or processed data from this source.

8.2 Assessing the data situation

The data quality of the cultivated area and production could not be assessed in the context ofthe project. It depends, for what the data would be applied. Various possible errors e.g.wrong estimation because of lack of knowledge of specialists in offices for statistics.

While the rice statistics are good, very little is known about the material uses of rice. We as-sumed an analogy to the European starch usage (potato, maize, wheat starch).

9 References and Internet addresses

Asiarice 2005: http://asiarice.org/section/whatsnew/penford.htm

FAO 2004: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Internet address:http://www.fao.org/rice2004/en/rice-us.htm

FAO 2004a: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2006), International Year of Rice2004 internet address: http://www.fao.org/rice2004/en/factsheets.htm

FAO 2006: Satin, Morton, Functional Properties of Starches, FAO, 2006, Internet address:http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/agsi/starch41.htm

FAOSTAT 2006: Internet address: http://faostat.fao.org/

freepatentsonline 2006: http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6979734.html

FSI 2005: Fachverband der Strke-Industrie (2005): Zahlen & Fakten zur Strke-Industrie Ausgabe 2005,Fachverband der Strke-Industrie. Die Daten basieren auf Ermittlungen oder Schtzungen der AAC,der UFE und des Fachverbandes der Strke-Industrie

IRRI 2006: International rice research Institute, 2006, Internet address:http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/RP/growthStages/growthStages.htm

ISI 2001: International Starch Institute, internet address: http://www.starch.dk/isi/starch/rice.htm

nova 2006: Karus, M. Die Szenarien zur Entwicklung der weltweiten Anbauflchen von nachwachsendenRohstoffen zur stofflichen Nutzung in 2030 und 2050, nova-Institut, unpublished, 2006

Singhania, Narayan 2006: personal communication, [email protected], 2006-03

Wikipedia 2006: Internet address: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice

Wikipedia 2006a: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A4rke_%28Zucker%29

World Bank 2005: http://www.worldbank.org/

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