T " During this same period , the amount of s treet ligllting more than doubled . Gas ,,'a! 'lOW used instead of oil. New s treet la mp8 took the place of the older appara­IUS. and permanent lighting was 8ubl tituted for intermittent lighting." l\I . Poete,

..: . Clouzot , G. Henriot, La Transformation de Pa ris SOIU Ie Second Empire, ( Paris, 1910 >. p. 65 (E xposition de la Bibliotlleque e t des 1'rayaux historiques de [Modes of Lighting] III \·iIle de Paris). [ n ,7)

Et noctunm facibus ilIustrata.]

- Medal of 1667, commemorating the imroduction of su= lighting

" Napoleon hal coverings of wool , velvet . sille , embroider y, gold . a nd silver ; a g1... ban for his hat ; wreaths of the immortals; and an eternal gal lamp." Karl Cula­

kow, Briefe a/U Pari., (Leip:Ilig, 1842), vol. I , p . 270. <See "The Ring of Saturn."~ [n ,l ]

Note relating to 1824: " Paris was illumina ted, this year, by means of 1l ,20511treet lamps .... The entrepreneur hal been hired to provide lighting for the entire city

for a t lealit (orty minutes-that iS lo say, beginning twenty minutes before the hour

prescribed daily, and finishing twenty minute8 later; he can assign no more than twenty-five lamp8 10 each lamplighter. " J .-A. Dulaure. Hu toire <physique, civile et morale> de Pari" depuis 1821 jUlqu 'il DOl jour! (Paris <1835» . vol. 2, pp. 118­119. ]1'1,2]

"A dreamlike &etting, where the yellowish Riekering of the gas is wedded to the lunar fri gidity of electric light. " Georges Montorgueil, Pa ris au hOJord (Parill, 1895), p. 65. ]1'1,3]

1857 , the flu t electric streetlights (al the Louvre). ]1'1,' ]

Originally gas was delivered to fashionable establit hnlents in containers for daily consumption . ... rn ,S]

, " I boldly declare myself the fri end of Argand lamps; tilesc, 10 tell the trutb. are content with shedding light and do 1I0 t da l'l zle the eyes. Much lesl volatile than gas, their oil never callscs explosiolls; with them we breathe morc freely, and the odor

is less o((en8ive. Truly incomprehensible to me is the existence of aU those . hop­

k~I)4!1"8 who. entrenched in our ar cades, remain-at 11 11 hou rs and in the wa'Truest

of wealher8-within shops where, on account of the gas. it feels like tile Tropics."

oArcades 0 NQ IWealiX tabkoux de "uri$ , 011 Observations Sllr les m QeIl r! et us­

age! des Pa r is icns a lt commencement d" XIX' !wcle (Pa ris, 11:121:1), yol. I , p . 39. ]1'1,6]

On the ladies of the cash register: " All day long tlley go about in hair curlers and jdressing gown ; after sundown , however, when tile gat it lit , they make their ap­

peara nce, arra yed as for a ball. Seeing them, then, enthroned at the cashier',

dcek . sur rounded by a sea of light , one olay well think back to The Blue Ubraryf and the fairy tale of the prince with golden hair and the enchanting princen, a

comparison the more admissible inasmuch as Parisian women enchant more than

they are enchanted ." Edua rd Kroloff, Schilderungen aus Pari$ (Hamburg, 1839), vol. 2, pp . 76-77. [f1,8]

The tin racks with arti..6.cial Bowers, which can be found at refreshment bars in railroad stations, and elsewhere, are vestiges of the Bora! arrangements that fonnerly encircled the cashier. [f1 ,9]

Ou Bartas called the sun uG rand Duke of Candles." Cited by M. Du Camp, Pan, (Pariil, 1875), yol. 5, p. 268. rn ,IO]

""The lantern carriers will haYe oil lanterns with 'six thick wicks'; they will be statiollcd at pos ts, each one separated from the ne:t:t b y a distance of eight hundred

pacel... . They will have a tinted lamp hung aboye their post that will serve as a

beacon , and on their belts a n hour glass of a quarter hour ', duration , bearinA: the

. hield of the ci ty .... rlere. once again , it was a matter of empiricism; these wan­

dering lampi proyided no security a t a ll to the city, and the carriers beat up the , people they were accompan ying on more thall one occasion . Lacking an ything

beller, howeyer, the city used them; and they were used so long that they were st ill

, to he found at the heginning of the nineteenth century." Ou Camp, Pam . yol. 5, p.275. [fl ,ll]

'"'T hey [ the la ntern carriers] would hail hackney cabs. would serye al crier­

eSCOrts for chauffe ured ca rriages. anti would accompany late-night passersby

right to their homes, coming up to tllt:ir ap artmellts and lighting the candles. Some

clai ll\ that tll e~e lantern carriers \'olunt arily gave accounts every morning to the

lieutenant generaJ of police 0 11 wha t they had noticed during the night." Ou Camp . Jluri$. \ '01. 5, p . 281. [r1a ,1]

'''fhe patent or importatioll taken out by Winsor for Paris is dated Decembe r I , 11:1 15; in J an uary 18 17, 1.lIe Passage des Panoramas was illuminated .... The fIrst

a ttempts b y businesse. wer e not al a ll satisfa ctory; the public seemed resistant to

this kind of lighting. which was suspected of being dangerous allli of polluting breathable air:' Du Camp . Puru, vol. 5. p . 290. [Tl a,2]

"This place visited by commercial death , under tbis gas ... which Roems to trem_ ble at the thought of not being paid for.'" Louis Veuillot , Le, OclelLr. de I'u rit

(Pari8. 1914), p . 182. [T la,3]

"Glass is de8tined to play an important r ole in meta l-archit~ture. In place of thick walls whose solidity and resistance is diminished by a large number of apertures,

our houlles will be 80 filled ~;tb openings that they will apllea r diaphanous. Theae wide openings. Curnished with thick glan, single- or double-paned . frosted or transparent , will transmit- to tbe inside during the day and to the outside at

night- a magical radiance.'" Gobard , " L' Architecture de I' avenir," Revue Seneraie d 'Clrchitecture (1849), p . 30 [So Giedion , Bauen in Frankreich <LeiPD&

and Berlin , 1928> , p . 18J. [T1a,4]

Lamps in the form oC vases. The rare flower " light ," as done in oil. (T he Corm on a

fashionable COPller engraving of 1866.) [Tla,5]

The old gas torches that burned in the open air often had a fl ame in the 8ha l~ o( a

butterfly, a nd were known accordingly as pClpiUoru. [Tla,6)

In the Ca rce1 lamp, a clockwork drives the oil up into the burner ; where88 in the Argand lamp (quinquet) , the oil drips into the burner from a reservoir above ii,

thereby producing a shadow. [Tl a,7]

Arcades-they radiated through the Paris of the Empire like fairy grottoes. For someone entering the Passage des Panoramas in 1817, the sirens o f gaslight

would be singing to him on one side, while oil·lamp odalisques offered. entice­ments from the o ther. With the kindling ofelectric lights, the irreproachable glow was extinguished in these galleries, which suddenly became mOT(: dillirult to

find- which wrought a black magic at entranceways, and which looked within themselves out of blind windows. [Tla,8J

When, oll Febr uary 12 , 1790. the Marquill de Favras was executed Cor plotting

againll t the Revolution , the P lace de Greve and the scafrold were adorned with Chinese la nterns. ) [T!.8,9]

" We said , in the first volume, that every historical period is b il l lied in a distinctive

light , whether diurnal or nocturnal. Now, ror the first time, this world has an artificial illumina tion in the form of gaslight , which burst onto the scene ill Loudon at a time when Na poleon's Slar was beginning to decline. which entered Pll ris more or less contemporaneously witll the Bourbons. and which . by slow ami tenRciou' advances. finall y took IH>S8ession or all s treets and public localities. By 1840 it watl Haring everrwlll~re. even in Vienna . In tltis strident and gloomy, sharp a nd flicker­

iIlg. prosaic Imd ghostly illumination , large insects are busily moving about; shop­kccl,crs." Egon Friedell , K,,'wrse.chichte der Neuzeit, vol. 3 (Munich , 1931),

p.86. [T1a, IO]

On the Cafe Mille et U"e Nui ts: UEverything there was of an unprecedented mag­nifu:e nce. In order to give you a sense of it . it will suffice to say that the beautiful /inlOnadie re had , for her seat a t the counter, ... a throne, a veritable royal

throne. on which one or t.he great potentates of Europe had sat in all hi8 majesty. Ho .. - did this throne get to be there? We cou ld nol say; we affirm the (act without undertaking to explain it. " lIu toire del cafes de Paris, extraite de. rniimoires d 'un

vi i>-eur (Paris, 1857), p. 3 1. [n a,l l ]

"Gas has r eplaced oil , gold has dethroned woodwork , billia rds has put a stop to dominoes and backgammon . Where one formerly heard only the buzzing of flies, one now listens to the melodies of Ven li or Aubert .'" lIu roire ck, cafos ck Paris, extrait$ des memoires d 'un viveur (Paris, 1857), p . 11 4. [T2,1]

Grand Cafe <lu XIX' Siecie--()pens 1857 on the Boulevard de Strashourg. "The greell felt tops of numerous billiard ta bles call he lleen there; a splendid cOllOter is

illuminated by gas jets . Directly oppo8ite is a white marble foun tain , on which the allegorical subject is cr owned by a luminous aureole." Hu toire des cafe. ck PaTU, extraite de. memoires d 'un vivear (Paris, 1857), p . 111 . [T2,2]

"'As early as 1801, Lebon had attempted to inslaU g88 lightin~ at the Hotel

Seignelay,47 Rue Saint-Dominique. The system was improved at the beginning of January 1808; three hundred gas jelS lit up the Hospital of Saint-Louis. with such BUCceSS that three !as-jet factorie8 were built ." Lucien Dubech aod Pierre d'Espezel, Hu toire de Paris (Paris, 1926). I). 335. [T2,3]

" In ,matters of municipal admini8tration , the two great works of the Restoration

were gas lighting and the creation or omnibuses. Paris was illuminated in 1814 by 5,000 street lamps, serviced by 142 lamplighten. In 1822, the government decided that 8treelS would be lit by ga8 in proportion as the old contracts came due. On

June 3, 1825, the Compagnie du Caz Portatif' Fran~ai s undertook, for the lin t time, to light up a s(luare; the Place Vendome received (our multiple.jet street lamps at the corners of the column and two street lamps al the corner s of the Rue

de Castiglione. In 1826, there were 9,000 gas bur ners in Paris; in 1828, there were 10,000 , ·with 1,500 subscriber s, th ree gas cOlllpanie8, a nd four gas-jet (actories,

\ OtiCof which was on the Left Dank ." Dubech and d 'Espezel , Hi.stoire de Pari.s, p. 358. [T2,4]

Prom all eighteenth-century pr081)ectus, " lighting Project , P roposed by Sub­scription fo r . Decora ting t.he Fa mous T horoughfare of the Boulevard Saint­Amoine"': "The Boulevard will he iIIuminaled by a garland of Lanterns that will extend on both sides between I.he tree8. This illumination will take place twice

weekly, on Thursdays and Sundays, and , when there is a Moon, on the d ays after the abovemt:ntioned weekdays. Lighting will begin at tcn o'clock , and a ll will be illuminated h y eleven .... Since this sort of evening Prolllcluule i8 suited only to lordI alld Men of Weilith who have carriages, it is onl y to thcm tha t we offer this subscription . Subscription for this year is at the rate of 18 pounds for each (louse; in subsequent years, however. it will cost only 12 pounds, the 6 additionall)Ounds this year being for the initial expenses of instaUation'" (p . 3). -rhe Caf~ and

Theaters that border this famous promenade are justly cd ebrated ; Yes-I say tlris to their glory-it was the handlome Lanterns adorning their illustrious Booths that gave me the idea of universallUumination. The celebrated Chevalier Servan_ doni hal promised me d esigns for the Arcades, for the Garlands, and for the

elegant Monograms, designs worthy of his fecund genius. Is there a single one of our wealthy style-sellers who does not heartily support this brilliant Project?

Adorned in this manner, the Boulevard will become a well-appointed Ballroom, one in whicb Carriages will serve 88 Box Seats." [T2,5)

"Mter the theater I went to a cafe, which was all newly decorated in Renaissance

style. The walls of the main room were entirely covered by mirrors set between gilded columns. T he cashier sill at all times behind a large and sumptuous table

placed upon a platform ; before her is silverware, fruits. flowers, sugar. and the boJ:. for the ga n;on.t. It is customary for every paying customer to leave a small

gratuity for the waiter ; this is thrown by the laller into the oox . Its contents are later equally divided." Eduard Devrient . Briefe aw Perris (Berlin , 1840), p . 20.

[1'2.,1]

Between the February Revolution and the June lnsurrection: " When the club meetings were over, workers took to the streets, and the sleeping bourgeois were either awakened by cries of 'Des lampion8! Des lampion8!' in consequence of

which they would have to light their windows; or else wanton gunsholl roused them from their beds in terror.... There were endles8 torchlight processioru

through the I treets of Pari8, and on one occasion it happened that a girl allowed

herself to be undreued and shown naked to the crowd by torchlight ; for the cr owd . this was merely a reminiscence of the Goddess of Liberty of the fir8 t French Revolution .... At one point the prefect of police, Caussidiere, iU lied a proclama• tion against these torchlight processions-but the edict terrified the c.i ti.tellry of

Pari8 still more, beca use it stated that the people were suppo8ed to brandish torche8 olily in the event of some threat to t.he repllblic." Sigmund Engliill<ler, Ge$chichte der fran%o$uche" Arbeiter-AuQCiationeli (Ha mburg, 1864), vol. '2, p. 277- 278. (T2a,2)

" It W 88 8till the womell wllO cleaned the oily street lamps by Ilay, ali(I lit them at

night , climbing up and down with the aid of a n e)(tendable rope kcpt l ockc~ in. a toolbo)( during the daY-8ince ga8. which for some yeau had beell bla:llIng tn

English towns , had yet to be 8upplied . The merchant8 wilt) sold the oil and the Argand lamp8 wi8hed to avoid all fa vorable mention of this other ~ource of light .

and they 800n found two highly reput able writert, menieur8 Charles Nodier and Amedee Pichot •... to dellounce, ... ill octavo format , all the problcms and per­\'ersities connected whll gas. incllulillg the danger of our complete annihilation by explosion at the hand8 of malefactort.·· Nalla r, Quand j'ewi$ photogruphe (Paris

«900», PI" 289- 290. [T2a,3]

Fireworks and illuminatiOll8 were already on the 8cene during the Restoration; they were sel off whenever a measure prolwsed by the ultraroyalists was defeated

ill the Chamber. [T2a,4]

Apropos of an institute for the blind and the in88ne, this excursus on electric light : " I come 1I0W to the fa cts. The bright light of d ectricity served , at first, to illumi­nate the subterranean galleries of nline8; aft er that, public squares and 8treets;

then faclories, workshop8, stores, theater8, military barracks; finally, the dome8­tic interior. The eyes, initially, put "I) rather well with this penetrating new enemy; but , by degrees. they were da.tded . Blindneu began 08 something temporary, 800n

became periodic, and ended as a chronic problem. This, then, was the fint re­8ult-sufficiently comprehensible, I believe; bUI what abOllt the insanity lately visited 011 ollr leaders?-Our great heads of fin ance, industry, big bllsineu have

seen fit ... to seud ... their thoughts around the world , while they them8elve8 remain at rest .... To this end . each of them has nailed up, in a corner of his

office, electric wires connecting his executi ve desk with our colonies in Mrica , Asia, and the Americas. Comfortably seated before his 8chedules and account

books, he can communicate directly over tremendou8 distances; at a touch of the finger, he can receive r eports from aU his far-flung agents on a startling variety of mailers. One branch-corre8pondent te1l8 him , at tell in the morning, of a ship­

wrecked vessel worth over a nlillion ...; another, at five after ten , of the unex­pected sale of the most prosperOU8 house in the two Americas; a third, a t teo after ten, of the g10riOUI entrance, into the P<lrt of Marseilletl, of a freighter carrying the

fru}ts of a Northern California harvest . All this in rapid succe8sion. T he poor brains of these men, robu8t a8 t hey wer e, ha\'e simply given way, just as the shoulders of 80me Hercule8 of the marketlJlace would give way if he ventured to

, load them with ten 8ack8 of wlteat illstead of one. And this was the second r esult ." J acques Fabien , Paru en songe (Pari8, 1863), pp. 96-98. [1'3, IJ

Julien Lerner, Pari$ all gaz (Pa ris, 1861 ): " I c108e the curtain8 on the sun . It is well

aud dill y put 10 rest ; let tl 8 spea k 110 more of it . Hcnceforth , I shall kuow no other light thrm that of gltS" (po 10). The vollirne conlains thn-e novellas in addition to Ihe Parisian vigncttt:s, of which Illc first givcs it it8 tit.le. [1'3,21

1.11 Ihe I'lace de ('1-lOtd de Vi lle:3_a round 1848-lhertJ was a Cafe dll Gu.

]T3.3]

'fhe misfortu;les of Ainu:: Arga nd . The Ya rious improvement8 he made in Ihe old oil lanll)-the double current of air, the fuse woven in the 8hlt l>e of a hollow cylinder.

the glau tubing, and so forth- were at fi rs t laid claim to by Lange in England (a ma~ wil.h whom Argand had been auociatcd). before being stolen in Paris by QUllllluet , who gave his name to the invention . And thus Argand ended in misery: " The misanthropy to which he succumbed after the withdrawal of his patent led him to seek a compensation of sor U in the occult $ciences. .. ' During the last years of his life, he was seen wandering through graveyards gathering bones and dust from tombs, which he wouJd then submit to chemical processes in the hope of finding in death the 5eCret of prolonging life. '" He himself died young. A<ntoinette> Drohojowska, us Grandes Induslms de la France: L 'Eclairage (P aris <1881 », p . 127. [f3a, l)

Ca reel, inventor of the lamp that oper atcs by clockwork. Such a lamp has to be wound up . It contain, a clockwork mecha nism that pumps the oil from a reservoir at the bottom up into the wick . Carcel', advanee over earlier oil lamp8--which had

the re8ervoir located above the wick, whence the oil dripped down--consisted an eliminating the shadow caused by this overlying reservoir. Hi8 invention dates

from 1800. Hi8 enseigne: " B.-G. Carcel, inventor of the Lycnomene., or mechani_ callamps, manufactures said laml)s." (T3a,2)

' 'The chemical match i8, without doubt , one of the vilest devices that civilizatioa has yet produced.... It is thank. to thi8 that each of U8 carrie8 around fire in ru. pocket .... 1 ... detest this permanent plague. alway. primed to trigger an explo­sion , alway. ready to roast humanity individually over a low fl ame. If you foHow

!\t . Alphonse Karr in his crusade against tobacco, you should likewise raise tbe banner in opposition to these matches .... If we did not have in our pockets the possiliility of ma king 8moke, we wowd smoke less." H <enri > de Pene, Paris intime (Pari8. 1859), pp. 119-120. [1"3a,3]

According to Lurine ("Les HowevarlS ," in Paru chez; soi < Paris. 1854»: the firet

gas lighting-1817, in the Passage des Panoranlas. [1"3a,4)

Rega rding the d efinitive ins tallation of street lamps in the streets of Paris (in Mar ch 1667): " I know of no one but the abbe Terra880n, among the men oflettert, who spoke ill of the la nterns .... According to him , decadence in the realm oC leiters began with the establishment of s treet lights. ' Before thi8 period, ' he once said , 'everyone returned bome early, from fear oC losing their lives. and thi8 fact

worked to the advantage of labor. Nowadays. people stay out at night, and....work less.' Surely there is truth in this observation and the invention of gas is not likely to give it the lie." [douard Fournier, us Lanternes: lIutoire de ,'(weien eclairage

de Paris (Paris, 1854), 1>. 25. [T3a,5)

In the 5eCond half of the 1760s, a number of pamphlets were published that dealt with the new streel lights in IlOCtical form. The following verse. come from the poem " IA:s Suitanes nOclurnes et ambulanles conlre Nosseigneurs les reverberea:

ft Is petite vertu" <The Strolling Suitan ae of Night againu Our Lord. the ~treet Lamps: To Easy Virtue>. 1769:

The poor WOman finds. instead Of loven. only laml'l)0818 In this danling town, Once a second Cyll.era. Wheu nymphs would .. ·alk. Tender mothers of delight. They are forced today To 8(lueeze themselvea into Il box, In ot her words, an octogenarian liacre, Which, by way of B., or r. , tllkel lhem To wheu fiac~. ha\'e nothing to do .... M~ericordia , when once the night Will lei you leue Ihe hovel; For life is 80 needy. Not a lingle corner or carrefour The IIreel!iptt dOQ not reach. It i8 a burning-~a" that pierce. through The plans we made by dll)·....

Edouard Fournier, Les Lanrernes: Hufoire de i 'ancien eclairagc de Puru (Paris,

1854), p. 5 (from the specially p aginated printing of the poem). [f4,1]

In 1799, an enginef:r installed gas lighting in his house, and thus put into practice what previously had been known only as an ~rimem in the physicist'S labora­tory. [f4,2]

It it po88ihle, you know, to .void thelt: .... thackt By choosing the , heller o{ cO"ered arcades; Though, in these lane8 the idler (avon, Spiral, of hlue emoke rise from " avanu.

Make for U8. by your efforts, a gentler life, Clear from our path all bumps and jOltll, And wa rd off, for Il time, the deadly volcanoes Of readillg room, and reslaunnts. AI d118k, give orden to ....areh Tho.... 81.ou deliled b)' the odorlel8 gu, And 10 &G und Ihe alarm with erie. of fear Atthe seeping in of fla mmable fumel.

BartheJe,ny, !'uris: Revue s fltiri(/Ue (I M. C. De/esserl (Pari" 1838), p . 16. [f4,3]

"'\1;'hal a splendid invention this ~as lighting is!' Gottfried Seml>er exclaims. ' In ho...· may different ways has it not enriched the festive occasions of liCe (not to inC/ilion its infinite importll nce fo r our practical need s)!' This striking preemi­nelice of the festive over the d aily, or rather the nightly, imlJeril tive8--for, thank8

to t.hi , gcneral illumination, urban nighttime itself hecome8 a 80rt of ongoing ant. mated festival---clearly bet r aY8 the oriental character of thi8 form of lighting .. . . The fael that in Berlin , after what is now twenty years of operation , a ga8 company ca n boast of &Ca rcely ten thou. alld private cU5tome1"8 in the yea r 1846 can he. " ex plained ... in the following manner : ' For the most part . of courlle. one could l)Oint to general commercial and social factors to account for thi8 phenomenon' , there wall 8till , in fact, no real need for increased activity Iluring the evening and nighttime hours.'''' Dolf Sternberger, Pcmorama (I-I amburg, 1938), PI>. 201, 202 . Citation8 from Gottfried Semper, Wi.ueruchaft: Indus trie und Kuru, (Brullswick 1852), p . 12; and from 1-1(111dbuch fiir Steinkohleng(ubeumchlulig . cd. N. a: Schilling (Munich, 1879). p. 2 1. [T4a.l]

Dead

Apropos of the covering over o f the sky in the big city as a consequence of artificial illumination, a sentence from Vladimir Odoievsky's "The Smile of the

lt : "Vainly he awaited the gaze that would open up to him." Similar is the

motif of the blind men in Baudelaire. which goes back to "Des Vetters Ed. fenster.It ' [T4a,2]

Ga8lightand electricit y. " I reached the Champs-Elysees_ where the caP ' concer's seemed like blazillg hea rths a mong the leave&. The chestnut trees, brushed with yellow light , had the look of painted object&, the look of phosphore&cent trees. And the electric globes-like shimmerillg, pale moons, like moon eggs fallen from the sky, like monstrous. living pearl&--dimmed . with their nacreous pow, mYll teriow and regal, the Baring jell! of gas, of ugly, dirty gas. and the garlands of colored glass." Cuy de Maupassant , Claire de lane (Paris. 1909). p. 122 ("La Nuit caucIte. mar" <The Nightmare». [T4a,3]

Gaslight in M aupassant: "Everything was clear in the mild night air, from the planets down to the gas lamps. So much fire shone there above, just as in the town, that the shadows themselves seemed luminous. The glittering nights are memer than the brightest of sunny days.1t Guy de M aupassant, Claire de fune (Paris, 1909), p. 121 ("La Nuit cauchemarlt). 1n the last sentence, one finds the quintessence of the "Italian night.1t (T5,1]

The cashier, by gaslight, as living image- as allegory of the cash register. (T5,2]

Poe in the " Philosophy of Furniture": "C lare is a leading error in the philosophy of American household decoration.... We are violently ellalllorell of gas and of glaas. The former is totally inudmissible within doors. Its harsh and ullsteady light offends. No one having both bra ins a nd eye5 will IISC it ." Cha rle8 Baud~laire . Oeu vre5 complete5, ed . CrCltet (Pa ris, 1937), p . 207 (lIi81oire, s rotesqlLeS e' 5erieuses pa r Edgar Poe). 5 . (T5.3]

u-[Saint-Simon, Railroads]

"Characteristic of the entire period Ul' to 1830 i8 the slowness of the SI)read of machines.... The mentality of entrepreneurs. economically 5peaking, was 8till conser vative; otherwise. the import duty on i tea m eligillC!!, which were not yel produced by more than a handful of factorie8 in Fra nce. could not have been raised to 30 percent of the value . French industry at the time of the Restoration was thus IIliU . in essence, thoroughly tied to the prerevolutionary regime." Willy Spuhler, Der Saillt-Simmlismus : Lehre und Leben von Saint-Amand Hazard (Zu. rich, 1926), p. 12. [V1,1]

"CorreSI)Onding to the laborious developmeut of large-scale industry is the slow formation of the modern proletariat.... The actual proletarianization ... of the working masses ill effected only at the end of the 1830s and 1840s." SpUh1er, Der

Sai"t-Simonu mus. p. 13. [UI ,2]

"During the whole period of the Restoration ... the Chamber of Deputic!! followed a commercial IJolicy of the most extreme protectionism .. .. The old theory of a halallce of trade was aga in in full swing, as in the days of mercantilism." SpUhler. Der Saillt-Simoni, nul8 (Zurich. 1926), pp . 10- 1 I . [U l ,3] ,

" It was only in 1841 that a mode&t little law concerning child labor was approved . Of interest is the objeetion of the famous phYli ici81 Gay-Lussac, who liaw in the intervention "'an onllet of Saint-Simonia nism or of phala nsterianism .... Spuhler. Der Saint-Simo fl isnuu, 1" 15. [U l .4]

"Aphrodite'll birds travel the skie8 from Paris to Amsterda m. and under their wing is d ipped a Ii ~ t or daily quotatiolls rrom the Stock Exchange; a telegraph sends a mcssage from Puris to Brussels concerning Ihe r ise in 3 percent allnuitie&; courier!! gallop over highwa YIi 0 11 pa nting horses; the amba8sIIJors of real kings ha rgain with idell l kings. alltl Natha n Hoth.schild in Lolillon will sllOw you, if you pay hilll a ,·isil. a casket jU&t arri" ell fro m Brazil with frelihly mined diamonds intended to cover the interest on the current 8razili an {Iebl. h ,, ' t that intere&ting?" Karl Gutzkow, 'Offe" ,fiche Clluraktere. pa rt I (lI amlmrg. 1835), p. 280 ("Hoth­s.:hild"'). [V I ,S]

"Tile inRuence and development of Silint Simonillnism, up until tile end of the ninell..-enth century. had almost nothing to do witll the workingclilu. Saint-Simoni_ ani!lm provided lin impetus and an ideal for the spirit of large-scale indust ry a nd for the rea.li"J;ation of ambitious works. The Saint-Simonian Pereire brothers con_ trolled the railroad. banking, and real estate operations of the July Monarchy and the Set!ond Empire. The Suez Canal, for which Enfantin and Lambert-Bey would study the plans and work out the conception at a time when Ferdinand de LeS8ePI

was consul in Cairo, has remained the prototype of the Saint-Simonian planetary

enterprise. We may, without hesitation , contrast the grand bourS-eoil project of Saint-Simonianism, which is based on production and action, with the peril bour­geois projet!t of the Fourierist phalanstery, which is based on consumption and pleasure." Albert Thibaudet, Le, Idee, polirique, de La France (Paris, 1932),

pp. 61-62. 0 Set!ret Societiel 0 [01,6]

"Girardin ... founded La Preue in 1836; he invented the popular, low-priced

newspaper and the romon feuilkton, or serial novel. " Dubech and d'Espezel,

llisloire de Pori, (Paris, 1926), p . 391. [01,7]

" In the past several years, a complete revolution has occurred in the cafes of Paris. Cigars and pipes have invllded every corner. Formerly, ther e was smokinc

only in certain 'pet!ial establishments known as e'taminet, <public house.>, which were frequented solely by persons of low standing; todllY people smoke nearly

everywhere.... There is one thing we cannot forgive the princes of the house of OrIeanlJ--namely, for having so prodigiously increased the vogue for tobacco , thU

malodorous a nd nauseating plant that poisons both mind and body. All the IOnl of Louis Philippe I moked like chimneys; no one encouraged the consumption of thU

nasty product nlore than they. Such consumption no d oubt fattened the public

treasury- but at the expense of public heliith and buman intellit!:ence." Hilloire de, cafes de Poril, extraile de, memoirs d'un viveur (Paris, 1857), pp. 91-92.

[V1a,I]

"Symbolism is so deeply rooted ... that it is found not just in liturgical rites. In the previous century, didn' t the disciples of Enfantin wear waistcoats that but­toned in the back , 80 as to draw IIttention to the frat ernlll assistance which one

mlln renders another?" Robert Jacquin, Notions sur Ie Langage d 'apre. lei lravaux du P<ere) Marcel Joune (Paris, 1929), p . 22. "\ [Ula,2]

" In 1807. there wer e over 90,000 workers in Paris prllclicing 126 professions.

T hey were subject to strict supervision: associations were prvhihited . employment agencies were regulated, and work hours were fixed . Sala ries went from 2 franci SO. to 4 fra nc, 20. yielding an averllge of 3 franCI 35. The worker ate a hearty breakfast, a light lunch , Mild IlII evenillg supper." Lucien Du bech and Pierre d ' Espczd, Iliswire c/e Paris (Paris, 1926), p. 335. [VI a,3]

"On August 27. 1817 , the steamship Le Genie clu commerce, invented by the Mar­quis de Jouffroy, had sailed the Seine bctwt:ell the POllt- Royaland the Pont Loui, XVI." DUOech li nd d' Espe7.e1. lIiSloire cle Pnris, p. 359. [013,4)

The national workshol)S' " had been created according to tile proposal of a moder­ate. <AJexalidre-ThomIlS> Marie. because the Revolution had guaranteed the ex­istence or the worker through his work , a nd bet!lluse it was net!essary to satisfy the demands of the extremists .... The workshops were organized , in a manner at once democratic and militaristic. into brigades, with e1ectC(i chiefs." Dubech and

d·E6IJeZeI , lIi1toire de Paris. pp. 398-399. [Via,S)

The Saint-Simonian,. " In the magnificent disorder of ideas that accompanied Ro­manticism. they had grown enough , by 1830. to abandon their loft on the Rue

Taranne and to establish themselves on the Rue Taithout. Uere. they gave lectures before an a udience of young men dressed in blue and women in white with violet scarveS. They had acquired the llewspalH!r Le Globe, and in its pages they advo­cated a program or reforms .... The government , ... 0 11 the pretext of supporting

the emancipation of women. decided to pro&e<:ute the Saint-Simoniaos. They Clime to the hearing in full regalia , and to the accompa niment of hunting borns. Enfan­

tin wore written on his chest, in large lellers. the two words Le Pere, and he calmly declared to the presiding judge that he was in fact the father of humanity. He then tried to hypnotize the magistrates by staring into their eyes. He WIIS sentenced to

one year in prison , which effectively put an end to these follies." Dubech and d'Espezel, Hiltoire de Paris. pp. 392-393. 0 Haussmann 0 Set!ret Societies 0

[Ola,6]

"Cirardin published ... a brochure with the title. " Why a Constitution?" It Will his idea that the entire French constitution should be replaeed by a simple declara­tion of ten lines, which ... would be engraved on the five·franc piet!e." S. Englan­

d,er <Geschichte der fran:osilchen Arbeilef'-AJlocicdionen (Hamburg, 1864», vol. 4, pp. 133-134. [OIa,7]

"At the time of the Revolution . a new d ement began to a ppear in Paris: lar ge.scale industry. This was a consequeucc of the disappearance of feudal guilds; of the reign of unfettered liberty th at followC(1 in their wake; and of the wars against

England , which made necessary the production of items previously procured by import. By the end of the Empire, the evolution was complete. From the revolu­tionllty lH! riod 0 11 , ther e were fa ctories eUablishel1 for the production of saltpeter, firearms , woolen and cotton fabrics. preserved meat, and small utensils. Mechalli­

cili spinnilig mills for cottollMnd linen were dcvclolH!d. with the encouragement of Calolille, beginning i.n 1785; factories for t.he production of bronze were COli'

Structed under Louis XVI; a nd chemica l ami d ying companies ",·ere founded by the COIIIII d 'Artois ill J a vel . Didot Sai nt-Uger ran a new machine for paper I'roduc­tio ll on the Rue Sainte-Aline. In 179'). Philipl)f! Le bon receh·ell II palent on a

process for prod ucing gas lighting. From September 22 to September 30, 1798, the fi rst ' public e" hibition of the prooUCI8 of French manufacturing and industry ' w .. held on the Cha mp de Man." Dubee-h and d ' Espezel, I/i.. loire de Paris (Pan. 1926). p . 324. 0 E)(hibiliolls 0 [U2,l j

On tile Saint-Simonians; "School constituted by a veritable corps of industrial engineers and entrepreneurs, representatives of big business underwritten by the power of the banks." A. Pinloche. Fourier el Ie 1l0cialillme (Paris. 1933) , p . 47.

[D',' j

" Although the worker associations were a ll run in e)(emplary fashion , ably aDd honestly •... members of the bourgeoisie were nevertheless unanimous in their disapproval. Most of the bourgeoisie would fLoel a certain apprehension in paBaiua bcfore one of the houses that bore the sign . . and the emblcm of a worker

association. Though these shops were distinguished from other. similar buaineue. ollly by the inscription 'Association fra terneUe d ' ouvriers : Liherte , Egaliae, Fraternite,' on the petit bourgeois they had the effect of snakea in the gran that might suddenly strike at any time. It sufficed for the bourgeois to think of the February Revolution , which had been the origin of thesc associations .... For their part. the associations of worker s made every possible effort to conciliate the bourgeoisie, hoping to gain i18 sUPI)()r!. It was for this reason that many of tb.,. fur nished their shops in the most splendid manner, so as to draw their shne 01 customers. T he privations which the workers thus laid upon themselvefl, ia .. effort to withstand the competition , are beyond belief. While that part of the . bop which was open to the public was fiued out in the costliest way, the worker hiaueIf would be sitting on the fl oor of a workroom that often was totally lacking in eq.men!. '" Sigmund Englander, Gellchichle der fraruollillchen Arbeitel'-AnociatioMll

(Hamburg, 18M). vol. 3. pp. 106-108. 0 Secret Societies 0 [U2,sJ

Influence of the feuilleton in its ea rly da ys. " T here are newspapers for one sou aad newspapcrs for ten centimes . A dealer obser ves a solid bourgoois passing by, who, after carefull y pe rusing his COnll titlltiotlllel ... , ncgligently folds it and pute it iD his pockct . The dealer accosts this plucky reader. presents him with either ttl Pellpie or La Revolllliou. which eost only a sou , and says to him: ' Monsieur, i£yoa Like. I will give you . in uchange for the pal)Cr you 've juS! finished . l..e Peupk. by

citilten P roudhon. and its supplement containing a ser ial by the famous Men • ...­Scnllevillc.' T he bourgeois allows himself to be persuaded . What good is a CiHU"" tIIliollllei you 've already read? He gives up his newspaper and accepts the other, enticed , as he is, by dlt~ sovereign namc of Menars-Senllevillc. Oft en he forget' himself, in his delight at being rid of so tedious a burden , and addsanother sou into Ihe ba rgain ." A. I)r i\'al d 'Allglemollt. Puru inCOIln!1 (Puris. 1861), PI)' 155­156. [U2a, I)

T he well-known pr inciple of Villcnlt:uanl : " t.hat a n incidcnt which is COllllllcte11 ordi ll ury, bllt which occur!! 011 tilt.: houlevards or their environs, has much mOre

iJJ!porlallce, from tile I)QUII of view of,'ourn li h" A . a sm. t an an event of great co

(illenee m men eaorAsia ."' J eanJ\forielival , _ C "d nse­• • 'A!1l reateurll e la " ronde

Fr(lIIce (Pans ( 1934», p . 132. .. preue en [U2a,2J

.. /. itlllosrupllf~ was run Ily Bourdin t beca uoa ViII " . . ,~ I emessant , like Napol I d

to apporllOIl kingdoms. That curious Ill'"" " d d 0011 , ove , . cry III epen cnt of .. I acted alone. He "·ol.dd ' collabora te.'" J" " " I' _ , Splrat , ra re y

n " orlcnva I.A!$ Create d la dI}reuc en Prance (Paris). p . 142. • Itrll e g ran e

[U2a,3)

poetry of Saint-Simonianism: " 'n the preface I th fi I 0 e I"8t vo lillie of l..e ProdC I IA. erc et aunchel all urgcnt appeal to rt ' UCteltr,

a IStJJ.... And Buchez h I CCC(ll:d 10 the leadership of thc coope f , w 0 a lcr 8UC_

r a lYe lIIaveluClit appealed t II of arliSls in similar tcrnlS It was B I h fi ' 0 Ie community

. . . . ue lez w 0 Irs t observed Ih t I " and romanticism share equ. Uy in th Id " h ' ... . a c 8SSlCism

. . e wor WIt which the - til S· S· . 8U9-are ~upled, just as legi tirnacy a nd libcrali di 'd Y e allll_ Imoru· IlOlil ica l world In 1825 sm VI e between themselves the

" doc P~~;~ Rique;.a ~:D::nt wa, ~rectedCanal . S to the builder of the Langue­occaSion , oumet composed ' .hYOIII •••• The literary chronicler fo , _ p __, a stirnng

r 'A! r~lIcte lt1: Leon Hal ' b h fralllous composer hailed tiles h ' h ' evy, rot ero the • ' e verses, w IC he char acterized as ' ind . I

elry. . .. Soumel, however, oo1y partly fulfilled h . uSlna po­Simonians had placed in him If I ". . t e hopes which the Saint­

. ater on , In his DWlne Epa • " the ha mmer 's clang and th . . pee. oue can s till hear

f prtt isely here, in the poet ': :IS,y gnndiDkg °h the gears of industrial labor, it is J . ~_aestwor ,t atthe pr . ( .abstraClJons is ma nifest HI ' openslty or metaphyslcsl

. . .. a evy, moreover. was himself IH. a evy pUblished his I Po. ' " a poet. . . . n 1828e$le, eurapeenne$ d ' 1831

Simon. who had died in 1825 " H Th • :,' . an In wrote an ooe to Saint-o II . . . urow Aus den Ann' d c etristik ," Die neue Zeit 2 1 2 (S ' angen er 80zialisti&chen

• , no. tultgart . 1903), pp. 217-2 19. (U2a,4J

On a r eview; b y Sainte-Beuve in the Rev I ,"The Verses which Sa iute_S ~ (e$ deux mondell. February 15, 1833: I h euve ... r eViewed were the lit Iy t e name of BruheHle I d ' d erary remaills of a poet

Sainltl-Beuve draws atlc:I:~lo ,Ie very ,YO III~g... . in hi, account , furthermore. · - I oa nove whlchbor th h " " S(I//U -S imo/lienne aud I " Id e e c araclen SllC title La

" I • W IIC I • •• emonstrates th t . h f I( ta . T hat the autho' e nump 0 the Saint-Simonian I r, a certain Madame Le Bas b ' b

t Irough a ra ilier iml)roha bl r su, nnga a out this triumphf e COurse 0 event&--nam I h rrOln the veins of a youth ' , ....1 . . . e y, I e trails ull ion of blood

III eCh: .. W1th Samt Sin . d " eCcleSiastically educa t .. .J I ,I I - loman oclnne into those of his I· .,.. )e OVe( - may be d I '

t lent ; \:lo t the sa me tim, " 0 " " regar e( III essence as a n artistic exp" . . , wcver It Inngs 0 I th . . ISIII. TILis mystical elemellt It I ' h I he II e lliysllcal sllie of Saint-Simonian_

. ai, s ort y fore found t k stJjOlirn by. the ' fa mily' ill ,I ," I I ' 6 ar e)(preuioll during the

IClr ast p ace of ref h RCOJleiudingcpisooe iJl tl r, r I uge,ont e ue Mellilmontanl . This

,. Ie l eo tie movemenllilc .IJlg lilerature--poems SOli " I eWI5e cngcnder CII • correspond_

, - ga. sp lntua e)(erciscs i I ullllic !!ymbolism could be UII I 'OO<! I b II verse alii prosc--whose enig_

(ers on y y tllc few i ' f 'r CourSt: h y the violen(.'e of politi I d . m lales. . . . hrown off

ca all economIC devdolllllCllIS 5.,",., S,"n " " , • lonlal1l8m

had run aground on metaphy. icI." II . Thurow, " Au! den Anfiingcn der loziali.ti._

chen Bclie triJl tik ," Die neue Zeit , 2 J. 110 . 2 (Stut tgart. 1903), JlJl . 219-220 . [U3,1)

Utopian socialillm. " The dallS of capitalisl8 . looked on its pa rtisans as mere

ecce.ntrics a nd harmless enthusiaslt.... T hese partisans themselves, fu r ther_

more, did aU that was huma nly possilJle . .. to warr ant such an im)reu ion . They

wore dothes of a ver y pa rt icular Cllt (Saint-Simonia ns, for example, buttoned

their coats in the back so as to be reminded , while dressing, of their reliance on

their fellow man and thereby of the neetl fo r union), or else they wore IlIlusually la rge hats, very 10llg beards, and so on ." Paul Lafargue, " Ocr Klassenkampf in Frankreich ," Die neue Zeit , 12, no . 2, p . 6 18. [U3,2J

" M ler the July Revolution . the Saint-Simonians took over even the frontline or·

gan of the Romantics, Le Globe, Pierre lA:roux became the editor." Franz Died_

erich , " Victor Hugo," Die lIe lle Zeit , 20 , no . 1 (Stuttgart , 190 1), p . 651. [U3,3j

From a rel>ort on the Novembe r 19 11 issue ofthe journal of Austrian social democ­

racy, Der Kampf : "'On Saint-Simon's I 50th birthd ay,' ... Max Adler wrote: .. ,

He was known as a 'socialist ' a t a time when this word meant something entirely

different from what it means today.... As fa r as the clan s truggle is concerned , be sees only the opposition of ind ustrialism to the old regime; bourgeois ie and work­

er& he considen logether as a single industrial class. whose richer menIDen be calls upon to take an interest in the lot of their impoverished fellow worken .

Fourier had a clearer view of the need for a new form of society." Review of Periodicals, Die neue Zeit , 29, no. 1 ( 19 1 I), pp. 383-384. [V3,' ]

Engels 011 Feuerbach 's Wesen de! Chru tenfltmJ <Enence of Ch ristianity>. " Evea

the shortcomings of the book contributed to iu immediate effect . III literary,

sometimes even high -fl own . s tyle secured for it a large public and was, a t any rate,

refreshing afler long years of abstract and abstruse Hegeliaoizing. The I18me it t r ue of its extravagant deification of love, wiJich , coming aft er the now intolerab~ sover eign rule of ' pure reason .' had il8 excuse, ... But what we must not for¢ ..

that it was precisely these two weaknesses of Fcuerbach that ' true sociali&m,'

which had been spreadjng like a plagu e in 'educated ' Germany Billce 1844, took ..

ils sta rl ing point , )lutting Litera ry phrases in the place of scientifiC knowledge, the lihe r ation of mankind by means of ' love' in place of the cmancipati~n of the

. . ( d ' . I rt loslnlprole tariat through the economiC transfo rmation 0 pro uctlOn- 1ll S 10 ,

itself in the nauseous fin e writing and ecstas ies of love typified b y Herr Karl

Crull ." .' ricllrich Engels. " Ludwig Feuerbach lind der Au sgun&...der klauisched

deuuchcn Philosophie," Die neue Zeit , 4 (Stuttga rt . 1886). p. 150 [review of C. l"l · )] ) [U3a,l} 188­Starcke. Ludll.'iS Feuerbach ( tllllgan , S ~. .

" Railroads ... dema ndt.."I. besides other imp08sihil i ti c~. a transformat.ioll in t~ mode of PNlI)Crt y.... Up until thell . in fact . a hourgeols could r un an IIIdusln

or a businc&& concern with onl y his own money. or a t most with that of olle or ntO

friends and aCtlllaintBru:e8 .. , . He managed the mOlley himself, and was the actual

proprietor of lhe factor y or business establishment. Bul rai.lroads hatl nt.·ed of ~ lI ch lIIa ssive II mOlln ll1 of t:apil lt.1 thut it eoultl no longer be concentrated in the

hlluds of onl y a few il1l.l ivitiua1.!i . AII~I so a great ma ny bourgeois were forced to ellt rus t their precious flln~ls, which had never before bt."en allowed Oll t of their

I!.ight . to l)COple wllOse names they hard ly knew .... Once the money was given

O\·cr. they would lose all control over its inveUlllcllt lind could 1I0t expect to claim

11 11 )' propr ietary rights over termilla1.!i . ca r... loconlOli ves , and the like . ... They

"';~'re entitled only to a share of the profits; in plal.'e of a n object , ... they were

gh 'en . .. a lIIere piece of pa lH:r that represented the fiction of an infinitely small

and ungr aspahlc piece of the real propert y, wllOse ull me was pr inted at the bottolll

in large leiter s .. .. This p rocedure ... s tood in such violent contrast to what the

bourgeoisie was used to ... that its defense eOllld be underta ken only by people

who . . . were suspected of wa nting to overthrow the. order of socie ty-socialislI, in

shorl. Firs t Fourier and then Saint-Simoll extolled this 1II0bili1.alion of prope rty in

the form of paper securities." Paul Lafa rgue, " Marx' historiseher Materialismus,"

Die neue Zeit , 22 , no. I (Stuttgart . 11JO.1), p . 83 1. [V3a,2)

" Every d ay, there is a r iot. The s tudents, aU sons of the bourgeois ie. are fraterniz­

ing here with the worker s, lind the workers believe the time has come. They are

also seriollsly counting on the pupils from the Ecole Poly technique. " Nad ar, Qua ndj'etm's photogrophe (Pa ris ( 1900), p . 287. [U3a,3)

" It is not in proletarian circles, 1I0t even in democr atic circles, tha t the initial

imlH:IUS ... for the establishment of labor exchanges is to be found. The idea was

fi n t ad vanced in 1842 by M. de Molinari, editor-in-chief of Le Journal des econo­

mistes. It was Molinar i himself who developed this idea in an article he ... wrote

ent itled ' L'Avenir des chemins de fer ' <The Future of the Railroad s). In order to

indicate jus t how much limes had changed, he r eferred to Adam Smith, who had

said\ ill effect , that labor was the commodity most diffi cult to transport . Against

this. he affirmed that lahor power had 1I0W become mobile, Europe and the whole

World now s ta lld s open to it as a market .... T he main po int of the conclusion

~ which Molina ri drew in 'L'Avenir des ehemillls de fer, ' ill favor of the institutions

that were to serve as lahor excha llges, was the followin g: the principal cause for

th t· low rate of wages is the frequentl y recurr ing disproportion hd ween the num­

ber of wor kers and the delllan<i for ....ork ; contrilmting furth er to the p roblem is

Ih.e high ,?oncentra tion of worker s IHlpulation i.n certain centers of production ....

GI\'" to workers the mea ns ... Ly which Ihey ca n clHllIge thei.r place of resideliCe a t \ 10

.... I;ost; give Ihem , too, the poss ibility of knowing ....Ilere they willlH: a Lle to find

...·(l rk ill the most favorahle ci rcumsta nces .... If l'I'orkers hegin traveling (Iuickly

anti , abo\'e a ll , cheaply, lab(lr eXl;hallgl!"8 will 80011 a r ise." On the p roposal to

erellte II lahor report; " T his proposal , which was pllbli ~hetl in I.e Cour rier

~rflll{(/ is, edih,..1 hy Xa\' icl' Durricu . tlll'ned mUllcrs di rectly to the wor ken .. . :

'Il'e would like ... to rell~l er a ser vice to ....orkers " y puhlishing in our columns , Ilcxt to the stock ma rket (1IiOlalioIl8. a lis t of work availa hle .... What is the

purpose of slock market (Illotalions? They repor t . 88 we know. the ra te of eIl~ the emergence of the Liberal Empire." A. Malet and P. Gri llet . XIX' Sieck (Paris,

- change of government securities and . hares of stock ... 0 11 various markeu 1919) . p. 275. (Loosening of COli trois 0 11 the prelifl. ilO a 8 to cllable coverage of around the world.. .. WitllOul the aid of these market reports. tile capitalisu would often have no idea where 10 invest their money; withoul these Iiste , they

would find themsdves in t.he IIDm c situation liS workcn who ... have no idea where to go to find work .... The worker is a vendor of work , and , a8 such , he has a very malerial interest in knowing what tile n1l1rket olillets are for ms goods. ", Low. Heritier, " Die Arbeitsborsen, Die neue Zeit. 14, no. 1 (Stuttgart, 1896), pp. 64S­~. ~,~

Notable difference between Saint-5imon and Marx. The fonner fixes the number of exploited as high as possible, reckoning among them even the entrepl'Uleur because he pays interest to his creditors. Marx, on the other hand, includes aU those who in any way exploit another-even though they themsdves may be victims of exploitation-among the bourgeoisie. (V4,2J

It is significant that the theoreticians of Saint-Simonianism are unfamiliar with the distinction between industrial and financial capital. All socia] antinomies dissolve in the fairyland which k progreJ projects fo r the near furore. (Vb ,l)

"Let U8 examine 80me of the large manufacturing cities of France. . Never,

perhaps, hal a defeated and retreating army presented a more lamentable 8pecta· cle than the triumphant industrial army. Gaze on the workers of Lille. Reima, Mulhou8e, Manchester, and Liverpool , and tell me if they look Like victon!"

Eugene Buret . De la Muere de8 claISe. laboriewe. en Anglererre et en Fra~ (Paris ,I840), vol. I, p . 67. (V4a,2)

On the political role o f intellectuals. hnportant : the "Letter to M. Lamartine" by Emile Barrawt, editor of I.e 'Tocsin cUJ trauailkurs. ["Die socialistischen und com­munistischen Bewegungen scit der dritten franzOsischen Revolution," appendix to <Lorenz von) Stein, Socialumus und CommunumuJ cUJ heutigtn Frankreidu (Leipzig and Vienna, 1848), p . 240.] [U4a,3]

To ascertain : whether or not, in the preimperial age, a relatively greater propor­tion of the profits of capital went into consumptio n and a relatively lesser propor­tion into new investments. (V4a,4]

1860: " Napoleon entered into a trade agreement with the English government ... ; according to the provision8 of t.his treat y. custom8 duties were consider ably low· ered on French agricuhural products imlwrted by Ellgland , and on 6nglish manu· factllred goods iml)Orted h y Fra nce. Thi8 treaty was ver y favorable to the '!'us public .... On the other hantl . in ortler to holtl their own !lgainst English competi· tion . French illtlu8try was forced to lower the prices of its product8. The immedi· ate COll lie(luence was ... a certain rapprochement with the OPI)Osition. Aiming to counter the r esistance of ... industrialist8. Napoleon took steps to enlist the 8Up" l)Ort of the liberals. ThllJ led , ultimately. to the transformation of the regime and

Jt.bates ill the Chamber. ) [U4a,5)

Chnsiflcation of the pres8 under tile Restoration . Uhras<?): lA Cflzette de f rance. La Quotidienne. l...e Drflpeflu blllllC, Le Journal des delx.ts (until 1824). IlIdt' pcndcllt8: Le G/o be. l...e MineI've. a nd , from 1830. during the last yCa r of the Restoration . Le Natio nflt. l...e Temps. Constitutionalists: Le Constiruriormel. Le Courrier fram;czu. alld , a ft er 1824, Le Journczl des deimts. [U4a,61

Because of the rarity o f newspapers, they were read by groups in thc cafes. Otherwise, they were available only by subscription , which cost around eighty francs per year. In 1824, the cv.:elve most widely circulating newspapers had, together, some 56,000 subscribers. For the rest, both the liberals and the royalists were concerned to keep the lower classes away from the newspaper. [U4a,7]

The " law of justice and of love," rejected by thc Chamber of Peen : "One detail surfices to demonstrate the spirit of the project : every printed sheet , be it only a notification card , would have been suhject to a tax of one franc per copy."

A. Malet and P. GriIlet , XIX' Siecle (Paris, 1919), p. 56. [U5,11

"Saint.Simon lingers over the history of the futeenth-eightt.oenth centuries, and

gives to the social classes of this period a more concrete and specificaUy economic description . Hence, it is thi8 part of Saint-Simon '8 system that i8 of ~eates t impor­tance for the genesis of the theory of clan struggle. and ,hat exercises the strongest

influence on its subsequent development. ... Although. for later period" Saint­Simon emphasizes the economic momeut in his characterilllation of classes and the causes of their growth and decline ... , in order to be consistent he would have

h!ld to see. in this economic activity, the true r oots of the social cla88et1 as well . Had he ,'a ken this etel), he would inevitably have attained to a materialist conception of history. But Saint·Simon never took this step . and his general conception remains

idealist .... The second point that i8 so surprising in Saint.Sinlon's cla8s theory, in , view of ill discr epancy with the actual relations among the classes of the period. is

the represent ation of the clalS of illllUSlrialisl8 as homogeneous .... The mani­

fes tl y e8Senti!l1 differences that exist between proletarians alul entrepreneurs are fo r him external , and tlleir antagonism is groUlulCfI in mutuallllisunden tanding: the interests of the director s of imlustrial enterprises, in reality, coincide with the ill terests of the masses .... This cntirdy unfoumled assertion resolves for Saint· Simull the vcr y real social cOlltradiction . salvaging the unit y of the industrial cla8s alltl , wi th it, the perspe<:th'e on a peat.'eful bllildin~-uJ> of tile new social system." Y. Volgin , "Obe r die historische Stellllllg Saint-Simons," ill MClrx-Engeu Archiv, ell. D. Hjazallov, vol. I (Fra llkfurt am Main (1928»), pp. 97- 99. [U5,2]

Saiut-Simon : .... I...east or all does the indu strial system rC(luire t.he overst.oeing of individuals. for with a system in which t.he immedia te goal i8 the weU-being of the lO!lny, there ought not to be any encrgy wastCiI on maintaillin~ power over these

people. who no longer threaten the existing order.... 'Thi~ function of maintain~

ing ordcr Cll n lium etl8ily b~ume ... II task shared h y all citizen8, wllether it be to contain troublemaken or to settJe ~lispute8." Instead of a n in8trument for the domination (If men , the state system b«omes a system for the administration of things.... And the chicftask of this administrative autllority, whose agents will be the scholan, a rtists, and industrialists, . .. is to organize the cultivation of the terrestr ia l g1ohe." V. Volgin , " Uher die historische Stellullg Saillt~Simon8," in

Marx-Engel$ Archiv. ed. D. Rjazanov, '·01. I (Frankfurt am Main), pp. 104-105.

[US,3)

On the idea of the total work of art , according to Saint-Simon, OellvreJ choisie. vol. 3 , pp . 358-360: "Saint-Simon indulges in fanta llies about the development of ~ cult through the combined efforts of p rophets, poets, musicians, sculptors, and architects. AJI the arts are to be united so as to make the cult useful to so<:iety, and so as, through the cult , to restructure humanity in the spirit of Christian morals."

V. Volgin, "Uber die histor ische Stellung Saint-Simons," in Marx-Engel$ Archiv, vol. I (Frankfurt am Main), p . lO9. [U5a,l )

Conccrning the reprcselltation of Louis Philippe.-Saint-Simon teache8 that "the industrial system is not in contradiction with royal power. T he king will become

the First Industrial , just a8 he has been the First Soldier in the kingdom. "$ V. Vol­gin , ..tiber die histori8che SteUung Saint-Simons," in Marx-Engel! Archiv. vol. 1 (Frankfurt am Main), p. 11 2. [U5a,2] ­Saim-Sim on was a forerunner of the technocrats. [U5a,3]

Two passages fro m Le Globe (October 31 and November 25, 1831). concernin~ the workers' uprising in Lyons: " we, defcnders of AU . workers-from the leaders of industry to the humblest laborers"; and conceming the workillg clau: ..It is ~ nizing fo r us to see the workers degraded by brutality. Our heart bleeds at thesipt

of such moral privations , qui te as hideous, in their way, as phys.ical priva­tions .... We would like . . . to inspire the worken with ... our own aentiment8 of order, peace , and friend ly accord ." In the same publication , an expreuion of

approval for the add ress of the Saint-Simonians from Lyons. who " have pJ"ellerved Saint-Simonian calm ." Ci ted in K Tarle. " Der Lyoncr ,\rbeitcraufstand ," in MClrx-Engels ArcMv. ed . Rjaza nov. vol. 2 (rrankfurt am Main , 1928), PI). 108. 109, 111. [11iia,4)

Important material relating to the history o f the railroad, and particularly o f the

locomotive, in Karl Kautsky, Die materialististhe Ge;chichlJa'!!faSJung, vol. 1 ~ lin, 1927), pp. 645 ff. What emerges is the great importance o f mining for the railroads, not only because locomotivcs were first used in mines but also because iron rails crune from there. ~ an.: thus referred back to the use that was made o f rails (originally, no doubt, o f wood) in the operation of tipcarts. [U5a,5)

On Saint-Simon 's idea o f progress (polytheism, monotheism, recognition o f many laws of nature, recognition of a single law of nature): "'Gravitation is supposed to play the role of the unive~ absolute ide~ ~d repla~ ~e id~a of God." Oel/llm choisieJ, vol. 2 , p . 2 19,' oted by v: VOlglll, Ober die histonsche Stellung Saint-Simo ns," in Ma rx-Engelt Archill, vol. 1 (Frankfurt am Main),

p . 106. [115a,6]

·· In the system of the Saint-Simonians , banks not only play the part of force. that ol"gllllize industry. They are the one antidote which the sY8tem now in place has developed to counter the anarchy that devours it ; they are an element of the

sys tem of the future . ..• one that is free of t~e atimwallt of personal enrichment ; they are a aocia l institution." V. Volgin , "Uber die historische Stellung Saint­SilllOns," in Marx-Engel$ Archiv, ed. Rjazanov, vol. 1 (Frankfurt am Main), p . 94.

[U.,l)

"T hc chief task of an industrial system is aaid to be the establishment of a ... plan of work that could be carried out by so<:iety .... But ... his ideal is considerably

closer to sta te capitalism than to so<:ialism. With Saint-Simon , there is no talk of the abolition of private property, of eXI)ropriationa. Only up to a certain point does the state submit the activity of industrialists to the ~eneral plan... .

Tllroughout his ca reer Saint-Simon .. . was drawn to la rge-8cale projects ... , beginning with the plans for the Panama and Madrid canals a nd ending with plans

to transform the planet into a paradise." V. Volgin , " lIber die historische SteUung Saint-Simons," in Marx-Engel! Archiv, vol. 1 (Frankfurt am Main), PI'. 101- 102, 116. [U6,2]

"Sto<:ks have been ' democr atized ' so that aOthe world can share in the benefits of

modem asso<:iation . For it is under the banner of 'association' that people have glurified the accumulation of capital in joint-stock COml)anies, over which grand

fin~nciers now exer cise 8Overei~ ty at the expense of the shareholders." W. texis, Cewerkvereine IIml Unter'lehmerverbiinde in f'rankreich (Leipzig, 1879), p. 143, cited in D. Rjazanov, " ZlIr Gescbichte der ersten Internationale," in Marx-Engel! Arclli v, ed . D. Rjazanov, vol. I (Frankfurt am Main), p . 144. [U6,3)

Emile Pereire, ex-Saint -Simonian , was the founder of Credit Mobilier.-Cheval­i. ' r presents him , in La Religion SClint-Simotlienne , as " a fo r mer student at the

Ecole Polyt« hlli(lue." [U6,4j

Re the history o f newspapers. Differentiation according to socia] classes and mass circulation of literature, which, under C harles X, was mobilized against congre­gations. "Voltaire, more or less abridged, is ad apted to the needs and circum­stances of all levels of socicty! There is the rich man's VOltaire, the 'Voltaire for owners of medium·sized propeny,' and the cottager's Voltaire. Thcre arc also editions of Tarttiffo at three sous. There an.: reprints of ... H olbach, . . . Duprais<?), ... VOlney. "Ibings an: set up in such a way that ... more than

2,700,000 volumes were put uno circulation in less than seven years." Pierre de la Gorce, La ReJtauratjon, vol. 2, CharleJ X (Paris), p. 58. [U6,5]

~ting for the Riuiu,teur, who will bring on .the end of the bourgeoisie and who will ,render ~~ to the father of the ~amily for pe?cefully administering the

Lord s estate. 'Ibis, presumably, an allUSIOn to Enfannn. At the begilUung of the text, a sort of lament for the proletariat; the pamphlet also refers to this class in closing: u. Emancipateur pacifique! He travels the world over, everywhe~ working for the liberation of the proletarMn and of WOMAN." The lament : "Ifever you ha~ visited our workshops, you have seen those chunks of molten iron which we draw from .the furnaces and cast into the teeth ofcylinders that tum more rapidly than the wmd. These furnaces emit a liquid fire that, in its boiling and heaving, throws ofT a shower of glowing drops into the air; and from the teeth of the cylinder, iron emerges drastically reduced. \V(: tOO, in truth, are hard pressed like these masses of iron. If ever you have come to our workshops, you have seen those mining cables that are wound around a wheel, and that unwind in the search for blocks of stone or mountains ofcoal at a depth of twelve hundred feet The wheel moans upon its axle; the cable stretches tight with the weight of its enonnous charge. \\e, too, are drawn taut like the cable; but we do not moan like the wheel, for we are patient and strong. 'Great God! What have I done; mes the voice of the people, conswned with a sorrow like that of King David. 'What have I done that my hardiest sons should become C3JUlon fodder, and my loveliest daughters be sold into prostitution?' Michel C hevalier, "Religion Saint-Simo­nienne: Le Bourgeois, Ie reveiateur" <pamphlet (Paris, 1830), pp. 3-4, j>. ­

(U6a, l]

Chevalier in 1848. He speaks of the forty-year sojourn of Israel in the wi.ldem eu, before it entered the Promised Land . "We, too , will have to pause for a time, before advancing ill to an era ... of ... prosperity for workers. Let us aecept thit season of waiting .... And if some lH!rsons endeavor to sti r up the wrath of the populace . .. on the pretext of hastellillg the advent of beller ti.mes, .. . then lei W

emblazoll the words that Benj amin Franklin , a worker who became a great man, ... once spoke to his feUow citizens: ' If anyone saY810 you t.hal you can come into wealth by some mea ns olher than industry and frugality, then pay him no heed : He's a viper. '" Franklin . ConseiLs pour faire fo rtune (Paris , 1848), pp . i-i.i Ulreface by Michel Chevalier). : (U6a,2)

The press under Charles X: "One of Ille memhers of Ihe court , M. Soslhcne de la Roehefouca ult , ... coneeived the grand project of absorhing the opposition neWI· papers by buying them up . Dut tile only ones that woull) COlisentto the deal had no inAuenee to sell. ·' Pierre de la Gorce. u. Resta ura lion , \'01. 2. Charles X (Paris).

~- ~Q

The FourieriSIS looked forwar,IIOmll88 eonversions among the public after they introduced a fe uillctoll in l.A1 PI!IJ/IHIge. See Ferrari , " I)es Ideell et lie I'ccole de Fourier." RevlI~ des deux mo"des, 14, no. 3 (1845), p . 432 . fU7,2]

"0 fbets! You have eyes, but you do not see-and ears, but you do not hear! Great things are wtfolding in your midst, and you give us war chants!" [Ibere foUows a characterization of the warlike inspiration for "La Marseillaise."] "This hyum to blood, these frightful imp~cations bear witness not to any danger that Iltight be threatening the country, but to the impotence of liberal poetry- poetry without inspiration beyond that of war, strugglc, and endlcss complaint .... 0 people! Sing, nonethelcss, sing "La Marseillaise," since your poets are silent or can only recite a pale intitation of the hymn of your fathers. Sing! The hannony of your voices will yet prolong the joy with which triwnph had filled your soul; for you, the days of happiness are few and far betvo"Cen! Sing! ... 'rour joy is sweet 10 those in sympathy with you! It has been so long since they heard anything but moans and groans from your lipsl" "Religion Saint·Sinlonienne: La Marseillaise" (extract from L'Organisateur, September 11, 1830) (according to the catalogue of the Bibliothcque Nationale, the author is Michel Chevalier], pp. 3-4. The ani­mating idea of this rhapsody is the confrontation of the peacefulJuly Revolution with the bloody Revolution of 1789. Hence, this observation : "Three days of combat sufficed to overturn the throne of legitimacy and divine right .... Victory went to the people, who live from their labors-the rabble that crowds the workshops, the populace that slaves in misery, proletarians who have no prop­eny but their hands: it was the race of men so utterly despised by salon dandies and proper folk . And why? Because they sweat blood and tears to get their bread, and never strut about in the balcony of the Comic Opera. After forcing their way into the hean of the palace, ... they pardoned their prisoners ... ; they ban­daged the wounded . ... Then they said to themselves : 'Oh, who will sing ofour exploits? Who will teU of our glory and our hopes?'" ("La M arseillaise," as above, p. 1). [V7,3]

From a reply to an unfriendly review (in La RaJue de Paris) of Charles Pradier 's literary labors : "For three years now, we have been appearing daily on the city's

' sidewalks, and you probably think l'o"C have grown accustomed to it all .... ~, you are m..istaken.ln fact, every tinle we step up on our soapbox, we hesitate and look around us for excuses; we find the weather unpropitious, the crowds inat­tentive, the street too loud. we dare not admit that we ourselves lack daring.... And now, perhaps, you understand ... why some.times we exult in the thought of Our work ; ... and why, seeing us filled with enthusiasm, ... you-and others \";th you-could take it for undue pride." Ch. Pradier, "Rcponse aLa Revue de Pari.,," in I.e BohfflJe, Charles Pradier, editor-in-chief, vol. 1, no. 8 (June 10, 1855). TIle passage is entirely characteristic of the bearing-at once honest and unccnain- of this newspaper, which did not make it past its initial year of publi­cation. As early as the first issue, it marks itself ofT from the lax, morally emanci· pated boh~ne and makes mention of the pious Hussite sect, the Freres Bohcmes, founded by Michel Bradacz, which it would like to ensure a literary posteri ty.

[U7a, l ]

Sli mple of the IItyle of the lIewlI!J II I,el' LA!. Boheme: " Wllu! ~ lIrcet8 cruelly in the garrets is in telligence, art , poetry. the 80 1l1! •.• •' or the soul is a wallet cOlll lt ining ,

only the banknotes of paradise, and the shoJ>keel>en of this ....orld would nail thit mOlley to their counter like II coin fallen from the 11811<18 of II counterlei IA." AI .... . ex~

andre Guerin, "Les Mansu rdee," l..e Boheme, I . no. 7 (May 13, 1855). [U7a,2!

From a confrontation between the underclass intelk'CluaI, and tile ruling-dan intellec: lua ls: " You princes of thought, j ewels of the intellect ... , since you have moved 10 Ilisown U8, we in lum have abjured your paternily; we have disdained your crowns and impugned your coau of arms. We have casl &Side the grandiose titles you formerly sought (or your Jabors: we are 110 longer "The Elan ," "The Star," or "The Will-o'-the-Wisp," ... but instead are ' 'The Pretentious Fool" "'The Pennilell8," "The Promised land ," "The Enfant Terrible," "The Tra ~c Pariah ," or "The Bohemian," and thull we protest ... your egotistical a uthOrit:"

Charles Pradier, "Peres et ftls," Le Boheme, 1, no. 5 (April 29. 1855). (U7a,3)

Le Boheme, in its first issue, bears the subtitle Nonpolitical NewJpaper. (US, II

"Do me the kindness of walking through the ~mblin~ dens, the little restaurants near the Pantheon or the Medical School. There you will find ... poetl who are

moved only by envy and all the lowest paS8ions, the self. proclaimed martyrs of the sacred Cffwe ofprogress, who ... smoke many a pipe ... without doing any­thing ... ; whereas Picond , whose beautiful lines you have cited , Piconel the gannent worker, who earns four and a haH francs a day to feed eight people, it registered a t the charity offi ce!! ... I have no ... wish , paradoxical al it mipt

seem, to commend the boasting of Dumas pere or to excuse the indifference of ­some of his friends towa rd younger writers; but I declare to you that the greatest

enemies of those who have been deprived of a literary legacy are not the writen of renown , the monopolizeN of the daily feuiUeton , but ra ther the falsely disinher· ited, those who do nothing but hurl insults, drink, and scandalize hone" people,

and all this from the vantage l)Oint of art." Eric hoard , "Les Faux Bohemes," I.e Boheme. I . no. 6 (May 6, 1855). (U8,2)

It is significant that Le BoMme, which looks after the rights of the literary proletar­iat-who sympathize, to some extent, with the industriaJ proletariat-wowd see

6t, in an article entitled "Ou Roman en general et du romancier modem e en particulier" (On the Novd in General and the Modem Novelist in Particu1ar>, by Paul Saulnier (vol. I , no. 5), to condemn the practice of "slavers." M onsieur de

SanUs, as the novelist in vogue is named here, returns home after a day spent in idleness. "Directly upon his arrival home, Monsieur de SanUs locks himself in . .. and goes to open a little door hidden behind his bookcase.-He finds himself, then, in a sort of little study, dirty and quite poorly lit. H ere, with a long goose quill in his hand, with his hair standing on end , is a man with a face at pntt sinister and unctuous.-Oho! with this one, you can tell from a mile away he's a novelist- even if he is only a former employee of tlle ministry who leamed the art of Balzac from the serials in Le Constitutionnel. It is the veritable author of 1M Clwmber 0/Skulll! It is the novelisl!" [U8,3]

"In 1852 the bruthers Pere.ire, IWO Portuguese J ews, founded the fi NI great mod· ern bank. Cr&lil Mobilier, of which ollie said Iha t il ..-as lhe biggest gamhlin5 hell in Eurol)C' It u,ulertook wild speculations ill everything- ra ilruads, hotels, colonies,

,I. ,nines theaters-and . after fift een yea rs, it dt..'<:iared tQlal bankruptcy."call, ' . El;oll Friedell . Kulturgeschiclue rler Nellzeif . vol. 3 (Munich . 1931), p . 187.

(U8a,t)

" Yo/leme <bollt!mian ) belongs to the vocabulary in use a round 1840. In the lan­guage of Ihat lime, it is synQnymous ....ith ' artist ' or 'stude,"t ' or ' pleasure seeker'; itllIeallS someolne who is light-hearled a nd unconcerned With the morrow, lazy and

boisterous:' Gabriel Guillemot , I.e Boheme (paris, 1868). pp . 7-8; cited in Gisela Freund , ("La Photographie a u l)Oint de vue sociologique," manuscript ,> p . 60.

(U8a,2j

"The rQman--feuilkton <serial novel> was ina ugura ted in France by Le Siecle in 1836. The beneficent effects Qf the rOma "~fellillefon on the newspaper's receipll is revealed by the CQntract whicb Le COIlJ litutionnel and Ltt Prene together had

with Alexandre Dumas in 1845.... Dumas reeei"ed an annual saJary Qf 63,000 frllllC8 for five years, in return for a minimullI output of eighteen insta llments per year:' Lavisse, Histoire de Iff monarchie de jltillet , Voli. 4 (Paris, 1892); cited,

withQut page reference, in Gisela Freund . (U8a,3]

A laying of Murger's (cited by Gillela Freund , p. 63): "The boheme: it is the train·

ing groulld for the artistic life; it is the stcppingstone to the Academie, to the Hotel-Dieu ( hospital> , or tQ the Morgue." (U8a,4)

Gisela Freund (p. 64) Wlderlines the difference betweell the fiNt gener ation of bohemians---Gautier. Nervol, Nanteuil- who were Qften Qf 80lid bQurgeois origin, lind the second : " Murger WIIS the son Qf a concicrge-tailor; Champfleury Was the

6 11 of a secreta ry in the town haU of LaQn ; Barbara , the SOli of a sbeet-music seller ; Bouvin , the SQn of a village policeman ; Delvau , the 8011 of a tanner in the

Faul)Ourg Saint-Marcel; a nd Courbet Was the SOli Qf a quasi-peasant ." To this \ seeo"d generation belongcd Nadnr-the son of a poor printer. (He was later, for a

long time, sccretary to Lesscps.) [U8a,5)

·'M. de Ma rtiguac bequea thed ... a trouhlt.,.d legacy to the newspapcN. with his

law o( July 1828-a law that was more liberal , to be sure, hul which . by mak.iug . . . dailies or periodicals more accessiblc to all , burdellcll tllcm with certain fiuan· cial obligations.. . 'What will we do Iol cover the lIew c:lo:pcnscs? ' dcmanded the IlcWspal)Cr!I. " Vell , you will run ad,-crtisements,' came the response.... The con­SCIIIU!nccs of lulvertising were « uick to emerge and seemingl)' endless. It was all "cry weIl to want to separa te_ in Ihe pages of tIle ncwspaper. that whiell remained ('(.IIl~cicntioti s and illllcpCllllcnt from that which l)Ccaml' "arli~a n alltl mercenary ; bu t the boundary ... was quickl y crosscii. Tim udverli ilemcllt served li S "rillge. 110100' CQuld Qne condemn , five minules Lcrore, ... wllat five ,,~inllies afterwllrd

I)roc.la imed itself tim woniler of the age? Tile fa scina tion of capitalletten. which Ihat of the word.... They opened the way 10 a journalism of the grayer." Egon

- were gr owing eve r la rger , curried ad vertis ing away: it was the ma~etic mountan. fri eden . KIIlmrgcschichle der Nelu:eil, yol . 3 (Munich , 193 1), p. 95. fU9a,3} thall.hre...· off the compau .... This wretched advertising had an inOuence no less rulal 10 the book trade.... Advertis ing represented . .. a doubling of ex~

penses ... : one thousand (ra lles for promoting a new work . Because oflhis rise in costs , moreover. hook dealcn mercilessly demanded from authon two volume. instead of oue---voiumcs iu oclavo rathe r than in smalle r (ormat , for Ihal did not

cost any more to advertise.... Advertising . .. would re<luirc It whole history unto

it lielf: Swift , wit.h his vitrio lic pen, wou ld he the o lle 10 wrile it .'" On the word rh:lmne ( advertisement ). the following r emark : " For those who may not know the

facts , we merely obscrve thai the nk wme is the Little notice slipped into the ncws. I)ape r near t.he end , and ordinarily paid for by the bookseller ; inserted on the

samc day a8 the advertisement , or on the day following, it gin!s in two words a brief and favorable judgment that helps prepare the way for that of the review'" Saint. 8euve, "De la Litterature industricllc," ReVile des deux mondes, 19, no. 4

(1839), pp . 682-683. [U9,l]

" Writing and publishing will be less ami less a sign of distinction. 10 keeping with our electoral and industrial customs, everyone, at least once in his life, will have

his page, his treatise, his prospe<:tus, his toast- will be an author. From there to penning a feuilleton is only a slep . ... In our own da y, after all , who can aay to

himseUthat he does not , in pari , write in order 10 Live ... ?" Sainte-Beuve, " De la Litterature intlu8lrieUe," Revue des deux mandes, 19, no. 4 (1839) , p. 681 .

[U9,.]

In 1860 and 1868, in Ma rseilles and Paris, appeared the IwO volumes of Revua parisielmcs: Les }ollrnllllX, le, reViles, Ie! livre!, by Baron Caston de F1otte, who took it upon himself to combat the thoughtlessneu and unscrupulousnesll of the historical accounts in the press and , particularly, in the feuilletons. The rectifica­tiolls concern the facts an~1 the legends of cultural, Literary, aod political history.

[U9,3]

Fees for feuilletoll8 wellt as high as two fr ancil per line. Authors would often wrile as much (lialogue as possible so as to bcncfit from the blank spaces in the lines.

[U9.,1]

In his essay, " De la Litter ature industrielle" <On Industrial Literature). Sainte­Beuve discusses , among other things, the initial proceedings of the newly o~an­ize<1 Societe des Cens de Lcttres (which origina lly compaigncd, ahove all , againllt

Ull ll ulhorized Helgjan rCI)rinu). fU9a,21

" In tile beginlling, Sencfelil er luul thought only of facilitating tile reproduction of munuscripts, ulul he puhlicized the II CW proeesse~ Icuding 10 this elul ill lIis Vol¥ sti;fldigen Lehrbucll der Steitltlruckerei <Complete MUIIII II I of Lithography) , which a ppeared ill 18 18. Olhen fi n l exploited hill idea ~ for Ihe techlliqucoflilhO!­ra phy itself. ThclIc methodil enabled n ra pidity of dra wing Ihnl wall nellriy Ct:lual to

O~·crview of the r evolutionary press ill Paris ill 1848. Cllriosites revoillli01l1luires: Les j OllrllUIIX rOllses-iJis toire critique de to~u leI journullx ultra-repllblicaiw ,

hy II Girondist (Paris . 1848). fU9a,4]

·'There is only olle way of preventing cholera , and that is to work to eleyate the

morality of the masses. No per son whose moral eonstitutioll is satisfactory has all )'thillg to fear from the plague .... There is clearly a place, today, for awa ken­ing moral salubrity among the manes.... What is needed are ... extraordinary measures.... What i8 nt:eded is a coup d 'etat , all industrial coup d 'etat . . . . This

action ....ould consist in changing, by decree, the law of expropriation, so that ... the iJllerminable delays occasioned by the current legislation would be reduced to II fe .... days... . One could thus begin operations, for inll ta nce, on some thirty sites in Paris , from the Rue de Louvre to the Bastille, which would clean up and reform

the ....orst neighborhood of the city .... One could ... 8tart up railways at the barrieres .... The first s tage or construction ... ""ould be accompanied by cere­mOllies and public festiyal8. All the official bodies of the state would be thcre with their insignia, to exhort the people. The king and his family, the ministers, the council of II ta te, tbe CQurt of casslltion , the royal court , what is left of the two Chamhers--all would drop by on a regular basis, wielding the shoyel and pick.

axe . . .. Military regiments would arrive on the scene to do service in full dreu, with their military music to inspire them . ... Theatrical performances would be put on there from time to time, and the best actors would consider it an honor to

appear. The mOi l radiant women would mix with the worker s to provide encour­agement . Exalted thus, and made to feel proud , the population would most cer ­

tainJy become invulnerable to cholcra . Industry would be given an impetus; the governme.nt ... would be ... established On a firm foundation ." Michel Chevalier, ",Religion Saint-Simonienne: Fin du cholera par un coup d 'etat" <pamphlet>

(Paris, 1832). The Saint·Simonians wanted to distribute medicine free of charge. [Uga,S]

, " \!lhat makes working 0 11 the omnibus train into truly painful drudger y: it departll Ilaris at 7:00 ill the mor ning and arrives in SITlishourg al midnight. TillS makes for seVenteen hours of continuous service, during willch the contluclor must get off at e\'ery station , ....ithout exception . to OIH!n tbe doors of the car s! ... Surely, the

employee who is re.luired to climb duwn al each station , ami to wade around in the 8'IOW for fi Ye or six minutes ever y IlIlif-hour, 80 as to opell and close the car dours_lIud a ll this lit twdve degrees below freezing, or worse--must suffer cru­elly." A. Gra n,·eau . L 'Ou vrier det/filll fa societe (Paris, 1868), pp. 27- 28 ("'Les Employee et Ie 1II0uvemcnt des chcmillS de fer"). [U IO, I]

A remarlGible apotheosis of the traveler- to some extent a counterpart, in the realm ofsheer banality, to Bauddai.re's <OLe Voyage"-can be found in Benjamin Gastineau, La Vlt rn dwnjn fkfer (Paris, 18 61 ). The second chapter of the book

is called "Le. Voyageur du XIX' siecle" <The Nineteenth-Century Traveler> (p. 65). ll1is wy(lgeur is an apotheosis of the traveler in which, in quite peculiar fashion, the traits of the WanderingJew are mingled with those of a pioneer of progress. Samples: "Everywhere along his path, the traveler has sown the riches of his heart and his imagination: giving a good word to all and sundry, . , . encouraging the laborer, rescuing the ignorant from their gutter, . , . and raising up the humiliated" (p. 78). "The woman who seeks a love supreme: traveler!_ The man who seeks a devoted woman: traveler!-... Artists avid for new hori­zons : travders!-The mad who take their hallucinations for reality: trav­e1ers!-... Glory hunters, troubadours of thought: travders!-Life is a joumey and every single being who departs the womb of woman to return to the womb of earth is a traveler" (pp. 79-81). "Humanity, 'tis thou who art the eternal voyage.-" (p. 84). [U IO,' )

Passage from Benj amin Gastineau , Lv. Vie en chemin defer (Paris, 1861 ): "All of a sudden , the curtain is lowered abruptly on the 8UII. on beauty, on the thousand scenes of life and lIature which your mind amI hea rt ha ve savored along the way, It is night und death a nd tile cemetery; it is despotism- it is the tunnel! Nothing but beings that dwell in the shadows, never knowing the bright wing of freedom and

truth! ... Nonetheless , after hearing the cries of confusion and dismay from pa... sengers 011 the train a8 it enters the gloomy archway, and their exclamations of joy

on 'Iuilt ing the IIl11ncl, ... who would dare maintaill that the human creature wa. not malle for light a nd liberty?" (pp. 37-38). [VIO,3] -Passages from Benjamin Gaslineau , Lv. Vie en chemin def er (Paris, 1861): " H. ilIO

you , nohle races of the future , scions of the railway! " (p , 112). " All a board! AU aboard! The whilltle piercell the sonorOU8 va wt of the s ta tion" (p. 18). " Before the creatioll of the railroads, nature did not yet pwsate; it was a Sleeping Beauty. , , . The hea" ens themselves a plJea red immutable, The railroad animated every· thing .... The sky has become an active infinity, and nature a d ynamic beauty.

Chris t is d escendetl from his Cross; lIe has walked the earth , and he is leaving, far bc hind him 011 the dusty road , the old AhulIueruiI" (p . 50). [VIOa,l ]

" Michel Clu.walier delighted the !l tndellts [of the Ecole Polyteclllli<jue] when be rdracell , in pa rticuiur, t.he grea t historical epochs. recurring oft en to Alexauder, Cue~ar. Chur)cmngne. 1t11(1 Napoleon . in order to emphasize the role of inventors alllitriumphaut organizers ." G, Pinet, llislOire de {'Ecole polYfeellflilllle (PariJl, HUH), p. 205. [V IOa,2j

" The IIiJlI' ipleli of Suinl-Simon- n 'cruited , for the 111081 pltrt , from the Ecol~ des Millell. wllk h i ll to lIay, f 1'0 111 ulllong the best s tLident~ of tile Ecole Polytcchnillue-­coull) IInl IUlvc' failcll to c'xc'rt a consiclcrahle influcnce un t.llI'ir younger coro· radell.... Nevc' rlhclc'6~, SlI inl -Simoniunilim ditl not havt' lillie 10 garner lIIany t:UlIl'erl" a t IIII' Ecolt· l'olytt:·d llliclue, The schism of 1831- dea lt it II fatu i blow- Ihe

fo llies of Menilmontant . lhe bizarre COShUIIC8 . and the ritiiClllouSllameS had killed it . ,. G. Pinet , Ilis foire de "Ecole Jiolytedllliqlle , PI' . 204--205. [V IOa,3)

The itlea for the Suez Ca nal gucs hack 10 [nfantin. who hall sought a conceSliioli frolll the ,' iceroy of Egypt. Muliamma,1 Ali , and wanted to move there with forty pupils. Engllllltllllude SlIre I.hallhe concession was denied him. [VIOa,4]

"Saint-SinlOn attempted to found an association to take advantage of the easy tenns mandated by the decree, . , of November 2, 1789, which made it possible to acquire national lands at a price that was payable in twelve annual installments by means of assignats. These temlS alIO\~'Cd for the acquisition, with modest capital, of a considerable spread of rura! properties .... 'Every financial specula­tion is based upon an investment of industry and an investment of funds. The returns on a financial speculation should be divided in such a way that industty and capital have shares proportionate to the influence they exercised. In the speculation I entered on with M. de Redem, capital played only a ~condary role.''' The author cites a letter from Saint-Simon to Boissy-d~glas, dated No­vember 2, 1807; it contains indic.1.tions as to his theory of the relations between capital, labor, and talent. Maxime Leroy, UJ Spicu/ationJ fondem de Saint-Simon et Jt:i qumllu d'qffaim aVt:c Jon (lJJocii, Ie comlt: de Rt:dern (paris <1925», pp. 2, 23.

[U1I,1)

"Saint-Sinton believed in science .... But whereas. a t the beginning of his studies. the mathematical and physical sciences, , . had almost exclusive claim on hil attention , it was now from the realms of the natural Icienct:s that he would seek the

elusive key to those locial problems tha t so vexed him . ' I distanced myself, in 1801, from t.he Ecole Polyteduti'lue.' he writes, ' and I established myself in the "icini ty of the Ecole d e Medicine, where 1 was able to aJlsociate with the physiolo­

gisls. ,,., Maxime Leroy, Lv. Vie lJeri'able dll comte lIen,-i de Saint-Simon (Paris. 1925), pp. 192- 193.- T he Ecole Polytec:: lmi'lue. at the time Saint·SinlOn lived near it , was housed in the Palais Bourbon . [V I 1,2] ,

"Ule Nave of the Grand Cafe Parisien" reads the cap60n under an engraving from 1856, The view of the pubtic oITered here does, in fact, resemble the one secn in the nave ofa church, or in an arcade. Visitors are mostly standing in place or wandcring about- t.hat is, among tile billiard tables whicll are set up in the navc. [U Il ,3j

Hubbard says-refening, with doubtful justification, to Saint-Sinlon's tears on parting from his wife at the time of their divorce :' "Perpetual sacrifice of the tC~lder and t:ompassionate being to the being that thinks and understands." CIted in Maxime Leroy, La Vie uin'labte du comlt: Hrori de Saint-Simon (Paris, 1925), p. 21 1. ...... [V1I ,4]

" Let li S put all elltlto honon for AJexander; and hail Archimedcs!" Saint-Simob , cil l.'1.! ill Leroy, La Vie veri'tlble du comle lIenri de SainI-Simon . p. 220. [V II ,S]

Comte worked for four yean by the side of Saint-Simon. lII [VII ,, ]

Eugene Sue's juiferrunt <Wandering J ew) in Le ConstilUlionnel as a replacemebt for Thiers's lIiJtoire du COnsllwt et de I'Empire , which Veron had originall planned to pllb1i8h there. (U11 ,~

Saint-Simon: " Conli ideration8 lillr les melillreli aprendre pour terminer la Revolu_ tion" < 1820>.- lntroduction to Les Tra uaux scienlifaques du XIX' siecle.

(UIla,l ]

Saint-Simon invented revolutionary playing cards: four geniuses (war, peace, art,

commerce) a8 kings; four libertie8 ( religion, marriage , the p ress, the profession8) as (Iueens; four equalities (duties, rights, dignities, colors) as jacks. I...eroy, La Vie verittlble du comte lIenri de Suint-Simon (Paris, 1925), I). 174. (U lla,2]

Saint-Simon dies in May 1825. Hi8 lu t word8: " We are carrying on with our

work ." Leroy, p . 328. [Ulh,3]

On Saint-Simon : "A8 much B8 he u tonishes us with his foresight in matte ... of

labor and society, he nonetheless gives us the impression that he was lacking some­thing: ... a milieu , hi8 milieu , the proper spher e in which to extend the Optimi8tie

tradition of the eighteenth century. Man of the future, he had to do his thinlciJl8 alm08t entirely by him8Cif, in a 80ciety that had been decapitated , bereft of ill

foremo8t minds by the Revolution .... Where was Lavoisier, founder of modera experimenta l 8dence? Where was Condor cet, the leading phil080pher of the ap. and Chenier, the leading poet? They would have lived , in all likelihood , had

Rohespier re not had them guiUotined. It was left to Saint-Simon to car ry out, without their hell), the difficult work of organill8tion which they began . And faced

with this immen8e and 80Litary mission, ... he took upon himself too many ta8b; he was obliged to he a t once the poet , the experimental 8cientis t, a nd the philo80­

I)her of the newborn age." Maxime Leroy, La Vie veritable till comte lIenri de Saint-Simon (Jlaris, 1925), PI)' 321-322. [U ll a,4]

A lithograph by Pattcl represents "Engraving Doing Battle with Lithography." The latter seems co be getting the upper hand. Cabinet des Estampcs. [U Il a,5]

A lithograph of 1642 depicts "The Divan of the AJgerians in Pari~" as "The Cafe !\1auresque. " In till: background of a coffeehouse, in which exotic fi gllre~ walk by the sille of EurOI)tlunS, thrl.'i: od alis(lueS are sitting, pressed close togcther 0 11 a tiny divan hencath a mirror. and smoking water pil)tlS. Cabinet des Estllmpes. .

[U lla,6)

Graphics fro m 1830 display readily, and often allegorically, the conflict of the newspapt::rs among one another. They love to show, in this same period, what

happens when several pt::ople have to shan: in reading one newspaper. They picture the snuggle that arises on this occasion, whether it be over possession of the paper or over the opinions it purveys. Cabinet des Estampes, a plate from 1817: "The Love of News, or FbliUcomania." (U lla,7]

"AI the Siock Exchange, one Saint-Simonian i8 worth two J ews.'" " Paris·Bour­sier." Les Petits-Paris: Par les auteur, des memoires de Hilbof/uet [TaxiJe Delom]

(Paris. 1854), p . 5<l. (U12,1]

An uncommonly telling expression of the heyday of boulevard journalism. "What do you mean by the word '\vit'?-I mean something which, it is said, travels the streets but only very rarely enters the houses." Louis Lurine, u 'frei!jeme ArTf)ndi.s.mnenl de Paro (Paris, 1850), p. 192. [U12 ,2]

The idea that newspaper advertisements could be made to serve. the distribution not only of books but of industrial articles stems from Dr. veron, who by this means had such successes with his Pate de Regnauld, a cold remedy, that an investment of 17,000 francs yielded him a return of 100,000. "One can say, therefore, . .. that if it was a physician, Theophraste Renaudot, who invented journalism in France ... , it was Dr. Veron who, nearly half a cenntry ago, invented the founh·page newspaper advertisement." J oseph d '~y, La Salle Ii mtlnger du docleur Wron (Paris, 1868), p. 104. [U12,3]

The "emancipation of the 8esh," in Enfantin, should be compared to the theses of Feuerbach and the insights of Georg Buchner. The anthropological material· ism is comprised within the dialectical. [U12,4]

V"UJemessant : " lnitiaUy, he ran a bU5iness ill ribbons. This concern ... led the ...

youlig man to start up a fa5hion journal. ... From there, Villeme68ant ... 800n m~ved into politics , rallied to the ugitimisl party and , after the Revolution of 1848, turned himself into a political satiri8l . He organized three different new8Jla­

~rs i~ succe8sion , amOng them the Puris Chronicle, which was 8uppressed by \. Impenal decr ee in 1852. Two yean after this, he fo unded Le Figaro. " Egon Caesa r

COllte Corti , Der Ztlllberer von lIomburg lind Monte Ctl r/o (uipzig <1932» , pp . 238-239. [U12,5)

J.'ralltois Blallc was one of the first grellt II{I Verliser~. Tllrollgl, contacts in the press. he hlld placed IlIl vt~ rti8cmcllt 8 for the Homhurg Casino in Le Siecle and L "Ancmblee nlilionafe. " lie ulso pCI'solllllly lll'runged fOI' entire series of cight­

e::n~\'ell fifty- ad ... crti H t~ mcllt s to appca r ill ncwspa pers ... like Lfl Pressc, Le I\ mwnll f L I' , · I ' - G I ' ... E C C C· • , 1I II n e, all( Le 1I ' 8 /1WII. gUll al:Sll r ollte Ol·tl , Ocr Zauberer VO/l Hom bllrg lind MOllte Carlo (Leipzig), p . 9i. [U12.6J

II] Saint-Sil~IOII 'S Ilay: " " uICI)tllllientl y of the New J erusalem of Emanuel SWedelihor g, alh'ocated lJy Baron Porlal, ... d ll' re ...·us the phalanstery of Chllrles Fourier. There was a lso the 80-caUed Eglise Fra lll;ai8C 6f Abbe Chatel,

Primate of the Gaul8; there was the re8toration of the Order of the Tempi.... organized hy M. Fahre-Palaprat ; allli there ,..-all the cull of Ev.damism cre.ted b; the Mapah."11 Philibert AudeIJralll1, Michel Chevalier <Pari8_ 1861>. p . 4.

(UI',7j

Sailil-Simonian propaganda . " One of the foUowers of Ihe doclrine. who waf asked. one day, whal hi8 dUlics were, replied: ' I am a ma n about lown, a respecled

speaker. I am elegantly Ilre88ed 80 I.hal 1ca n be presenled everywhere; gold is put inio my pocket so that I am rcady to play whist. How can I fail?'" Philibert

Audebrand, Michel Chevalier, p. 6. [U12a,l]

The split in the ranks of the Saint-Simonians forced adherents of the d octrine to

choose between Bazard and Enfantin . (U12a,2]

At Mcnilmontant, the members of the Saint-Simonian 8eC:t shared responsibility

for the various departemenu of housekeeping: cooking (Simon and Rocbelle), tableware (Talebot), cleaning (d'Eichtel , Lambert), sboeshine (Barrault).

(U12a,3]

The Saint-Simonians al Menilmontant: "A great nlll8ician of tbe future,

M. FeLicien David , composer of The De5ert , of The Pearl of Bra::;il aod of Hercu­wneum , was Ilirector of their orchestr a. He composed the melodies they saD« ... ,

notably those which pre<:ede<1 and foUowed the meals. " Philibert Audebraod, Michel Chevalier ( Paris, 1861>, 1' . 11. [V12a,4]

General celibacy, up until the marriage of Enfanlin , was the rule at Minilmootant. [V12a,S]

After the dissolution of Menilmontant, and after being sentenced to a year in prison, Chevalier was dispatched by Thiers to America. It is likewise Thiers who later sends rum to England. After the February Revolution, which costs him his position, he becomes a reactionary. Under Napoleon, he is made senator.

(U12a,6]

By the end of the 18508. Le Sieck. with 36,000 subscribers , had the largest circu­lation.-Milland founds Le Pe,i, Journal. which he sells on the sl.reelll for one sou.

[V12a,7]

Uab:ac, commenting on Aux Ar,i.J'e5: 011 Pelue el de ro ve"ir tie5 ooaux-tIrU-Doc· trilU~ de Soiflt-Simo" (Paris: Mesnier): " Apostleship is lin artistic lIIi6Sioll , but tM uut hor of this pamphlet Illls not shown b.imself worthy of that uugust title. The main ideu of h.is work is I.ruly imlKlrtallt ; what he has given us is inconsider­able . ... Saini-Simon was a remarkable man , one who is yt:l to be understood. This fa ct has causetlthe It'aders of his I!chool to engage in the practice of prosely­tizillg II )" II IJCaking. like Chris t . u lunguage att uned ttl the limes a lld to the men of those timclI. a language ca lcltlat(."(lto appeallCIIs to the mind than Itl the heart. " 10

this same text. with r eference to Saint-Simon : "There, perhal>s. Iiell the truth ." lIollore de Balzac. Critique liueraire. 00. Louis Ltlmet (Paris, 1912), PI'. 58. 60 ("Le Feuilleton des journaux politi(IUCII" ). £V12a,8]

The immediate cause for the schism among the Saint-5imonians was Enfantin's doctrine of the emancipation of the flesh. To this was added the fact that others, like Pierre Leroux, had earlier already bridled at holding public confession.

(UI',I]

The Saint-Simonians had little sympathy for democracy. (UI',']

The press under Charles X: "The newspapers did not seU single copies to individu­

abo Newspapers were read only by subscribers. and subscription wasexpeDllive. It was a luxury, in fact , r eserved for the nobility and the hau te bourgeQisie. The total number of copie. rose, in 1824, 10 only 56,000 (of which 41 ,000 were for the

opposition newspapers)." Charles Seignobos, Hi.Jtoire sincere de la nation jram,uue (Paris, 1933), PI" 411-412. Over and above that , the newspapert had to

pay large deposits. [V13,3]

Cirardin , as editor of La Preue, introduces advertisements, feuilletons, and sales

of single copies. [V13,4]

"Newspaper salesmen have great difficulty procurinll: their stock . In order to gel their supply, they bave to s tand in line-in the street , no lcss!-for part of the night." Puris 50W W Republique de 1848: Expo&ition de la BiblWtheque el des TravClux hutorique5 de Ja Ville de Puru (1909), p . 43. [V13,S]

Around 1848. lhe Cafe Chant ant opens up : The founder is Morel. (UI',6]

Picture sheets: " Occul>ations of the Saint-Simonian Ladies Attording to Their

Capacities" (lmagerie popuwire, 1832). Colored prints. in which red, green , and

"' yellow predominate: "Saint-Simonian Ladies Preaching tbe Doctrine," "This Bouquet Cannot Be Too Beautiful for Our Brother," "Saint Simonienne Dreaming

of the Hunt ," and 10 forth . Illustrations in Henry-Rene.d·Allemagne, Le5 Saint­SimonienJ. J827-1837 (Paris, 1930), opposite I>. 228. A pendant to this : " . ' unc­tions of the Apostles or l\1ellil-Montant According to Their Capacity" (illustration . ihill ., opposite p. 392). St.'e in this context (ibid ., opposite p . 296) the etiquette for laullching a foot! itcm: "Liquor of tbe Saint-Simonian8." A group of Enfantin'l disci ple8; at ccnter, Enfunlln and the Republjc wuving a tricolored flag . Everyone raises a glass. [V 13,7)

In 183 1, Ba~ard , Chcvalier, aud a few othert refuse. as members of the " clergy" of tht Saint-Simonian church , 10 serve in the Garde Nationale. Twenty-four houu' inl prisonment . (U13,8) ,

Le Globe (October 31 , 1831). with regard to the uprising in Lyons. held that a r_iae in pay could place thai ci ty', industry in j eopardy: " Don' t you sw that , even if. d irect intervention in the affairs of industry ... is rel.luired of YU II •••• you can. not , for some brief pe riod , alleviate the suffering of oue das8 of society without pel'ha»8 oppressing unother? Let 1111 now commend the henefll ' of competition, of that laissez-faire ... which the liberal or ators of late have once again been tout_

illg." H.- R. d ' AUemagne . u !J SlJint-Simonien!J (Paris, 1930), p. 140. [U13,9)

The Saint-5imonians: a salvation anny in the midst of the bourgeoisie. [U13a,l]

Chevalier, writillg 10 Hoart a nd Brunea u, on Novemher 5, 1832 : " Listen to th_. voice from Lyons! Lyolls is calling you . is calling us, with a roar. Lyons is totteriDfl;.

Lyon8 is trembling. What energy those proletarian8 have! They are descendaDu or Spartacus!" Henry-Rene d 'AUemagne, u! So iflt-Simonien!J, 1827- 1837 <Pam, 1930>, p . 32.5. [U13a,2]

Rcvoaling:

1bis people, whose head and hand you fear, Muslmarch, must march-no halting! It's when you stop their steps They notice the hob in their shoes.

Uon HaJevy, "La C haussure," FahltS TlouUt!/Ie; (Paris, 1855), p . 133; cited in de: Liefde, Le Saint-Simonisme dans la pobiefranfaise <Haarlem, 1927>, p. 70.

(V13a,S]

"Sal)l)(:r 8 of the army of l.eace"-a Sajnt-Simonian formula for the entire corp. 01 workers. (V131.')

A piece from Pierre Lachambeaudie 's Fable; et pobie; diverm (Paris, 1~51), "Fumee": smoke from the foundry meets with incense in the air, and they mingle at God's behest. TIlls conception extends forward as far as Du Camp's poem 00 the locomotive, with its "sacred smoke." (V13a,5]

[U131.6] Le C lohe--at least for II time--was diSlributed gratis in Paris.

" The feminine and masculine element ...·hid l they tIiSco\-er ill God , a nd which they aim to revive ill Ihc priestly marriagc . ha s not LL'Cn celebrated in the poetry of the

sect . We have found only olle allU8ion 10 these doctrillL"II . . ..

God of nI . l .. and fema le ,·irille. T his world lack. a ll <»n\'icl ion :

It yet .10111,18. a lld fed~ nol th e Falhcr'$ iron . miclion ! The MOlhcr-Cod a llO,·.,!- will he IIUl 8llving gr aC<"

Tha I. in hi ~ j"y. he ' ll hurry 10 (·",hrace!"

Jules l\1er cier, " Dieu nous Je re.ndra ," in La Foi nouvelle, p . 15; ci ted in C . L. de Liefde . U SlIinr·Simonisme (l lln!J la p oesie jrlJll{(Ji!Je d laarlem. 1927 >, 1>1>. 146­

14i. [U13a,7)

George Suml , for ",-holll love t~ ntuils the unifica lion of the classes , understands the fIIutt er in this wuy: "A young man of humble station , but genial and good looking,

nlarrie~ a bea utiful and l.erfect young noblewoman , and voila: the merger of the cla.sse;;.... In U Meunier d 'Angiooult , Lemor, the artisan hero , refuse8 the hand of II patriciun widow bet!au!Ie she is rich ... , a nd then the widow rejoices at the fi re "'hieh brings about her ruin , removing thu8 the last obslacle in .he way of Ull iOIl with her lover." CharlL'lI Brun, Le RonltJn social en France au XIX; sieck

(Puris, 19 10) pp . 96-97. [U13a.8j

Enfantin a88umes that pr iests, artist8, trutlcspeople, a nd so on will exhibit , in their different capacities, entirely different phY8icai constitutions (and different

ailments as well). (V13a,9j

Girardin's style: " Inden tation with each new sentence , each sentence being but a line; the antillie8is of ideas enveloped in the similitude of word8; rhyme in prose ... ; all nouns capitalized , enumerations that recall Rabelais. definitions that often re<:aU nothing at all ." Edouard Dr umonl , Le. Hero, et Ie! pitre, (Paris ( 1900» , p. 131 ("Emile de Gira rdin"). (U14,1]

Drumont 0 11 C irardin : " To get this result- beillg forgotten eight day8 after his death- he rose aU his life at five o' clock in the morning." Edouard Drumont, Le!J fleros et 1e!J pitres (paris <1900» , p. 134-135 (" Emile de C ira rdin"). [U14,2]

According 10 cer tain calculation8, the Saint-Simonians distributed between 1830 and 1832, son;e 18 millioll printed pages among the popuJation . S~ ell. Benoi8t, " L' llonlJlle de 1848 ," Revue del deux mOrldes (July I , 1913). [U14,3]

With their didactic contrast between worker bees and drones, the Saint-5imoni· \ am hark back to Mandeville's fable of the bees. ' (V14,4]

Uega rtiillg the moveilleni wilhin Sainl-Simollianism: from t he letlen addreued to

~nlbert by Cla ire Demar alld Perrel Deseua rts , before their joint suicide. Claire Dtmar: " Bill if his "oice has lIot drawn me on . if it is not he who has come to invite nle to thi I r . . I It . S 1181 e8l lvll y. at eaiOt hllve not hastened his voyage: he hus hL'en reatiy or II long tillle." J)e"e~su rI 8: " The offi ce unti Ihe officer a re extinguishing them­

ach·es at t l . . I . . Ie 8Ulll1 time . .118 we lave often said they must ; for the une ca nnot depart Wit hout th · " . , AI I I I I I ..C O) . ler. as" w W lave .ll way8 JL'en a nlan of advenlt)' and of soli­tUde-I I II ' • 10' 11.1 lun'e II lways murt:hed a lone IIlItl apart , ... p rotesting \'igorously gauisl ortl . J ' I II I .. . . I cr unu ulllt y_ w lui COli ( )e 8l1rl)rtSlllg III my wI! ld rawal enacted at IIIC . ,

Very /1101111:111 , it would SL'CIll , when I.he peuple8 are abuut to join in a religious

feder a tion . when their handa are now linked up to (orm tha t imP01inS chain... . Lambert, I do not doubt humanity, ... nor do I d oubt of Providence ... ; but iQ- tile lime in which we live , everything is ! ucred--even suicitle! ... Woe betide the man who does not ba re ills head before our cadavers, for he is truly impioua!

Adieu. August 3, 1833, at ten o'clock in the evening. " Claire Demar, Ma Lot d 'avenir,12 work published posthumously by SUJl llnne (Pari8: at the offices of La Tribune de, /emmet, and in anociation with all marchand. de nouveautes, 1834),

pp. 8, 10-11. [U14,S]

Sta tistics on the anllual publication of newspalH!rI, lIIontidy pcriodiclIls, and (on­

nightly r eviews. Included a fe new publications only:

1833:251 jounlUux 1838: 184- j ournaru

1834: 180 • 1840: 146

1835: 165 1841: 166 •

1836: 151 1842: 214

1837: 158 • 1845: 185

Charles Louandre, "Statistique litteraire: De la Production intellectuelle ell

France depuis quinze ans," Rellue des deux mondes (November I , 1847), p. 442. [U14,6J

Toussenel remarks of Enfantin that , in order 10 make up for his conviction ill court , a nd to console himself for the failure of bis fa scination on thia ocusioD, he turned to speculation. Tou88enel provides, moreover, the following portrail ..

him : "There was among them a man of godlike comportment wbo was namecl Enfantin . He was no less celebrated for the puissant maneuvers of h is cue stick , ill the noble game of billiards , than for the frequency and dec.i ~ ivene88 with wbich he doubled the stakes at gaming. Relying on the faith of several charming women, ..• he passed himself off as someone ideally suited to a leading role. a nd had bimMH proclaimed the Father . ... And since it was the aftennath of the July Revolu­

tion, ... this man did not lack for followers." A. Touuenel. us luifs rot.. • l 'epoqlle, 3rd edition . cd. Gabriel de Gonet (Paris < 1886>), vol. I , p . 127.

(U14a, l]

1832?). people laid the blame for theAt the time of tbe choler a epidemics <in {U14a,2J

infection on Li1luor dealers.

Le )olJ.rIUlI des debau..mtroduccs t u: IfurClgn corrC8pondent . . "5 ' '. Bertin sent. ' mce". Michel Chevalier on a diplomatic miu ioll to the United Sta tes (which gained for lad newspalH!r the publication of the famous Lellres Jlir l 'A merique du Nord), the latter ha s acquired a taste for these goverllmentall y sponsored assignmentll .... Following Ihe Lellres sur l'Ameril/lie du Nord . .. ca me the Leures sur l 'Es~'" ... ; Ihell there hael 10 be Lellres sur la Chine." A. Toussenel , Les )uifs rOt • l 'eptxlUe (Paris), vol. 2, 1'1' . 12- 13. {U14a,3}

1'he Saini-Silllonians looked for a female meuiah (La Mere), who ""'as to marry with their high priest . Le Pere. (U14a,4]

"Le IK'reOlinde <Rodrigues): ' ... If you are a Saini-Simonian woman, be ad vised Ihpl it is nol the republic that we want .··· Firmin Maillard . La Ugerzde de la femme em(lIIcipee (Paris), p . Ill . [U14a,5J

Heine IIC(lica led Deutschland to Enfantin. Enfantin r esponded with a letter that was publishcd in 1835, by Duguet . in a r eprint , Heine a Prosper Enfantin, en Egypt, whose jacket bore tbe Line De l 'Allemagne.-8"M. Piece 3319 <call number in Ihe Bibliolbeque Nationale). The letter admonishes Heine to temper hi, sar _ casm, above all in Ihings religious. Heine should write books nOI about Gennan Ihoughl but rather about the German r eality, the hearl of Germany- which, for Enfalltin, "", a& enentially an idyll . {U14a,6]

The conversion of Julie Fanfernot to Sainl-Simonianism (she turned later to Fourierism) was made the subject of a theatrical work by the Sainl-Simoniaru. Extracts from Ihis publication , which appeared in the grouP'& journal , ar e to be found ill Firmin Maillard . La Ugende de lafemme emancipee (Paris), pp . 115f£.

[UIS,!I

Saint-Simoll on tbe Rue Vivienne: "Dinners a nd evening parties followed one afler anolher wilhout interruption.... There were, in addition , some la te-night scenes of amorou.!! effusion , in whicb cerlain of the gueslfI , it is reported , ... let them­selves be car r ied away in Anacreontic Iransports, while, from deep in his easy chair, a calm and impanive Saint·Simon looked on , ta king no pa rt at all in the OOnverfl8tion , but nonetheless taking it all in , and preparing himself withal to transform the human race." Firmin Maillard , La U gende de lafemme emanci"ee (Pari! ), p . 27. {U15,2]

Many believed Ihat the female menia h- who, according to Duvey rier, could issue .118 ""'ell from the ranks of the prostilutes as from any other Siratum of 8ociety­, woult! have to come from the Orient (Con5lantillople). Barrauh and ""e!ve com­rades, therefure, set out for Con8lantinople 10 look for " the Atother. " {U15,3J

Apropos of I.he schism among the Sailil-Simonians: "Hazard ... had been mortally ...·ou1uled in conSC(lucllce of the fallloll8 general confeuion , where he learned from his wi fe hcrself that , in spite of all the symputhy . .. which she hud for him, she Could ncver see him come up to her withoul feeling an instinctive repugnance. It Wil ~ ' Hercules ellchaincII . ' as someone bad said un !!CC.ing him struck by apoplexy." Fir1nill Maillard , La Legemle de la femme em(mcipce (Pnris), p . 35. [U15,4J

" E" eryone kno~s a bout the rel.reul al Menilmonlalil. . . . There they Iive!1 in celi­bllcy S(I as to Ilemonstrate thallbcir idcas 0 11 marriage. and on the em,ancil'lIlion of

women, were in no way the outcome of an el)icurean deAign." Firmin Maillard , La Legende de lafemme emanci"ee (Parill). II . 40. [U l 5,5]

Proudhon was a fierce opponem of Saint·Simonianism; he speaks of "Saint· Simonian rottenness." [U15,6]

"The art ll can fl ourish only as conditioned withiJl lUI organic age <epoque or_ ganique >, and inspiration il strong and salula ry only when it is social and reli&­ious." Thul E. Barrault speakll out , in Aux arti.stes: Oil Passe et de l 'cHlenir de. beaux-(lrt.s (Paris, 1830), p . 73 , agaiRllt the bar ren "crit ical agel." [U15,7]

Last echo of the idea that inaugurated Saint-Simonianil lll : "One can compare the zcal and the ardor displayed by the civilized nations of today in their e8tab_ lislullent of railroads ",ith tha t which , several centuries ago, went into the huildins of cathedrals .... If it is true, as we hear, that the word ' religion' comes from religare , " to bind" ... , then the railroads have more to do with the religious ' piMl than one might suppose. There has never existed a more powerful instrument for ... rallying the scattered populations." Michel Chevalier, " Chernin l! de fer," in Dictionn(l;re de I'economie politique (Paris, 1852), p. 20. [U15a,l ]

"The government wanted, on its own , to construct the railway system. There were various disadvautagC8 to thil course of action , ... but , in the end , it would bave r;iven us railroads. The idea occalioned a ter rific explosion ; political rivalriel dominated the scene. Science itself ... came out in support of the spirit of ayatem- _ atic oppollition. An illustrious aavant was vain enough to lend the authority of hit name to the plot against the railways. Construction by the sta te was Ihu8 rejected by an overwhelming majorit y. TILis occurred ill 1838. Favorably diapoaed, aa it was, toward the project, the government now turned to I)rivate induatry. Take these marvelous thoroughfarell, it said; I am offering you the conce88ion for theat. And no sooner were these words out than a new &Iorm ar08#!. What! The banken, the capitalists are going to reap a (ortune from this venture! ... It it feudaWlD .

. . • werereborn from its own ashcs!- The plans to 0 ffer conceUlOns to COmpanle accordingly withdrawn, ... or else spiked with clauses that made acceptance am·

. .• '1'/ ' ··' "k .1 · til 1844 " Michell)Ouible for serIOus IDvestou. we contlDuetl (I e _11 8 up un . ChevaUer, "Chemins de fer," excerpt from Dicrionnaire de I'economk politiq~

. . [U15 • .2J(Pans, 1852), p. 100.

. I ' "I d cars theChevaUer already sets up , (or the transport 0 r wa r matena S In ral roa '" . £(IUalion: fort y men equal six horses. See Michel Clulva lier, "Chemills de fer, 10

Dictwnfluire de l'economie politique (Paris, 1852). Jlp . 47-48. [U15a,3)

r ·· f l ' l "into Or-T heory of art in Saint-SimOllia nism. It rests on I.IIe ( n'ISlOn 0 118 ory gallic or religious ages ami Crilical or irreligious ages ... . The course of hislOry trealed ill this "'ork compriscs t".·o orga llic agcII-the finit constituted under tbt:

. I r ei " · dinthereign of Greck pulythelsm. Ihe sec-olIIl under I IUt 0 IrlSllamty- ulI .

wake of these organic ages, Iwo critical agea, of which one extends from the era of Greek pllilollophy to the advent of Chrill tianity, and Ihe olher from the end of the Mtcell th century to tile present:' [£. Barraull , ] Aux url i.s les: Ou Pane et de rtwenir cies beaux--aru (Paris, 1830). p. 6. <See NIO.5. ) [U15a,4]

Universal history appears, to the Saint-Simonian Barrault, as the new work of art: "Shall we venture to compare the last of the tragic or comic authors ofRame \..1th the Christian orators intoning their eloquent sennons? No, Comeille, Ra. cine, Voltaire, and Moliere will nOI come back to life; dramatic genius has accom­plished its mission .... In the end, the novel will fail no less in respect of what it has in common with these tv.·o genres as in its relations to the history of which it is the counterfeit. ... History, in fact, will again take on a powerful chann ... ; it will no longer be only a little tribe of the Orient that will make for sacred history; the history of the entire world will merit this title. Such history will become a veritable epic, in which the story of every nation will constitute a cantO and the story of every great man an episode." [E. Barrault,l Aux arruJe.s: Du PasJi d de 1'al1t.7ljr des beaux-aru (Paris, 1830), pp. 81-82. The epic belongs to the organic age; the novel and drama, to the critical. (U16,l ]

Barrault already has a vague idea of the imponance, for art, of secularized cultic elements, although he puts the emphasis on periods that are consolidated through cult: "Although Greece never fostered a religious caste system like that of the Orient, its epic represented nothing less than an initial separation of poetry from cult .... Should orthodox movements survive into the critical periods, the course of these periods is imperceptibly drawn back into the bosom of ortho­doxy." (E. Barrault,l Aux artutes: Du Paui d de l 'atmlir des beaux·aru (Paris, 1830), pp. 25-26. [U16,2)

Saint+Simori. l)Oints with satisfaction to the fact that precisely those men who ~nefited humanity most decisively- Luther, Bacon, Descartes--were r;iveo to pa8sioliS. Luther, the pleasures of eatillg; Bacon , money, Descartes , women and gamhUllg. St..'C E. n. CurtiulI, Bahac <Bonlt, 1923> , 1'. 117. (U16,3]

With reference to Guizot, whose brochure, "Du Gouvemement de la France et du ~stere actuel" (Paris, 1820) presents the accession of the bourgeoisie as the cent~ncs-old struggle ofa class (of course, his work De fa Dimocrab"e [Paris, 1849) SCes Ul ~e class struggle, which has meanwhile arisen between bourgeoisie and prol~lBnat , only a misfortune), Plekhanov ponrays the visions of the socialist Utopians as, "tllcorctically no less than practically," a great step backward. "The reason. for this lay in the weak. developmcnt of the proletariat at that time." Cc~rg1 Plckhanov, "Ober die Anfange der Lehre vom KJassenkampf," Die neue .(ell, 2 1, no. I (St'uugan, 1903), p. 296. [UI6,4J

I\ Ugtlstin Tilierry. all "udopted SO li " of Suint-Simon. According 10 Marx. he de. 8e 'I n IeS very "" cll how "from Ih~ fir;;l , or at least afler t.he r ise of the tOWIIS, Ihe ,

French bourgeoisie gains too much inHuence by cOllstituting itself the Parliament, the burea ucracy, and 80 on, and not , as in England, mere1y through commerce and industry." Karl Marx to Friedrich Engels, London , July 27, 1854 [Karl Man: and Friedrich Engelt, Ausgewiihlte Briefe, ed . V. Adoratsld (M08COW and Lenin. grad , 1934), p . 6O].1l [V16a, l}

Aftereffects of Saint-SinlOnianism: " Pierre Leroux-who is represented, in co­gravings of the period. with hands clasped and eyes upraised in ecstasy--did his

best to have an article on Cod published in La Revue dea deu.x mondea, ... We recaU that Louis Blanc delighted Huge with a lecture attacking the atheists.

Quinee. along with Michelet , struggled furiously against the J esui ts, while pri­vately ha rboring the wish to reconcile his compatriots with the Cospel." C. Bougie, Chez les prophetes socialistes (Paris. 1918), pp . 161- 162. [V16a,2}

Heine', Deutschland is dedicated to Enfantin . [U16a,3J

Schlabrendorf reports that Sainl·Simon wa nted to make physics, and no~ but physics, the true religion . "Teachers of r eligion were supposed 10 deliver lecturee

in church on the mysteries and wonders of nature. There, 1 imagine, they would have set up electrical apparatus on the altar and stimulated the faithful with galva nic batteries." CrafCustav von Schlabrendorfin Paris iiber Ereigniue unci Personen seiner Zeit [in Carl C ustav J ochmann , Reliquien: Aus seinen nach&eku­

senen Papi4!ren, ed. Heinrich Zschokke, vol. 1 (Hechingen. 1836), p. 146] . [U16.,')-

Enfantin hailed the coup d 'ctat of Louis Napoleon as the work of providence. [V16.,5)

1846: enthusiastic reception, on its d ebut , of Felicien David's Le Deser1. The project of the Suez Canal was then the order of the day. ults theme was a poet'" eulogy of the desert as the image of eternity, coupled with his pity for the townsmaD imprisoned between stone wans," S. Kracauer, Jacques Offenbach und dm Po';'

.einer Zeit (Amsterdam , 1937), p . 133. 14 Le Desert was parodied by Offenbach. [U16.,6]

" Among the dream architecture of the Revolution , Ledoux's projects occupy.

81>ecial position .... The cubic form of his " House of Peace" seems legitimate to him because the cube is t.he symbol of justice anti s tability, alld , similarly, all the

, . . 'II · f ' 'osic elementary forms would have aPI>eared to him as IIl1elhp ) e SignS 0 JOtn moment . The ville nlliuunte. the city in which' an ella ited ' , , life would find iu abode, wiJI be circumscribed by the pure contour of an ellipse . ... Conce.ming the houK of the new tribunal , the Pacifere, he says in his Architecture: 'The buil~ dra"'11 up in my imagination should be as simple as the Jaw tha t will be di tpensed there.'~ Emil Kaufmanll , Von Ledoux bis Le Corbwier: Ur.pruns urnl Entwick­IUllg der tlutonomen Arcltitekwr (Vienna and Leip'J;ig, 1933), p . 32. [U17.1]

Leiloux , Temple {Ie Mcmoire (House of Women): "The narrative relief on the triumphal columns a t four corncr! of a country house was intended to celebrate the glory of the l>es towers of life. the mot hers. in place of the customary monu­ments consecrated 10 tile blood y victories of generals. With this unusual work . the prtist wished to render thanks to the women he had come to know in his life. " Emil Kaufmann , VO,I udoux bis Le CorbU$i4!r (Vienna and Leipzig. 1933), p . 38.

[U17,2]

On Ledoull : " Once the distinctions of rank within architecture fall by the wayside, then all archit t.'C tural orders are of equal value. , , . The earlier thematic eclecti­cism, .....hich was ta ken up almost exclusively with churchet, palaces, the 'better '

domiciles. and of course military fortifications, retreats before the new a rchitec­tural univer salism, . , . The revolutionary process of the suburbanizing of domes. tic hout ing parallels the disa ppearance of the baroque anemblage as art form , ...

A more extended complell , a pparently conceived as a development at the entrance to the city, consists in a number of two- to four--room dwellings ranged around a sllu are courtya rd ; each of these residences lIOnesses the necessary closet space,

while kitchen , pllntries, and other utility rooms are located in a building at the C1lnter of the courtyard. We have here, probably, the ea rliest instance of the type of dwelling that is current today in the form of the apartment with shared

kitchen. " Emil Ka ufmann, Von Ledoux bis Le Corbwier (Vienna and Leipzig, 1933), p. 38. [U17.3)

"The Orient had been discovered , and some journeyed there to seek the Mothel'-­La Mere--a representative fi gure of this century. covered with breasts like the

Diana of Ephesus." Adrienne Monnier, " La Gazette des Amis des Livrea," La Gazette clesAmis des .Livrel , 1 (J anuary I , 1938) (Paris), p . 14. [U17,4J

"Mall remembers the Past ; Woman divines the Future; the Couple sees the Pre·

sent." Saint-SinlOllian formula , in Du Camp , Souvenir5 liUeraires, vol. 2 (Paris, 19(6), p , 93. [V17a. l )

"'La Mere": "She WDSto be lafemme libre . .. , This indel>endent woman had to be a thinking woman , one who, ... having fathomed the secr ets of the fc.mnine psy­che.... would lIIake confession for all her Sell, ••• The quest for ... the Mother Wus !lOI all innova tion of Enfantin 's; well before him, Saint-Simon himself, during

the l:.erio{1 when Augustin Thierry wall his secretory. hllil made an attempt to tli ~l;u\" ' r this, . , wolltlel' .. , alltl evidently thought to IlIn'e found her in Matlame

de Sinel.· ' The lut h:r declined a n invitlltiun to heget a messia h fur humanity wit.h Sainl -ShnOIl (JlP , 91 - 93).-"The m.issioll to locate La Mere now formed , and was o,rr. Tlu~ pilgrims IHlluhered twelve, including o arra ult . the leader of the ex!>edi­UolI , Their ult ima te dt's tination was COllStantinople. . though they had 110

~Olley. Ore>J.S(... 1 in white (as a t ign of I.he vow of chasti ty they had tukell 0 11 leavillg I aris). stuffs in IIUIHI , tl tey l>egged their way rrom plactl to place. in tile name of the Mo1Jler. In llurgumly. they hired themselves Oll t 10 help with the ha rvest; in Lyons.

I.hey arrived on the day before an execUlion and, the following morning, demon. strateil against I.he dealh penally in front of the gallows. They embarked in Mar_ seilles, and worked as sailors aboard a merchant vend whose ~ond mate was v Garibaldi .... They siepi in the Great Champ des Morts , I ~ prolocted by cypres&e8 from the morning dew; they wandered through the ba:taars. occasionally 8topp·

10 preach the doctrines of Saint-Simon, speaking French 10 Turks who could :::! understand them" (pp . 94-95). They are a rrested , then released. They set tbeir l ights on the island of Rotuma , in the South Pacific, as the place to seek tbe Mother, but they get only u far as Odessa , whence they a re sent back to Turk

. . ~ According 10 Maxune Du Camp, Souvenir. liueraire., vol. 2 (Paris. 19(6).

[U17a,2]

"Gaudissart demanded an indemnity of five hundred francs for the week he had to

spend in boning up on the doctrine of Saint-Simon, pointing out what effor13 of memory a nd brain would be nocenary to enable him to become thoroughly coo­ver sant with this article." Gaudinart canvasses for Le Globe (and Le Journal cU, enfants). H. d e Dabac, L 'llIwtre Gaudi$$ort , ed. Calmann-Uvy (Paris), p . IV'

[V18,1]

The Continental system" was, as it were, the first test for the example of Saint· Simonianism. H eine (Slimtliche WerRe [Hamburg, 1876], vol. I , p. 155-"FranzO.­sische Zustinde") calls Napoleon I a Saint·Simonian emperor. [U lS,2]

In the Saint-Simonian jacket that buttoned in back, we may discern an allusion to

the androgynous ideal of the school. But it has to be assumed that for Enfantin himself it remained unconscious. [UIS,3]

Consta ntin Pecqueur, ad versary of the Saint-Simonians, respond.. " to the qu~

tion posed in 1838 by the Academie des Sciences Morales: ' How to usess . , . the influence of the ... currently emerging means of transportation on ... the state of a society ... ?'" "The development of the r ailroads, at the same time that it in· duces t.ra veler s to fraternize in the cars, will overexcite ... the productive activity of people." Pierre-Maxime Schuh] , iIIachinisme et philo.ophie (Paris, 1938), p. 67 . [U18,4]

The historicaJ signature of the railroad may be found in the fact that it represents the first means of transport-and, until the big ocean liners, no doubt also the last-to foml masses. The stage coach, the automobile, the airplane carry pas· sengers in small groups only. \ [U18,5]

"T he anemic pallor of our civililllUtiOIl , us monotonous a s II rui lwuy line," say' Bul:tuc, Lu PerlU rle clwgrill, ed . Flammarioll (Parill), p. 45. 18 [U18,6j

[Conspiracies, Compagnonnage]

"Those agenU provocateurs who, during the Second Empire, often mingled with

rioters were known as ' white smocks. '" Daniel Halevy, Decadence de la liberte (Paris <1931» , p . 152. [V I,I]

, " In 1848, Louis PhiUppe hud ill Paris a security force of some 3,000 men, in place of the 950 gendarmes serving under Charles X, and some 1,500 police agents in

place of 400. The Second Empire had great Ilfft!(! tion for the police, and it ar­ranged magnificent installations for them. They owe to the Second Empire that vast edifice--at once barracks, fortrel8, and office building-which occupies the

center of the Cite between the Palais de Justice and Notre Dame and which although lar ger and less beautiful , reeaU, those palaces in Tuscan ci~es where th; podestas resided ." Daniel Halevy, Decadence de to liberte (Paris), p . ISO.

[VI ,2]

"The secret files in police headquarters inspire a certain awe and a certain dread.

~hen a new police commissioner fi rst la kes office. his personal file it brought up to him. He alone enjoys this privilege; neither the ministers nor even the president of the republic get to see their dOlliers, which are shelved and maintained in archives tbat no one is permitted to examine." Daniel Haltivy, Decadence de la liberte (Paris), pp. 171- 172. (VI,3)

':~rning back toward the Quartier Latin , one r an into the virgin fo rest of the Rue d Enfer, which extendetl between the Rue du Va l-de-Grace and the Rue de l' Abbe­!le-n:' TII pee. lere, one fOllnd the garden of an old hotel , a bandoned and in ruins. w Icr e p!;jJle trees, sycamores, chestnut trees, a nd intertwined acacias grew hap­IUllllardly. In the center, u deep shaft guve IlCCe8S into the catacombs. It was said thallhe p' h· aUlllc( . " ,..ace was n rea Ity, II scrved for the rom antic gatherings of the Carbonari alld of the secrct society Aide·Toi. Ie Cic.! t 'Aider a <God Helps Him

~~o ! 1e1PIl Himsdh ." Dubec!. Hnd (I'Espezel. lIistoire de Puru (paris, 1926), I . 361. 0 Gardens, The Seine 0 [VI,4)

'''1'1 Ie Garde Nationale was 11 0 laughing mullcr. Positioncd between the royal troops and the po pular insurgents, tile a rmed bourgeoitie of Parill was Ihe great

mediating power, the good sense of the nation .... From 1830 to 1839, the hour. geois Ga rde Nationale lost 2 ,000 of their own in confrontation with the barricades, and it wa lJ (lu ll. more to thcm than to the a rmy that Louill Philippe was able to remain on hi lJ throne.... Whatever the reason- whether simple old age or a species of lassitude--it was a lways the bourgeoisie lhal wearied oflhis wasteful life

which made it neceuary. e\'er y six months, for hosiers and cabinetmakers to take "I) arms and shoot at each other. The hosiers. lleaceful men , grew tired before tbe u binetmaker s. This remark would suffice to explain Ihe Fehruary Revolution."

Dubech and d ' Espeze1, His'oire de I'Cl ril, PI)· 389-39 1. [VI ,S]

JUIIC Insurrection . " It was cllough to have the appearance of poverty to be treated like a criminal. In those days there W88 something caUed 'a profile of the wur. gent ,' and anyolle fitting the descriptioll was arrested ... . The Garde Nationale

itself bad most certainly determined the outcome of the February Revolution , I but it nel'er occurred even to them to gil'e the name 'insurgents' to men struggJ.ins agaiust a king. Only those who had risen up against property ... wer e known at

insurgents, Because the Garde Nationale . , . ' had saved society.' they could do at that time whatever they wa nted . and no doctor would have dared refuse them

entry into a hospital .... Indeed , the blind fury of the Guardsmen went so far th.t they would scr eam 'Silence!' to the fever patients speaking in delirium and would have murdered these people if the studenu had not stopped them." EngliDder

<Ge$chichte der!run:,oliscllen Ari1ei'er-Auociurionen (Hamburg, 1864),> vol. 2. pp . 320, 327-328. 327. [VI ,6]

" It goes without saying iliat the worker auociations lost ground with the coup

d'etal of December 2, 1851. ... AU the associations of workers, those who h.d received subsidies from thc governmellt as weU as the others . began by promptly removing their 8igns, on which symbols of e<luality and the words ' Liberty, Fr.te....

nity. Equality' wer e inscribed ; it was as though they had been shocked by the blood of the coup. Hence, with the coup d 'etat , thcre were still unquestionably

worker association8 in Paris, but the worker s no longer risked displaying thO name.... It would be difficult to trace the remaining a88ociations, for it is pot ONY 0 11 the signboards but ailio in the city 's dircctor y of addre88es that the narae ' Worker! A88ociation' is missing. Worker associatioll8 survive, after the coup

d 'etat, only in the guise of ordinary COlllmcrcial concerns. T hus, the former fra­ternal association of masons is now going under the trade nallle ' Bouyer, Cohadon & Co.,' the association of gilders that likewise once existed as such now operates as the firm of ' DreviUe. Thibout & Co . .' and , by the sa me token , in every survivin« associat ion of worker! it is the managers wllO give t1leir names to the business ....

Since the coup d 'etat , not one of these associatiolls has admillcil a new member; any new lIlember would be regarded witll undisguised ii uspicion. If even the cus­tomers were each time rttcived with disl.rlls t . thill was becauliC one everywhere senseti the presence of the police-ami was tl;e more justified in doing so a8 the police themselves would oft en ~how up officiall y on olle pretext or another. " Si«~

millie! Engli nder, Geschichte der fr(,"~ij$uchen Ari1eire,...Auociutionen (Ham~

burg. 1864), vol. 4 , Jlp. 195. 197- 198,200. [VIa. I]

In rega rd to Cabet. " After the "~ebruary Revolution , someone had discovered ... , in the files of Toulouse's chillf of police, a letter from Couhenant, delegate or prt'sidellt of the fi rst vanguard , who in 1843, during the trial in Toulouse,t had orfere<i his services as Iwlice agent to the government of Louis Philippe. It was kU OW Ii that this poison of espionage in France had penetrated even into aU the port'S of family life; bill that a poliee agent , this most disgusting excrelcence of the oM society, could have found his way to the leader of the vanguard of lcarianl in

onler to CUlise his ruill , and ut the risk of going under himself, aroused conside .... ahle surprise. Hadn ' t Iwlice spies been seen in Paris fightin, and dying on the barricades, doi llg Lattle wilh the government in whose pay they stood! " Sigmund [ng.!under, Gelchich'e der fran:,o$uchen Arbeiter-Auociationen , vol. 2, pp. 159­160. 0 Utopians 0 [Vla,2]

" With the development of proletarian conspiracies, the need arose for a division of, labor. The memben were divided into occasional conspirators. cotl.lpirateur. d 'occa $ion-that is, worken who engaged in conspiracy alongside their other em~ ployment , merely attending meetings and holding themselvell in readiness to ap­

pear al the place of assembly at the leaden' command-and profeS8ional cOllspiraton, who devoted all their energy to the conslliracy and made their livin, from it .... The social situation of this c1alili determines its entire character from

the outset . Proletarian conspiracy naturally affords them only very limited and uncertain IlIcallS of liubsistence. They are ther efore constantly obliged to dip into the cash boxea of the cOII!jpiracy. A number of them also come into di rect conftict

"'ith civil society as such , and appear before the police courts with a greater or lesser degree of dignity. Their precarious livelihood, dependent in individual easel more on chance than on their activity, their irregular uvea whose only fixed ports­of-caU are the taverlls of the m(lrchand, de vin (the conspirators ' places of rendez­vous), their inevitable acquainta nce wilh all kinds of dubious people. place them in that social category which ill Paris is known as the boheme. These democratic

bohemians of proletarian origin ar e therefore either workers who have given up their work a nd have as a conlle(luence become (liuolute. or characten who bave emerged from the iUllllJellproletariat and brillg all the dissolule habits of that class wit ll thcm into their new way of life .... The whole wa y of life of these professional

cOllapirat?rs has a nlosl decid ...dly bohemian characteT. Recruiting sergeants for the I'ollspira cy, they go from m(frchond de !Jill tu nlllrchund de !Jill , feeling the "uh~ of the workers, sccking out their men , cajolillg them into the cOlispiracy and getling either till' lioeiety's treasury or their new fri ellda to foot the hill for the litel'll illcvitahly cunSIlII)e(1 ill the process. Indeed , it is really the marchcmd de vi,. who pru ...idl~s a mof over their heatls. It is with him th at the conspirator spends most of Ilis time; it is here he has his rendezvous with hill colleagues, wil.h the members of hi ", l>Hctioll 11 1111 wi tll prospective rI..'Cruits ; it is III~ rc, finaLiy, that the IIttret meetings ~I f liections (groups) a1l<1 section leaders take "lace. The conspira tor, highly san­

guine in character anyway like aU Pari,ian proletarian,. 800n develops into aD ab,olute bambocheur <boo1:er) in thi ' continual tavern atmosphere. The sinister conspirator, who in secret session exhibits a Spartan self-discipline, suddenly thaw, alld is transformed into a tavern regular whom ever ybody knows and who really understands how to enjoy his wine and women . This conviviality is further inten, ified by the constant dangers the conspirator is eXI)()sed to; at any moment he may be called to the barricades. where he may be killed ; at ever y tum the police set snares for him which may deliver him to prison or even to the galleys .... At the eame time. familiarit y with danger makel him utterly indifferent to Life ud liberty. He is as at home in prison al in the wine shop. He is ready for the call to action any day. The desperate reckleuness which is exhibited in every insurrec_ tion in Paris is introdnced pret:isely by these veteran professional conspirators, the homme$ de COUP$ de main. They are the ones who throw up and command the fu·st barricades. who organize resistance, lead the looting of weapon-shops and the seizure of arms and ammunition from housell, and in the nLidst of the upriain@: carry out those daring raids which 80 often throw the government party into confusion. In a word , they are the officers of the inllurret: tion. It need scarcely be added that these COnSIJira tors do not confine themselves to the general organi.&in« of the revolutionary proletariat. It is precisely their business to anticipate the process of revolutionary development , to bring it artificially to the crisis point, to launch a revolution on the spur of the moment , without the conditions for a revo­lution . For them. the only condition for revolution is the adequate preparation 01 their conspiracy. They a re the alchenLislII of the revolution. and are characterised by exactly the same chaotic thinking and blinkered obsessiolls as the alchemislll 01 old. They leap at inventions which are supposed to work revolutionary miracle.: incendiary bombs, destructive devices of magic effect , revolts which are expected to be aU the more miraculous and 8&tonishing in effect as their balis is leu ra­tional. Occupied with such scheming. they have no other purpose than the mOlt immediate one of overthrowing the existing government , and they have the pro­foundest contempt for the more theoretical enlightenment of the proletariat about their class interestl. Hence their plebeian rather than proletarian irritation at the habits noirs ("black frock coats"}-people of a greater or lesser degree of educa­tion who represent that aspect of the movement. but from whom they can never make themselvel quite independent . since they are the official representative. of the party. The habiu noir. also serve. at times, as their souree of money. It ~ without saying that the conspirator s are obliged to follow willy-nilly the develop­lIIent of the revolutionary party.... The chief characteriltic of the conspiratol"ll' way of life is their hattie with the police, to whom they have precisely the same relationship as thieves and prostitutes." At Ilnother point ill this article. we read (in reference to Chenu 's report on Lucien de La Hodde th at foll<fws); "Ai we see. this spy ... turns OUI to he a politiclllproUitute of the vilet!t kind who ha ngs aoout ill the street in the rain for the payment of his ' til)' by the fi rst officer of the peace who happens to come along." '''On one of my nocturnal excursions,' recounU Chellu . ' I noticed tie La Hodde walking III' and down the QUlli Voltaire .... It wal raining ill torrentl, a circunUHllnce which lUll me tlLinking. Was this dear feUow de

La Hodde also helping himlelf from the cash hox of the secret fund,. by any chance? ... "Good evening. de La Hodde, what 011 earth are you up to here at lhill hour and in this fearful weather?" " I am waiting for a rallcal ....ho owes me some money. a nd since he passes thi' way every evening at Ihis time, he is going to pay me , or else"_and he struck the parapet of the emba nkment violently with hil slick.' De La Hodde altemplll to get rid of him and walks toward the Pont du Ca rrousel. Chenu departs in the opposite direction. but only to conceal himself under the a rcades of the Institllt <tie France> .... 'A (Iuarter of an hour later. I noticed the carriage with two little gr een lamps.... A man got out; de La Hodde went straight up to him. They talked for a moment , a nd I saw de La Hodde make a movement as though putting money into his pocket.·.. Marx and Engeill. review of Chenll, Les COllspirateurs (Paris. 1850) anti de La Hodde. La Naiuance de Ia Repuh/ique (Paris. 1850). published in the Neuell rheinischen ZeitulIg <1850>, r pt . in <Die neue Zeit.) 4 (Stuttgart . 1886). PI'. 555-556. 552, 551.] [V2;V2aj

The workers of 1848 and the great Revolution; "Although the workers suffered under the conditions created by the Revolution , they did not blame it for their misery; they imagined that the Revolution had failed to bring about the happinen of the manel because intriguers had perverted its founding principle. According to their thinking, the great Revolution was good in itself, and human misery could be eliminated only if people were to resolve on a new 1793. Hence, they turned away distrulluully from tbe socialists and felt drawn to the bourgeois republicaru. who conspired with the aim of establishing a republic by revolutionary means. The leeret societies in existence during the reign of Louis Philippe recruited a veat many of their most active members from the working class." Paul Lafargue. " Der K1assenkampf in Frankreich," Die neue Zeit , 12, no. 2 (1894), p. 615. [V3,lj

Marx on the "Communist League": "'As far al the secret doctrine of the League i. concerned , it underwent aU the transfo rmations of French and English socialism and communism, a8 well as their German versionll.... The secret form of the society goes back to itll Paris origins .... During my first stay in Paris (from late October 1843 to February 1845). I established per sonal contact with the leaders of the League living there, al well 88 with the leaders of the majority of the set:ret" French worker associations-without . however, becoming a member of any of them. In Brun els •... the London Central Authority entered into correspondence wilh us and ... sent ... a watchmaker called Joscl'h Moli ... to invite us to join the Le~gue. Moll allayed our doubts ... by revealing that the Central Authority intended to convoke a Congress of the League in London.. Accordingly, we joi ned it. The Congress ... look place. and . after hea ted debate over several weeks, it adopted the Manifesto of the Communist Party. written by Engels and my elf. ' At the time Marx wrote tile&e lines, he described their oontent as comprill­ing ' histories long past and half forsotten.' ... In 1860 the workers ' movement, ~uJlPressed .by the counterrevolutioll of the 18508. was dormant throughout Europe . ... Olle misumleruallds Ihe history of the ComnUHlist Manife!lo if one Sees the date of its publicatioll as lIIurking the commencement of the EurOllean

""orkert' movement . In point of fact, tile manifesto reprdentoo the cloH: of this movement " first period , whicll stretched from the July Revolution to the Febru. ary Revolution.... T ile most they could ultain wus theorc:tien l clarification .... A secret league of worker! that , over the years, could accompany and illlcllectuall stimmate the English and French socialism of the day, as well 8 S the reir;nin~ German philosophy, will have displayed an encrb'Y of thought that tlescrves the highest respect. " " Ein Gedenktag des Kommunismus," Die neue Zeit , 16, no. I (Stuttgart, 1898), pp. 354-355. The pauage fro m Marx is taken from the polemi­cal pamphlet against VOgt.4 [V3,2]

'"The practical programs of the communist conspirators of the period ... se.t them apart advantageously from the socialist utopians, thanks to the finn conviction that the emancipation of the working clau (' the IH:Ople') is unthinkable without struggle against the upper claues (' the aristocracy'). Of course, the 8Iruwe of. handful of men who have hatched a conspiracy in the name of popular interests can in no case be considered a class struggle. If, nevertheless, the majority of these conapirators have come from the working class, then the conspiracy can be said to constitute the genn of the revolutionary 8Iruggle of that class. And the conception which the Society of Seasons5 has of the ' aristocracy' shows how c1ose.ly the ideas of the revolutionary communists in France, at that time, were connec: ted to the ideas of the bourgeois revolutionaries of the eighteenth century and the liberal opposition during the Restoration.... Like Augustin Thierry, the French revolu. tionary communists began with the idea that the struggle against the aristocracy was necessarily in the interests of all the res t of society. But they rightly point out that the aristocracy of birth has been replaced by an aristocracy of money, and that , as a resmt, the struggle ... must be waged against the bourgeoisie. " Georsi Plekhanov, " Ober die Anfange del" Lehre vom Klassenkampr' (from the introduc>­tion to a Russian editiOIl of the Communi"t Manife"ro) , part 3, " Die Anschauungen des vonnarxistischen Sozialismus vom Kassenkampf," Dk IIelW Zeit , 21, no. I (1903), I). 297. [V3a, l]

1851; "A decree of DC(:ember 8 authorized the deportation , without hearing, ... of any person presently or formerly belonging to a !lC(:ret society. This was under­stood as referring to any society at all , whether a society for mutu al aid or • literary society, that met---even in broad daylight- without the express permis­sion of the prefect of police." A. Malet and P. Crillet , XIX' Sieck (paris, 1919), p.264. [V3a,2]

" Following the assassin ation attempt by Orsini ...• the imperial goverllment im­mediately voted into law a general security measure giving it the power to arrest and deport , without hearing, ... all person~ previously punished on the occasion of the June Days of 1848 and the events of December 185 1 .. .. The prefect of each dipeJrtement was ordered to designate immediately a specific number of victims." A. Malet alld P. GriJIet, XIX' Siecle (Paris. 1919), 1' . 273. [V3a,3]

"The Independents had their secret society, the Charbonnerie <Carbonari>, or· ganized at the beginning of 1821 on the model of the Italian Carbonari. The organizers were a wine merchant, Dugied, who had spent time in Naples, and a medical student, Batard.... Every member was required to contribute one franc 3 month, to possess a gun and fifty bullcts, and to swear to carry out blindly the orders o f his superiors. The Charbonnerie recruited among students and soldiers in partirular; it ended up numbering 2,000 sections and 40,000 adherents. The Charbonniers wanted to overthrow the Bourbons, who had been 'brought back by foreigners : and ' to restore to the nation the free exercise of its right to choose a suitable government.' They organized mne plots during the first six months of 1822; all failed ." A. Malet and P. Grillet, XIX' Sieck (Paris, 1919), p. 29. The uprisings of the Carbonari were military revolts; they had, perhaps, a certain analogy to those of the Decembrists. [V4, 1]

April 29, 1827; dissolution of the Garde Nationale by order of Villele, on account of a demonstrat.ion which it had organizt.-d against him. [V4,2]

About sixty students from the Ecole PolytC(:hnique at the head of the July Revolu­tion. [V4,3]

March 25, 1831 : reinstatement of the Carde Nationale. " It na med its own officers, except for the milita ry chiefs .... The Carde Nationale constituted ... a veritable arllly. numbering some 24,000 men ... ; this army was a police force . ... Also, care was taken to separate out the workers.... This was achieved by requiring the Garde Nationale to wear uniforms and to pay its own expenses .... This bour­geois guard , moreover, did its duty bravely in all circumstances. As soon as the drullls had sounded the call , each man would leave his place of work , while the thopkeepers closed their storee, and , dressed in uniform , they would all go out to join their battalion , IIOt needing to muster." A. Malet and P. Grillet, XIX· Si~de (Paris, 19 19), 1'. 77,79. [V4,4]

'"The republicans had helonged , for the most part , to the Charbonnerie; against " Louis Philippe, they multiplied the number of secret societiel. The most important

... was that of the Droits de l' llomme <Rights of Man ). Founded in Paris ("'here it (Iuickly grew to nearly 4,000 members), and modeled 011 the Charbonnerie, it had branches in most of the major cities. It was this secret society thai orgallized the great iliSUrrectiolls in Paris and Lyons in June 1832 and April 1834. The principal republican newspapers were La Tribllne and Le National. the first di­rected by Armand Marrast 1.1 1111 the second by Arml.lnd Carrcl." Malet and Gri.llet , XIX· Siecle (Pari;;, 19 19), p. 81 . [V4.5J

Declaration of December 19, 1830, issued by students at the Ecole Polytechn.ique to the edi~orial office of I.e Coru/itulionlle/: "'Ifany man among the agitators,' they say, 'is found wearing the umfonn of the Ecole, that man is an imPOStOr .... ' And so they had these men tracked down wherever they appeared in the faubourgs in

the uMonn of Poly technicians, seeking to usurp the latter's influence. The best way to recognize them, according to Bosquet, was to ask them the dil!~rnlial of Jine x or 0/log X; 'if they respond appropriately, they are fonner students; if not, we have them jailed.''' G. Pinet, Histoire tk I'£tole polytedmique (Paris, 1887), p. 187. Disturbances took place in cOlUlection with the triaJ against the ministera of Charles X.' Pinet adds: "In supporting the interests of the bourgeoisie, those with republican convictions seemed to fear they would be accused of deserting the cause of the people" (p. 181). In a further proclamation, the school came OUt decisively in favor of universaJ suffrage. [V4a,1)

"The students go to their I tudent societies, whether publicly or &eeret1y organiud, to get the watchword of the day.... There, they learn what actions are heine planned.... With all this going on. the Ecole Poly technique hal ht!gun to view itself as a fourth estate within the nation . .. . It was the moment when the Repub­lican party, which counted in its ranks the artillery of the Garde NationaJe, the student , the proletariat , the worker. and the veteran of July. rel umed ... ill activity; the moment when popular societie&-like Les Amis du Peuple, LeI Droill de I' Homme, and La Gauloise-were recruiting heavily; the moment when the Garde Nationale failed to maintain the peace ; when the Saint~Simonian8 thre.l~

ened to unsettle the order of society; .. . and when ... Le National and La '1hb­une waged a daily struggle against those in power." C . Pinet , Hi.stoire de l'Ecole

poly technique (Paris. J887), pp . 192- 193. [V4a,2]

During the cholera epidemic, the government was accused of having poisoned the fountains. For examille , in the Faubourg Saint~Antoine . [V4a,3)

" Young people in the schools had adopted the red ht!r et ; a nd memben of the secret lOCieties looked forwa rd to the next time, when the national razor would be well honed ." Charles Louandre. Les Idees subversives de notre temps (Paril, 1872),

p~ ~~

The secret societies of the democrats """eTC chauvinistic. They wanted interna­tional propaganda fo r the republic by means ofwar. [V5,1]

" RcSlwnle afterward made by a prisoner before the Court of Peers: I ' Who was your chief? ' I " knew none. and 1 recognized none.· .. Victor Hugo. Oeuvres com·

plktes, novell . vol. 8 (Par is. 1881 ). p . 47 (Les Mi.serables. " Faitl d ' oi! I'histoire sort et que I' histoire ignore"). 7 [V5,2J

" From time to lime. Inen ' disgl.liled as bourgeois, and in fllle coats' came. 'causin8 embarraumcnt ,' and . having the air 'of command.' ga ve a grip of the hand to the

. " Vie·most important. and wenl away. They never staye d more t han ten nunlttes. lor I-Iugo. Oeuvres completes. novell . vol. 8 (Paris, 1881). pp . 42-43 (Lei Milerables, " Fait. tI ' ou )' rultoire sort et que I' rustoire ignore").' [V5,3]

The Socit~te des Droits de I' Homme <Society of the Rights of Man > emploYI, in it. pamphlets, the calendar or the great Revolution . I.n the month of Pluviose ,9 year 42 or tile Hepublican era , it COUllt. 300 branch establishments throughout France, 163 in Paril! alone. of which every Olle had its particular name. The wooing of the proletarians by t.he bourgeoisie had the benefit " that . instead of enlisting them through humiliatioll or material services. through the offer of money or other forms of assistance, it was by various attentions and tokcns of resp«t , by joining IOgelher ill balls and !etes. that the leaden of the bourgeoisie worked to form attachments with the workers." Charles Benoist , " L' Homme de 1848," part I . RelJlle deJ deux moru/es (July I , (91 3), pp . 148-149. [V5,4]

The Societe de Propagande <Society of Propaganda >: "1'0 this organization we owe. in part . the strike at the end of 1833, which extended to typographen , me­chaniCl , stonecutter s, rope makers. hackney driven . eamberen, glovers, saw~

yen, wallpaperer s, hosien. and locksmiths, and which involved no leu than ' 8.000 tailon, 6.000 shoemakers, 5,000 carpe.nters, 4 ,000 jewelers, and 3,000 bakers.'" Ch. Benoist, " L' Homme de 1848," part I , Revue des deux mondes (July

1, 1913), p. 151. [V5,5]

The Comite Invisible <Invisible Committee>-name of a &eeret society in Lyonl. [V5,"]

Only after 1832, bot above all around 1834 and 1835, did revolutionary propa~

ganda gain a foothold in the proletariat . [V5,7]

In the tightened organization of the secret societies after 1835, the mystagogic element was intrnsified. The names of the days of the week and of the months became codewords for assault detachments and oonunandos. An initiation cere­mony influenced by freemasonry and reminiscent of the Vehme <medieval ai.mj~

-nal tribunals> was introduced. According to de La Hodde, this ceremoniaJ already includes, among other things, the question : "Must one make a political revolution, o r a social revolution?"IO See Ch. Benoist, "lJHomme de 1848," part

\ 1, Revue deJ Deux Mon&J, 7, no. 1 (19 13), pp. 1959- 1961. [V5,8)

" It .....as all up with the Jacobins " y 1840, just 88 with the Montagoardl, the secret societies. the conspiracies, the journals. the ceremonial parades, and the raids. The. 'communists' now held center stage .... The workers took part in the ban~ (Iut! in Belleville, at which the c10ckmllker Simard gave a speech . The great strike of 1840, during which, in Paris alone. 30 ,000 men stopped work, tightened their federa tion .... Heinrich Heine has given U8, in ten passages of his Lutece, a vivid picture of ... the powerful hold which communism had on the workers from the I)aris suburbl . Heine had the honor, in his letters to t.he Augsburg Gazelle, of un' ·ciling·communism to the communisl8 .... But .. . there are communists and (:olllnlUnists . I transcrihe, from ,~ 'Almanuel, Icarien of 1843, this notice ... : 'Today. the commUllists can be divided into two main categories: communists pure

and simple, ... who wan I 10 abolish marriage and the famil y, alld Icaria" commu. lIists, . . . who wit h 10 pre1lerve the ramily and marri age. but wonld do away with &eCret societies , waliion violence, riols, and other such relonies." Charles Benout " L' lIomme de 1848,'" part 2, Relme des deuJC mondes (r ebruary I , 1914):

pp . 638-641. [V5a, l ]

In the mid-Thirties, a crisis broke out in the traditions of the journeymen and traveling artisans. The hierarchies handed down from the time of the guilds began to lose their authority; many of the work songs had come to seem old-fash­ioned. An effort was made to elevate the intelleaual and moral level of the associations. Agricol Perdiguier put together a sort of journeyman's primer, with songs and didactic or devotional readings. 1bis document shows that the mori­bund customs of the trade guilds were a breeding ground for secret societies.

[V5a,2]

Cenacles arter 1839: La Coguetle des rils du Diable ( Revels of the Sons of Satan >,

Le, CommuniUet Materialittes <The Materialis t Communists>. [V5a,3]

Network of wine merchants : "T he current law gives them freedom , where08 the

Empire, in point of fact, had deprived them of freedom . Napoleon III looked on the taverns as 'meeting places for the secret societies,' and the Code annote (a

pamphlet by Julien Goujon , Code annote des limonadie rs ] accuses him of haviD« wanted to 'strike with terror,' in order to ' transform three hundred thousand inhabitants and their fa milies inlo official watchmen.' T hree hundred thousand -tavern8-that is, politica l taverns (what Bnb:ac caUs ' the people's parliament ')-­were thus consolidated ... Wider the July Monarchy and the government of

1848." Maurice Talmeyr, "Le Ma rchand d e vins," Revue de. deux monJe, (August IS, IS9S), pp . 877-878 . [V5a,4]

Varia from Agricol Perdiguier, Le Livre du compagnonnage (Paris: by the author. 1840); " In 1830, the Aspirants Menuisier , <Apprenlice J oiners> and the AlIpir anu Serruriers <Apprentice Locksmiths> in Dordeaux revolted against their fellow

comp(lgnom , or tradesmen, and formed amollg themselves the core of a new soci­ety. Since then , in Lyons, Marseilles. and Nantet. other apprentices have revolted

and formed societies .... These va rious societies cOrre1ll)(mded with one another. and the Societe d e l'Union ou des IntielJendanls was born.... It is distinguished by 110 myster y. 110 initia tion , no hier a rchy .... All members of this society are equal" (pp . 179- ISO). Customs: " Whcn 8 compagnotl goes to Ihe house where the

society lodges . cats, and congregate8, he says: ' I am going to the Mother's hOllse'" (pJl . 180- IS I). Nanles: "The Rose of Carcauonne, the Hesolvf!:(~of Tournu8, and

many others" (I' . 185). Greeting-a prescrihf!:(1 form of i.lllrodllction for trade­gui.ld members on firsl meeting: "They ask one another what ii ide they are on or whal allegia nce Ihey hold 10. If il is Ihe samc, there is a (Cle. alld they drink from a shared flask .... If 11 0 1, Ihere are insuitll io starl wilh , aml lhCII hlows" hI . 187). Variously colored ribhons, worn in llirfcn:nl ways, are insignia or the illdividual

trades. Common , a. weU, are earrings with distinctive lillie pendants on them (horseshoes. hammere, standard gauges, and the like). 10 which the different trades lay exclus.l\·e claim . "The T.square and compau a re emblems. of all the trade guilds, aU compag nonnage, for il is thoughl ... that the word compagno" derives from compaJ <compass> . 11 ... The shoemakers and bakers have several lillles paid dearly for the honor of weari.ng the compau; all the compagnoru with allegia nce to other professions set upon them" (p . 189). " I.n the trade-guild Bocie­

ties. the word mOllsiCllr is never used .... The rrench , Spanish , Italians.. and Swi.ss, whenever they happen to meet , addr ess one another as countries-Country of Spain , Country of Italy, Country of Swil.%erland . and so on .... Since they aU reside under the same starry vault. and tread the s.ame ~round , they a re--and

they call themselves--countries; the world for them, is one great country!" (p . 4 1).-Perdiguier was 011 the staff of L 'Atelier (1840-1850), founded by IJuchell. It went under in IS50 because it could not ma ke a bail payment of 18,000

fra ncs. [VO.l ]

TheJuly Days brought about an upsurge in ~cret societies, in consequence ofa, rapprochement between the republican bourgeoisie and the proletariat. [V6,2]

The Society of the Tenth of December. " On the pretext of establishing a charitable auociation , Louie Napoleon divided the Parisian lumpenproleta riat , after his. elec:tion to the pretidency, into numeroua secret sf!:(;tions, whieb were beaded by

Bonapart.ist agents. " Eduard Fuchs., Die Kariharur der elJropiiilchen VOlker (Mu­nich <1921», vol. 2, p . 102. [V6,3]

The tavern on the Place BeJhomme. "Under Louis Philippe , it was run by an

individual connected with the police. Its clientele was composed , in large part, of aU the conspira tors of the day, who 88sembled there twicc a week. on Mondays. and Thursdays. The names of confeder ate, were proposed on Thursd ay, and they were

admitted on Monday." A. Lepage, Les Cafi' politiques et litteraire. de Paris (Paris <1874» , p . 99. [V6a, l]

, From a secrel report , cited in Pokrowski , by the Russia n informer Jakov Tolstoi, COncer ning hia conversation with the di reclor of the English colonial bank, Camp. bell , an agent of Prince Louis Nal)Oleon: "The p rince had apprised him of the

difficulties or hi, situation , given that he has to battle against Le Nationa l {that iI, agains.t Cavaignac-M.N. P.I. no Ie" than against the red republicans {that is, Ledru-Rollin_ M.N. P. I. who have enormous l ums at their disl)(),al(!) .... Mter­wltrd , ... he a8ked me whether or not the Russian government was likely to en­trust the prince with such a sum [which was needed for the electoral campaign and could lIot be raised ill England). ... It became clear to me then thai Mr. Campbell WitS a sort of emi88ary of Prince Louis and so, in order to d ivert his a ttention and to put an ent!. to the conver sation , I Irealed the whole affair as a joke. I asked him what Louis Napolw n could give 10 Hussia in relurn ror the million he requires.­' Every p088ihle concession ,' answered Mr. Campbell , gelting worked U». ' T ileD

Russia can buy the head of the Republic?' ( asked. ' And for only a million fra ncs? Distributoo over tile four yean ofllis presidency. tllis comes 10 250.000 a year. You will admit tha t it is not a great deal of money.'-' ( guara ntee you tll at, for this price, he will he entirely at your sen-ice. '-'Will lie. at the very leasl, exert his full authorit y to ritl France of Polisll and Russia n emigrants?'-' I say 10 you that he will make a formal commitment in tins rega rd, for he presently finds himself in the most difficult si tuation tllat in general can befall a man!'" M. N. Pokro.....ski. Hu~ tomche Auf,ii t:e (Vienna a nd Berlin <1928». p. 120 (" I ...amartine, Cavaignac, ulld Nikolaus I"). fV6a,2]

"The old journeymen's association of coml'agnon" the beginnings of wllich go hack to the fourteenth, perhaI)S ... the twelfth century ... (a number of hlstori~ ans derive the Ca rbonari movement from it) ... , must lIave espec:ially interested Balzac .... The compagnons themselves ... trace their origin to the constr uction of Solomon's tenlple .... In the preface to the Hu toire des Trei.:e. Balzac makes allusion to the compagnons , who even tod ay would have their I)artisans among the French people." Ernst Robert Curtius, Balzac (Bonll , 1923), p. 34. fV i',I]

" In Fra nce, it was above all the secret society known a8 La Congregation that rurnished the public with materials ror all sorts of thrilling and gruCflome atories. The writen of the RCfl toration, in particula r, ascribed to it the blacken machina· tions. The Comte d 'Artois, the ruture Cha rles X, moved in its orbit. .. . With his

Hu tory o/Secret Societies in the Army, Char les Nodier enthralled hia readen. He himself belonged to the Societe des Philadelphea, rounded in 1797 .... Equally harm1ess was the Societe du Cheval Rouge <Society of the Red Horse>, which Bab:ac founded with Gautier and some othen in the finn conviction that , by influencing the aalons. ita members ... would garner power and glory (or one another.... A secret alliance or prison convicl8 is the Societe des Granda Fanan~

dela, whoae orga nization fonns the background for ... Vautrin." Ernst Robert Curtius, Balzac (Bonn , 1923), PI>. 32-34. [V7,2]

The Faubourg Saint-Antoine and the Temple precinct owe their importance for handicraft to the fact that the laws which prohibited workers from establishing a residence: before completing their term as journeymen were not in effect there. The journeyman's tour de Frana required thn=:e to four years. (Vi',3]

Along wilh many other particulars concerning the compagnolU, Chaptal rt l)(l rU or the enemy clans: "The tools or their trade were alwaya thei r weapolI lJ of war." <Jean~Antoine"C l aude) Chaptal. De l 'JllciustrieframiCli&e (Paris . 18 19), vol. 2,

~3~ ~ ,

"Apart frOID ... meeting at night in small groups, the GcrUla n craftsmen ill Paris, in thos .. years. liketlto get together on Sund ays with kith allli ki.n i ll II refi taurant on the outskirts of town . In Januar y 1845. a former officer of the Garde Nationale, Adalbert von Uornsledl . who at tha t time was spying on rallical ..... riten and arti·

,ans in Par is for the Pr uasian government, described 10 the latter, in a report denounc.ing Marx and He a. a ga lhering of this 80rt in the Avenue de Vincennes, where regicide. halrell of the rich. and the abolition of private prOIJerty were OIW! nly aflvocated." Gustav Mayer. Friedrich EngeLs. vol. J. Friedrich EngeLs in seiner f'riihzeit (Berlin ( 1933». 1). 252. fVi',5]

"}\dalbcrl von Bornstedl . . .....as ... a spy ... or the Prussian government. Ellgeis a nd Marx made lise of him . knowing well enough, however. whom they were dealing with." Gustav Mayer, Fr ied rich EngeLs , vol. I . Friedrich Enge ls in seiner f riih:;eit, sec:ond edition (Berlin), p. 386. fV7a,I)

"'ora Trista n attempted to rree the workers rrom the tenns of their journeyman 'S

cOlltract . fVi'a,2]

Schlahrendorf gives an account or the popular comedian Bobec.he, who could he seen on the Boulevard du Temple. " His stage is so na rrow, however, that he haa no room to gesticulate when hia brothe .... in· law, with whom he perfomla, is up there with him . So he haa to stick his hands in his pockets. Tbe other day he exclaimed, with reason: I must have a place, I absolutely must have II place!-But you aurely know tha t II place must he fill ed , that you must do some work and earn your place?-FiUed? You fill just one pa rt of it a nd the r est is filled by othen.-So what place do you want?-Tbe Place Vendome.-The Place Vendome! It will surely be difficult ror you to have that.-Nothing easier. I shall denounce the Column." CrafCw tCI v von Schlabrendorf in Pum iiber Ereignine und Personen &einer Zeit [ in Carl Gustav J ochmann , Reliquum : Aus ,einen Nachgela uenen Papieren, ed. Heinrich Zschokke. vol. 1 (Hechingen, 1836), pp. 248-249]. (Vi'a,3J

The Carbonari looked on Christ 88 the fi rs t victim of the ar istocracy. [Vi'a,4)

"The police spiea in Paris recognize one another by a badge bearing the ao·called eye of providence." Carl Gusta v Jacbmann , Re/uluien, ed . Heinrich Zacholtke, yol. 3 (Hechingen, 1838), p. 220. fVi'a,5)

"For the .....ork of Balzac ... to appear authentically mythic, it suffices to recall Ihal. evcn during the a uthor's lifetime, there were groups of men and women in Vcnice and ill Rllu ia ....ho .....ould assume the pa rta of characters rrom his Co rtledie hUrtlHine and try to live like them." Roger Caillois, " Paris, my the moderne," iVolll1elle RCl1ltefram;ai,e. 25 . 110. 284 (May I , 1937), p. 698. fV7a,6]

"As for Balzac, one need only ... recall that he is the man whose earliest work (or ncar~y his earliest) happens to be his H iJ/oire impartiale des Jisuites, which he COnsIdered an homage to 'the most beautiful society ever fornu:d: and that he is, at the sam"e time, the creator orVautrin and the author of the Huloire des 7feiu." Roger Caillois, "Paris, my the modem e," Nouut:lle Reuue jranftlue, 25, no. 284

(May 1, 1937), pp. 695-696. TheJesuits, like the Assassins, playa role in the imaginative world of Balzac, as in that of Baudelai.re. [V8,1]

"Te n French regimenlll , were they 10 descend inlO the catacombs. could not have laid a hand on a single Carbonaro. so many were the lurns of tbose dark and dismal underground pa88ages . leading to inacceSllibJe relrealS. It may be men~

tioRed . furthennore . Ihal the catacombs were admirably nLined in five or six places. and a spark would have been enough ... 10 blow up Ihe entire Lefl Bank."

A. Dumas, us Mohicans de Paris. vol. 3 (Paris, 1863), p . I J. [V8,2]

The conspirators of 1830 were rigorously classical in orientation and bitter foes

of Romanticism. Blanqui remained true to this type throughout his life. [V8,3]

Heine on a meeting of Les Arnis du Peuple, at which over 1,500 in attendance

lis tened to a speech by Blanqui. "The meetiug had the odor of an old copy-much perused, greasy, and worn-of u Moniteurof 1793." Cited in Ceffroy, L 'Enfenne

<ed . 1926>, vol. 1. p. 59. [V8,4j

Secret societies after the July Revolution: Ordre et Progres, Union des Condam~ lies Politiques. Rt':clamanlll de Juillet , Francs Regeneres. Societe des Amis du

Peuple, Societe des Families. [V8,5]

Organization of the Societe des Saisons , lIucceslior to the Societe des FamilIes: At the top , four seallOns, of which the chief is spring. Each seallOn has three montha, the chief month being July. The month has four weeks, and their chief ill SUD~ day.-The chiefs are not present at the meetings (or are not recOp'~able). See Gdfroy, L 'Enferme <ed . 1926>, vol. I , p . 79. [V8,6]

The secliolls oflhe Carbollari were known as ventes l2 (the name "Carbonari" goes back to a conspiracy organized in the house of a charcoal dealer during the st~~ gle of the Ghibellines against the Guelphs). Supreme vente. district ventes, local

ventes. Among the founders of the French section wall Bazard . [V8,7]

J . J . Weiss on the Club dell Halles: "The club met in a little room on the second fl oor above a cafe; it had few members, and these were serious and thoughtful. Think of the atmosphere of the Comedie Fran",aise on days wben Racine or COr'*

neille is performed; compare the audience on tholle days to the crowd that fills a cirCUli wller e acrobats are executing perilous leaps, and you wiU undersland the

' h' I t ' ...lub of Blan­impression made on someone w I10 ventured mto t IS revo u IOlIary ... qui , compared witb the impression made by the two cluhs in \'ogue with the pa~y of order, tbe club of Ihe Foliell-Bergere and that of Ihe Salle Va lentino. It was like a chapel consec:rated 10 the orthodox creed of classical cOllspiracy, w~e~e the doors werp. OJ)f'n to all . but where you never' felt like returnin,; unleu you J)eheved. After the sullen I)arade of the oppressed who, every ni,;ht , would prese.nl them* selves at this tribunal in o rder a1wlllYs to denounce lIomeone or somethin,;-the

f:o nspiracy of hankeI'll, an office manager, an administrator of the railroad- the priest of the place would rise 10 his feet and. on the pretext of addressing the sor rows of his congregation , the lH:ople (repretenled by the half-dozen furious imbeciles who had just heeu heard), would clarify the situation . lliJl appearance was distinguisheil. his lH:aring irreproachahle; his counlenance was delicate. Sne, a nd composed. with a Serce and sini.s ter flash tllat sometimes lit the small and piercing eyell, which . in t.heir usua] state, were more benevolent than harsh. His words were meas ured , collOl:luial, and precise; il was, along with thai ofM. Thiers,

the least declamatory way of speaking I have ever hea rd . As to the content of his speech. almost everything ill it was just. ... ' Wher e, then , did Corneille learn the art of war?' cried the Grand COllde at the Srst performance of SertorilU. Blanqui, I would surmiliC. hall 110 more studied war than had Corneille. But possessing. as

he did , tbe l)Olitical faculty to a superlative degree, he could manage, ... even in military mailers, all the signals that, when duly heeded , would have called forth a salute." Cited in Gustave Geffroy, L 'Enferme (Paris . 1897), pp. 346-348.

{V8a]

January 1870. after the murder of Victor Noir: Blanqui has the Blanquisls, pre~ sented by Granger, 6Ie by before him, without letting the fact be known. " He went oul , armed, bidding farewell to his sisters, and took up his post on the Champs­Elysees. It was there, a8 Granger had announced to him , that he would 6nd,

parading before him , the army of which he was the mysterious general. He reeoS~ ni:ted the squadron leaders, as they came into view, and , behind each of them, he

saw the men grouped geometrically and marching in step, as though in regimentl , It was all done according to plan. Blanqui held his review---8trange spectacle-­

without arousinS the slightest suspicioll . Leanins against a tree, surrounded by the crowd of onlookers . the vigilant old man saw his comradee palll by, orderly amid Ihe surging of the people, silent amid the steadily mounting uproar. " Gustave Geffroy, L 'Enferme (Puris, 1897), pp. 276-277. [V9,1]

On the influence of Machiavelli , which Blan<lui felt at Sainte~Pelagie: " In contrast

I~ the French Bia nqui---8o lucid, so intelligent. so ironic---there appeared , from , lime to time, this old Italian Blanqui , denizen of florence or of Venice, who put his r ' h ' al l In tenebrous schemes and in the possible succe88 of an act offon:e." Gustave Gerfroy, L'Enferme (Pa ris, 1897). pp. 245-246. [V9,2)

~ type of conspirator characteristic of the 1840s: Daniel Bomle, a journeyman, aIf crazy, but above all ambiguous. He worked on assigrunent from Vidocq.

who, for his pan, took his orders from Caussidiere as much as from Louis Napoleon. Borme put the regiment of the Vesuviennes on their feet· in 1848 he w .. ' ,

as granled an audience, U1 the company of several Vesuviennes, with Mme. de Lamartine. Lamartine himself refused to have any dealings with the Vesuvien· nt'S. There ~ems to have been a plan [0 set up workshops for them. Borme nlakes an appeal to the cillYJrnneson a poster dated February 28, 1848:

"To female citizens and paaiOtS, my sisters in the Republic: ... I have asked

the Provisional Government to register you under the title of \fesuvienncs. 1'he engagement will be for one year; to enlist, you must be between fifteen and thirty, and unmanied . Apply at 14 Rue Sainte-Appoline, from noon to four o'clock." C ited in Roger Devigne, "Des 'Miliciermcs' de 1937 aux 'Vesuviennes' de 1848," Vmdredi (May 21 , 1937). [V9,3)

Ba udelaire. in his review of u& Martyr, ridicule" by Leon Cladel: "The man of intelligence mold. the l)eople. a nd the vi8iona r y create8 reality. 1have known IODle

l)!)Or wretches whose heads wer e turned by Ferragus XXIU and who !!eriou. I, planned to form a 5eCret coalition in order to 8hare. Li ke a rabble dividing up • eOlUluered empire. all the functions and the wealth of modern 8ociety." Baude­laire, L 'Art r omanlique (Pari.), p _434. '3 [V9a, l )

Charle8 P role8, in u. Homme, de la revolution de 1871 ( Pa ris, 1898), p . 9, On

Raoul Rigault . Blanquist and prefect of police during the Commune: " In aU things, ... even in his fanaticism, he had a r emarkable sang-froid , an indefinable air of the sinister and impassive mystijicateur." Cited in Georges Laronze. Hislolre

de la Commllne de 1871 (Pa ris, 1928), p . 45. In the same text , p . 38 , on Rigault', specialty, the unmasking of police spies: "Under the Empire. especially. he had thrived , .. . keeping his notehook up to date, denouncing, on their arrival , the

disconcerted agents. 'So how are things with the bo,,?' And , with a sneer, he would announce their names. Bl anqui 8aw in 8uch perspicacity the mark or.

ser viceable talen t. He let faU from his lips, one d ay, this unexpected word of praise: ' He is nothing hut a ~amin , hut he ma kes a fi rst-r ate policeman. ,,, [V9a,2)

Doctrine of the Bianquisis during the Commune: "To issue decrees for the natioD

was to repudiate the utopia of federalism and . ., fro m Paris a8 the abidin& capital. to ap pear to govern France." Georges Laronze. Hisloire de la CommUIMI

de 1871 (Paris. 1928). p . 120. [V9a,3)

T he Bl anqui.18 vener ated the memory of Hebert . [Y'" ,]

"Several editorial offi ces a nd boulevard cafes. in particular the Cafe de Suede, were the centers ... of conspiracy. From there. the web spread out . It encom­passed in its linkages the entire Commune, redoubta ble less for the resuits ob­tained (these were effectively nullified by the profusion of plou) thall for the

atmosphere ... of suspicion it produced. At the Hotd de V"tlle, there wer e ince8­santleaks. No dcliberutioll , no sccr ct decision took place that was not immediately knowll by Thiers." eeorges Larollzc, Hi&toire de la Commune de 1871 (Paris. 1928). p . 383. [\,9a,51

Ma rx ca ps u d etailed account of the StH:icty of the Tenth of Oeetllllhcr. as an organization of the lumpcnlu'uleta riat, with these wonls: " in short , the whole. indefinite. disintegrated mass, thrown hither and thither , which the French term

la boheme." Karl Marx, Der achtzehnte Bnmwire de5 Lolli., Bonaparte , ed . Rjazanov (Vienna and Berlin ( 1927)). p . 73.'~ [VIO,!)

Re Balzac: "Sa ill te-Beuve ... recounts a n a nec{lote stra nger . . than all the olhers. At one I)oinl , a whole society mt-'e ting ill Venice (one of the more a risto­cr atic of the societies) decided to assign its member s different roles drawn from the Comedie humaine , a nd some of these roles. add8 the cri tic mY8teriously, were taken 10 the ver y extreme .... T his occurred a round 1840." Anatole Cerfberr and Jules Christol)he. Repertoire de la Comedie humaine de II . de Balzac (Paris.

1887), p . v (Introduction de Paul Bourget). [VIO,2]

h i 1828 The Conspiracy of Equab , by Buonarroti , IIppears in Brussels. " Very

(Iuickly, his book becomes tile breviar y of conspirators. " Title: dlistory of Ba­bellfh Conspiracy for Equality, 60,000 copies sold in only a few d ays. In 1837, 15,000 people a t BUOllar roti'. interment . Michelet'. father had a relation to the

hcginllings of Babeu!; Michelet , to Huonarroti . See Andre Monglond , u Pre­romantisme franl;a is, vol. 2, Le Ma itre des a mes sensible5 (Grenoble, 1930),

, JlP . 154--155. [V10,3)

w een), which last would have the righllo take a lover and bear illegitimate children ; II man who ... maintains that unmarried young women who give Ihemselve1l up to pleasure l)Ossess qualities superior 10 those of married women , . .. and Ilescrihes

[Fourier]

Seas they fathoml Skies they ll!vcal! Each of these: seekers after God Takes an infinity upon his wing: Fulton the ~en, Herschd the blue; MageUan sails, Fourier soars. The frivolous and ironical crowd Sees nothing of their dreams.

-VICtor Hugo, !:Annit tmibh: LeJ ltirorsnlrJ, Epigraph 10 the brochure by PelJarin, 104' annivC'Sairr natal 1M FrJurier (Paris, 1876), cited in A. Pinloche, JiJurla d

fe Jocia/UIM (Paris, 1933). supplement

' 'The words of Jean Paul which I put at the head ofws biography of Fourier-' O£ the fi ber s that vibrate in the human soul he cut away none, but rather harmonized

sU'-these words apply admirably to this socialist. and in their fullest resonance apply only to him. One could not find a better way to characterize the phalarute­rian philosophy." Ch. PeUarin , Notice biblWgraphique (1839), p. 60, cited in A. Pinloche, Fourier et le socialUme (Paris, 1933), pp. 17- 18. (WI,I]

Fourier on his business career : "My best years were 108t in the workshops of falsehood , where from aU sides the sinister augury rang in my ears: ' A very honest hoy! He wiU never be worth anything in business.' Indeed , I was duped and

robhed in aU that I undertook . But if I am worth nothing when it comes to practic­ing business, I am worth something when it comes to unmasking it." Charlet! Fourier, 1820, Publication M3 manwcrirs , vol. I , p . 17, ciled in A. Pinloche,

Fourier ed e socia/isme (Paris, 1933), p . 15. 1 [WI ,2]

Fourier wanled "every woman to have, first of all , a husband wilh whom she could conceive two children ; second , a breeder (genilcur) with whom she could have only one child ; then , a lover (Javori!) who has lived with her and retaihed lhis

title; fourth and last, mere possessors (poneueurs), who are nothing in the eyes of the law .... A man who expressly says that a girl of eighteen who has nol yet found ft man is entitled 10 prostilute herself; a man who directs that all girls be divided into two classes, the juveniles (under eighteen) and I.he emancipated (over eight-

ill great detail how a n entire army of women should enter into prostitution under Ihe supervisioll of matrons-such a man does not ullderstand the eternal bases of hUlllanily." Sigmund E ngla nder, Geschichte der frallzosu.chen Arbeiter-Anocia­lionen (Hamburg, 1864), vol. I , PI'. 245, 26 1-262.-ln the same vein : "Whal are ",·e to say of a syslem in whichfilles publi(luc!S are given the name baccha ntes and in ",.hich il is argued that they are just as necessar y as vestal virgins, and that they ... exercise the virtue of fellowship? A system which describes in what manner

iJlJlocenl young people areliuPPolied to lose their innocence?" (ibid ., pp. 245-246). [WI ,31

"Around 1803 or 18M, Fourier, who practiced the profession of commercialtrav­eler--or 'shop-sergeant ,' a8 he preferred to call it- found himse.lf in Paris. Hav­ing before him a four~month wait for a position he had been promised, he looked

around for some means of occupying his time and hit upon the idea of searching for a way to make all men happy. It was not with the expectation of obtaining any practical r esults that he entered on this project , but purely as a jeu d 'csprit." Charles-M. Limousin , Le Fourieru.me (Par is, 1898), p . 3. [Wl ,4]

" Fourier is so prodigal in his invention and his cr a:r;y descriptions that l.erminier justifiably compares him to Swedenborg.... Fourier, loo, was at home in all skies and on all planets. Mter all, he calculated mathematically the transmigration of

the soul . and went on to prove that the human soul must assume 810 different forms until it completes the circuit of the planets and returns to earth, and that , in the course of these existences , 720 years must be happy, 45 years favorable, a nd 45 years unfavorable or unhappy. And has he not described what will happen to the soul after the demise of our planet , and prophesied , in fact , that certain privileged

souls will retire to the sun? He reckons further that our souls will come to inhabit alt other planets and worlds, after spending 80,000 years on planet Earth. He calculates, in addition , that this termination of the human race will occur only

after it has enjoyed the benefits of the boreal light for 70,000 year s. He proves that \ by the influence , not of the horeallight , to be sure, but of the gravitational force of

labor, . .. the climate of Scnegal will become as moder ate as summers in France are now. He describes how, once the sea has turned to lemon ade, men will trans­pori fis h from the greal ocean to the inland seas, the Caspian , Aral, and Black Seas, given that the boreal light reacts less potenlly with these salty seas; and so, in

this way, saltwater fi sh will accustom themselves gradually 10 Ihe lemonade, until finally they ca n be res tored to the ocean . Fourier also says Illal , in its eighth ascemling period . humanity will acquire the cltpacily to live like fish in the water and to fl y like birds in the air, alld that , lIy then , huma ns will have reached a height of seven feet and a life span of al lea SI 144 years. Ever yone, at that point . "" iIl be able -to transform himself into all amphihian ; for the individu al will have the power of opening or closing at will the valve Ihal COllnects tile two dlambers of

the hellrl , '0 liS 10 bring the blood directly to the hellrt without hllving it pa" through the IUll goJ•••• Nature will evolve in such fll ~ hioll, he mllintllin8. that a time will come when orange~ blossom in Siberia and the most dlillgeroll8 animals have been replaced by their OPI)Osiles. Anti-lions, anti-whales will be lit man 'llervice then , alld the culm will II rive his s hi)l ~. In this way, accortling to Fourier, the lion will ierve ItS the l}Csl of horses and the sha rk will be ItS IIseful in 6~hing as the dl>8 is in hunting. New sta rs will emerge to take the place of the moon, which already, by then , will have l}Cgun to rot." Sigmund En~iinder. Ceschichte der !roruii­suchell Arbeite,...AuociCl,ionen (Hamburg, 1864), vol . I , pp. 240-244. [Wla]

" Fourier, ... in his last years . ... wanted to found a phalanstery that wouJd be illhabited exclusively by children aged t.hree to fourteen , of which he aimed to Itssemble 12,000; but his appeal wellt unheeded and the project wal lIever real­ized . 1.11 his writings he left a detailed plan, which specifically delcribel how the children must be rai lH!(l 80 as to further the idea of association . From the moment a child begins to walk , an allempt must be made to identify ite tastes and paslioDl, and , by this means, to discover it s vocation. Children who show a liking for life in the street, who make a racket a nd refuse to learn neatness and cleanliness , are placed by Fourier in small bands which have charge of the more unpleal ant tal k. of the association . On the odler side there are childrell in whom the taste for elegance and luxury is inborn ; tllese again Fourier arranges in a group, so that by

their p~Belice 011 the scelle the phalanx will not be lacking in luxury.... The children a re to bt.'Come ... great artists of song. Every phalanx , Fourier BayB, will have 700 to 800 actors, nJusicians, and dancers, and the poorest canton in the AlP' or the Pyrenees will have all opera company at least as good as the Grand Opera of Paris, if not much belter. In order to foster the general sense for harmony, Fourier wouJd have the children already singing duets and trios in the nursery." Sipund Englander, Gescllichte der !rallzo$uchen Arbeiter·Auociationen (HambulrI, 1864), vol. I, pp. 242- 243. [W2,J)

"'Among the disciples of Fourier. one of the most entertainin5 was this AJphorue Toussenel, who, in 1847 and 1852 respectively, published those works so popular in their day, L ' f;spri, de$ betes and Le Monde dC$ oueaux. ... Like Fourier, ... he sees in nalure only animate beings: ' The planets,' he affirms, ' have great dutiet to fu1611 , first as members of the solar system, then as mothers of familici. , And be \'oluptuolIsly descrilks the amour8 of the Earth and the SlIn : 'As the lover dresses ill hiH1II 0~ t bea utiful robes, and glosses his hair, and perfumes his language for tbe visit of his lovc, thll8 ever y morning the Earth indues her richest attire to meet the ruys of her 8tar belove.!. ... Ha ppy, thrice happy the Earth,l.hat 110 couucil of the stars has yel tlUllldered its anathema against the immoralit y of the kisses of the SUII!' .. . 'Professors of the officially sanctioned physical sciences dare not speak of the two ~exes of electricity ; they ftnd it more moral to i lH!a k of its two pok$ . ... SUell absurdities are heyolilime.... If the fi re of love Ilill not kindle allikings, metals ani! minerals as wdlas others. where, I ask , would be the reason for thollC ardcnt IIffiuities of p011I~~ illlll fur oxygen . of hydrochloric acid for water? ' "

~ Toussenel.) l~ 'Elprit de. betel <6th edition) (Paris , 1862), pp. 9, 2-3,102_106.2

CitC(1 in Rene de P lallllOl, l.es UWl'istes de l'amollr (Paris . 1921), pp. 219-220. [W2,2]

"Our planet goes inlo material decline once iu inhabitllnl8 begin to backslide down the social scale. It is like a tree whOle leaves the caterpillars have been aUowed to devour over a period of yea rs: the tree languishes and wes." From Fourier, Theorie en abllrait ou negative, p. 325. " Our vortex is young, and a column of 102 planets is presently on course for an elltry into our univer'llC, which is on the IJOint of advallcillg from the third to the fourth power." From Fourier, Theom des quatre mouvement$ (1808), PI" 75, 462 , and Theom mute ou speculative el Syn. the$e routinie re de l 'auocia,ioll, Pl" 260, 263. Cited in E. Silberling, Dicrwnnaire de $ocwwgie phalmuterienne (Pari., 1911), pp. 339,338 . [W2a, l}

Gay's newspaper, Le Communu,e: " What W88 noteworthy, in his case, was that he championed the view that communism could not possibly be achieved without a complete alteration in sexual relations .... ' l !l a communist society ... , not only would aU men and women enter into a great many intimate relationships with persolls of the opposite sex , but even at their first encounter a genuine sympathy would spring up between them ...' Englander, Geschichte der Jranzosischen Ar­

beiter-Auociatwllen, vol. 2, pp. 93-94. (W2a,2]

On Cabet: "The cry was not : Let us emigrate to America and there , with utmost exertion , found a colony in the wilderness .... Rather, Cabet was saying: 'Let us go to learia!' .. . Let us enter boldly into this novel, let us give life to Icaria, let UI

free ourselves from all privations ... ! Every article in his newspaper wouJd rerer henceforth to lcaria; this went 10 far that he would describe, for example, how several workers were injured by the explosion of a steam engine in La Villette and conclude his account with the words, ' Let us go to Icaria!'" Englander, vol. 2, )lV'. 120-121. [W2a,3]

On Cabet: "Most of the correspondents write as though they have Clcaped the \ general destiny of humanity by jourlleying to America. " [This pertains to the

correspolldents for Le Populaire. ] Englander, vol. 2, p. 128. [W2a,4)

"Cabet, wholll the radiCli1 reJluhlican part y attacked because they considered him li n opiate-monger," had to "remove to Saint-Quentin . . so as to defend himself frolll accusatioliS of revolutionary agitation . The accusation was to the effect that , e\'ell if the Icarians should embark with Ca be t . they would disembark at another )Joint on the coast of france, in order 10 begin the revolution ." Englander, vol. 2, p. 142. 0 Secret Socidies 0 [W2a,5]

"Mercury ta'ught U 8 to read . He brought us the alphabet , the declensions. and finall y the entire grammar of the unitary Harmonian language. as spoken on

the sun and the h armonized planets." Citation from Fourier, in Ma urice Har . than he earns as a producer." ( Paul> Lafargue, " Der Kiasscnk ampf in Fr ank­md , "Charles Fourier," Porlraitj d 'hier, vol. 2, no. 36 (P aris, 1910), p . 184. reich ," Die neue Zeit . 12, 110. 2 (1894), pp . 644, 616. [W3,4]

[W2a,6]

"Among all the contempor arics of Hegel, Charles Fourier was the only one who saw through bourgeois relations as clearly as he himself did ." G. Plekhanov, "Zu Hegels sechzigstem Todestag," Die neue Zeit , 10, no . 1 (Stuttgart, 1892), p. 243.

[W2a,7]

Four ier speaks "of the ascendancy of the principle of ' industrial passion ' (Jo ugue industrieUe) , the univer sal enthusiasm that is ruled by the laws .. . of the 'com.

posite ' or the ·coincident.' On a cursory inspection , it might appear as though we had reached this stage today. Industrial p assiou is represeuted by the rage to

speculate and the impulse to accumula te capital; the pauion coi'lCidenle (drive toward iucorporation), hy the consolidation of capital , illl increasing concentra. tion . But even though the elements discovered by Fourier a re present in thia r elation , they are neither articulated nor regulated in the manner he envisioned ,and anticipated." Charles Bonnier, " Das Fourier 'sche P rinzip del' Anziehung,"

Die neue Zeit , 10, no. 2 (Stuttgart, 1892), p . 648. [W3,1]

" We can see from his works that Fourier expected his theor y to be accomplished beginning in the year of their publication . In his Proiegomencs, he designates . . . 1822 as the year when the establishment of the experimental colouy of the HarJDO.

nian association was to be prepared . T his colon y was supposed to be actually

founded and put into practice the following year, whereu pon 1824 would neceuar· ily see il8 general imitation by the rest of the civilized world ." Charles Bonnier, " Das Fourier'sche P rinzip der Anziehung," Die neue Zcit, 10, no. 2 (Stuttgart, 1892), p. 642. [W3,2]

Mtereffeclll: " In Zola's powerful novel Le Tra vail <Labor ), the great utopian wu supposed to celebrate his resurrection.... Leconte de U sle, later the famoUi

leader of the Parnassian school, was , in his Sturm. und· Drang period, a singer 01 Four ieris t socialism. A contributor to La Revue sociaiiste . . . [see the November 1901 issue] informs us that , a t the invitation of the editors of La Db nocrati.e

pacifiquc, ... the poet coutributed first to this latter jour nal and then brieRy to La Phaionge." H. Thurow, " Aus den Antangen der sozialistischen Belletristik ," Die neue Zeit , 2 1, no. 2 (Stuttgart , 1903), p . 22 1. [W3,3]

" The political et:onomisu a nd politician s from whom the pr e- l848 so<;ialis ts had lea rned wer e, in every case, opposed to strike~. They explained to the wor kers that a str ike, even though successful , would bring them no ad vantage, and that the workers should put their money into cooperat ives for production and consump­tion rather th an into plans fo r a strike." P roud hon " had . .. the ingenious idea of inciting the workers to strike in order not to increase their wages but to lower them .... In this way, the worker obtaills two or three times more 11.8 a consumer

" fourier, Saint-Simon , a nd other reformers recruited thei r fo llowers almost ex· c1u ~ i vely from the rank8 of the a rti 5an~ .. . a nd from the intell« tu al elite of the bourgeoisie. With a few exceptious, it was educated people who gathered around them, people who thought they had not received from suciety consideration

sufficient to their merits .... It was the declcuses, those who had tra nsformed themselves into d aring entrepreneurs, sh rewd busine8smen , or speculator s .... M. Godin , for example .... fo unded in Guise (in the departement of rusne) a !amiliMere according t il. Four ier 's principles. In h andsome bllildings su r rounding

a spacious, g1ass·cover ed square courtyar d , he provided accommodations fo r nu. merous workers fr om his plate--enamelillg factory; here they found, besides a home, allue<:essary articles fo r da ily lise ... , entertainments in a theater, con­certs, schools for til!!ir children , and so on . In short , M. Godin saw to all tbeir

physical and spiritu al needs, and moreover realized ... enormous p rofits. He earned the r eputation of heing a benefactor of mankind, and died a multimillion­aire." Paul Lafargue. " Der Kiassenkam"fin Frankreich ," Die neue Zeit . 12, no. 2 (Stuttgar t , 1894), p . 617. [W3a, l ]

Four ier on stocks aud bouds: " In his Traite de I'unite univer jeUe, Fourier enu·

merates ... the advantages which this form of property offers the capitalislll: ' It does not run the danger of beiug stolen or d amaged through fire or earthqu ake.

. . . A minor never risks being taken ad vantage of in the administr ation of his money. since that administration is the same for him as for every other shar e-­

holder ... ; a capitalist can realize his property at any moment, even though he oWlled a hundred million '; and so fo rth . ... On the other hand , ' tbe poor man , though he h ave but one taler, can participate in the holding of public stock . which is divided up iuto quite small portions •... and hence ... can speak of our pal.

a~es , our storehouses, our wealth. ' Nal}Qleon III and his cohorts in the COIIP d 'etat were ver y taken with these ideas; ... they democratized state revenue, as one of

them put it , by making it possible to purchase bonds for fi ve fr ancs or even one franc. By such method s, tbey thought to interest tbe masses in the solidity of \ puhlic credit and preclude political revohltions." Pa ul Lafargue, " Ma rx' histor­ischer Materialismus," Die neue Zeit . 22, no. I (S tuttga rt , 19(4) , p . 831. [W3a,2)

"F our ier is fl ot only a critic; It is impe rturbahly serene nature ma kes him a satirist , II rul assuredly one of tlte greatest sati.rists of all time." Engels,] cited iu Rudolf Franz, review of Ii:. SilberBug's DictiomlUire de sociQlog ic piralclIlsteriellne (Pa ris, 191 1), Dic " eue Zeit. 30, no. 1 (Stuttgart . 19 12), p . 333. [W3a,3)

The propagation of the phalanstery takes place through an ~cxplosion." Fourier Speaks of <l!l "explosion du phalansterc." [W3a.4]

In England, the influence of Fourier combined with that of Swedenborg. [W3a,5]

" Heine was well aC(IUainted with 80cialism. He could still see Fourier in perSOD. In his articles entitled Fram:iisu che ZU$tiinde <French Mfairs ), he write8 at one point (June 15 , 1843): ' Ye8, Pierre Leroux is poor, just as Saint-Simon aDd Fourier were poor, and by the providential poverty of these great socialists the world was enriched .... Fourier likewi8e had re.!01lr8e to the charity of fri enda. How often have I 8een him scurrying pa8t the column8 of the Palai8-Royal in hi! shabby gray coat , both pocket8 laden 80 that Ollt of one was peeping the neck of a bottle and out of the other a long loaf of bread. The friend of mine who fint pointed him out to me drew my attention to the indigence of the man , who bad to fetch drink for himself at the wineshop and bread at the bakery. ''',I Cited in "Heine an Marx ," Die neue Zeit . 14, no. 1 (Stuttgart , 18%), p. 16; pa8sage originally ill <Heine,> Siimtliche Werke , ed. 80lsche (Leipzig), vol. 5, p. 34 ["KoDUnumsmu8, Philosophie, und K1erisei," part 1] . [W4,1]

" In his gl08ses to the memoir8 of Annenkov, Marx writes : ' ... Fourier was the lint to mock the idealization of the petty bourgeoisie. , .. Reported by P. Anski, "Zur Charakteristik von Marx," RU$skaia Mrs! (August 1903), p. 63 ; in N. RjassDoff, "Marx lind seine rU8sischen Bekannten in den vierziger Jahren," Die neue Zeit,

31, no. 1 (Stuttgart, 1913), p. 764. [W4,2j

"Herr GrUn finds it an easy matter to criticize Fourier's treatment of love; be measure8 Fourier 's criticism of exi8ting amorous relationship8 against the fanta­sies by which Fourier tried to get a mental image of free love . Herr Griin, the true

German philistine, take8 these fantasies seriously. Indeed, they are the only thins which he does take seriously. It is hard to see why, if be wanted to deal with thiI side of the system at all, GrUn did not also enlarge upon Fourier'8 remarks con­cerning education ; they are by far the best of their kind , and contain 80me DIU­

terlyobservations.. . . ' Fourier is the very worst expression of civilized esoilm' (p. 208). He supplies immediate proof of this by relating that, in Fourier's world order, the poorest member eats from forty dishes every day, that five meals are eaten daily, that people live to the age of 144, and so on. With a naive sense of humor, Fourier oppose8 a Gargantuan view of man to the unassuming mediocrity of the mell [in Das Westphiilische Dampfboot, the following words . .. inserted after ' men ' : ' the infinitely smaD- Beranger ' ] of the Restoration period ; but Herr Grtin sees in this merely a chance of moralizing in his phili8tine way upon the mOil innocent side of Fourier's fancy, which he abstracts from the rest." Karl Marx writing about Karl CrUn a8 historian of socialism (in an article originally publis~­ed in Das Westphiili.sche Dampfboot. August-September 1847), r eprinted in Die IIeue Zeit , 18, no. 1 (Stuttgart, 1900), pp. 137-138.~ , (W4,3j

The phalanstery can be characterized as human machinery. This is no reproach, nor is it m eant to indicate anything mechanistic; rather, it refers to the great complexity of its structure <Atljhau>. The phalanstery is a machine made of human beings. (W4.4]

Fourier 's point o f departure: the reSection on small business. Compare, in this connection, the following: "VVhen one considers the number of people in Paris whose lives depend on small business-the size of this fonnidable anny exclu· sively occupied with measuring, weighing, packaging, and transponing from one end of town to the other-one is rightJy alanned .. .. It must be recalled that, in our industrial cities, a shop is generally run by three o r four families . .. . 'Sordidi etiam qui mercantur a mercatoribus quod statim vendant ; nihil enim proficiunt nisi admodwn mentiantur. Nec vera quicquam est turpius vanitate' (Ik QjJiciis).5

. The current president of the Chamber of Commerce last year fOrmally requested once again, as a remedy for commercial anarchy, the reestablishment of guilds." Eugene Buret, Dr: fa Misere des clas.m lahomu.m en Angk tem: et en France (Paris, 1840), voL 2, pp. 216- 218. [W4a, l j

"The modern proletariat '8 lack of history, the detachment of the first generation of factory workers from every historical tradition of class and profession, and the diversity of its origin- in handicrafts, smaD landholdings, agrarian labor, and domestic concerns of every sort- made this category of economic man receptive to , II. vision of the world that would improvise ex novo a new state, a new economy, and II. new morality. The novelty of what was to be achieved corresponded logically to the novelty of the situation in which the new men and women found themselves." Robert I\tichels, "Psychologie der antikapitalistischen Massenhewegungen," p. 313 [Grundrin der Soziawko"omik , vol. 9, no. I , Die geseUschaftliche Schichtlmg im Kapitalismus (TUhingen, 1926)] . (W4a,2j

"Grandville's life is IlDremarkable enough: peaceful , remote from all excess, at the periphery of dangerous enthusiasms .. .. His youth was that of an honest clerk in a respectable shop, where, on rows of spotless shelves, were arrayed- not without malice-the various images that corresponded to the need for criticism which aD 'average Frenchman' might feel in 1827." <Pierre> MacOrlan, "Grandville Ie precurseur," Arts el metiers g raphiques. 44 (December 15 , 1934) <po 20>.

(W4a,3]

f ourier and Saint-Simon: " Fourier is more interesting and more diversified in his economic analysis and in his critique of the existing social order. But , then , Saint­Simon has the ad vantage over Fourier in his representations of future economic devel0Jlment. Obviously, this development had to move .. . in the direction of a gI?bal economy . . . , and not in the directioll of many self-sufficient IittJe econo­nues, sueli as Fourier imagined . Saint-Simon conceives the capitalist order ... as

..a "~ t c" . . . , w ·I e ,'ouTler rejects ·· It III t Ie nallle 0 , tIe pett y bourgeoisie." Vh ''''' · · I' . Volgin , <~bcr die historische Stellung Saint-Simons," ill (Marx-Engels Arclliv, vol. 1 Frankfurl anI Main, 1928>, p . 118. (W4a,4]

" III an cxchang!= of views with the writcr Camillc Maudair, . .. Zola ... dedared uneqUivocally that he bore no love for collcctivism; he found it smallhearted and Utopian . He was an anarchist rather than a sociali o • .. . U.·opllin SOCl.ll Ism, . .. as • . , . ~

he saw ii , look ils rise fromlhe irulividual workshop , proceeded to the idea of the associalion of prOtlueers. ami aimed to achieve a communism of thc general com_ munity. This Wll8 hefore 1848.... Zola , however, wanled to revive the method of this period ; he ... took up tile ... ideas of Fourier, which were conditioned by the embryonic relations of capiialisl production , and attempted to aUy them to the mo<lcrn form of t.his production . which had grown to gigantic pr oportions." Frana Diederich , " Zo la als Utol)ist" (on I.e Tra vail), Die neue Zeir, 20, no. I (Stuttgart),

PI)· 326-327,329. [WS,I)

rourier (in u Nouveau Montie indUJlriel et Jooitaire, 1829) d isapproves o r the contempt ror gastronomy. "111is gaucherie is yet another or those exploits or

morality calculated to tum us intO enemies o r our own senses, and into rriends or that commercial activity which serves merely to provoke the abuses o r sensual pleasure." E. Poisson, Foun·u [contains sclected texts] (Paris, 1932), p . 131. Thus, Fourier here views inlD10ral businesses as a complement to idealist morality. 10 both he opposes his hedonistic materialism . His position recalls, from afar, that or

Georg Buchner. The words quoted above might have been spoken by Buchner's Danton. [W5,2)

" A phala nx d oes not sell n thousand quintals of flour of indifferent quality ; it aeu. a thousand quintals classified according to a scale of five, six, or seven varietiCi of flavor, which it has te!!ted in a bakery and distinguished in terms of the field where it was harvested and the method of cultiva tion .... Such an agricultural meclul­

nism will contrast sharply with the practices of our backward world, our civilisa­tion so in need of perfecting . ... We ace among OUr!lelVetl, furthermore.

merchandi!!e of inferior quality that is twenty times more abundant and more easily sold tha n he tte .....quality goods.... As a result of this circumstance, we can

no longer even recogn ize the inferior quality; morality accu!!tom!! the civilized to eating the good and the bad indiscriminately. From this coar seness of taste follow

all the knaveries of mercantilism." TheorU! des quatre mouvemenU (1828). cited in E. Poisson. Fourier (Pa ris, 1932). pp . 134-135. :-Alread y children are taught to " clean their platc!!. ,. [W5,3)

" Knowing ... that sometimes, in the region of the North Pole, there is generated

an electrical discharge which lights up those lands plunged in d arkne88 for six months of the year, Fourier announce!! that, when tile eart h shall have been ra· tionally cultivated ill all its pa rts , the aurora borealis will be continuous. h this absurd ?" The lIuthor endeavors, following this, to provide an explanation: the

transfor med curtI! will absorh less electricit y from the sun , a nd whatever is nol absorbed will encir cle it as 8 ring of Northern LiglJls. Charles-l'tt . Limou!!in, Le Fourierisme: Repo/lse f; IHI article de Edmond Villey inti,ule " Fourier et son oeu­vre" (Pa ris, 1898). p . 6. [W5a, I)

"T hen: ","oultl he lIot hillg ver y surprising in the fa cl that Fourier had been a88oci­aled ... wilh a Martinist 100Igc, or al the very leasl had fel! t.he innuence of a

lIulieu in which such ideas Rourished ." Cha rles-M. Limousin , Le Fourwrisme (Paris, 1898) , p . 9. (W5a,2]

""'rthy of no te is the fact-to which Lim o usin adverts-that, with Fourier, the desire ror possessio n is not a "passion ." This same commentator defines the concept or paJJirm mir.anuante as that passio n which governs the play or the others. H e remarks further (p. 15) : "Fourier was surely wrong to make a joke or

duty?' Cenainly apt is his observation (p. 17) that Fourier is more an inventor

than a scientist. (W5a,3)

" In Fourier, occult science acquires a new form- that of industry." Ferra ri , "l>ft Idees et de I'ecole de Fourier," Revue de. deux mondes, II , no. 3 (1845), p . 405.

[W5a,4)

On Fourier 's machinal mode of conception . The table entitled " Mesh of the Lodg­

ments of Harmony" establishes, for apartments in street-galleries, twenty differ­ent categories of rentals , priced from 50 to 1,000 francs, and offers, among others,, the foll owing justIDcation: "This meshing of the six series is a law of the twelfth passion. The simple progreuion . whether constantly increasing or decreasing, would have ver y seriOU!! drawbacks. In principle, it would be false and deleteri­

ous, insofar as it was simple .... In application , it would be injurious, insofar as ... it gave to the body of dwellings in the wings ... the appearance of an inferior

clan. Care must be taken to avoid thil arrangement , which would be simple and therefore detrimental to the meshing -of the differt!nt claI!!es. 'ttl Thus, within a

single section of the strect-gaUeries, lodger!! of differ ent social standing will reside together. " I put off discussion of the stables ... , about which I 8hall furnisb ... ample detail !! in special chapten to follow. For now, our concern is with lodg­

ments, of which one part alone--the street-gallery, the hall of univenallinkage-­conclusively proves that , after 3,000 yean of research into architecture, civilized men have yet to lea rn anything about the bond of unity." Cited in E. Pois80n ,

Fourier [anthology] (Paris, 1932), pp . 145-146. [W5a,5)

\ Aspects of Fourierist number mysticism. according to Ferrari, " Des Idee!! et de I'ecole de Fourier " (Revue de. deux mondes, 14, no. 3 [Paris, 1845]): " Everything indicates that FOllrierisrn bases itself on the P ythagorean harmony.. .. Its !!cience was the science of the a ncients" (p . 397). " Number reproduces it!! rhythm in the

evalu~tion of earnings" (p. 398). The inhabitant!! of the phalanstery comprise 2 x 810 men and women; for " the number 810 gives them a complete series of chords corresponding to the mlihitu~le of clliJulist a$sonances" (I'. 396). " If. with Fourier, Ihe science of the occult takes 0 11 a new form, t.hut of industry. it should not be forgotten that form l>er se counts for nothing in this airy poetry of the my!!­lagogies" (I). 405). " Number groups Il II beings according to its symbolic law!!; it develops aU the groulls through serics; the series distributes the harmonies throughout the universe . ... For lhe series ... is perfect throughout all of 1I1l­

ture.... M.an alone is unhalJpy; hence , civilization inverts the number which

should govern him . Let us reseue it from civilization .... The order that domj_ nRtes physical movement--(lrganic movement , animal movement-will thus radi. ate in . .. plissional movement ; na ture ilJlelf will organize the association" (p. 39>-J96). [WO,I]

Foreshadowing of the bourgeois king ill Fourier: " He speaks of kings who devote themselves to locksmithery. to woodworking, to selling fish, to the manufacture of sealing wa): ." Ferra ri, " Des Idees et de I'ecole de Fourier," ReVile c1e, delU monde. , 14, no . 3 ( 1845) p. 393. [W6,2)

"All his Life. Fourier was engaged in thinking; but he never once asked himself where his ideas came from. He portrays the human being as a machine paI'ion­nelle; his psychology begins with the senses aud euds with the coml)Osite, without presupposing .. the inter vention of reason in the solution of the problem of happiness ." Ferrari, " Des Idees et de I'ecole de Fourier," Revue des dew: monde"

no. 3 (1845) , p. 404. [W6,3)

Utopian elements: "The combined order comprises ' the glory of the arts and Ici. ences , the spectacle of knight-errantry, gastronomy combined in a political sense • . .. and a politique galante for the levy of troops" (Ferrari , p . 399). "The world turm to its antitype, as dangerous and savage animals enter the service of mankind : lionl are ul ed for delivering the mail. The aurora borealil reheau the poles; the atmosphere, at the earth 's surface, becomes clear as a mirror; the aeat

grow calm; and (our moonl light up the night. In short , the earth renewl itself twenty-eight times, until the great soul of our planet (now enfeebled, exhauued) passes on, with all its human soull , to another planet" (Ferrari, p. 401) . [W6,4)

" Fourier u cels in the observation of animality, whether in beasu or in men. He has a genius for common maHers." Ferrari , " Del Idees et de )'ecole de Fourier," Revue de. dew: mondes. 14, no. 3 (1845), p . 393. [W6a,l)

A Fourierist formula: "Nero will be more useful tha n Fenelon" (in Ferrari, p.399). [WOo,2]

In the following scheme of twelve pallions, the four in the second group represent the puuioru group a llles , the th ree in the third group the pouions serionles : "6nt the five senses; then love, fri endshil>, famil y feeling, a mbition; third , the pauionl for intrigue, for mutability, for union- in other words, the ca balist . the butterfly, the composite; II thirtet! lI th pas8ion , ' unityism, ' absorbs aU the otllers." Ferrari, '; Oes Itli:es et de I'ecole de Fourier," ReVile dcs deux mondes. 14, no . 3 (1845), p. 394. [W6a,3)

From "' ourier's last work , I A I Faluse I ndll.uric ( 1835-1836): "The celebrated American hoax auociated with Herschel's discoveries ahout the world of the moon' had raised in Fourier, once lhe hoax was revealetl as such, the hope of a direct vision of the phalanster y on other 1)lanel8... . Here is Fourier 'l reBponse:

'TheAmerican hoax ,' hededares, ' proves. fIrst , the anarchy ofthe press; second, the barreOliess of storyteller s concerned with the extra terrestrial: third , man's ignorance of the atmospheric shells; fourth . the need (or a megatelescope ...• Fer­

. " D-, Idees et de I'ecole de Fourier." Revue des deux monJe" 14, no. 3ran. .. (1 845), p. 415. [W6a,4)

Allegorical specime.ns from La Fuu.ue Indwtrie: "On earth Venus creates the mulberry bush, symbol of morality. and the r aspberry filled with verse, symbol of the cOlilltcrmorality preached in the theaten ." Ferrari, " Des Idees et de I' ecole de Fourier," Revue des deux mondes, 110 . 3 (1845), p. 4 16. [W6a,5)

"'According to Fourier, the phalanstery should be able to earn , merely from spec­tators alone, 50 million francs in two years. " Ferrari , " Del Idees et de I'ecole de Fourier," Revue c1el dew: mondes, no. 3 (1845) , II . 4 12. [W6a,6]

'"Tbe phalanstery, for Fourier. wal a veri table hallucination. He saw it every­where , both in civilization Bnd in nature. Never was he lacking for a military pllrade; the drilling of l oldien was (or him a representation o( the all-powerful play o( the group and of the scries inverted for a work of destruction ." Ferrari, "Des Idees et de l'ecole de ."ourier," Revue des deux mondel , no. 3 (1845). p. 409.

[W6a,7)

Fourier, in connection with a proposal for a miniature pedagogical colony: "Ful­ton Wll8 supposed to have constructed or merely drawn up plans for a delicate little laullch that would have demollstrated, on a miniature scale. the power of steam. This skiff was to have tranl ported (rOlIl Paris to Saint-Cloud-without sails or oars or borses-a half-dozen nymphs , who, on their return from Saint-Cloud. would have publicized the prodigy and (>ut all the Parisian beau month in a flut· ter." Ferrari, " Des Idees et de l'&:ole de Fourier," Revue del deux monde" no. 3 (1845), p . 414. [W', I]

"The »Ian to encircle Pari \O;th (ortifications would squander hundreds of mil­\ lions of francs for reasons of defense, whereas tbil magician, with only a million,

\O'ould root out fore\'cr the ca use of all wars and all revolutions." Ferrari , " Des Idi:"es et de I' ecole de Fourier," Revue de. deux mOlldes, 14, no. 3 (1845), p. 413.

[W',2]

Micllelet on Fouricr: "SinguJa r contrast betwcen his boast of materialism a nd his self-sacrificing. disinterested , aud spiri tu ul !ife!" J. Michelet, Le Pellple (Paris. 1846), p. 294. 10 [W7,3)

Fourier's conception of the propagation of the phalanstcries through "explo­sions" may be compared to two anida of my "politics" : the idea of revolution as an innervation of the tecluucal o rgans of the collective {analogy with the child who learns to grasp by trying to get hold of the moon}, and the idea of the "cracking open of natural tdeol? gy." (See W8a,S and Xla,2 .) [W7,4]

Fourier, Oeuvre•. vol. ( 3) , p. 260: " L.is t of charges to be brought against Cod, 00 the hypothesis of II gap in the divine social code." [W7,5j

A take on the ideal of Fourier: " King Clodomir, restored by harmony to his natu. ral vocation, il no longer that ferocious Merovingian who has his confrere Sips. mont! thrown into a pit. ' He is a friend of flowers and of verse, an active partisan of musk roses, of golden plums and fresh pineapples , and man y another growing thing.... He weds the vestal Antigone and follows her a8 troubadour to join the

Hippocrene phalanx .' And Lows XVl, instead of filling so pitiably the job of Irins for which he was hardly cut out, makes magnificent door locks." Charles Lcman_ dre, Le. Idee. mbvenive. de notre temp. (Paris, 1872), p . 59 [cita tion given with_

out indication of source]. [W7,6)

Delvau , in Le. Lio,." du jour (Pa ris, 1867), p. 5, slJeaks of Fourier's " ingeoiolll

II rgol ." {W7,7]

" It is easy to understand that every ' interest ' on the part of the mas&el ... goes far beyond its ccllilimiu in the 'idea' or ' imagination' when it first comes on the scene,

and is confused with human inlerest in general. This illusion constitutes what Fourier calls the ' tone' of each historical epoch ." Marx and Engels , Die~.

Fomilie , in Der hi!tori!che Moteriolismw. vol. 1 <Leipzig, 1932), p . 379. 11

(W7.8)

Augustin-Louis Cauchy is mentioned by Toussenel (L 'E'prit des betel [PariJ, ­1884], p . 111 )12as a mathematician with Fourierist leanings. [W7a,l)

In a passage concerned witb Malthusianism . Toussenel explains that the solutioa

to the problem resides in the double (_ filled?) rose of Rhodes, whose nameD­maments have been transformed into petals. "and which consequently becoa18 barren by exuberance of sap and of richness. In other words, ... so long as miaerr shall continue increasing, the fecundity of the female sex will follow the ,ame course; and there is but one method of curbing this continual prolification­

namely, to surround all women with the delights of I",wry.... Except throuP luxury ... ,except through general riches, no salvation !" A. TOll.8senel. L'E.p", de. bete.: Zoowgie passionnel (Paris. 1884), p . 85. 13 [W7a,2)

On tile feminism of the Fourierist ~hool : "On Herschel and Jupiter. botany cour5e@ aretaught by young vestals of eightecn to twenty... . When I say 'eighteen to twellty,' 1 spell k the la nguage of Earth , since the years 0 11 Jupiter are twelvfl

times longer than ours, and the vestalate begins only toward the hundredth year." A. TOUS6ellel, L 'E. prit de. bete. (Paris, 1884), p. 93. H [W7a,3)

A model ofFourierist psychology in Toussenel's chapter on the wild boar. "NoW, surrounding the dwellings of humanity are great quantities o f broken glass ~­ties, rusty nails, and candle ends, which would be completely lost to society if

some careful and intelli~nt hand did not charge itself with the collection o f all tllese vaJucless relics, to reconstruct out of them a mass susceptible of being reworked and made fit for consumption again. This important task evidently belongs among tlle attributes of the miser. . .. Hett the character and mission of

the miser perceptibly rise: the pinch·penny becomes a ragpicker, a salvage opera· lOr. ... The hog is the great salvager of nature; he fattens at nobody's expense."

A. Toussenel, L'&pn't des bites (Paris, 1884), pp. 249-250. 15 [W7a,4]

Marx charPcterizes the insufficiency (If Fourier, who conceived "a particular form of labor-labor leveled down , parceled , and therefore unfrce--... as the source of private property's perniciousne88 and of its existence in estrangement from mell ;' instead of denoullcing labor as such , as the essence of private property.

Karl Marx , Der ili. tori.che Materililultlll. , ed. Lalldshut and Mayer (Leipzig ( 1932», vol. I , p . 292 ("NationalOkonoruie und Philosophie" ). I. [W7a,5]

Fourierist pedagogy, like the pedagogy ofJean Paul. should be studied in the context of anthropological materialism. In this, the role o f anthropological mate­

rialism in France should be compared with its role in Germany. It might tum out that there, in France, it was the human collective that stood at the center of interests, while here, in Germany, it was the human individual. we must note, as

....-ell, that anthropological materialism attained sharper definition in Gennany because its opposite. idealism, was more clearly delineated over thett. The his· tory of anthropological materialism stretches, in Germany, from Jean Paul to Keller (passing through Georg Buchner and Guttkow); in France, the socialist utopias and the physiologies are its precipitate. [W8, 1]

Madame de Cardoville. agronde d(lme in Le Juiferran( <The Wandering Jew). is a Fourierist . [W8,2)

In cOnnection with Fourierist pedagogy, o ne should perhaps investigate the dia· lectic of the example: although the example as model (in the moralists' sense) is pedagogically worthless, if not disastrous, the gestic example can become the Object of a controllable and progressively assimilable imitation, o ne that pos' sesses the greatest significance. [W8.31

"Lfl Phalange. journul tie la science .ociale (1836-1843), which aplH!3rs three limes II ....eek • ... will fade from the scene olily when it call cede il s place 10 a daily. /..{I lJemocrtllie IJUcijiqlle (IJl1J3- 1851). Here, the ulai ll idea ... is ' the orga nization of luhol" through the association ." Charll'S Benoist. " L' Homme de 1848." part 2, Rlllille de. dellX "lOlide. (February I, 191 '1). p . &15. [W8.4)

FrUin Nellemell!', discussion of Fourier: " In crcuting the present world . Goo re­Sen 'ed the righllO cha uge its outwanl aij IW(·t through suhsellucnt crea tions. These c.relt lions arc cight ecn in numher. Every crt:atioll is Lruughl IlIJOul by a cuujunc­hOIl of uuslral flu id alld boreal lluitl." The lalcr creatiOIiS. following on the fir~ t .

can eventuate only in lI armony. AHred Nettement, HUloire de fa litterature JrtJII{aise SOliS Ie gOll verllemenl de juille, (Paris, 1859), vol. 2, p. 58. {W8,5)

" According to him (Jo'ourier >, souls trunsmigrate frOIll body to body, and even from world to world . Each planet possesses a soul , which will go to animate some other, superior planet , carrying with it, as it does so. the sonls of those people who have inhabited it . It is thus that , before the eud of our planet earth {which is supposed to endure 8 1,000 years) , the human souls upon it will have gone through 1,620 existences; they will have lived a total of 27,000 years on earth aud 54,000 yea rs 0 11 another plauet. ... In the exertions of its earliest infancy, the earth waa struck by a putrid fever that eventually spread to the moon , which died as a result. But once or ganized in Harmony, the ea rth will resuscitate the moon ." Nettement, -

Histoire de hi litterafltreJran{aise 301t.f le gou vem ement dejuiUet , vol. 2 , pp. 57,

59. {W8,")

The Fourierist on the subject of aviation: " The buoyant aerostat .. . is the chariot of fire , which . . . respects above all the works of God; it does not need to aggrade

the valleys or tunnel through mountains in imitation of the murderous locomotive, which the speculator has dishouored." A. Toussenel . Le Monde del oi.tearu, vol. 1

(Paris, 1853). p . 6. [\VSa, l]

" It is impossible ... that zebras, quaggas, hemiones, and pygmy ponies, who know

they are destined to serve as steeds for tbe children's cavalry of the future, are sympathetic witb the policy of our statesmen , who treat as merely utopian the

C<IUestrian institutions wher e these animals are to bold a position of honor.... The lion likes nothing better ... than having its nails trimmed , provided it is •

pretty girl that wields the scissor s." A. Tou8senel, Le Momle de, oi.tearu: 0nU. thologie passwnnelle. vol. I (Paris, 1853). pp. 19-20. The author sees in woman the intermCi:liary between human and animal. [\VSa,2)

Memorable letter from Victor Cousin to Jean J ournet, in response to writings sent him by the latter. It is dated October 23, 1843, and concludes : "When you are suffering, think not of social regeneration but ofGod, ... who did not create: man only for happiness but for an end quite otherwise sublime." The prefacer adds: "'"'* would have consigned this litde anecdote to oblivion, had not this poor letter ... , a uue masterpiece of perfect ignorance, summed up ... the political science ... of a coterie that, for the past twenty-one years, has overseen . . . the fortunes of our country." J ean Joumet, Po(sies d cnantJ narmonieru (Paris, 1857), pp. xxvi- xxvii (editor's preface). rw8a,3]

"The hislory of Ihe ... human races 011 Jupiter allli Saturu leaches U 8 that civili­zation ... is on ils wa y to guarantislII ... by virhle of the political equality be­hn:t:lIl1lan and woman , ami frolll guaralltism to Harmon y through the recognitioP of the superiorit y of WOIIIUII ." A. TOlIsscnci. Le MOlille d C5 oiseullx, vol. I (Paris, 1853). p. 131. rwSa,4j

Fourier's long-tailed men became the object of caricature, in 1849, with erotic drawings by Emy in Le Rire. For the purpose ofelucidating the Fourierist extrava­gances, we may adduce the figure of Mickey Mouse, in which we find carried out, entirely in the spirit of Fourier's conceptions, the moral mobi.l.ization of nature:. Humor, here, puts politics to the test. Mickey Mouse shows how right Marx was to see in Fourier, above all else, a great humorist. The cracking open of natural teleology proceeds in accordance with the plan of humor. [\VSa,S]

Affiliation of anti-Semitism with Fourierism. In 1845, Les Juifi rois <The Jewish Kings>, by Toussenel, appears. Toussenel is, moreover, the partisan of a "demo­cratic royalty." [\VSa,6]

" The line ... generally associated with the family group is tbe parabola. This postulate is demonstrated in the work of the Old Masters, and above all in

Raphael. ... From the approximation of this grouping to the parabolic type, tbere reswts, in the oeuvre of Rapbael, a hymn to the family, ... masterful and ... divine .... The master thinker, who determined the analogies of the four conic

sections, has recognized the correspondence of the parabola and of familyism. And here we find the confirmation of this proposition in the prince of painters, in Raphael. " D. Laverdant, De hi Mi.uwn de l'art et du role ck5 arti..!Ile,; Salon de 1845 (Paris, 1845), p. 64. [\V9,1]

Delvau {Le, Deuow ck Pam ( Paris, 1860>, p . 27) sees connections between Fourier and Restif de La Bretonne. [\V9,2]

Highly characteristic of the relation of the Fourierists to the Saint-Simonians is Considerant's polemic against the railroads. 1bis polemic relies, for the most part, on Hoene Wronski, Sur la Barbade des chemins de fer et sur la rijOrme ja~tijique de la /ocomot£on. Wronski's first objection is directed against the system of iron rails ; Considerant indicts "the process operating under the name 'railway system,' that is to say, the consuuction of very long fiat roads equipped with metallic rails and re:quiring enonnous amounts of money and labor-a process

i. 'not only opposed to the actual progress of civilization, but contrasting all the more strongly with this progress in that it presents something truly ridiculous: the barbarous contemporary reproduction of the massive and inert roadways of the Romans' (lftition aux Chambres, p. Il)." Considerant opposes the "barbarous means," which is "simplistic," to the "scientific means," which is "composite" (pp. 40-41). At another point, he says explicitly: "For this Jimpfume has led, just as one would expect, to a result that is completely barbarian: that of the ever more ineluctable leveling of roads" (p. 44). By the same token: "HorUontality is a proper condition when it is a question of conununications over water. The sys­tem of terrestrial locomotion, on the other hand, evidently ought to be capable of PUtting . .. . different elevations in communication with one another" (p. 53). A Second and related objection of Wronski's is directed against navel on wheels, which he describes as "a well-known and extremely vulgar process ... , in use

since the inventio n of the chariot.n H ere, too, he stresses the lack of any genuine scientific and complex character. Victor Considerant, Dirau(Jn t:l dang«s de len­gvucnent pour l~ cncnins rnf« (Paris, 1838). The comentS first appeared, in large

part, in La Phalangr. (W9,3]

Considcr ant ar gues di al the work of engilll!en sllouM be focused nol on the im­provemenl of the track bUI 00 the improvement of Ihe means of Iransl)Ort. Wron_ ski, 10 whom he refen, a plHlars to he thinking primarily of an in11)roved form of wheel or of its replacemenl by something else. Thus, COllsidcrant writes: "Is it not clea r ... that the Iliscovery of a machine thai would facilitate locomotion over

ordinary routes, and incr ease ... tile present speed of transportation on these route!! , would devastate, from top to bottom, the entire ente'1lri!le of the rail­roads? ... Hence, a disco\'ery 110 1 onJy l)Ossihle bUI indeed probable can annihi_

late, at one blow alld forever, the extraordillary amountll of capital that some IHloplc have propolled be sunk illto the railway lIYll tem!" Vietor Conside.rant,

Deraisoll et da nger' de I'e llgouermmt pour k . chemiras en fer (Paris, 1838), p . 63. [W9a, l}

"'The ope rat ion of ruilroads , .. forced humanit y into the position of comhati.ns

nature's workll ever ywhere 011 ea rth , of filling up valleys and breaching moun­tains, ... of struggJin g fmally, b y means of a general system, againsl the natural

conditions of the plallet 's terrain, ... and r eplacing them universally by the oppo­site sort of cOllditiolls." Victor Considerallt , Deroison et danger' de l'engoueme ... pOllr les cllemiru en fer (Pa ris, 1838), pp . 52-53. [W9a,2]

Charles Gide on the " divinatory genius" of Fourier: " When be writes: 'A certaiD veuel from London a rrive8 in China today; tomorrow the planet Mercury, haviDB

been ad vised of the arrivals and movements of shil)8 hy the astrOnomers of Asia, will trallsmit the list to die aatronomer s of London ,' and if we transpose tbit

prophecy into currellt vernacular ao that it reads, ' When a ship arrives in China. the T. S. F. will transmit the news to the Eiffel Tower or to London ,' then it is clear. I be lieve, that we have here an extraordinar y anticipation . For what he mealll to

say is precisely this: the planet Mer cury is there to repreSf:nt a force, a8 yet un­known , which would enable the transmission of message8-a force of which he hal

had a presentiment ." Cha rles Gide , Poltrier precurseur cle 10 cooperation (Pan. <1 924 » , p . 10-11 Y [W9a,3j

Charles C ide on Fourier's nonsensical astrological speculations: " lie tells us that the pla nel8 Juno, Ceres, a nd Pallas each produce a species of gooseberry, aud that

tllere ought to be a fourlh and still more excellellt kind , of which we are deprived hecH use the planet Phoebe (the moon). which IO'ouill have generated it . is unfortu­

11 !lately dead ." Charles Girle. Pourier "reeur.eur c/e fa coo/,erafioJl (Pa ris), p , 10.

[W9a,4i

" When hcspeak.1I ' .. of u celestial a rmy which Ihe Sidereal Council hus resolved to 8end to the a id of Humanity, UII army a lr eady dispatched some 1,700 yean ago and

havi.ng before it more than 300 yean of travel until it arrives in the conrmes of our solar system •... we shudder a IittJe allhe hinl of Apoca lypse. In other places this lunacy is nlOre amiable, bordering often on wisdom, abounding in fine and willy ohser vations, a bit like Ihe harangues on the topic of the Golden Age Ihat Don Quixote ill tile Sierra Morena addrened 10 the as tonished goatherds." Charlee Gide, PourU!r precur,eur de la coopert,tion (paris), p. 11 .19 (WIO, I]

"One could aay, and he says it himSf:lf, that his observatory--or his laborator y, if

you prefer- is the kitchen . It i!! his poinl of departure for radiating into all the dOlllaill8 of social life." Charles Gide, POllrU!r precur.eur de 10 cooperaticJII (paris), p . 20 . [W1O,2]

On the theory of attraction : " Bernardin de Saint-Pierre d enied the fo rce of grav­

ity . . , beca use it signified an infringement on the free exer cise of providence; and the aurOIlOlller Laplace struggled ... 110 len violentJy ... against the fanciful generalizations of tbis force. But that did not prevent the doctrines of an Aui's and like~minded others ... from findin g their imilaton. Henri de Saint-Simon .. , was

oecupied for yean with the elaboration of a system of ' universal gravitation, ' and in 1810 he c~me out with the following cr edo: ' I believe in God. I believe that Cod created the universe. I believe that God made the universe subject to the law of

gravitation.' Fourier likewise founded ... his ... system on the 'force of universal attraction ,' of which sympathy between one man and another is said to be but a s~ial case." Ernst Robert Curtiw , Bauac (Bonn, 1923). p . 45 (Azau , 1766­1845, Des Compematiom dam ks de, ti"ees humaine.). [WIO,3]

Relation of the Commu"ist Manifesto to the draft b y Engelt: "The organization of

labor (a concessiOn 10 Louis Blanc) and the construction, on state-owned lands, of large communal palaces designed to bridge the gap between city and country (a Concession 10 the Fourieris ts of the Democratu! Pacifique) were items which de­

rived from Engels' draft and which the final version of the manifeno left out ." Gustav Mayer, Friedrich Engels , vol. J, Friedrich Engeu in ,einer Friilueit , 2nd ed. (Berlin ( 1933», p . 288. (WIO.4]

\ Engels on Fourier: "' It is Morgan 's work which throws into bold relief the whole brilliance of Fourier 's critillue of civilization ,' he announced to Ka utsky while workillg on his Ur. pnmg der FamiJU!. In this book itSf:if, however, he wrote: 'The

lowest interests .. . usher in the new. civilized society, the cla8S-based society. The nlOst 'out rageolls means ... topple the old . classless, gentile socieIY.'" Ciled in CUslav Mayer, f"riedricll Etlgels, vol. 2, EtlgeLs utld der Auf5lieg der Arbeiter­bewegllng in Eu.ropa (Berlin ~ 1933» , II, 439. :!U [W lOa,11

Marx 0 11 Proulll lon, in a letter 10 Kugelllllum . October 9. 1866: " I-lis sham criti­cislll alit! lI.ham opposilion to Ille utopians (he IUlIIseif is only a IHlUy-bolirgeois Ulopiall , whereas in the utopias of a Fourier, all Owen , and others, there is the allticipa tiull and imaginative expressioll of s new world) a ttracted and corrupted Grn the j euneue briUiantf', the s tuden ll, a nd then the workmen , I)srticularly

those of Pari8, who. as worker8 in luxury tradel, are 8trOngly attaehed , without knowing ii , 10 the old ruhhi~h . " Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel~, Awgewiihlte Brief. ed. Adorat~ki (Mo~cow and Leningrad , 1934) <po 174) .%1 [WIOa,2)

"When properly has been aboli8hed throughout Cermauy. these ultra·c1ever Bel" linen will ~el up a Democratie PucifUJIW on the Ha~enheide.... Watch out! A new Messiah will pre~ently uri~e in the Uckermark-a Messiah who will tailor Fourier to accord with I-Iegel , erect a phalan~ tery UpoD the eternal categorie8 , and lay it

down a~ an eternal law of the 8elf·developing idea that capital, talent , a nd labor aU have a definit e share in the product . Thi~ will be the New Testament of Hegelian_ ism; old Hegel will be the Old Testament ; the '51ate, ' the law, will be a ' tu kml8ter

over Christ ' ; and the phalanstery, in which the privie~ are located in accordance with logical necessity, will be the ' uew Heaven ' and the ' new Earth,' the Dew Jeruu lem descending from heavell decked out like a bride." Engell to Marx,

Barmen, November 19 , 1844, in Karl Ma n: and Friedrich Engels, Briefwecluel, vol. 1, 1844-1853, ed . Marx·Engels-Lenin Instilut (Moscow and Leningrad , 1935),

1)·11.%1 [W IOa,3)

Only in the summery middle of the nineteenth century, only under its SWl, can one conceive of Fourier's fantasy materialized. [W IOa,4)

"Cultivate in children the sharp earl of a rhinoceros or a cossack." Ch. Fourier, Le Nouveau Monde indwtriel et societaire. ou Invention du procede d 'indwrrie aUrayante et natureJle distribuee en .eries passionnee. (Paris, 1829), p . 207. -

(WIOa,5)

One readily grasps the importance of the culinary in Fourier; happiness has its recipes like any pudding. It is realized on the basis of a precise measuring out of different ingredients. It is an effect. Landscape, for example, signifies nothing to Fourier. He has no feeling for its romantic aspect; the miserable huts of the peasantry arouse his indignation. But let "composite agriculture" move into the area, let the little "hordes" and the little "bands":!l spread out across it, let the noisy military marches of the industrial anny play over its surface, and we have arrived at that proportion of elements needed for happiness to result. [WII ,I)

The kinship between Fourier and Sade resides in the constructive moment that is proper to all sadism. Fourier conjoins the play of colors of the imagination in a unique way with the play of numbers of his idiosyncrasy. It must be emphasized that Fourier's hannonies are not dependent on any of the traditional number· mysticisms, like that of Pythagoras or of Kepler. They are altogether his concep­tion, and they give to the harmony something inaccessible and protected : they surround the hannonitru as though with barbed wire. The happiness of the phalanstcry is a bonheuT barhdl. On lhe other hand, Fourierist traits can be recognized in Sade. The experiences of the sadists, as presented in his J20 J ours de Sodome, are, in their cruelty, exactly that extreme that is touched by the

ext::reme idyllic of Fourier. us extremes .Ie touchent. The sadist, in his experiments, could chance on a partner who longs for just those punishmentS and humiliations which his tomlentor in£I.icts. All at once. he cou1d be standing in the midst of one of those hannonies sought after by the Fourierist utopia. [W II ,2]

Simplism appears in Fourier as the mark of "civilization." [W Il ,3]

According to fouri er. the people in the vicinit y of Paris, Blois . and TOlin are especially suited to put their children into the trialphalunstery. The lower classes there are particularly well bred . See Le Nouveau Momle, p. 209. [Wll a,l]

Fourier's system, as he himself explains, restS on two discoveries: that of attrac· tion and that of the four movements (material, organic, animal, and social).

[Wlla,2)

Fourier ~peak8 of a transmission mirogiqae which will ma ke it po~sible for London

to have newl from India within four hours. See Fourier, La Fawle Indw trie (Paris. 1836), vol. 2, I). 711. [Wlla,3J

"The social movement is the pattern for the three others. T he animal , organic, and

malerial movemenll! a re coordinated with the 80cial movement , which i. primary. Thi. means that the propertiefl of an a nilllal, a vegetable, a mineral , or even a vortex of stan represent an effect of the human palsions in the l ocial order, and

that everything, fro m atoRls to stars, il an image of the propertie8 of the hURlan passions." Cha rles Fourier, Theorie des quatre mouvements (Paris, 1841), p . 47.:.1

[Wlla,4]

The contemplation of maps was one of Fourier's Cal'orite occupations. [Wl l a,5]

Messianic timetable: 1822, preparation of lhe experimental canton; 1823 , ill! open­ing and trial run ; 1824, its illlita tion in aU civilized nations ; 1825, recruitnlent of

the barbarians und savages; ) 826, organization of the spherical hier ar ch y; 1826 , \ dispatching of colonial squadrons.- The phrase hierarchie s"herique should be

taken to mean the "distribution of the 8cepters of sover eignty" (according to

E. Silberling, DiClioml(lire de sociologie phtlltlR.f terielUle [Paris, 1911 ], p. 214). [Wlla,6]

The Illude! of the phala nstery comprises 1,620 persons-in otllcr words . a male and a female exemplar of each of the 8 10 characters tllUt , acconling to Fourier, exha ust aU 1}I)81ihilities. [W ll a.7]

III 1828. the I)oles were to hecome ice fn. [W11 a,8J -e.

"The ~oul of lIIall ill an emanation of the grea t pluneta ry 80ul , hi ~ hody a portion of the plallet '~ hod y. Whcn a ilion dies. hill hotly Jiu olvcs illlo thc hod y of t.he planet

and his soul fadc8 into the planetary 80UI. " F. Armand and R. Maubla nc, ,"'ourier (Pllris, 1937). vol. I , p . 111. [Wlla,9)

" AU childrell have thc following dominant tastes: ( 1) Ferreling. or the penchant for handlillg thingt, exploring, running around , and constantly changing activi_ tie8. (2) Indus tri«l (lin . the taste for noisy jobs. (3) Aping. or the imitative mania. (4) Working on a minialllre scale. the taste for little workshops . (5) Progru.ive enticemenl of the weak by the 8trong." Charles Fourier, Le Nouveau Monde indw_

trrel et locietaire (Paris, 1829), p. 213. u [W12,1]

Two of the twenty-four "'Sources for the blossoming of vocations": (3) The lure of

hierarchical ornaments. A plume already suffices to bewitch one of our villagers' to such a n extent that he is ready to sign away his liberty. What. then , will be the

effect of a hundred honorific adornments in the effort to enroU a child in the pleasurable association with his fellows? ... (17) Hannony of materiel, or the uni­

ta r y maneuver-something unknown in the workshops of civiliution , but puc­ticetl in those of Harmony, where it is performed by tlte ensemble of soldien and chor eographers in II manner delightful to all children ." Charles Fourier, Le Nou.­

ve(1It Monde illdllltriel ef socielaire (Paris, 1829), PI'. 215, 216. [W12,2)

\kry characteristic that Fourier wants much more to keep the father away from the education of his children than the mother. "Disobedience toward the father and the teacher is ... a perfectly natural impulse; and the child wants to com­mand rather than obey the father." Charles Fourier, I.e XoulJt:au Monde ituJwtriel ­e/ Jodilaire (Paris, 1829), p. 219.215 (W12,3)

Hierarchy of children : juveniles, gymnasians, Iyceans, seraphim, c.herub8. ur­chins. inll)S, weanlingt, nurslingt. The c.hildren are the only one of the .. three sexes" that ca n ellter "straightaway into the heart of harmony." (W12 ,.)

"Among the imps, we do not distinguish the two sexes by means of contraltlq

attire, like trousen and petticoat; that would be to risk stunting the growth of vocations and falsifying the proportion of the two sexes in each function." Fourier,

Le NOll ve(J u Monde inllu,slriel et sociktaire (Paris, 1829), PI" 223-224 (imps: a~ one and u half to three; urchins: uges three to four and a hull). (W12,5)

Tools in 8even sizes. Industrial hierarchy of children: offi cers uf vurious types,

licentiate8, bachelors , neophytcs, aspirants. (W12,6)

Fourier concei ves tbe departure for work in the fields us a sort of country outiug,

in large wagons a nd with music. (W12,1J

Qua lifying eJl:u minatiun for the choir of cllerubim : ( I) Musical and choreogr aphic ulUli lion a lille OIH':ru. (2) Washing uf 120 plates in half an hour. witllout breakin« one. (3) PeeUng uf I.alf a quintal of apples in u given space of time, without allowin«

the weight of the fruit to drop below a certuin level. (4) Perfect suting of a quantity of rice or other grain in a fi xed period of time. (5) Skill in kindUng and 8creening a fire ~ith intelligence a nd celerity." Charles . 'ourier, Le Nouvea u Montie indlUtriel et societaire (Paris . 1829), p . 231. [W12a,I)

Fourier unveils " the prospect of attaining, at the age of twelve or thirteen , to a post of high dignity. such as commanding ten thousand men in a military or parade maneuver." Fourier, Le NOluJCau Monde indUJt riel et societaire (paris, 1829),

~- ~~ Names of children in Fourier: Nysas, Enryale. The educator: Hilarion . (W12a,3)

"And so it is that, from his childhood on , a lDan is not compatible with simple nature; there is needed , for his education, a vast array of instruments, a multi­grade and variegated apparatus. and this applies from the 1D0ment he fin t leaves

the cradle. J .-J. Rousseau has denounced this prison in which the infant is pin­ioned, but he could not have known of the system of elastic lDats, of the combined attentions and distractions, thut would be enlisted in support of this method. Thus, the philosophers, in the face of evil, know only to oppose their s terile decla­

mations, instead of building a road to the good- a system of roads that . far re­moved frOID 8imple nature, results only from composite method!." Fourier, Le Nouveau Montle indUJtriel et &ocietaire (Paris, 1829). p. 237. The " distractions"

involve, among other thinga, letting neighboring children play with one another in hammocks. [W12a,4)

Napoleon III belonged to a Fourierist group in 1848. [W12a,5]

The Fourierist colony founded by Baudet-Dulary in 1833 still exists today in the form of a family-ron pension . Fourier had disavowed it in his day. [W12a,6)

Babac knew and admired Fourier'. work . [W12a,7)

The Hag of the phala nster y di8played the &even colors of the rainbow. Note b y

Rene Maublanc: "The colors are analogou8 to the passions .... By juxtaposing a series of tables wherein Fourier compares the passions to colors, to notes of the scale, to natural rights, to mathematical ope rations , to geometric curves, to met­als l and to heavenly botlies. one fmtl s, for example, that love corresponds to blue, to the note mi, to right of pasture, to division , to the ellipse, to till , and to the

planets." F. Armalltl and H. Mauhlallc, Fourier (Puris, 1937), vol. 1, PI" 227-228. (""12a,8J

He Toussenel: " Io' ourier ... claims tu ' join together and enframe, within a single plall , th@ societary mecha nics of the pau ions with the other known harmOllies of the universe ,' and for that , he adds, 'we llced uli ly have recour&e to the amusing lessons to be drawn from the m08t fascinating objects among the animals and

planu .'" Armand and MaliLlanc, Fourier (Paris , 1937), vol. I , p . 227; citins Fourier, 'I'raill~ de i 'u$6oci(JtiQlI clome51ique-ugricole (Paris alill Lomlon, 1822), vol. I. pp. 24-25, a nd 1'hlwrie rie l'unite Imiver$elle (1834). p. 31. [W13,l l

Fourier reproache8 DC8carh:8 with having, in his doubt , spared " Ihat tree of lies one caUs civilization ." See I.e Nouveau Monde. I). 367 . [W13 ,2]

Stylistic (Iuirks reminisccnt of J ean Paul. Fourier loves preambles, cisambles, trllllsambles, 1)o8lamble8. introductions, extroductions, prologues, inter ludes , postludC8, cismedianls, mediants, transmediants, inlermedea , notes , appendixee,

(WI'",1

Fourier appears very suggestive before the background of the Empire in this note: "The combined order will, from the outset, be as brilliant as it has been long deferred. Greece, in the age of Solon and Pericles, was already in a position to undertake it, having a degree of luxury sufficient to proceed to this fonn of organization.n Annand and Maublanc, FOuna- (Paris, 1937) , vol. 1, pp. 261-262; citing Truitt de {'association domestique-agricole (Paris and London, 1822), vol.1, pp.lxi- lxii; Theone de {'unitt uniuer.seffe (1834), vol.l , p. 75.'11 (W13,4]

Fourier recognizes Illany forms of collective procession and cavalcade: storm, vorlex, swltrm , seqH!ntage. [W13,5]

Wilh 1,600 phalansleries, the association is already deployed in aU iu combina­tions. [W13,6]

"Fourier put himself body and soul into his work because he could nOt put into it the needs of a n=volutionary class, which did not yet exist .n F. Armand and R. Maublanc, rouna- (Paris, 1937), vol. 1, p. 83. It shouJd be added that Fourier . appears, at many points, to pn=6gure a new type of human being, one conspicu· ous for its hannJessness.a [W13,1]

" In his rOOIll , Ihere was ordina rily but one free pathway, righl in Ihe middle. h:acling from (Ioor 10 window. The rest of the space was enlirely taken up by his flowerpots, which offered in themselves the spectacle of a progressive series of sizeIJ, shapes. and even qualilies; there were pots of common clay, allIl there were pols of Chincse pOI·celain. " Charles Pellarin. Vie de FOllrier (Paris, 1871). pp. 32­33. (W I' ,' 1

Chal'les Pella rill , Vie de Fourier (Paris, 18i I) report.s (p. 144) thltt Fourier would sometimes go !l.i" or sel'en nigllts without sleeping. This happened I ...:cltuse of ex­citemcnt over his diseovcrics. ~13a , 1 ]

"The phalanstcry will he an illllllense lodging house." (Fourier had no conception offa mily life.) F. Armand ancl R. Maubla nc . Fourier (Paris, 1937), vol.l . p. 85.

[W13a,2]

The e;abalisl, Ihe composite, and the butterfly form appear WIder the rubric "dis­tributil'es," or <po,uion!> meclUl;,!'OlIte.s. <See W15a ,2.) [W13a,3]

~The cabalist spirit always brings selfish motives into play with passion. AU is calculation with the intriguer-the least gesture, a wink of the eye. Everything is done on reflection and with a1acrity.n 7ltone de i'uniti unillme{k (1834), vol. I , p. 145." ibis n=mark shows very clearly how Fourier takes account of egoism. (In the eighteenth century, workers who agitated wen= called CIlbaleun.)

[W13a,4]

"The earth copulating with itself engenders the cherry; with Mercury, the straw­berry ; with Pallas, the black curranl ; wilh Juno, the raisin ; aod so Oil!' Armand and Maublanc, Fourier (paris, 1937), yoU , p. 114. [W13a,5]

"A series is a regular classification of a gellua, species, or group of beings or of objects, arrauged symmetricaUy with r espect 10 one or several of their properties, and 011 both sides proceeding from a center or piVOI , according to an ascending progression 011 olle side, descending on the other, like two fl anks of an army.... There are ' OIH!n ' series, in which the world (!) of subdivisions is not determined, and ' measnred ' series, which comprehend , at vanous levels. 3, 12, 32, 134,404 subdivisions." Armand and Maublanc, Fourier (Pans, 1937), vol. I, p. 127,

[W13a,6]

According 10 Fourier, every passion corresponds to an orgau of the human body.

(W13a,1]

" In Harmony ... the relations ansiug from the series are so dyuamic that one has liltle tillie for remainiug in one's room " Ciled in Annand and l\oIaublanc Fourrer (Paris, 1937), vol. 2, p. 2 11. ' '(W13a,81

The four "sources of virtue" in the Little Hordes: "These sources are the penchant for dirt, and the feelings of pride, inlpudellce. and insubordination ." Fourier, Le NOIwe(l u Monde indliMriel et .societ(lire ( Paris, 1829), p. 246. )0 ~14, 1 ]

Work signal or Ihe Lit tl" Hordes: "The charge ofthc Liltle Hordes is sounded in an UJlrO/H' or Lells, chillies , drulIIs, and Irumpets, It hO\O!'ling of dogs and a bellowing of hulis. Tllcn Ihe Horelc>!, Iccl by thcir Khans II;lId Druids, rU51! forward with a great shoUlI>· If I · . . • asslIIg JC ore t II! priests, "'ho sprlllkle tllem with holy water.... The LllIlc lIorel!!s should he associalctl with th" prieslhood as member5 of a religious Il rotherhood. When lH!rforming lhc:i.r work . they should wear a religious symbol

hin all !II · I I ' ,. " Althougll the Little Hordes perform the most difficult I comprehend aU choreogra phic exen:ises, including

o n I . JClr C 01 nng. "Under the tenn 'opera 'Q

. . . the reeeive the least remuneration . They would accept not gat thOfle of the rifle and the censer." Four ier. Le Nouveau Monde indu.triel et so­

tRsks. . . • y.. . t' AJI authorities, even m.ona rchs, Owe the (W 14a,41that were IJermlu ed III 8880CI II 1011 . . . . c;etoire (paris. 1829). p. 260. With their pygmy horscs,..the Little Hortles COIll.be .

first salute to the Lilu·'e HonIe8.

Pu II8t re";menUi of cavalry; 110 IIldus.trla!...army Ucan k dPn.SI! the " 0be'8 ,aremo ... The phaJanstcry is organized like a land of milk and honey. Even amusements

. . hem. T hey II Iso have the prerogative of initia ting. aI wor '" one (hunting, fishing, making music, growing Bowers, perfonning in theatricals) are

ampalgll Without t c . "Ch Fourier Le Nouveau Monde indu&'ne et soc&et(urc [W14a.5]1 [W'14,2]in the name of Untl ),. a l" CI , II remunerated. (Pari8, 1829), I). 247-248 and 244-246.

FOurier dlXS not know the concept ofexploitation. [WI4a,6]

" JU tiN! ta rrare-or ellrv ' ear mode" of the Little Hordes, in contrast to theilinmode" of the Little Bantls. "The Horde re­

"maonoeunoeuvre modernc--(u- reetil III' ear . . .L-: In reading Fourier, one is reminded of the sentence by Karl Kraus: "I preach wine

semhies a square bed 0,

va n.egated tulips: one hund".red cavaliNers will tMogen.deu n::r and drink water." [W14a,7]

0 ,. h d - - .I colors artis tically contrasted. Founer, Le ouveau [W 14,3]

dISplay two un n:u ,p.249.3: Bread 1)lays only a small role in the diet or the HarmonieTl$ .

(WIh,8]

-~... b'IrtIs, fish or insects, ei thtr. b_.y hHarddusageADdor "The initiation or barbarians in the use or tacticH i8 one of the signs of the degen _" Whoever shall abuse quadru,,,,,,,8,

eration ... or civilization. " E. Silherling, Dicrionnaire de sociologic phalon_I ill b liable to the tribunal or the Litue . or et.

by unneees.sar y crue~, ~e wo:ld be brought berore this tribullal or children , and Ilerienne (Paris, 1911), p . 424 (s .v. " tactics"). [W14a,9]

whatever h~s ag~ m~y ' I timent to children themselves." Fourier. Le Nog..

treated as infenor 1Il mora sen JJ [W14,4]

veal! Monde (Paris, 1829), p . 248. "The savage enjoys Beven natural righu ... : hunting, fis hing. harvesting, pas­

ture, external theft (that ia, pillaging of whal belongs to other tribe&), the rederal

bliged to look arter the concorde sociale; the Little BancU, league (the intrigues and cabala internal to the tribe), and insouciance." Armand[Wa,S]

The Little Hordell are 0 Ind Maublanc, Fourier (Pa ris, 1937), vol. 2, p . 78. (W14a,1O]

the charme socia l.

til I by way or the good, by lpeculative The poor man speak!: " I ask to be advanced the neeenary tools ... and enoush to

"The Little Hordes will come to the bcau II ;It [W14,6] live on , in exchange for the right to fIleal which simple nature h., given Ole." Cited

defLI ement. " Fourier, Le NOlwe«u Monde, p. 255. in Armand and Maublallc, Fourier (paris , 1937), vol. 2, p. 82. [WI 5,l]

h . D .d d Druidesses, the Little Bands haveb T he, abo have theiroWD

"Just as the Little Hordes have t ell' rUI 8 aCn . _._ In the phalanstery, a caravansary is outfitted for the reception of foreigners . A

. H , Whereat the Lit&a<ho are known as ory ants.their own adult aSSOCIates, w 8p"Uaure characteristic of the phalanstery is the "(ower of order." This building

r ho travel about armon .allie! among the groups 0 voyager! W d Adventurelltell, who beloae:

of houses the optical telegraph, the control calter for the signal lights, and the . d h b' hordesorAdvenlurersan [WIS ,2]

Hordes are allie 10 t e 19 . _.I ith the big band! carrier pigeons.. h Little Bands are assoclateu w

l h Ii Is .. Fourier, Le No..­to Ihe industrial a rrmes, t e

[W l b,l] The circulation or work8 uscIullo aUIhe phalansterieR amounts to 800,000 copies.Knights and Ladies Errant, who a~e dedicate( to t e me ar .

ve(IU MOrlde (Paris, 1829), p . 254.~ FOUrier think8, above all , or puhlishing all Encycwpaedie na tllro/ogiqlle calu­

[W15,3]minee.

. d and ,ardeM.. rr s agalllsi mea ows [Wlb,2]The Liltle Bands have ju risdicllon over 0 ense

and over questions or language. Fourier loves to clothe:: the most n=asonable sentiments in fanciful considerations.

liis discourse:: resembles a highe::r Bowe::r language::.3Ii fW15,4]

. I d the minds or the children concerninl " Ir the vestalate is called uJ>~n to. nu,s ea r two setl or genital. urinary appar ••

FoUrier would like:: to see:: the people who servc= no useful purpose in civifuation­"E Silherlin, Diclionnaire.

Bexual relations , Ihe tact manifest m t Ie use ,0 ur­.. I t ',lIorance 0 sex.. , rhOS(: who merely gad about in search of news to conununicate-circulating424 ( " tact" ). Likewise , Ihe cO

tus leaves the child III comp e e .' . 19~)\PBandfl8i~Vde8 igllt:d to mask the meani.ol ~ong the ~bles of the Hannonians, so as to keep people there fro m losing time

sociuwgie phalanMerienne ~Pa,?s [W14a,3]teflY Or the bOYfl toward the prlfl in the tl e In reading newspapers: a divination of radio, born from the:: study of human

[W15,5]of saUallt behavior aIDoug adult s. character.

Fourier : UEver y calling h88 its countermorality and its I'rinciplell ." Cited in Ar. mand and Maublanc, Fourier (Paris, 1937), vol. 2, p . 97 . Fourier mentions, 8.$

examples , Ie mOllde gulunt and the wurld of domestic II-Crvants. (W15,6]

" After three generations of Harmony, two-thirds of the wOlnen will be unfruitful, as is the case with all fl owers which. by the refinemellts of cultivation , have been raised to a high degree of perfection ." Fourier, La F(IIlSse Indu.slrie (Paris , 183&­

1836), vol. 2, PI' . 560-561.31 (W15,7]

The voluntary suLmiu iveneu of the savage, with his seven natural rights , would

be. according to Fourier, the touchstone of civilization. It is something finlt ob­

tained in Harmony. (W15 ,8]

"T he individu al ... is a being eSll-Cntially false, for neither by himIClf alone Dor with another can he bring a bout the development of the twelve passions , since

these comprise a mechanism of 810 keys and their compleme.nts. It is therefore with the passional vortex alone tha t the scale begin8, and not with the individual

P1lr801l. " Pltblicafion des manuscrits de Foltrier, 4 vols. (Paris, 1851- 1858), 1857­

1858, p . 320 . (W"15,9]

After 70,000 years comes the end of Hannony, in the fonn o f a new period of civilization, in descending tendency, which once more will give way to "obscure limbs.n Thus, with Fourier, tranSience and happiness are dosely linked. Engels observes: just as Kant introduced into natural science the idea of the ultimate -destruction of the earth, Fourier introduced inw historical science that of the:

nultimate destruction of the human race. Engels, Anti-Diihring, part 3, p . 12.· [WI5a,l]

The mechanics of the passions: "The tendency to harmonize the five sensual pas­

sions-( I) taste, (2) touch , (3) 8ight , (4) hearing, (5) smeU-with the four affective pau ions--(6) friendship, (7) ambition , (8) love, (9) paternity. Thia ha rmony takH

place through the medium of three little-kno""n and abused pauion8, which I shall ca ll: (10) the cubalist , (11 ) the butteTjly, (12) the composite." Cited from Le NOIJ­veuu Monde, in Armand and ~1aublanc, Fourier (Paris. 1937), vol. 1. 1). 242.M

[W15a,2]

" A lurge lIumher of universes (il ince one universe, a lollg with mall alld plane~ , constitutes the third echdon, ... Fouril:r calls it u " tri-ver se") go to fonn a quatn­vene; and so 011 , up to the octi-verse, which represell lS ... lIulure as a whole, the tutalit y of the beings of Ha rmony. Fourier enten into some minute calculatiolU

ull tl anllounces lhat the octi-vene is composed of 10'ili univ~:rse•. " Armand and l\1aubIUIlC. Fourier (Paris. 1937). \'01. I . p. 11.2 . [W15a,3]

On " beautiful agriculture": "" his plow that today is so despised will be takeD up by the young prince, jUl. t as by the yuung plebeian ; they willtogcther compete iP a

sort of industrial tOllrnalllellt, where each of the athletell wiU test his vigor and dexterity, anti where each ca n show off to an audience of lovelies, who will hring the fes tivities to a close by l!erving lunch or a s!lack. to Charles Fourier, Ti-aite de f'flS$ociation domestique-agricofe (Paris anti London. 1822), vol. 2, p. 584. To thill be/III flgricole belong, further, the steles that are raised on Rower-covered ,M!de­~ tuls and the husts of descrving farm lahorers or agriculturis ts placed on altars t.ha t arc scattered through the field8. ""The8e are the mythological demigods of the UuJu.!! trial sect or serics." Cited in Armand and l\1aublanc, Fourwr (Paris, 1937), vol. 2, p. 206. Offering>! of incense are made to them through tbe Corybants .

[W15a,4]

Fourier recommends gearing the experiment , in the triall)halanx , towa rd pre­cisely the most eccentric characters. [W16,1]

Fourier was a chauvinist: he hated Engiislunen andJ ews. He saw theJ ews not as civilized people but as barbarians who maintained patriarchal customs. [W16,2]

Fourier's apple-the pendant to that of Newton- which, in the Parisian restau­rant F'evrier, costs a hundred times more than in the province where it is grown. Proudhon, too, compares himself to Newton. (W16,3]

To the Ihrmonians, Constantinople is the capital of the earth. [WIO,4]

Harmonians need ver y little 81eep (like Fourier !). They live to the age of 150 at the very least . [W16,5]

"The ' oper a ' stand8 at Ihe forefront of educational directives .... The opera is a

school of morality in outline: it is there that young people are imbued with a horror of anything prejudicial to truth, precision , and unity. At the opera , no

favor can excuse the one whose note is false, whose timing, step, or gesture is off. Tile prince's child who has a part in the dance or the choir must endure the truth . must listen to die criticisms arising from the mane!. It is at the opera that he

;, lea rns, ill evcr y move he makes, to subordina te himself to unitary proprietiea, to

general accords." Cited in F. Armalld and R. ~1auhla nc, Fourier (Paris, 1937). 10'01. 2, PI'· 232- 233. [W16.6]

"N I OOIU~ ever dreallled , ill civilization , of perfecting that Jlortion of our dreu we

cil li ' atmospherc.' ... It does IIOt suffice tu change it merely in the rooms of certain idlc!"s \""·r I . , ... . wc IllLlS IIllUUI Y tiC atmosphere in gencr al a nd systematically." Cited III 1'. Armand lind R. Ma ublullc . "·ourier (Paris. 1937) . vol. 2, p. 145. [W16,7]

foUrier's tcxts are ridl in stereotypical locutions comparable to the graduJ ad PaT7UJ.jJum . ~ Almost every time he speaks of me arcades, it is to say that, under prcs~nt circumstances, even the king of France gelS wet when he steps into his carnage during a rairu; tonu. [W16.8J

Ten million francl would be needed for the ere1.! tion of the complete phalaoatery; three million , for the trial phala n' tery. [W16,9)

All fl ower beds of the Ha rmonian, are " , hielded" from too much sun and rain . [W16,IO]

Of the beauties of agriculture among the Hannonians, Fourier gives an aCCOUnt that reads like a description of color illustrations in children's books: "The socie­tary state will be able to establish, down to the most unsavory functions, a species·specific luxury. The gray overalls of a group of plowmen, the bluish overalls of a group of mowers, will be enhanced by the borders, belts, and plumes of their uniform, by glossy wagons and inexpensively adorned harnesses, all carefully arranged to protect the ornaments from the grime of work. Ifwe should see, in a pretty vale of the medleyed English sort, all these groups in action, well sheltered by their colored tents, working in disseminated masses, circling about with Bags and instruments, singing hymns in chorus while ~g; and should the region be sprinkled with manor houses and belvederes enli~ ~ colon· nades and spires, instead of with thatched cottages, we would verily believe that the landscape was enchanted, that it was a fairyland, an Olympian abode." Even the rape cutters, who lack high standing with Fourier, have a part in the splendor, and are found "at work in the hills, raising their pavilions above thirty belvederes crowned with golden rape." C ited in Annand and Maublanc, rourUr (Paris,

1937), vol. 2, pp. 203, 204. [W16.,I]

Forming a mesh- for example, between herding, plowing, and gardeniog: " It it not necessary that Ihis interchange be total_ay, that all of the twenty men eo­

gaged in lending Rocks from 5:00 to 6:30 go off as a group to work in the fields (~m 6:30 to 8:00. All that is necessary i! for each series to provide the othen WIth several members taken from its different groups. The exchange of a (ew memben will ! uffice to establish a Linkage or me!hing between the different series." Cited in Armand and Maublanc, Fourier (Paris, 1937), vol. 2, pp. 160-161 ("E!!or de la ,pap illonne "') ~l [W16a,2).

It is not just the despotism but also the moralism that Fourier hates ~ the great Revolution. He presents the subtle division of labor among .Harmoruans, as the antithesis of ega/iii and their keen competition as an altemanve tojralmu/l.

, [WHia,3)

In u Nouveau Montie induJlrid (pp. 281- 282), Fourier's rancor against Pestaloz.:-i ., ". .. thod'" his 'fralleis very evident. He says he took up PestalOUl s mtultlvc: me lo

~de /'(JJJociah"on domeJtique~gTi,ole) of 1822 because of the great success it had had with the public. Lacking such popular success, it would have created an unfavor· able impression on its readers.-Of Yverdon he recounts, ~t best, tales o.f ~~ calculated to prove that institutions of hannony cannot be mcroduced With unp

. . 'viliz" [W11,1] ruty lOto Cl abOIl.

Under the healling "Le GarantiSl11e d 'olli'e" <The GU8ranleeism of Hearing). and ill cOlljunctioll with the amelioralion of popula r SI)CeCh ha bits and of the mu! ical education of the people (worker-choirs of Ihe theater of Toulouse!), Fourier IreaUi of measures 10 be taken againsl noise. He wanlS the workllhopII isolated aud , for 1111" 1II0St part, tnlnsrerred to the suhurh~ , [W17,2)

'('own-Planning: " A lIIan who wishes 10 have a brillianl drawing room is keeuly aware that Ihe beauty or the principal room cannot do without that of the avenue!. \\'lul l is one to Ihink of an elegant !alon that require. the visitor, on his way there,

fi~t 10 pas! Ihrough a courtyard littered wi th refuse, a stairwell full of rubbish , 11 1111 all antecillllllher provilled wilh old and uncouth fUnlidlings? ... Why i! it, then, Ihal the good lallte eviuced by each individual in t.he d ecoration of his private Ilholle is nol met with , as well , ill our areh.itt.'ds responsible for those collective

abodes known as cities? And why hasn' t one of the myriad princes and arli8t, ... e,'er had the idea of adorning, in appropriate degree, the three components: fau­bourgs, annexes, and avenues ... ?" Charles Fourier, Cite! ouvnere.; Modifica . tion. ii. introduire dan. l'architeclllre de. villes (Parie. 1849), pp. 19-20. Arnon~ mallY other prescriptions for urban planning, Fourier imagines some that would allow one 10 recognize, from the increasing or decr easing decoration on the build­

ings , whether one was approaching or moving away from a city. [W17,31

Barbarian , civil i1:ed, and harmonian town 1)lanning: "A barbarian town is fonned

of buildings haphna rdly assembled ... and confusedly grouped along streetll that are tortuous, !larrow, badly constructed , unsafe, and unhealthy. Such , in general, are the cities of France.... Civil..i1:ed town8 have a monotonou!, imperfect order,

a chet:kerboard pattern , as in ... Philadelphia. Arn8terdam , Nancy, Thrin , the new parts of London and Marseilles, and other citie! which one know. by heart aa 800n as one has looked at three or (our streets. Further inspection would be pointless and dispiriting." In contrast to this: " neulral harmony," "which recOil·

cile! incoherent order wilh a combined order." Fourier, Cites ouvnere•• pp. 17­18. [W17,4]

;. The lbrmonians neither acknowledge nor desire any holidays. [W17a,I )

In Die heilige f'amilie (where?)"2Marx refers 10 Fourier. [W17a,2)

Toltsseu,?l , in 1848, was a mong the founder s of the Societe Rcpuhlicaine Centrale (Ulali' lui 's c1uh). [W17a.3)

Claut!c· NielJ las LcllollX: " Like aUlhe COllllllullal dwellings envisioned for Chaux . Ille hospice (a low-rise str ucture ringed !Jy arcades and cnclosing a 8tlua re court· yartl ) lias the task of furthering the moral d evation of humankind , insofar a~ il ca refull y lesls.the people it shelter" allows the good their fTt.-etlolll , and Iletains Ille "uti fo r ctJlIlpulsory luhor. To what l'xtenl the a rtiSI was gripped by the reforillist idell8 of those Ilays can be seen in the pcculiar project of the ' oikcma.' Already

quite eccentric ill ils outward aspe-<: t , this elongated building with its Greco-Roman veijtihule a nd windowless waU8 was to be the place wlJere a new sexual ethic Was pioneered . To reach the goal of higher sexual morality. the SIH:Ctade of human dissipation in the oikema, in the hou8e of uninhibited passions, Wat IUp)lOsed to lead to the path of virtue and to ' I-I ymen 's altar. ' Later. the architect decided that it would be better .. . to grant nature its rights .... A new, more liberated form of marriage was to be instituted in the oikema, which the ar chite<: t wanted to situate in the most beautiful of landscapes." Emil Kaufmann , Von LedQUX b;., Le Cor_ busier: Urspru"8 und Entwicklu DB der autonomen Architektur {Vienna and

Leipzig, 1933), I}. 36. (W17a,4]

" During a large part of his life, Grandville was much preoccupied with the general

idea of Analogy. " Cil. Baudelaire, Oeuvres, ed. Le Dantec, vol. 2 <PQris, 1932), p . 197 ("Quelques caricaturistes fran~ai8").43 [W17a,5)

H.J. Hunt, Le &ci4lisme tI Ie RomantUme en France: Etude de In. prwe JociaIiJle de 1830 ti 18 48 (Oxford, 1935), provides, on p. 122, a notably concise and fdiQ. tous statement of the main lines of Fourier's doctrine. The utopian element recedes into the background, and the proximity to Newton becomes clear. Pas­sion is the force of attraction as experienced in the subject; it is what maIr.cs "work" into a process as natural as the fall ofan apple. (W17a,6]

"'In contrast to the Saint-Simonians, Fourier has no use for mysticism in aesthetie matter s. In his general d octrine he is certainly mystical, utopian . messianic UYOD will, but in speaking of art he never once utters the word ' priesthood. ' ... 'Vanity

takes over and impels artists and scientists to sacrifice their fortune [which they would have needed to preserve their independence] to the phantoms of pride. '" H. J. Hunt , Le Socialisme et I.e Romant;"me en France (Oxford , 1935). pp. 123­rn. ~I~

-x [Marx]

The man who buys and selb reveals something about hinudf more diRet and less composed than the man who discourses and battles.

-Maxinlt Leroy, U J Spi{IJ/atirmJ.frmcU:rtJ de Saillt-SilJlO1l e/ HJ qumf/(J d'ajfoirrJ awe J01I aJJw, Ie coIJI/e de &dern (Paris (1925)), p. 1

" We see how the history of industry and the established obje<:tive existence of industry are the open book of man', essential )lOwer s .... Hitherto this wa, con­

ceived not in its inseparable conne<:tion with man 's essential being, but only in an external relation of utility .... Industry is the actual historical relation, hip of

nature-and therefore ofnatural science--to man." Karl Marx. " Nationalokono­ntie und Philosophie" (1844) [Karl Marx , Der h;"tor;"che I'tfatermlismw, ed. Landshut and Mayer (Leipzig < 1932). vol. I , pp. 303-304).1 (X I,I]

"Not only wealth but , likewise. the poverty of man- under the a88umption of socialism-receives , in equal measure, a human and therefore lIOCiai sipllficance. Poverty is the )lOsitive bond which causes the human being to experience the greatest wealth- the other human being-as need. " Karl Marx . "Nationalokono­

mie und Philosophie" [Karl Marx, Der hiJtoriJche i'tfaterialiJmus, ed. Landshut and Mayer (Leipzig), vol. 1, p . 305).2 [XI ,2)

"T he concl usion Marx draws for the capitalist economy: with the purchasing power given him in the fornl of salary, the worker can purchase only a certain anJount of goods. ",'hose production required just a fraction of the labor he himself has provided . In olher words, if the merchandise he produces is to be sold by hia 1 ~ III Jlloyer at a profit . he must always he expending surplus labor. " Henryk Gross­Diann, " F'iillfzig Jahre Kampf um den Marxislllus," WO rterbuch der Volk. wirt­.chaft. 4th ed . , ell. Lud ...ig Elster, vol. 3 (Jena , 1933). p . 318. [XI ,3J

Origin of fwae cOllsciousness: " Division of labor becomes truly such only from the mOlllellt when a llivisioll of material and mental lahor apl)Cars .... FrOl1! this mOlllent onward, conijciousness can really fl atter itself that it is somelhillg other

than consciousneu of existing I)rtlctice. that it reaUy reprc8eIlU tomething without Poiut of departure for a critique of "culture": "The l)Qlitive Iranscendence ofrepre~entjllg somelhing real. " " Marl' ulld Engels ilber l?euerbad.l: Aus dem ~ter­ private property. a8 the appropriation of human life, is . .. the positive transcen·arischell Nachlas8 von Man: und Engels," in J\fnr.x-Engeb Archil). ed. D. RJaza­ (II' lIce of aUestrangement ; Ihal is to say. the return of man from religion. family,nov. vol. I (Frankfurt UIII Main <1928). p. 248. l

[Xl ,4] stille. 111\(1 80 on , to his human- that is, social-ex.istence." Karl Marx. Der his~torische Materi(l/ismus. ed. Mayer alltl Landshllt (Leipzig). vol. I , p. 296 ("Na.lion:.ii)koIlOlllie 111111 Philosophie").!A passage on the Hevolution as a " Last Judgment" oppose~ . to the o~e Bruno [X1a,4]

Bauer dreamt of--one that would usher in the victory of cnbcal consciousness:" The holy futher of the ehurch will be greatly surprised when judgment day over-

A derinltioll of class hatred Ihat ,Iraws 0 11 Hegel: "The annulling of objectivity in take8 h·mi •... a d.y when the reflec:tion of burning cities in the sky will mark the

Ihe for lll of estrangement (which has to advance from indifferent foretgnness to N.nl , antagonistic eSlrangemeut) means etlually or even primarily, ror Hegel , thatdawn ; whcn together with the 'celestial harmonies' t~e tunes of " La ~t~rseillaise"

and " Carmagnole" will ec:ho in his ears accompallled by the requIsite roar of il is objeeti"ity which is 10 he annulled , because it is not the detenninate character

cannon, with the guillotine beating time ; when the infamous 'masses' will shout , uf Ihe object hut rather its obje<:tive character th at is offensive and constitutes

"f"..,a Ira , ~a I r . • .' " .nd su6.....,- - nd <aurhebl) ' self-consciousness' by the lamppost." estrangcment for self-consciousness." Karl Marx. Der historische Materi4lismlU'J'

" Marl' und Engels tiber Feuerbach: Aus denlliterarischen Nachlass von Marx ~d (Leipzig), vol. I . p. 335 ("Na tionalOkonomie und Philosophie").' [Xl a,S)

Engels," in Murx-Engcb Arclliv, ed. D. Rjazanov, vol. I (Frankfurt am Mam), I)' 2

"D ~ [Xl,S] Communism " in it~ fll"8t form ." "Communism is ... , in iu first fonn , only agener­..... lIliz(ltiotl lind consuJllmation of this relatiollship [ that is. of private property]....

Self-alienation: 'for it . the sole purpo!le of life and existence is direct , physical ponenwn. T he task'The worker produces capital; capital pr~uces him-hen~, he of tile ltlborer is not done away with , but el'tended to aUmen . It wants to do awayl)rOOuces himself, and ... his human qualities exist only lIIsofar as they ~t for

" I /. '0 h;-byforce widl talent , and so forth ... . It may be said that this idea oftbe commu~ca pi a (l Ien ..... . . . The worker exis ts as a worker only when he exllIufor.' . "ity ofwomen gives away the .'ecret of this as yet completely crude and thoughtlesshimself as capital; and he exists as capital only when som~ capital en sts for.III~. communism. Just as woman passe8 from marriage to general prostitution , 10 theThe existence of capital is h is existence, . . , since it detemunee the tenor of bi,life entire world of wealth . .. panes from the relationship of el'c1usive marriage within a manner indifferent to him . .. , Production ... produce[s] man ~I a '.: . the owner of I)rivate property to a state of universal prostitution with the commu­', d bein, " Karl Marxd.h-~ Der histornche MaterialismlU: D&e FriUa­. . , ~. ~ nilY· .. , HO\o<\'

$chriftell , cd. Lnndshut and Mayer (Leipzig) , vol. 1. pp. 361-362 lillle this annulment of private property is reaDy an appropriation is

abon­. . hi ") 5 ... proved by the abstract negation of the entire world of cwture and civiliution,likononue und Pbilosop e . [Xla,l] the regression to tlte unnaturaisinlplicity of the poor and undemanding man. who has not only failed to go beyond private property, but has not yet even reached it."On the doctrine of revolutions as innervations of the coUec:tive: "The transceD­ Karl Marx, Der histornche MaterialismlU, ed. Landshut and Mayer (Leipzig).dence or private property is .. , the complete ema ncipation of all ~um.ar; vol. I , pp . 292- 293 ("Nationalokonomie und Phiiosophie"). ID [X2,IJ senses ...• but it is this emancipation ... because ... the senses and IJlJ.Dds 0

other men have become my own appropriat..ion. B 'd d e direct organs there­eSI es les '. . It would be an error to deduce the psychology of the bourgeoisie from the.. ' d' t assOClaUonfore social organs develop, .. ; thus, for instance, activity an lrec, od ( attitude of the consumer. It is only the class of snobs that represents the stand­( ' wlIlire andam eowith odlers ... has hecome all organ or exp reuHl8 Illy 0 ""'. . wa point of the conswner. The foundations for a psychology of the bourgeois classappropriating hUlIIlJlI life. 11 is obvious thut the 1111111«11 eye enjoy~ dungs III a ~ are much sooner to be found in the foUowing sentence from Marx, which makesIlif(erent from that of the crlule, nonhuman e)'e; the human e(~r ~erent ~ro;rUh~ it possible, in particular, to describe the influence which this class exerts, as modelI " K.,I Marx Dcr historische Mnterwlumus: DIf!crude ear; alii so 011 . ' . h' ") .

and as customer, on an: ""A certain stage of capitalist production dictates that the.chriflen (Leipzig), vol. I , pp . 300-301 ("NationalUkonomie ulld Phllosop ~1~,2J capitalist be able to devote the whole of the time during which he functions as acapitalist- lhat is, as personified capital-to the appropriation and therefore con­trol of the labor of others, and [0 the selling of the products of this labor." Karl

"The nllture which de\'e1ops .III human III.story- ,I ·nesis of 1IIIIIIIIn society-is Marx, Das Kllpital, ~vol. 1,) ed. Korsch (Berlin <1932» . p. 298.11Ie ge . gb . [X2 ,2jlIIan's relllllllture; hence. nature as it develops through industry, even ~hou. ;:;

. / " K I Marx Der hulonfC Frum Marl' .. K(lpitnl . vol. 3. part I (Hamhurg, 192 1). p . 84: "Tht: advice of theun es trullged forlll , is ,rue l1llthrolJOlogica nat ure. ar ',. vol I.J\fateri(liisnllls: Die fruhschriften . ed . Lalltbhut alld Mayer (leIpZIg), ; 31 "linker ... more vBlll ahlt: thall dlat of tlte pril~8 1. " Ci ted in Hugo .' illcher. Karlp. 30-1 ("NatiollaWkollomic IIl1d I' hilos0l'hie"). ~ [X a,

Mflrx IIntl $eill Verll iilwis ZII Swo t Will Wiruclmjt (Jena , 1932). p . 56. 12 [X2,3j

Time in technology: " AI ill a gelluine political action , the choice ... of the ri~t moment is cruci al. ' That a capitalist should commalld on the field of production is now as indispen88hle al that a general should command onlhe field of battIe' (vol. I , II . 278). ' l ... 'Time' has here, in technology, a meaning different from the one it has in the hil lorical events of the era , where ... the ' actions all unfold on Ihe same )Iane .' 'Time' in technology ... also has a meaning different from the one it has in mooern economics, which ... measures labor-time in terms of the clock." Hugo Fischer, Karl Marx und sein YerhiUmis ;u Slaa l und Wiruchafl (J ena , 1932),

p . '12; citation from Kapilal <vol. I > (Berlin , l CT23). [X2,4)

" If you recall that Cournot died in 1877, a nd that his principal workll were con.

ceived during the Second Empire, you will recognize tha t, after Marx , he was one of the most lucid minds of his day.... Coumot goes well beyond Comte, who it

milled by the dogma of hi! Religion of Humanity; beyond Taine, who i! misled by the dogma of Science; and well beyond the nuanced skepticism of Renan... . He utters thi! admirable senlence: 'From being the king of creation , man hal falleD_

or risen (depending on how one understands it)-to the role of concessionaire for a planet.' The mechanir.ed civilization of the future in no way relJresenta for him ' the triumph of mind over matter ' ... ; rather, it represents the triumph of the rational and general principles of things over the energy and 'Iualities proper to the living orga nism." Georges Friedmann, La Crne du progres (Paris <1936»,

p .246. [X2a, l ]

"'fhe dead ma tter was a n adva nce over living labor power; second , it it consumed -in the latter's blaze; and third , il once again takes its place on Ihe throne.. .. For

even before Ihe entrance of the worker ' inlo the procell of production , hit own labor is estranged from him , appropriated by the capitalist , and incorporated into

capital; a nd during the process, it is continually materialized as an alien product.'

... The deadly thing that assails technology from all directions is economiC'. Economics has, for its object , the commodity. ' The procell of production' th.t

begins in a blaze, as labor engagell its products, ' is extinguished in the commodity. The fact that labor power was expended in itll fabrication now appears as a mate­rial property of the commodity, as the property of possessing value' (vol. 2,

1' . 361)... . The action of a man, as the unique and 'entire connected act of pro­duction' (vol. 2 , I). 201), is already more than the agent of this action.... The action alrcady takes place in a higher sphere, which has the future for itself, the sphcr e of tet;llIlics, while the agent of this action, as isolated individual , remains in

the spllere of economics, a nd his pro<luct is likewise bound to this sphere....

Acroll thc Europcan continent , technology as a whole forms a single s illlultalleo~1I actioll . insofa r as it ta kes effCi;1 (IS technology; the ph ysiognomy of the. earlh IS

fronl the out iicl transformed within the sphere of technics, lind the gulf between city and country is IIltima tely spunlled . But if the deatlly force of e<:ollomics should gain Illc upper hami. thclI the repetition of homoiogouli mllglliludes through abso­lutely inter changeable exii lenccs, the production of commod ities through the

. " agency of t.he worker. prevaili over the singularity of the teclmologica I aellon .

Hugo Fischer, Karl Ma rx lind sein VerhiillnilJ %U Staat und Wiruchaft (J ena, 1932), PI" 43-45; the citations arc from Kapilal (vol. 2) (Hamburg, 1921 ) . 1~

[X2a.2]

'''The iame spiri t that conSlructs l'hiiosophic systems in the brain of philosophers builds railroads with the hands of workers.' ... In the desert of the nineteenth century, according to Marx, technology is the only sphere of life in which the human being mo'·es al the center of a thillg." Hugo Fischer, Korl Marx und lJein

Verh iiltni&;11 S'aat und Wirtscha/t (jena, 1932), pp . 39-40; the citation of Marx is apparently from Marx and Engels. Cesammeue Schriften, 1841- 1850 (Stuttgart, 19(2), vol. I , p . 259. 15 [X3,1)

On the divwe forebears of the charlatan: "The various divine ancestors had by now [at the end of the eighteenth century] revealed not only prescriptions for elixirs of life but also methods of dyeing. indications for spinning silk, and secrets

of firing clay. The industry was mythologized. " Grete de Francesco, Die Macht de, Charwlam (Basel < 1937» , I). 154. [X3,2]

Marx emphasizes " the ,Iecisive importance uf the transformation of value and price of labor power inlo Ihe form of wages, or into the value and price of labor

ili elf. This phenomenal form , which makes the actual r elation invisible, and, indeed, shows the di rect opposite of that relation, forms the basis of all the juridi·

cal notions of both laborer a nd capitalist, of all the mystifications of the capitalis­tic mooe of prodnction , of all its illusions as to liberty." Karl Marx, Dos Kapital <vol. I >.ed. Korsch (Berlin <1932», p. " 99." (X3,3)

"Had we gone further. and inquired under what circumstances all or even the

\ majorily of products take the form of commodities, we should have fouod that thi.s ca n happen only with production of a very epecifi c kind : capitalist production." Karl Marx, Dos Kapilal <vol. I ), ed . Korsch , p . 1 7 1 .'~ [X3,4]

""This race of peculiar commooity-owners," as Marx at one point calls the prole­

tariat (Kapital ( vol. h . ed. Korsch , p . 173). Compa re: " Natural instinct of the eommodily-ownerS" (ibid ., p . 97). " [X3,5)

Marx opposes the idea that gold and silver are olily imaginary values. "The fact thai money can , in certain functions, be replaced hy mere symbols of itself gave rise to 'th at other Illistakell Itotion: thai it is itself a mere symbol. Nevertheleu,

untler this error lurked a preseutimcnt that the money·form of an object is not an inseparahle part of thai object hut is simply the form untler which certain social ~elations manifest themselves. In Ihis eense, every commodity is a symbol, since, Insofar as it is va lue, it is on ly the material envelope of the human labor spenl upon it. But if it be declared that ... the material forms assumed by the social qualities or labor under the r egime of a deHnite mode of production are mere symbols, it is in Ihe same breath also decla red that these characteristics are arbitrary fictions

sa nctioned by t.he so-called universal consent of mankind ." Note after "spent upon it": "' If we consiller the concept of value, we musllook on till} thing it lOclf as ollly a symbol; il counu 1I0t as itselfbttt as whal it is ....orth ' (Hegel, Recht5p/lilo,ophie, addition to paragraph 63)." Mau, DCl! Kapiwl (vol. I ), ed . Ko rsch, )Jp. 101- 102 ("Der Austauschproze8"). '~ [X3,6]

Private property as origin of the aliellalion of huma" beings from olle another: "Objects in themselves are external to man, and conseq uently alienable by him . In order thai this alienation may be reciprocal, it is only necessary for men, by a tacit understanding, to treat one another as private owners of those alienable objects, and by implication as independent individuals. But such a state of reciprocal independence has no existence in a primitive society based on property in coin~ mono ... The exchange of commodities, therefore, fi rst begins on the boundaries of such conUllunities." Karl Marx , Deu Kapital <vol. h, ed . Korseh (Berlin , 1932), p. 99 C"Der Austauschproze8"}.2O [X3a,11

" tn order that ... objects may enter into relation with one another as commodi~

ties, their guardians must place themselves in relation to one another, as persons ,

whose will resides in those objects." Marx , Das Kapital <vol. 1> , ed. Korseh (Berlin , 1932), p. 95 ("Oer Austauschproze8,,).zl [X3a,2]

Marx recognizes a climax in the development , and in the transparency, of the fetish character of the commodity: "'The mode of production in which the product takes the form of a commodity, or is produced directly for exchange, is the most ....... , general and most embryonic (onn of bourgeois production . It therefore makes iu appearance at an early date in history, though not in the same predominating and characteristic manner as nowadays. Hence, its fetish character is relatively easily seen through. But when we come to more concrete forms. even this appearance o( \ simplicity vanishe8." Marx. Do&Kapital <vol. 1), cd . Korsch (Berlin, 1932). 11 . 94 ("Fetischcharakter").zz [X3a,3]

The model according to which the polytechnical education demanded by Marx­ism must orient itself: "There are ... states of society in which one and the same man does tailoring and weaving alternately, in which case these twO forms of labor are mere: modifications of the labor of the same individual, and not specia1 and fixed functions of different persons" (Marx, Kapital, p. 57). These various modified acts of labor on the part of one individual are not compared with one another quantitatively, in tenus of duration; to the abstraction "mere labor," which we can educe from them, corresponds nothing real ; they stand within a unique concrete labor-contat, the results of which bring no advantage to the ol'l11er of commodities. Compare the following: "For a society based upon ~e production of commodities, in which the producers in general enter intO sooal relations with one another by ~ating their products as commodities ... , whereby they reduce their individual private labor to the standard of homogene­ous human labor-for such a society, Christianity with its cu/tUJ of abstract man

... is the most fitting fonn of religion." Marx, Kapl~al, p. 91 ("Fetischcharak. ter") .. [X3a,4)

.r.;The body of the commodity, which serves as the equivalent, figures as the materialization of human labor in the abstract, and is at the same time the product of some specifically useful concrete labor. 1bis concrete labor becomes. therdore, the medium for expressing abstract human labor." In this latter i! contained, as Marx believes, all the misery of the commodity-producing society. (The passage is from Kapital, p. 70 ["Die "'"=nfonn oder der Tauschwenj.):N In addition, it is very important that Marx immediately after this (p. 71 ) refers tc

abstract human labor as the "opposite" of the conCTete.-To formulate differ. ently the misery at issue here, one could also say: it is the misery of the commod. ity-producing society that, for it, "labor directly social in character" (p. 71) i.! always merely abstract labor. U Marx, in his treatment of the equivalent form. lays weight on the fact "that the labor of private individuals takes the form of it.! opposite, labor directly social in form" (p. 71), then this private labor is precisel) the abstract labor of the abstract comrnodity-owning man. [X4,1:

Marx has the idea that labor ","'Quid be accomplished voluntarily (as lTavai ptusionni) if the commodity character of its production were abolished. TIl( reason, according to Marx, that labor is not accomplished voluntarily wouk therefore be: its abstract character. [X4,2:

"Value ... converts every product into a social hieroglyphic_ Later on , men try t( decipher the hieroglyphic, to get behind the secret of their own social producu; fOI the deflnition of the object of utility as value is just as much their social product al language." Marx , Das Kopital (vol. 1>, p. 86 ("Oer Fetischcharakter der Wart und sein Gebeimnis").15 jX'".. "!he general value-form, which represents all products oflabor as mere congela nons of undifferentiated human labor, shows by its very SDUCture that it is the social expression of the commodity world. Thus, it reveals that within this worle the generally human [that is, the impoverished and abstract] character of the labor COIl.SOtutes at the same time its distinguishing fearure as social labor." Marx Das Kapllal <vol. h , p. 79 ("Die "'"=nfonn oder der Tauschwert").~-The ab SttaCt narure of the social labor and the abstract nature of the human being wh( relates to fellow humans as an owner correspond to each other. [X4,4

"~Iow are we to ex press the fact that weaving creates the value of the linen not b: VirtUe of being weavi.ng, as such, but by reason of ils general prOIM!rty of beinl hUnlan labor? Simply by opposing 10 weaving th at ot her particular forlll of con crete labor (ill this instance tailoring) , which produces the equivalent of the prod uct of ",eavillg. Jusl as the coa t ill ils bodi ly form becamc a direct expression 0

IIalue ·s now dOIlS ta ilorln' g. a concrete Iurm 0 I I /thor, appear as the direct /l llt' 0

Ilalllable embodiment of human labor gelleraUy" (Kapital (vol. I ), p. 71).z: Thil

is what Marx is referring to when he writes in the lentence precedillg this pas8age: " In the value-e:w.:pn :u ion of the commodity. the lables are turned. " At this point a 1I0te: "Thi8 inversiOIl , whereb y the a.en8uous-concrete counts only a8 a phenome­n al form of the abstract-general- rather t.han the abstract-general as a property of the concrete-i8 char acteristic of the expression of value .... If I say: Roman law and German law are both ,yetcms of law, my statement is perfectl y self-evi_ dent. But if I say: the law, that abstract concept , realize", iuelfin Roman law and in German law, thOle concrete legal systems, my context becomes mystical" (p. 71) ("Die Wertform oder der Tauschwert"). [X4a, l j

" When I state that coats or boots lIand in a r elation to lillen beca use linen ia the universal incarnation of abstract human labor, the absur dity of the proposition ia­

manifest. Nevertheless, when the producer s of coats and b oots compare those article, with linen , or, what is the same thing, with gold or silver, as the universal equivalent, they express the relation between their own private labor and the collective labor of society in precisely this absurd form." Karl Marx , DlU Kapitol. ( vol. 1>, ed . Korsch (Berlin , 1932) , 1). 88 ("Fetischcharakter"V · [X4a,2)

" Political economy has . .. never ... asked the question why labor i8 represented by the value of its product , and labor-time by the magnitude of that value. Theae

formulas, which bear it stamped upon them in unmistakable letten that they belong to a state of society in which the process of production has the mastery over

man, ins tead of being controlled b y him_ uch formulas appea r to the bourgeoia intellect to be as much a self-evident necessity imposed by nature as productive

labor itself." Marx , DlU Kapiwl (vol. 1> , ed. Korsch , p . 92-93 ("Der Fetischcharakter der Ware und sein Geheimnis").2'l [X4a,3j

An extremely important passage rdating [0 the concept of the "creative" u Marx's conunent on the beginning of the first paragraph of the Gotha Program. "Labor is the SOUTCt of all wealth and all culture"; "The bourgeois have very good grounds for falsely ascribing Jupmw.tural (;1"tQtiue power to labor, since pre­cisely from the fact that labor depends on nature, it follows that the man who possesses no other property than his labor power must, in all conditions of society and culrure, be the slave ofother men who have made themselves owners of the materia1 conditions of labor." Karl Marx, RandglOSStn lum Programm der tUutJcnm Arbtit"/Jartn, ed. Korsch (Berlin and Leipzig, 1922), p. 22.:10 [X5, l j

" Within th t: cooperative socidy bused on common oWlier ship of the IIIcan! of production , the producers do not exchange thd r products; just as little does the labor employed on the product! appea r here at the value of these products , as a material quality possessed by them, since 1I0W, in contrast to capita lis t society, individual labor exiijll! no longer in all indirec:: t fashion, but directly as a con1l)O­nenl part of the tolal labor. The phrase ' proceeds of labor' ... tllUS loses all mea ning." The passage refers to the demand for " a fair dilltribntion of the pro­

ceeds of luhor." Marx , Rarllls iouen ::um Prog ramm der delltlu;hell Ar beiterpartei (Berlin alld Leipzig, 1922), pp . 25,24.31 (X5,2]

·'111 a higher p hase of communist societ y. after the enslaving subordination of the intli vid ualto the divis ion of labor, and therewith also the a nti thesis between mell­tnl and physical labor. has va nished ; afler labor has become not only II means of life bllt Life's chief lIecessity; aft er the productive forces have also increased with the all-round development of the individual ...--olily then can the n arrow hori­ZOIl of bourgeois r ight be crossed in its entirety and society inscribe on its bannen : 'From each according to his ability, to each accordillg to his needs!'" Marx, Randgiouell :;um Progra",m (/er deutschen Arbeiterpartei (Berlin a nd Leipzig, 1922), p . 27,32 [X5,3j

Marx ill his critillue of the Gotha Program of 1875: " Lassalle knew the CommWl:is '

Manifesto by heart.... If, therefore, he has fal sified it so gro88ly, be has done so only to pul a &ood face on his alliance with absolutist and feudal opponenU a&ainst the bou rgeoi8ie." Marx , Rands louen zum ProSramm der deutlcMn Arbeiter. pflrlei, fed . Korsch ,> p. 28. M (X5,4]

Korsch directs attention to a "scientific insight that is fundamental to the overall under standing of Marxist communism, though today it is often looked upon by the

adversaries of Marxism, and even by many of its proponents, as ' meanin&leu'­the in8ight , namely, that the wasel a/labor are not , as bourgeois ~onomistsllke to think , the value (or price) of the labor, but ' only a masked form of tbe value (or

price) of the labor power, which is lold as a commodity on the labor market well before its productive utility (as labor) begin s in the operation of the capitalist proprietor." Karl Korsch , Introduction to Marx, RantJslouen zum Pros ramm

derdeutschen A rbeiterpartei, ed . Konch (Berlin and Leipzig, 1922), p . 17. (X5a,l j

Schiller: "Conunon natures pay with what they do ; noble natures, with what they are.":U The proletarian pays for what he is with what he does. [X5a,2)

" In the cou rse of the labor process, labor passes continually out of a s tate of unres t

into a state of being, out of the form of motion into the form of objectivity. At the end of one hour's spinning, that act is represented by a defini te quantity of yam ; in other words. a definite qua ntity of labor, namely that of one hour, has been objectified in the cottOIl . We say ' labor ' be.:ause the work of spinning counts her e only insofar as it is Ihe expenditu re of labor power in general, and not insofa r as it is lhe specific work of the spinner .... Raw material and product ap pear here [in the I)roduction of surplus value) in quite a new Light , very different from that in ...·hieh ....e viewed them in the Jabor process pure a nd simple. The raw material &en 'es now. merely as an absorbent of a definite (IUa ntity of labor.... Definite 1III Il lilities of product , these quantities being determined b y experience, now rel)­resent nothing but definit e quantities of labor , deflnile lIIasses of cr ystalli"t.'(llahor

tinle. They are nothing more than tile materialization of 10 many hour~ or 80 many days of social labor:' Karl Mau. DOli Ktlpiltll <vol. h , cd. Korsch (Berlin <1932». p. 191 (" Wertbild ungsprozeB"}.» [X5a,3)

The petty-bourgeois·idealist theory of labor is given an unsurpassed formulation in Simmd, for whom it figures as the theory of labor per se. And with this, the moralistic element-here in antimaterialist form-is registered very clearly. "One may ... assen in very general tenns that ... the distinction betv.·een mental and manual labor is not one between mental and material nature; that, rather, the reward is ultimately n:quired in the latter case only for the intemal aspect of work, for the aversion to exertion, for the conscription of will power. Of course, this inteUectuality, which is, as it ......-ere, the thing-in·itselfbehind the appearance of work ... , is not n:ally intellectual but resides in emotion and the will. It follOWs from this that it is not coordinated with mental labor but rather is its basis. For at

first the objective content ... , the result ... , the demand for reward is produced not in it but in ... the expenditure ofenergy that it n:quires for the production of this intellectual content. In that an act of the soul is revealed to be the source of value ... , physical and 'mental ' labor contain a conunon (one might say, mor­ally) value-grounding base, through which the reduction of labor value as such to

physical labor loses its philistine and brutal materialistic appearance. This is roughly the case with theoretical materialism, which acquires a completely new and man: seriously discussible basis if one emphasizes that matter itself is also a conception, not an essence which, . .. in the absolute sense, stands opposed. to the soul but which in its cognizability is completely determined by the foons and presuppositions of our intellectual organization." Of course, with these reRec­tions « Philruophie des Geldes (Leipzig, 1900),) pp. 449-450), Simmel is playing dew's advocate, for he does not want to admit the reduction of labor to physical labor. Indeed there is also, according to him, a valueless lahor that still requires an expenditure of energy. "This means, however, that the value of labor is measured not by its amount but by the utility of its result!" Simmel goes on to

reproach Marx, as it appears, for confusing a statement of fact with a demand He writes: "socialism, in fact, strives for a ... society in which the utility value of objects, in relation to the labor time applied to them, fonns a constant" «ibid.,) p. 451). "In the third volume of CaPillli, Marx argues that the precondition of all value, of the labor theory too, is use value. ~t this means that so many partS .of the total social labor time are used in each product as come in n:lation to Its

importance in use .... The approximation to this complete1y utopian state of affairs seems to be technically possible only if, as a whole, nothing but th~ ... unquestionably basic life necessities are produced. For where this is exclUSively the case, one work activity is of course precisely as necessary and useful as .the next. In contrast, however, as long as one moves into the higher spheres in which. on the one hand, need and estimation of utili ty are inevitably more individual and, on thc other, the intensity of labor is mon: difficult to prove, no regulatio~ of the anlounts of production could bring about a situation in which the relation­ship between need and labor applied was everywhere the same. On these )Xlints ,

all the threads of the deliberatiolU on socialism intertwine. At. this point, it is clear that the . .. difficulty .. . increases in relation to the cultural level of the prod· uct-a difficulty whose avoidance, of course, must limit production to that of the most primitive, most essential, and most aVtr.lge objects." Georg Simme1, Phi/ruo­phie des Geldes (Le1pzig, 1900), pp. 451-453."" With this critique, compare the counter-critique of this standpoint by Korsch, X9,1. [X6;X6a]

"The individual significance of different objects of equal value ill degraded through their exchangeability-however indirectly or imaginary this may be.... The dilpar agement of the interest in the individuality of a commodity leads to a

disparagement of individuality itself. If the two sides to a commodity are its quality alld its price, then it seems logically impossi.ble for the interest to be focwed on only one of these sides; for 'cheapneu' is an empty word ifit does not imply a low

price for a relatively good 'Iuality.... Yet this conceptual impossibility ill psycho­logically real and effective. The interest in the one si.de can be so poeat that ita

logically necessary counterpa rt completely disappear s. The typical instance of one of these cases is the 'fifty-cent bazaar.' The principle of valuation in the modern

money economy finds its clearest expression her-e. It is not the commodity that is the center of interest here hut the price--a principle that in fonner times not only

would have appeared shameless but would have been absolutely impossible. It hal been rightly pointed out that the medieval town ... lacked the extensive capital

economy, and that this was the r eason for seeking the ideal of the economy, not so much in the expansion (which is possible only through cheapnese) as in tbe quality

of the goode offered : ' Georg Simmel, PhiloJophk dell Geltk, (Leip:tig. 19(0), pp. 4l1-412 Y [X7,l j

"Political economy is now no longer a sci.ence of commoditiea .... It becomes a

\ direct science of eociallabor" : " in iUl present unambiguous , and definite, form of

labor producing a commodity for another penon-that is, of labor formally paid tO,its full value but actually exploited ... , actually collective labor performed by proletarian wage laborers ... to whom ... the productive power of what would be under otherwise similar conditions the produce of an isolated worker. now in­

/" creased a thoulandfold by the eocial division of labor, stands opposed in the fonn of capitalo" <Karb Korsch <Karlll1oI"X. manuscripo , vol. 2, p. 47.- Compare XII,I. 1X7,2]

On the bungled reception of technology. "The illusions in this sphere are re~ectt~d quite dearly in the terminology that is used in it, and in which a mode of thinking, proud of its .. . fn:edom from myth, discloses the direct opposite of these features. To think that we conquer or control natun: is a very childish Supposition, since ... all notions of ... conquest and subjugation have a proper meaning only if an opposing will has been broken .... Natural events, as such, are not subiect to the alternatives of freedom and coercion_ ... Although ... this seems to be just a matter of terminology, it does lead astray those who think Super£cially in the direction of anthropomorphic misinterpretations, and it does

show that the mythological mode of thought is also at home within the natural_ scientific worldview." Georg Simmd , Phj/osophie deJ Gddu (Leipzig, 1900), pp. 520-521.39 It is the great distinction of Fourier that he wanted to open the way to a very different reception of tecimology. [X7a, l]

"The ... doctrine of'surplus value,' already largely anticipatet.1 ... by the c1an ic bourgeois economists and their earliest socialist adversari ll8, . .. anti the reduc_ tion of the ' free labor contract' of the modern wage laborer to the sale of the 'commodity labor-power,' first acquire their real efficacy through the transfer of

economic thought from the fi eld of the exchange of commotlities ... to the fi eld of material production ...- that is, through the transition from ... surplw value. emting in the form of goods and money, to ... sltrpllU labor, performed by re..J

workers in the workshop under the social domination eJ{erted upon them by the capitalist owner of the workshop ." Korsch <Karl Marx, manuscript> , vol. 2, pp. 41-42.- [X7a,2]

Korsch, vol. 2, p. 47, cites a phrase from Marx <Da.! Kapital, vol. 1, 4th ed. (Hamburg, 1890), pp. 138- 139>: "the hidden haunts of production, on whose threshold we are faced with the inscription: 'No admittance except on busi· ness:"~ l Compare Dante's inscription on the Gate of Hell, and the "one-way strttt." (X7a,3]

Korsch defmes surplus value 88 the " particularly ' deranged ' form which tbe gen­

eral fetishism attached to aU commoditie8 a8sumes in the commodity called ' labor­power. '" Karl Korsch , Karl Morx, manuscript , vol. 2, p . 53.4: [X8,1] ­" What Marx ... terms the ' fetishism of the world of commodities' is only a scien­

tific exprenion for the same thing that he had described earlier ... a8 'human

self-alienation. ' ... The most important substantive difference between thi.H philo-­sophical critique of economic 'self-alienation' and the later scientific exposition of

the same problem consi81s in the fact that , in Dcu Kapital. Marx ... gave hit economic critique a deeper and more general significance by tracing back the delusive character of all other « onomic categorie3 to the fetish character of the commodity. Though even now that most obvious and direct form of the 'self-al.

ienation of the human being,' which occu rs in the relation between wage labor and

capita l, keeps its decisive importance for the practical attack on the existing order of society, the fetishism of commodity labor power is , a t this stage, for theoretical purposes regarded as a mere derivative form of the more general fdisltism which ia

contained ill the commodity itself.. .. Dy revealing all cconomic categories to be mere fragments of one great fetish , Marx ultimately transcended ~ Il preceding forms and phases of bourgeoi8 e<;onomic and social theor y .... Even the most udvanced c1ussical economists remuincd caught in the . .. world of bourgeois ap­IJearance, or fell back into it , because they hud uever succ(:eded in extending their critical analysis either to the derived forms of economic fetishi8m [ lIllnlasking of the gold a nd silver fetislles, the physiocratic illusion Ihal relit grows out of the

earth, the interpretation of interest and rent al mer e fractions of industrial profit] or to that gener al fundamental form which aplJeara in the value-form of the labor prodUC18 as commodity and in the value-relations of the commodities themselves." Korsch . Karl Marx . <vol. 2,) pp. 53-57 Y [X8,2]

"From the bourgeois point of view, the individu al citizen think8 of 'economic' thillgs alld forces as of something entering into his private life fronl without .... According to the new conception, however, individuals in all they do are moving,

fronl the outset, within definit e social circumsta nces that a rise from a given stage in the tleveIOpnU!I.lt of material production . .. Such high ideall of bourgeois society as thai of the free, seLf-determining individual, freedom and equality of aU citizens in the exercise of their political rights, and equality of all in the eyes of the

law a re now seen to be nothing but correlative conce,)f& 10 the f etuhism of the commodity .... Only by keeping the people unconscious of the r eal contenta of those basic relations of the emting social order ..., only through the fetishistic

transformation of the social relations between the class of capitalists and the clan of wage laborer8, r esulting in the ' free and unhampered ' sale of the 'commodity labor--power ' to the owner of 'capital ,' is it possible in this society to 8peak of freedom and equ ality." KONlch, Karl Marx, ( vol. 2,) pp. 75-77.'" [X8a, l ]

..... he individual and collective bargaining over the condition8 of sale of the com­

modity labor-power still belongs entirely to the world of fetishistic appea rance <Schein >. Socially considered , and together with the material mean8 of produc­tion , the propertyless wage laborer s selling, through a ' free labor contract,' their

individual labor-poweTli for a certa in time to a capitalist entrepreneur are, as a class, from the outset and forever , a common property of the possessing class, which alone has the real mean8 of labo r at its disposal. It was therefore not the

whole truth that was revealed by Marx in the Communist Manife,to when he . aid that the bourgeoisie had ... replaced the veiled forms of exploitation practiced during the ... Middle Ages hy an altogether ' unveiled exploitation.' T he bourgeoi­

, sie replaced an eXIJloitation embroidered with religious a nd political ilIusioru by a new and more refined system of concealed exploitation . Whereas in earlier epochs the openly proclaimed relatiOlls of domination and servitude appeared aB the

immediate springs of production , in the bourgeois period it is ... , conver&ely, production that is ... the pretext ... for the. . exploitation of laboren." <Korsch,) Karl Marx , <vol. 2, >pp . 64-65 . .tS [X8a,2]

~ the doctrine of value: "The idea that there is an 'equali ty' inherent in all kinds of labor, by which economists are entitled to regard qualitatively different kinds of labor . . . as quantitatively different portions of a total quanti ty of 'general labor,' which fomu the basis of the economic concept of value is so little the discovery of a natural condition underlying the production ar:d exchange of con.unodities that this 'equality' is, on the contrary, brought into existence by the SOcial fact that, under the conditions prevailing in present-day capitalist 'com­modity production,' all labor products are produced as commodities for such

exchange. In fact, this 'equality' appears nowhere else tlum in the 'wJue' 0/ the commoditieJ JO produced. The full development of the economic theory of 'labor value' coincided with a stage of the historical development when human labor, not just as a category but in reality, had long ceased to be, as it were, organically COIU1ected with cither the individual or with small productive communities and, the barriers of the guilds having fallen under the new bourgeois banner of 'free.. dom of trade: every particular kind of labor was treated henceforth as equivalent to every other particular kind of labor. It was precisely the advent of these:: historical and political conditions that was expressed (unconsciously, of course) by the classical economists when they traced back the 'value' appearing in the exchange of commodities to the quantities of labor incorporated therein, though most of them believed they had thus disclosed a natural law .... Those minor followers in the wake of the great scientific founders of political economy, no longer accustomed to such audacity of scientific thought, who have later patheti­cally bewailed the 'violent abstraction' by which the classical economists and Marxism, in tracing the value relations of commodities to the amounts of labor incorporated therein, have 'equaled the unequal,' must be reminded of the fact that this 'violent abstraction' results not from ... economic science but from the real character ofcapitalist commodity production. '!hecommodity is a bt'Jrn InMkr." Korsch, Mrl Man:, vol. 2, pp. 66-68. In "reality," of course, the "particu1ar kinds of labor perfonned in the production of the various useful things are, according to Marx, effectively different also under the regime of the law of value" (ibid., p. 68).~ This in opposition to Simmel; compare X6a. [X9]

" Marx and Engels ... pointed out that the equality-idea resulting from the epoch of bourgeois commodity-production and expressed in the economic ' law of value'

is still bourgeois in its character. It is therefore only ideologically incompatible with the exploitation of the working class through capital, but not in actual prac­tice. The socialist Ricardians • ... on the basis ofthe economic principle that 'it i.

labor alone which bestows value,' ... wanted to transform all men into actual workers exchanging equal quantities of labor.... Marx replied that ' this equali- . tarian relation ... is itself nothing but the reflection of the actual world; and that

therefore it is totally impossible to reconstitute society on the basis of what it merely an embellished shadow of it. In proportion as this shadow takes on sub­

stance again, we perceive that this substance, far from being the transfiguration dreamt of, ill the actual body of existing society. '" T he citation from La MiJere de wphiU,sophie. in Korsch . vol. 2, p. 4Y [X9a,IJ

Korsch: In the bourgeois epoch , " the production of the products of la~or is pretext and cover for the ... exploitation and oppression of the laborers . The scientific method of concealing this stale of affairs is called political economy." Its function: to shift " responsibility for all the waste and hideousness which is already found at o, r ' dwhichthe present stage of development of the productlve orcell 0 society, an cmergcs catastrophically during e<!onomic crises, from the realm of human action

to the sphere of so-called immutable, nature-ordained relations between things." Korsch . Karl Marx. vol. 2, p . 65." [X9a,2]

"The distinct.ion between lise value a nd exchange value. in the abstract form in ",·hich it had been lIIalle by the bourgeois economists, ... did not provide any useful starling point for an . . . investigation of bourgeois commodity produc­tion . .. . With Marx, ... use value is not defined as a use value in general , but as the u.Je vallie of a commodity. This use value inherent in commodities .. . is, however, IIOt merely an extra-economic presupposition of their ' value.' It is an element of the value.. . . The mere fact that a thing has utility for any human bcillg-say. for its producer--does not yet give us the economic definition of use value. Not until the thing has . .. utility ' for other persons' ... does the economic

definition of use value apply. Just as the use value of the commodity is economi_ cally defined as a social use value (use value ' for others'). so is the ... labor which goes illto the production of this commodity defined economically as ... labor 'for

others.' Thus. Marx's commodity-producing labor appears as social labor In a twofold sense. It has ... the general social character of being a ' specifically useful labor,' which goes to the pr oduction of a definite kind of social use value. It bas, on

the other hand. the specific hi.storical character of being a 'generally social labor. ' which goes to the production of a definite quantity of exchange value. The capacity of social labor to produce definite things useful to human beings ... appears in the

w e ooiue of its product. Its capacity for the production of a value and a Burplus value for the capitalist (a particular characteristic of labor which derives from the particular form of the social organization of the labor proceu ... . within the

present historical epoch) appears in the exchange vallU: of its product. The fusion of the two social characteristics of commodity-producing labor appears in the ' value-form' of the product of labor, or the form of commodity. tt Korsch, Karl Marx ( vol. 2), pp. 42-44.49 [XIO]

"The earlier bourgeois economists, when speaking of labor as a source of wealth.

, had likewise thought of ' labor' in terms of the various forms of real work, though they did so only for the reason that their economic ca tegories were still in the

process of separation from their original material contents.... Thus, the Mercan­tilists, the Physiocrats, and so on successfully declared that the true source of wealth lies in the labor expended in the export industries , in trade and shipping, in agricultural labor, and the like. Even in Adam Smith- who, from the different

hrallches of labor, definitely advanced to the general form of commodity-produc­ing .labor- we find that concrete aspect retained , along with the new and more formalistic definition which is also expressed in his system and was later to become the exclusive definition of value in the work of Ricardo . and by which labor is defined as an abstract and merely quantitative entity. This same abstract form of labor, which he correctly defined as exchange-value-producing labor, he at the Sanle time . .. declared to be the only source ... of the material wealth of the cOllimunity, or use value. This doctrine, which still obstinately persists in ' vulgar' socialism ... is, accordillg to Marx , economically false ." By its assumptions, " it

would be difficult to explain why, in In'cllent day ... lociety, just those persons are poor who hitherto havc hatl that uniquc source of all wealtll at thcir exciul ive disposal, and even more difficult to account for the fact that tlley remain unem~

ployed and poor. instead of prod ucing wealth by their labor.... Hut ... in prais~

ing tile creative powcr of ' labor,' Adam Smitll was t llinking 1I0t so much of the forced labor of the modern wage laborer, whiell appean,l ill the value of commodi. ties lI lid p roduces capita lis tic profi t . as of the general na tura l necessity of human labor .... Likewise, his naive glorification of the ' division of labor' achieved in thele 'great manufactures,' by which he under stood the whole of modern capital. ist production, refers not so much to the extr emely imperfect form of contempo­

r ary capi talistic division of labor ... al to the general form of human labor vaguely fused with it in his theoretical exposition ." Korsch , KarllUarx , vol. 2,

pp.44-46.50 [XIOa]

Decisive passage on surplus vaJue, the final statement no doubt standing in need of funher clarification: "Similarly, the doctrine of surplus fJll/ue, which is usually regarded as the more particu1arly socialist Rction of Marx's economic theory, is neither a simple economic exercise in calcu1ation which serves to check a fraudu~ lent statement of vaJue received and expended by capital in its dealing with the workers, nor a moral lesson drawn from economics for the purpose of reclaiming from capital the diverted portion of the 'full product of the worker's labor? The Marxian doctrine, as an economic theory, starts rather from the opposite princi­ple-that the industrial capitalist under 'normaJ' conditions acquires the labor· power of the wage laborers by means of a respectable and businesslike bargain. whereby the laborer receives the full equivaJent of the 'commodity' sold by him, that is, of the 'labor-power' incorporated in himself. The advantage gained by the capitalist in this business derives not from economics but from his privileged sociaJ position as the monopolist owner of the materiaJ means of production., which permits him to exploit, for the production of commodities in his work· shop, the specific we uaiue of a labor·power which he has purchased at its ec0­

nomic 'value ' (exchange vaJue). Between the uaiue oflhe new commodih'eJ produced by tM we of lhe labor·power in the worluhop, and the prius paidf()r thu labor to .its sellerJ, there u, according to Marx, no economic ()r other rationally determinable re~ wlllltever. The measure of value produced by the workers in the shape of their . labor products over and above the equivaJent of their wages (that is, the mass rf 'Jurplw /abo'; expended by them in producing this 'surplus vaJue') and the quan' titative rdation between this surplus labor and the necessary labor (iliat is, the 'rate o/Jurp/us value' or the 'rate 0/exploitah'on' holding good for a particular ~ and a particular country) do not result from any exact economic calculatlon. They result from a battlc between sociaJ classes." Korsch, Karl Marx, vol. 2, ~n~' ~II J

"The ultimate meaning of thjs law of value, as 8 110WII ill its workings by 1\1111"", •••

docs not GOn~i8 t ... in supplying a theoretica l iJasis for the practical calculation. of the busineuman seeking his private ad va ntage, or for the economic_politicai

mCaSUrei taken by the bourgeois statesman concerned with the general mainte­nance and furt hcra m:e of the capitalist surplul -ma king machinery. T he fin al scientific pur p05e of the Marxian theory is , rat hcr, ' to revea l the economic law of motiOl1 ofmoder,1 society. II lId tllis mea ns. at the sa lllC time. the law of its his torical development .'" Kursch , Karl Morx. vol. 2.1" 70.;': [Xll a,l ]

"Colliplet~: determination of the actu al social character of that fUDIl ament al proc­ess of modern capitalist prOtluctioli which il one-sidedl y III'esclited (,y the bour­geois et:ollomists, al by their adversaries frOIll the ca mp of vulga r locialil m, sonletimes as productioll of conlumer goods, and sometimes, by contrast , as pro· duction of value or as simplc profi t making": a " prod uction of surplul value by

'lleans of the production of vallie by mcans of the production of consumer goods­in a society in which the material goods of production enter al ca pital into the I'roce1ls of production run by tile capitalil tl, wbile tbe actual producers enter as the commodity labor-power." Korscll , Karl Marx, vol. 3, pp . 10-11. [XlI a,2]

The experience ofour generation : that capitalism will not die a natural death. [X ll a,3]

The confrontation of Lafargue withJaures is very characteristic for the great form of materialism. (X l h ,4]

Sourccs for Marx and Engels; " From the bourgeois historians of the French Resto­ration, they took the concept of social clasl and of c1au s truggle; from Ricardo,

the econom.ic basis of the claSH antagonism; from Proudhon , the proclamation of the modern prolctariat as the only real revolutionary class; from the feudal a nd Christian allailants of the new economic order ... , the r uthless unmasking of the

liberal ideas of the bourgeoisie, tile pier cing hate-fiUed invective. Their ingenious dissection of tile unsolvable contradictionl of the modern mode of production they took from the petty-bourgeois l ociaiism of Sismondi; the humanism and the phi. losophy of action , from earlier companions among the left Hegelians, especially

from Feuerbaeh; the meaning of political str uggle for the working clall, from the contemporary labor parties , F rench Social Democrats and English Chartists; the doctrine of revolutiona ry dictatorship , from the French Convention, and from Blanqui and his followers. Finally, they look fro m Saint ~Simon , Fourier, and

Owen the entire content of their socialist and COllllllunist agenda : the total up· heal'al of the found ations of existing capitai is l society, the abolition of classes .. . , and the tra nsform ation of the Slate into a mere administration of production." Korsch , Klir/ MlIrx , vol. 3, p . 101. ~ [XI2 ,1]

'"Through Ilegel. the new materialism of proletarian theory linked itself to the 8um of bourgeois social thought of tile prece<ling historical period . II did 10 ill the same alltith.,.ical f01'l1l in wllich . 011 II practical level also, the sodal action of the prole· taria t continued Ihe previous ~ocia l movemcnt of the hourgeois class. " Korsch , l(a rlMlI I"X. vol. 3 , p . 99 .~ IXI2,2]

Korsch says very juscly (and one might weU think of de Maistre and Bonald in this connection): "To a certain extent, that ... 'disenchantment' which, after the conclusion of the great French Revolution, was first proclaimed by the early French theorists of the counterrevolution and by the Gennan Romantics . .. has in fact exerted a considerable influence upon Marx mainly through Hegel, and has thus directly entered into the . . . theory of the modem workers' movement." Knrsch, Karl Marx, vol. 2, p. 36.» [XI2,3)

Concept of producti,'e force: '" Productive force' is, in the ftrst place, nothing else than the rt!al eHrthly lHbor-powt!r of living melt : the force ... by which .. , tbey

produce ... , under capitalistic conditions. ' commodities .' , .. Everything that increases the productive erfect of human labor-power ... is a new social ' produc­tive force.' To the material forces of prO(luction belong nature, technology, aDd

science; but to these forces bdong, above all , the social organization iueU and tbe . . . social forces created therein by cOOIHlration and the industrial division of

labor. " Korsch , Karl MCI~, vol. 3 , pp . 54-55.~ [X12a,l )

Concept of productive force: "The Marxian concept of 'social ' productive foreet has nothing in common with the idealis tic abstractions of the old and new ' techno­

cra ts ,' who jillagine they call define and measure ~he prO(luctive powen of society ... in terms of natural science and technology ... . ' Tedmocratic ' prescriptioDl are not suf6cient in themselves to remove the material obstacles which oppose aoy

important change in present-day capitalistic society .... There iJ; more power or resistance in the mute force of economic conditions . . . than well-meaning techno­

crats have ever drealllt of." Korsch , Karl MClrx . vol. 3, pp. 59-60 Y [X12a,2)

I.n Marx-"Das philosophische Manifest der historischen Rechtsschule," Rhein­u che Zeitung. 221 (1842}--there aplHlars, as a point of refer ence, " the correct ...... idea ... that t.he primitive conditions are naive ' Dutch pictures' of the true condi­

lions." Cited in Korsch , vol. I , p. 35 .... [X12a,3) ,

Against Proudhon, who looks on machine and division of labor as antithetical w each other, Marx emphasizes how much the division of labor has been refined since the introduction of machinery. Hegel, for his part, emphasized that the division of labor, in a certain sense, opened the way for the introduction of machinery. "This parceling out of their content ... gives rise w the dirtisUm .of labor. . .. The labor which thus becomes more abstract tends, on one hand, by Its

unifonnity, to make labor easier and to increase production; on another, to ~t each person to a single kind of technical skill, and thus produce more uncondi· tional dependence on the social system. The skill itself becomes in this way mechanical, and becomes capable of letting the machine take the place of ~u· man labor." Hegel, Em.yRlopiidit: der philOJoplwcht:n Wwt:nJchajlt:n im GrundrisSt: (Leiploig, 1920), p. 436 (paragraphs 525-526).w [X12a,4)

The critique ClI. rried out by the young Marx on the " rights of man," ai separated from the " rights of ~he' citizen ." '"'None of the so-called rights of man gOCi beyond

egoistic lIlan .... Far from the rights of man conceiving of man as a sJ>eciet-being, species-life itself. society, appears as a fra mework exterior to individuals .... The only bond that holds t.hem togeth ll.r is natural necessity. nt!e d and private interest , lilt: conservation of their property and egoistic person . It is . .. paradoxical . . Ihat citizenship, the political community, is degraded by the political emancipa­IOrs to a mere means for the preserva tion of these so-called right~ or mall ; that the ci tizen is declared to be the servant of egoistic ma n; that the sphere in which man be hal'es as a communal being is d egraded he low the sphere in which man behaves as a parti al being; finally dl at it is not mall 8S a ci tizen hut man as a bourgeois who is called the real and true Illan .... The r iddle has a silllple solution .... What was the character or the old society? ... Feud aljsm. The 0111 civil society had a direccly political character .... The 1)Glitical revolution ... abolished tile political ebarac-'

ter of civil 8ociety. It shattered civil society ... on the olle hand into individuals, on the other hand into the lIIater ial a nd spiritual elements that make up tile ... civil position or these individu als .... The formation of the political state and tbe dissolution of civil society into independent individuals, who are related by law

just as the estate and oor))Gration men were related by privilege, is completed in one and the eame act . Man a s member of civil society, unl)Olitical man, appean necessarily as natural man . The rigbts of lIIan aplJear R8 natllral rights. because

self-conscious activity is concentrated upon l)Olitical action . Egoistic man is the Ilassive , given result of the dis80lved society, ... a natural object . Political revolu­tion's ... attitude to civil society, to the world of need, to work , private interesu,

and private law, is that they are ... its natural basis. Finally, man as a member of civil society counts for true man , for man as dis tillct from the citizen , because he is Dian in his sensuous ... existence, while political man is only the abstract ...

man .... The abstraction of the politicallllan is thus correctly described by Rous­seau: ' He who d ares to undertake the makin~ of a people'. institutions ought to feel himself capable ... of changing human nature, of transfonning each individ­

ual, who is by himself a complete and solitary whole, into part of a greater whole from which he ... receives his life and being' (ContrOl $ocial [London, 1782] , vol.

2 . p . 67)." Marx . " Zur ludcnfrage." in Marx a nd Engels, Ge$anuausgabe. vol. I , section 1, 1 (Frankfurt a m Ma in , 1927). PJl. 595-599.611 [XI 3]

The property appertaining to the commodity as its fetish character attaches as well [0 the commodity·producing society-not as it is in itself, to be sure, but more as it represents itself and thinks to undersWld itself whenever it abstracts from the fact that it produces preciscly commodities, The image that it produces of itself in this way, and that it customarily labels as its culture, corresponds to the concept of phantasmagoria (compare "Eduard Fuchs, Collector and Historian," section 3)." The latter is defined by Wiesengrund "as a consumer item in which there is no longer anything that is supposed to remind us how it came into being. It beco~es a magical object, insofar as the labor stored up in it comes to seem Supem arural and sacred at tlle very moment when it C'\Jl no longer be recognized as labor" (T. W. Adomo, "Fragmeme liber Wagner," Zeitschrffl for SoIialfor­Jchung, 8, nos. 1-2 [19391, p. 17). In connection with this, from the manuscript on Wagner (pp. 46-47): "The art of Wagner's orchestration has banished ... the

role of the inunediale production of sound from the aesthecic totality .... Anyone (ully able to grasp why H aydn doubles the violins with a flute in piano might well get an intuitive glimpse into why, thousands of years ago, men gave up eating uncooked grain and began to bake bread, or why they started to smooth and polish their tools. All trace of its own production should ideally disappear from the object ofconsumption. It should look as though it had never been T!UJde, so as not to reveal that the one who sells it did nOt in fact make it, but rather appropri­ated to himself the labor that went into it. The autonomy of art has its origin in the concealment of labor.no [X13a]

y [Photography]

Sun, look out for yourself!

- A.J . \V'tertz. o..-uvra litl(r'airts (ParU, 1870), p. 374

If onc day the sun should sputter out, 'Twill be a mortal who rek.indles it.

- Laurencin and C1aiJ'\-illc, I.e RDi DaFt Ii l'txposition tk 1844, l1\atre du Vaudeville. April 19, 1844 (Paris, 1844), p. 18 [lines spoken by the Genius of Industry]

A prophecy from thc ycar 1855: " Only a few years ago, there was born to UI a machine t.hat hal since il«ome the glory of our age, and that day after day amaze8 the mind a nd sta rtle8 the eye. f Thil machine, a century hence, will be the brush ,

the palette, the colors, the craft , the practice, the I)atience, the glance , the touch , the paste, the glaze. the Irk k . the relief, the finish , the rendering. f A century hence, there will be no more bricklayers of painti.ng; there will be only architect&-­

painters in the full senle of the word . f And are we really to imagine that the daguerreotype has mllrder ed a rt? No, it kills the work of patie l1cc, but it does homage to the work of thought . I Whel1 the daguerreotype, tm8 titan child, will

have attained the age of maturit y. when all its power and potential will have been unfolded , then the g(lIillS of a rt ,,;lI l uddenly seiT-e it by the coUar and exclaim: ' Mine! You are mine now! We are going 10 work together .... A. J . Wiertz, Oeuores /ittemire8 (Paris, 1870), p . 309. FrOIll an article, " La Photographie," that ap­

pea red for the first time in Jlllle 1855, in ta Nation, and ended with a reference 10 the new illvention of photographic enla rgement , which makes it possible to pro­thh'C life-size pllOt08. Bricklayer-pai nter8 a rc. fur Wierlz , those " who apply them­selves to Ihe material pllI·t on ly," who a l'e good al " rclulering." [Y I,I]

liit/ustrializa tioll ill lih~ ralll rt· . On 51·rihe. " Although he malic fun of the big indus­tr ialis ts a nd moneymell . lit' picked up tlw secret ofthcir success. II did not escalJe his eagle eye thai, ill tilt: las tltll lt lysis. all wt~aith res ts 011 the art of getting others to work fur 118. So then . gr ollllllhrea king genius that hc was, IIC transferred the I,rinciplc of the llivill ion of la),or fro", tim ,,·urkshops of lailors. cahilletmakers, alld manufacturers of IHlII nihs to the ateliers of dramatic artists, who, before thi8

1 reform , working wil.1I onl y their one Ilead and o Tle I)CO, had earned merely the The photographic reproduction of artWOrks as a phase in the struggle betv.-een proletarian wage. of the isola ted worker. An entire generation of theatrical gen~ pholOgraphy and painting. [Yla,3)

..

iusell were in his debt for their training and development , their awards, and. not

infrelluently, even their riches and reputa tion . Scribe chose the lI ubje<!I , ske tched

out the main lines of the plot, indicated the places for special effects and brilliant exits, and his apprentices would compose lhe 81l1)roprilltedialogue or verses. Once they had made 80me progreu, their n ame would appear on the title page (next to

that of the finn) as a jUl t ruompense, unti) the best would break away and begin turning oul dramatical works of their own invention , perhaps al80 in their turn

recruiting new assistants. By thclle means, and under the protection afforded by the French publishing laws, Scribe beeame a multimillionaire." Friedrich Kreys. sig, Smdien zur /rcmzosischen Cultur· und Literaturgeschichte (Berlin, 1865)

<pp.56-57). [Y l ,2J

Beginnings of the revue. "The French fairy playsl currently in vogue are practi. cally all of recent origin; they derive, for the most I)art, from the revues whicb were customarily put on during the first fortnight of the new year, and which were a sort of fantastic retrospective of the year preceding. The character of the.e theatricals was initially quite juvenile; they were tailored specifically to schoolchil. dren, whose new year's festh'ities would be enlivened by productions of this kind." Rudolf Gottscball, " Das Theater und Drama des Second Empire," Umere Zeit: Deuuche Revue-l'tfonalllchri/, zum Konverl otwmk:cikon (Leip~g. 1867), p.93 1. {y1 ,3J -From the stan, to keep this thought in view and to weigh its constructive value: the refuse- and decay·phenomena as precursors, in some degree mirages, of the great syntheses that follow. These worlds <?> ofstatic realities are to be looked for everywhere. FUm, their center. 0 Historical Materialism 0 [Y I ,4J

Fairy plays: "Thus, for example, in Parisiens Ii Londre. (1866), the English ind ... trial exhibition is brought to the stage and illustrated by a bevy of naked beautiet, who naturally owe their appearance to allegory and poetic invention alone." Rudolf Gottschall , " Oas Theater und Drama des Second Empire," Uruere Zeit: Deutsche Revue-l'tfonaellchriJt zum KonverlaliotlJiexikon (Leipzig, 1867) p. 932 . 0 Advertising 0 [y la,IJ

"'Fermenters' are catalytic agents which provok~ or accelerate the decomposition of relatively large quantities of other organic 8ubslances .. .. These 'other organic substances,' however, in reaction to which the fermenting agents nianifest their destructive power, are the historically transmitted stylistic forms. " "The fenneo­ters ... are the achievements of modern technology. Tiley . .. can he groUI)C{! acc()rding to three great material divisiolls : (I) iron , (2) the art of machinery, (3) the art of light and fire." AlIred Goullold Meyer, Ei,ctlbmuetl ( I<:"lingen, 1907). from the preface (unpaginated). [y la,2j

" In 1855. within the frlllllCWork of the grca t exhihition of ilUlustry.slH!cial sections 011 photography were opened , making it pon ible for Ihe first lime 10 familiarize a wider public with the Ih"W ill\·ention. Tilis exhibition was, in fact , the overture to Ihe induSlrial dc\'dopment of photogra phy . . .. The puhlic at the exhibition throngetl before the 1lI1illCrOUS portraits of famous and nolOO personalities, and we can onl y imagine wll at it 1II11s 1 have mea nt to that epoch suddenly 10 soo before it , in so lifelike a fo rm , the celebrated rlgures of the stagc, of the ,HNlium- in short. of puhlic life--who, up until then, could be gazed at and admired only from afar." Gisela freund , " Entwicklung der Photo~raphie in Frankreich" [manuscript]. oExhibitions 0 [Yla,4J

\l\brthy of mention in the history of photography is the fact that the same Arago who made the famous cxpen repon in favor of photography submitted, in that same year (?), 1838, an unfavorable repon on the railroad construction planned by the govenunent: "In 1838, when the government sent them the bill autho­rizing construction of railroad lines from Paris to Belgium, to Ie Havre, and to Bordeaux, the parlianlentary reponer Arago recommended rejection, and his reconunendation was approved by a VOte of 160 to 90. Among other arguments, it Was claimed that the difference in temperature at the entrance and exit of the tunnels would bring on mortal chills and fevers." Dubech and d 'Espezel, His/oire de Pans (Paru, 1926), p. 386. [Y1>,5]

Some successful stage pl ays from midcentury: Dennery, La Nou.!rage <Ship· wreck) de La Perowe (1859), Le Tremblement de terre de Martinique (1843), Le, Bohemiens de Paris (1843); Louis Fran\".ois Clairville, Le, Sepf ChiiteUlu du di· abfe (1844), Les Pommel de terre maf(lde! (1845), RotllOmago (1862), CendriUon <Cinderella ) (1866). Ot hen by Duveyricr, Oartois. A Kaspar Hower by Den­nery?! (Y la,6J

i ' 'The most fa nt astic creations of fairyland are nea r to heing reaLiillw berore our \·ery eyes .. .. Each day our factories lu rn 0 111 wolltlers liS great as those produced by Doctor Faustus Witll his hook of magic." Eugene Buret , De 10 Misere del classel laborieu$es ell f"rtlll ce et en Angieterre (Paris, 1840), vol. 2, pp . 161- 162 . [Y2, IJ

From Nadar's splendid description of his photographic work in the Paris cata· combs: "With each new camera serup, we had to test our exposure time empiri· cally; certain of the plates were found to require up to eighteen minutes.­Remember, we were still, at that time, using collodion emulsion on glass nega' tives.... I had judged it advisable to animate some or these scenes by the use of a human figure- less from cons iderations of picturesqueness than in order to give a sense of scale, a precaution too often neglected by explorers in this medium and with sometimes disconcerting consequences. For these eighteen minutes of

1 exposure time, I found it difficult to obtain from a human being the absolute, tion Bud , on the other hand . hy two COll ijccutive bad harvests, ill 1846 and 1847 inorganic immobility I required. I tried to get round this difficulty by means of Once again the city or Paris•... as far oul a~ the faubourg Saint-Antoine. was tOrt

..

mannequins, which I dressed in workman's clothes and positioned in the scene with as little awkwardness as possible; this business did nothing to complicate our task .... This nasty ordeal o f photographing in the sewers and catacombs, it must be said , Iaste:d no less than three consecutive months.... Altogether, I brought hack a hundred negatives .... I made haste to offer the first hundred prints to the collections of the City of Paris put together by the eminent engineer of our subterranean constructions, M. Belgrand." Nadar, Qyand j'ilau photo­go-aph, (Paris <1900.), pp. 127-129.' (Y' ,']

Photography by a rtificial light with the aid of Bunsen element8. '" then had an

experienced electrician install , on a solid part of my balcony overlooking the Bouleva rd dcs Ca pllcine •• the fifty medium-sized elemenls I ' d been hoping for and which proved sufflcienl.... T he regular relurn, each evening, of thifl light (flO

liliJe utilized al lhal time ( 1860-1861» arresled Ihe crowd on the boulevard and.

drawn like moths 10 the fl ame. a good lIIany of the curious--both the fri endly and the indifferent--came to climb up the stairs to our studio to flOd oul what wa.

going on therc. Thcsc visitors (some weD known or evcn famous) r epresented every social class; they werc the more welcome insofar as they furnished U8 with a free supply of models. va riously disl)Osed toward the novel experience. It was thus that

I ma naged to photograph . during these evening affairs, Niepce de Saint­Victor•... Gustave Dore, ... the finallciers E. Pereire, Mires, Halphen, and

nlany others." Nadar, QU(Hldj'elais pholOgraphe (Paris), pp. 113, 11~11 6.

(Y',3]

At the end of the grand prOSIH!dus Nadar offers on the state of the sciencel: " Here we a re, well beyond even the admira ble assessment of l' our croy, at the hour su­preme when the genius of the nation . in mortal danger, calls for discoverieA."

Nad ar. Quand j'erais photographe. p. 3. [Y2.4j

Nadar reproduces the Balzaoan theory of the daguerreotype, which in tum

derives from the Oemocritean theory of the ddola. (Nadar seems to be unac­quainted with the latter; he never mentions it.) Gautier and Nerval would have

confomled to Balzac's opinion. "but even while speaking of specters, both of them ... were among the very first to pass before our lens." Nadar. Qyandj'itaiJ photographe, p. 8. <Compare Y8a,!.> [y2a,l j

From whom does the cOllception of p rogress ultimately stem? From Condorcet? At any rate, by the end of the eighteenth cenntry it does not yet appear to have taken very firm root. In thc course of his eristic, among various suggestions for

disposing of an adversary, H erault de SCchelles includes the followi.n~: "~a~ him astray through questions of moral freedom and progress to the Infinite. Herault dc $echetles, Thion·e de l'ambih·on (<Paris,> 1927), p. 132. [y2a,2j

1848: "Tile revolution ... a r08e in the midst or a very severe economic crisis, provoked , on the one hand . by the speculatioll.s occasione<:1 by railroad con, truC""

by hunger riots. II A. Malet aud P. Grillct, XIX' Siecle (Paris. 1919). p. 245.

[Y2a,3

Declaration regarding Ludovie Ha lcvy: " You may attack me on an y grounds yo~ like-hut photography. no, that is sacred ." J ean Loi1:e . " Emile lola photogra. phe;' Aru er meticr$ graphitlllcs , 45 (Jo'chrllary 15, 1935) <j). 35>. [y2a,4:

"Whoever, at some point in hil lire. has had the chance to slip his head under tht magic mantie of the photogra pher, anti has peered into the camer a so as to calcb sight of Ihat extraordinary minia ture reproduction or the natural image--such , person will necenariJy ... have asked himself what is likely to come of our modern

painting once I)hotogral'hy has succt.wed in fixing colors on its plates as well al rorms." Walter Cr ane, "Nachahmullg und Ausdruck in der KUlIst ," <t rans. Olt~

Wittich ,> Die neue Zeit , 14. 110. 1 (St ultga rt < 1895-1896», p . 423. (Y2a,S: ,

The eETon to launch a systematic confrontation between art and photograph) was destined to founder at the ou tset. It could only have been a moment in (thel

confrontation between an and technology-a confrontation brought about by history. [y2a,6]

The passage 0 11 photography from Lemercier's La.mpelie et Daguerre:

Al, menaced hy Ihe hirdcalcher's pi ti lenneUl, The meadowlark. rouaing the mUIIH or morning. t-luUere and roolishly come. 10 alighl on a

\ Lark-mirror, r~fof ila dalliances, So LamllClie'l (_ sunlight'l) flight ilClll ahort By the chemical 8nal"1') of Oagl.lerre. The race ola cryslal. conve" or conca'·e. Will reduce or enlarge every object it markB. It. fine , lucid rays, through Ihe depth! ol lhe tral" Calch the afl>ecl of place, in rapid inllCriplion: The image impri&Oned wilhin the gla88 plate. PreiiCrved from alllhrealening I'onlacl, Retainll its hrightlire: and certain rell erlion~

Break through 10 Ihe most distanl 81,ho:: r<'lI.

Ncpomucene Lclllcrcicr. Sur /(1 Decouverfe de / 'i"Berlieux peilltre rlu diorama [Annuli l Puhlic Scuion or thc Fi vc Acatlcmics, Thursda y, Ma y 2, 1839 (Pa ris. 1839). PI'. 30-3 1]. <CompilreQ31l.I. ) [Y3,1]

"Photography ... was first adopted with.in the dominant social class ... : manu· facturers, factory owners and bankers, statesmcn, men of letters, and scientists." Gise1a Freund, "La Photographie au poim de vue sociologique" (manuscript, p. 32).ls this accurate? Shouldn't the sequellce be reversed? [Y3.2]

Among the inventions that predate photography one should mention. in particu­ lographie au point lie vue sociologi1lue" (ma nuscript . p . 39). in reference to Victor lar, the lithograph (in~nted in 1805 by Alois Senefelder and introduced into fOUII'II~ . Niepce: lAI V4'l rite .!IIr f'i,'I14'l lllivfl (Ie lu piloto8 rO I)I, ie (Ch:l.lons 811r Saone.

} France some years later by Philippe de Lasteyrie) and the physionoO'ace, which, for its part, represents a mechanization of the process of cutting silhouettes. "Gill~ Louis Chretien, ... in 1786, ... successfully invented an apparatus which

.. ... combined twO different modes of making portraits: that of the silhouette and that of the engraving .... The physionob'ace was based on the well-known prin­ciple o f the pantograph. A system of paralldograms was articulated in such a way as to be capable of transfer to a horizontal plane. With the aid of a dry stylus, the operator traces the contours of a drawing. An inked stylus traces the lines of the first stylus, and reproduces the drawing on a scale detennined by the relative position of the two styluses." Gisela Freund, "La Photographic: au point de VUe

sociologique" (manuscript, pp. 19-20). The apparatus was equipped with a viewfinder. Life-size reproductions could be obuined. (V3,3]

The reproduction time with the physionotrace was one minute fOT nonnal sil­houettes, three minutes for colored ones. It is characteristic that the beginnings of the technologizing of the portrait, as instanced in this apparatus, set back the art

of the portrait qualitatively as much as photography later advanced it. "One can see, on examining the quite enormous body of work produced with the physionOtrace, that the portraits all have the same expression: stiff, schematic, and featureless .... A1though the appararus reproduced the contours of the face with mathematical exaetirude, this resemblance remained expressionless becawe it had not been realized by an artist.n Gisela Freund, "La Photographie au point ­de vue sociologiquen (manuscript, p. 25). It would have to be shown here: just why this primitive apparatus, in contrast to the camera, excluded "artistry.n

[Y3a.l]

" In Marseilles, arou nd 1850, there were at most four or five paintera of mini­atures, of whom two, perhal)S, h ad gained a certain reputation by exeeuting fifty

portraits in the coune of a year. The3e artists earned just enough to make a living . .. . A few years later, there were fort y to firt y pbotographera in Mar­seilles .. .. They each produced , on the average, between 1.000 and 1,200 platee l>er year, which they sold for 15 francs apieee; this made for yearly r eceiptl of

18,000 francs. so thut , together. they constituted a n industry ea rning nearly a million . And Ihis same development can be seen in all the major cities or France." Gisela Freund . "La Photographic au point de vue sociologi,«ue t> (manuscript , pp . 15--16), citing Vidal. Memoire ele fa seance elu 15 nouembre 1868 de fa Societe SlcIlislique de Marseille. Rt!produced in I.he Bulletin de fa Soc~le fraru~aise de

Photographie (1871), PP ' 37,38, 40. . [y3a,2]

0 11 the iuterlinking of technological in ventions: " Wllen he wa nted to experiment willi Ihhogt"aJlh y, Nicpce. who lived in the COllntry, ra n into the greatest difficultiell ill procur ing the neceUDry stones. It was then that he got the idea of replacing tbe Siones wit.h Ii metal plale and the crayon wilh sunlight ." Gisela Freund . " La Pho­

1867). [Y3a.3]

fo llowing Arago 's n 'port to the Chamber: " A rew hours luter, opticia ns' shops wcrt' besicg('li ; then' wc,·c lIot enough lellses, nol c llough camcra obscuras to sat­

isfr the zca l or so lIIu ny cagcr amateurs. They watched wil h regnltful eye the ~el t i ng sun on the horizon , a~ it carried away the raw ma tcnal or the experiment . But 011 the IIlOrrow, ,luring the first hours of the day. a great number of these t'xpcrimcntcrs could be seell a t their windows, striving, with all sorts of anxious

pret:a ut ioll ll. to ca pture on a prepared plate the image of a dormer-window oppo­site. or the view of II group of chimneys." Louis i'\guier, L(I P/lOt08 r(lpliie: Exposi­tio1l et II istoire des prillcipedes e/ecolI l/crleS scielllifjques m()(lemes (Paris, 185 1);

ci ted, without pagt' rererence, by Gisela Frcund (ma nuscript , p . 46). [Y4,1]

In 1840, Mau risset published a ca ricature of photogra phy. [y4,']

" In the area of portraiture. II conceru wilh ' si tu ation ' and the ' position' of a man .

a cOllcern that demands from the artis t the representation of a 'social condition' ali(I all 'altitude,' can be satis fi ed . in the end . only with a full-length portrait. "

Wilhelm Wii t7.old , Die KIIII.!t des Portriits (Leipzig, 1908), p . 186; cited in Gisela Freund (manuscr ipt , p . 105). [Y4,3]

,

Photography in the age of Disderi: "The characteristic accessories o f a photo­graphic studio in 1865 are the pillar, the curtain, and the pedestal table. Posed there. leaning, seated, or standing up, is the subject to be photographed : full­length, half-length, or bust. The background is filled , according to the social rank of the mood, with other paraphernalia, symbolic and picruresque.n Further on comes a very characteristic extraCt (without page reference) from !:Art tk la pnotograpnie (Paris, 1862), by Disderi, who says, among other things : "In making a portrait, it is not a question only ... of reproducing, with a mathematical

t' accuracy, the forms and proportions of the individual; it is necessary also, and above all, to grasp and represent, while justifying and embellishing, ... the inten­tions of nature toward this individual." Gisela Freund, "La Photographie au point de vue sociologique" (manuscript, pp. 106, 108).- The pillars : emblem of a "well:rounded education." 0 HaussmannizatiOIl 0 [Y4,4]

Ciscla FrCUlld (manuscript . p p . 11 6-- 11 7) provide~ the rollowing citatiun from Dis­Iltri"s L 'Art ell' ICl I)llOtogmphie: "Could 1I0tthe p hotogr apher who was a master of all Ihe t' f£t!c ts of lighting, who IHld at his disposal II large a ud jJerfectly t!(luipped slI l,lio wit h !Jlillde l'~ 1I1111,·t!AeClors, who WU 8 providell will i backdrops of 11 11 kimls, ...·it l. setl.ings; prOI)Crtieil, coSlumes-coul,1 he not. gh'en intelligent a nd ilkiUfully dressed models, compose tabfe(llu ele genre, his torica l ilcenes? Could he not aspire to SClllimCllt . like Scheffer, or 10 style. like I.ngres? Could lie not treat of history,

1 like Paul Dela roche in his I)ainting The Death af the Due de Glli"e?" At the wOrld "Slea m"-"Last word of him who died on the Cross!" MaJUme Du Camp, Les exhibition of 1855, I.here were 80me photogr aphs oflhis ' ort produced in England . ChtIDt. moderne, (Paris, 1855). p. 260 (" La Va lM: Ur" ). [y5,"]

(Y4a,l]

.. The paintings ~r Oelacroix .escape the compe~tion with photography, not only because of the unpact of thelJ" colors, but also (m those days, there was no instant photography) because of the stanny agitation of their subject matter. And so a benevolent interest in pho tography was possible for him. (y4a,2j

What makes the first photographs so incomparable is perhaps this: that they present the earliest image of the encounter of machine and man. {y4a,3]

Onc of the-often unspoken-objections to photography: that it is impossible for the human countenance to be apprehended by a machine. This the sentiment of Delacroix in particular. (Y4a,4]

" Yvon, ... pupil of Delaroche, ... decided, one day, 10 reproduce the Batde 01 Solfenno.... Accompanied by the photographer Binon , he goes to the TuiJerie.,

gets the emperor to strike the right sort of pose, has him turn his head , and bathe. everything in the light he wishes 10 reproduce. The painting that r etulted in the

end was acclaimed under the title The Emperor in a Kepi." Following thill , a courtroom hattie between the painter and Bisson , who h ad put his photo on the market . He is convicted . Gisela Freund , " La Photographie au point de vue eoci­

ologique" (manuscript , p . 152). [yb,S] -Passing by the house of Disderi , Nal)Oleon III halts a regiment he is leawnr; down the boulevard , goes upstairs, and has himself photographed . [Y4a,6j

\

In his capacity as pre5ident of the Societe des Gens d e Lett res, Bab-ac propoeed that aU of the works of the twelve greatesl living French authors should automat­

ically be bou ght by the state . (Compa re Daguerre.) [Y4a,7]

" At the Cafe Hamelin , ... some photographers and nighl owls." Alfred Delvau , Les Ileure, parisienne, (Paris , 1866), p . 184 ("Une Heure du matin"). [yS,l j

On Nepomucene Lcmercier : "The man who spoke t.his pedantic, absurd , and bom­baslic idiom certainly never understood the age in which he lived ... . Could any­one have Iione a heller job of distorting COlltempora r y events with the aid of OUlmoded images alld expressions?" Alfred Michiels, lIisloire rle. idees litleraireJ en France au XIX' sieck (Paris, 1863). vol. 2, pp . 36-37. . [yS,2J

On the rise of p ho tography.-Communications teclmology reduces the informa' tional merits of painting. At the same time, a new reality unfolds, in the face of which no on e can take responsibility fo r personal decis ions. O ne appeals to the lens . Painting, fo r its part, b egins to emphasize color. [y5,3]

III " La ValM:Ur," part 3, 011 Camp celehrates s leam, chloroform , electricity, gas , photography. Maxime Ou Camp, Le. Chants mooerne. (Paris, 1855), pp . 265­272. " La Fa ub:" <The Scythe> celebrates the reaper. (Y5,5)

The firs t 1","0 stallzas , and the fourth , from "La S obine" <T he Bobbin ):

N~ar thfl cascadi llfl ri"flr'­Each of ill b",akwatert A lwirling ",lay Iladon-In Ihe midst of green mfladow., And Ihfl f10Wfl ring alfalfa. ThflY havfl raillfld up my Iialact':­

My palace of a thoun nd windowi. My palace of ll1stic vin" Which climb to thfl rooft opl. My Iialace wherfl, without r fll)QlIfl . Thfl nimble wheel booml oul ils lOng, Thfl wheel of rackety voicfl!

Lib thOifl vigilanl fllvfla of Norway Who waltz acl"OSll thfllnow. To escape Ihfl Bpril fl thai . tal.k.. thflm, I turn , Ilurn, I turn! Through the hou l"ll of day, nflver reding, Ilurn. and Ilurn Ihrough Ihfl nighl!

Maxime Ou Camp. Les Chant. mo<lerne. (Paris, 1855), pp. 285-286. [Y5,' 1

UL.a Ux:omotive": " One day I shaU be named a sainI. " Maxime Du Camp , Le, Churus modernes (P aris, 1855), p . 301. This poem, like others, from the cycle " Chants de 10 matiere." [Y5,7J

"'T he press, Ihal immense and sacred locomolive of p rogress." Victor Hugo , speech at Ihe bll lliluel of September 16, 1862 , organized by the publishers of Le. Milerables in Brussels. Cited in Georges Batauh . Le Poruife de la demugogie: Viclor.//llg o (Pa ris. 1934), p . 131. [y5,8)

It is a cCll lllr)' Ihal dOfl' u. honur, Tho: co: nlury of im'enlions; Ullforlull ilidy. it iSlllso Thfl century of rflvolulion •.

. Louis) Cluirville IIl1d Jules Cordier. Le Po/nis (Ie Cr is lclt. Oil Le. P(l r isielis (I Lomlres. Thilh re de la Porle Saini -Ma rlin, May 26, 1851 (Paris, 185 1), p . 31.

(Y5a, I )

the other hand, Fournel condemns the conventional poses that relied on props such as Disderi had introduced. [y5a,4]

J ..

Self-portrait by Nadar. Counesy of the]. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angdes. See Y5a,5.

A locomoth'e pulling "severa) elegant coaches" ap"cuTI on the s tage. Clalrvi1le lite elder and DclHlollf, 1837 ullxc,,!en . T heatre tlu Luxembourg, Decembe r 30. 1837 (Paris, 1838) <po 16), [y5a,2]

To be demonstrated: the influence of lithography on the literary genre of pano­r.unas. What, in the case of the lithograph, is perfunctory individual charac­terization often becomes, with the writer, equally perfunctory generalization.

[y5a,3]

FOurnel, in 1858 ("Ce qu'oll vail dans les rues de Paris") , reproaches th~ da­guerreotype for being unable to embellish. Disden is waiting in the wings. On '

Without indicating his source. Delvau cites this description of Nadar', 8IJI>ear­

alice: " His hair has the reddish glow of a setting sun ; itll reflection spreads acron his face, where bouquets of curly and contentious locks spill this way and that, unruly a8 fireworks. Extremely dilated, the eyeball raUl, testifying to a truly un­appeasable curiosity and a perpetual astonishment. The voice is strident ; the VilUres are those of a Nuremberg doll with a fever." Alfred Delvau , Le, LWru du jour (Paris, I867), p. 219. [YSa,S]

Nadar, speaking of himself: "A born rebel wbere all bondage is concerned, impa­tient of all proprieties, having never been able to answer a letter within two years, an outlaw in all houses where you cannot put your feet up before the fire , and finaUY--80 that nothing should be lacking, not even a la8t phY8ical defect, to complete the mea8ure of all theR amiable qualities and win him more good friend&-nearsighted to the point of blindnelS and consequently liable to the m08t in8u1tiog amnesia in the pretence of any face which he has not seen more than twenty-five time. at a di8lance of fifteen centimeters from his nose." Cited in Al­fred Delvau, Le. Liow dujour (Paris, 1867), p. 222. [YSa,6]

InventioDl from around 1848: matches, 8tearin candle., 8teel pen •. [YSa,7]

Invention oCthe mechanical prel' in 1814. It was fiNt utilized by the TIme•. [Y5.,.]

Nadar'8 self-characterization: "Formerly a maker of caricatures ... , u1timately a refugee in the Botany Bay of photography." Cited in Alfred Delvau , Les LWnI du jour (Paris, 1867) , p. 220. [Y6,l ]

On Nadar: " What will remain , one day, of the author of Le lI1iroir aux aloueue8 <Lark-Mirror>, of La Robe de Dejanire, of Quand j'etau euulianl? I do not know. What I do know is that , on a cyclopean pile on the i81and of Gozo, a Polish poet, Czeslaw Karski , has engraved in Arabic, but with Latin letters, 'Nadar of the fi ery locka palSed in the air above thi8 tower, ' ami that the inhabitanta of the i81and very likely still have not lefl off worshiping him a. an unknown Cod. " Alfred Delvau , Le5 Liow dujour (Paris, 1867) , pp. 223-224. [Y6,2]

Genre photography: the sculptor Callimachus, on viewillg a ll acanthus pla nt, in­

Vents the Corinthian capital.- .u..'Onardo paints the MOlla Lisa.-La Cloire el k POt uuf~ (Clary and Beef Stew). Cabinet des Estampes, Kc l64a , J . {Y6,3]

An Eliglish etching of J775, a genre Icene, I howl an arti81 ma king a silhouette of <her> model by following the shadow which the lalter CHstl 0 11 the wall. It is elltitled The Origin ofPaintifllJ. .C.binet des E8Iampes, Kc l64a , l . [Y6,4J

1 qui.n=:d of the images forming the material for this stereoscope would correspond more readily to photography than to painting. [Y6.5}

The apparent affinity between Wiertz and Edgar Qvinet needs to be studied. {y·,·1

'"The lens is a n instrument like the pencil or the brush. and photography il a .. process like drawing or engraving; for what the artist creates is the emotion aDd

NADAR. ' I".nl I. Pholograpl\I, aIa Qul,ur de I'M i

Nadar in his balloon. Lithograph by HonoR: Daumicr, 1862. 11K caption reads: "Nadar raising photography to the level of an." See Y6,2.

There is a certain relation between the in~ntion of photography and the inven­tion of the mirror-stereoscope by Wheatstone in 1838. "It displays twO different images of the same object : to the right eye, an image representing the object in perspective as it would be seen from the viewpoint aCthe right eye; to the left eye, an image of the object as it would appear to the left eye. nus gives rise to the illusion that we have .. _before us a three..wmensional objea" (Egon Friedell, Kulturgeu hi€hte tkr N nluil, vol. 3 [Munich, 1931], p. 139). The exactness re­

~ Origin ofPaillling. Elching by an EngI.ish artist, Ins. Counesy of the Bibliothequc Nationale de France. See Y6,4.

1I0t the pfoceu. Whoever POUC88C8 1Iul llt.,t:eunry skills ami ha ppy inspi.ration will. he able to ohtain tin: same effccu (rom all y one of these meaus of rt!production." Loui!) Figuier. La "J.% gr(lphie (Ill S(llo1l de 1859 (I"uris . 1860), PI) ' 4-5. (Y6,71

" M. Quinci ... seemed to wunt to introduce into poetry the 80rt of gcnre thai the

English painte r dolm ) Martin inuugufnlcd in art .. . . The poet ... did not

shrink from lun.' ing tile catllt!tlrals kllt.'C1 Lefore the seplllcilcr of Our Lonl, andI..

shuwing the 10 WIIII abllorbed in com.bing out upon t.heir shuulders, ",ilh a comb of

gold , their trease, of blond colullllls, while the lower!! ,la ncet! a s trange roundelay

",·jlh the mountains." Alfred 'ettemcnl , Hi$IOire de 10 litterulure!rUlu;aue lOW Ie gouvernemellt cle )uiJIe t (Paris, 1859), vol. I , p. 13 1. [y6a,I] .

" At the world exhibitioll of 1855, photography, despite it ~ lively claims, could gain

110 entry into the 8anctuary of the hall 011 the Avenue Montaigne; it was condemned

to leek a8ylum in the inunense bazaar of auortet! proouct8 that filled the Palai8 de

l ' lndustrie. In 1859, under ,;:rowing prell8Ure, the museum committee .. . ac­

corded a place in the Palais de 1'I11dustrie for the exhihition of photography; the

e",hihitioll s ite was on a level with thai made available 10 paintillg and engravin,;:,

bUI it had a separate entrance anti was sct , 80 10 speak , in a tlifferent key." Louis

Figuier, Lv. PllOtogrullhie Ull Sulon de 1859 (Paris , 1860), p. 2. [Y6a,2)

" A 8killful pholographer always has a dis tinctive style, jusl like a draftsmaD or a

painter ; ... and , what ', more, ... the d istinctive cha racter of the artistic spirit of

each nalion is clearly r evealed ... in t.he works produced in different COUD-

tries .... A French photographer could never be COllfU8(:d .. . with one of hie colleagues from acron the Channel." Louis Figuier, Lu PllOtogniphie au Salon de 1859 (Paris, 1860), p . 5. [Y6a,3]

The beginnings of photomontage come out of the attempt to ensure that images of the landscape retain a painterly charaCter. "M. Silvy has an excellent system for producing his pictures.... Instead of inlposing, on all his landscapes indiffer­ently, one and tile same sky fonned from a unifonn negative, he takes the trouble, wherever possible, of separately enhancing, one aftcr the other, the view of the landscape and that of the sky which crowns it. Here resides one of the se~ts of M. Silvy." Louis Figuier, La Photographie au Salon de 1859 (Paris, 1860), p. 9. [Y6.,4)

It is significant tllat Figuier's bookJet 011 tllC Salon of Photography of 1859 begins with a review of landscape photography. [Y6a,5)

Al the Sa lon llc PllOlographie of HI5!) . Ilumerous " voyagl·s'·: 10 Egypl. to J erusa­

lem. 10 Gn:-ece, lu Spain . In his aceuunt, Fib'1 lie r ob!icn'e>I: " Ha nlly had ti,e IJrlu:·

lil.:al pn.. ·.·"".·" .. f pholugraphy 011 (Japer eome to he ulllierstoot! than a whole hand of op/·rators rushell for th ... in :,11 directions, 10 bring 11 8 baek \·iew" of 1II0nu­mcnts, bllildhlg>l. "1I.I I·lliIiS tllkcn in 1111 kllOWIi lalltls of Ille world ." Hence the lIew

voyage, pho,ogropltique,. Louis Figuier . La Pholograpllie au Salon de 1859,

p.35. [Y6a,6)

Among the work, of r eproollc tion to which Figuier give, ' I)eeial attention , in his

Photogropllie (III Salon, are the reproduction of the Raphael cartoon from H amp­

IOn Court-"tlte work ... tbat dominates the enlire photographic exhibition of

1859" (p. 5 1 }--and that of a manll8cript of Ptolemy', GeoSrophy dating from the

fourteenth cenlury and kept , althal time, in the monastery of Mount Alhos.

[Y7,1)

There were porlraits specifically dcsiglled to be vie",,·ed through the 81ereoscope.

Tltis fa shion was current in England , above all. [Y7,2)

Figuier (pp. 77- 78) does Ilot omit to mention the possibility that " microscopic

photogra phs" couJd be used ill time of war to transmit secr et messages (in the fonn

of nt.in.iature telegrams). [y7,3J

t'One tbing ... made clear by a carefuJ inspection of the exhibition . . is the

present perfection ... of the positive proof. Five or six years ago, pholography

was almost exclusively concerned with the negative, ... and it was rare indeed

that anyone gave thought to Ihe utility of printing from a positive image." Louis

Figuier, La Pholos raphie au Salon de 1859 (Paris, 1860), p . 83. [Y7,4]

Symptom, it would seem, of a profound displacement: painting must submit to being measured by the standard of photography: "W: will be in agn=ement with the public in admiring ... the fme artist who ... has appeared this year with a painting capable of holding its own, in point of delicacy, with daguerrian prints." 1his assessment of Meissonnier is from Auguste Galimard, Exmnm du Salon de 1849 (Paris <1850.), p. 95. [Y7,5)

" Photograph y ill ver se"--tYllonym for a description in verse. Edouard Fournier,

Chroniques et lCgendes des rue, de Pllris (Paris, 1864), pp. 14-15. [Y7,6]

' 'The world's first movie tbeater opcned 011 DecemJ)er 28, 1895, in the basement of

the Grant! Cafe, 14 Boulevard des Ca pucines, in Paris. And Ihe first receipts for a

hrand of spt!c tacle IIiat would later net billions amounted to the considerable , urn

of Ih.irty-fiv e francs!" Holand Villiers. 1.£ Cinemu ct sc, merveilk, (Paris ( 1930», pp.I8-19. [Y7,7]

"1'h e year 1882 mll~ t be mentioned as a turlling poinl ill tile history of pholO­

gra pllic reportage. It was the year ill which the photographer OUomar AnschUtz,

from Les:mo in Poland , ilweuled Ihe focal-plane , hUller IIl1d thus made lH>u ihle truly instantaneOIlS photography." EllrOI)iiische I)okumem e: f1istorisclle Photos Q" /q den JlIhren 18" 0- 1900, ed . Wolfguug Schu{le (Stuttgart. Berlin , Leipzig),

.~ [y~

1 The first photographic inte r view was conducte,1 by Nmiar wilh the nine ty-seveD_

year-old French chemist ChcvrcuL ill 1886. Europiiilcile Do/':lI/lIlllltc: Historilche

PliOt05 (,IllS den }oliren /8" 0- / 900, e(1. Wolfgang Schade (Stuttgart , Berlin,

Leipzig), p. 8-9..' [Y7,9}

" The first cxpcrilllcni to la ullch research into scienlificll ll y produced motion ...

was that of Doctor Pares in 1825. The details are well known: on one side of II small .. slluare of carllhoard , he had drawn II cage, alltl on the other side, II bird ; by turning the piece of cardboard briskly 011 8 11 IIJ(is , .. . lit: caused the Iwo images to apl)ear in succession, yet the bird seellled to be in the cage, just as though there

hali been only olle dra....ing. This phenomenon , which in itself is the basis of aU cinema , depelld s on the principle of the persistence of retinal impressions.... ~ Once this principle is admitted , it is easy to understalltl that a movement decom~

posed , and presented in a rhythm of ten images or more per second , is perceived

by the eye as a perfectly continuous movement. The first apparatus that actually

.... rought the miracle of artificial motion is the Phenakistiscope, constructed by tbe

Belgian physician P lateau as early as 1833. Still known today as an optical toy,

this apparatus ... consilS ted of a disk on ....hich were mounted drawings repre­

senting the successive phases of an action , which c'ould be observed as the disk was

rotated .... There ... is an obvious relation here to the animated cartoons of

toda y.... Researchers quickly saw ... the interest in having ... a succession of

photographs substituted for the drawillgs . Unfortlluately, ... only images running

a t the minimum speed of a tenth of a secolld could work ....ith such a design. For

this, we had to a ....ait the gela tinobromide plates that permitted the first instanta­

neous exposurC1l. It was astronomy t hat initially provided an occasion for testing

chronophotography. On December 8 , 1874, thanks to the passage of the planet

Venus past the Sllll , the as trouomer <Pierre> Janssen ....as able to tryout his

invention of a photographic revolver, ....hich took a picture every seventy sec­

onds.... But the process of chronophotography was soon to become much more

r apid.... It was . .. wheu Professor Marcy entered the lists ....ith his photographic

r ifle ... that the result of t ....elve images per secolld was obtained .... All these

e)(perimenls were, up to theil , purely scientifiC (!) in character. The researchers

who conducted them ... saw iu chronophotogra phy a simple ' means for analy:llng

the movemellts of humans and animals.' ... At this point , in 1891 , ....e meet with

... Edison , ....ho had constructed two devices. One, the Kinetograph , was for

recording; the other, the Kinetoscope, was for projection.. .. Meanwhile, in 1891,

Mal'cy's collabo l'alOr, <Georges> l)emeny. had built a machine that allo....ed for the

reconling of pictures aud sound at the same time . His Phonoscope . . ..... as the first

talkie. " Uoland VilLicrs , Le Cine rrl(l et s e.~ merlleWes (Paris < 1930», pp . 9--16

(" Petite lIi ~toire tlu l;inclllll"). [Y7a,l )

"Lei li S ta ke as a ll cxample of tedlllic ll i progress , which act ually is regrcss , the p.,rfl,.'Ction of photogra phic d eviccs. They lire much 11101',· scnsi tive In light than the

old IIO)(e8 with which dabruerreotypcs were pro,lu eed. One hanll )" need COlicerll one~cLf ahout lighting whcll opcratiug them now. They have a 111III111c r of olher

advantages 10 boot , especially where pholographing fa ces is concerned, a lthough the portraits which one makes with them are douhtless much poorer than before. With the older, less light-sensitive apparatus, multiple expressions would appear

on the plate. which was exposed for rather long periods of tjme; heuce, on the final

image there would be a livelier and more universal exp ression , alld this had ilS

fun ction as well. Nevertheless, it would 1110st certainly be false to r egard the new

(tevices as ....o r se than the older ones . Perhaps something is missing from them

which tomorrow will be found , and one can a lways do other things with them

besides photogra phing faces. Yet what of the faces? The newer devices no longer

work to compose the faces-but must faces be composed? Perhaps for these d e­

vices there is a photographic method which would decompose faces. But we can he

quite slIre of nevcr finding this possibility realized .......ithout first having a new

fllnction for such photography." Brecht , Ver,mche <8-10 (Berlin , 1931) >, p . 280

("Der Dreigroschenproze6" <The Threepenny La....suit». [Y8,1)

The Bisson brothers, on the occasion of the visit by Napoleon III to their photo­

graphic studio on December 29, 1856-a visit which they say coincided with the

eleventh anniversary of the opening of their business-published in pamphlet

form a poem entitJed, " Souvenir de la visite de Leurs Majestcs l'Empereur e t

I'Impcratrice aux magasius de Messieurs Bisson freres." The pamphle t comprises

four pages. The first two pages contain another poem , "La Photographie. " Both

texts are unrelievedly fa tuous. [Y8,2j

" It is ....orth noting that the bette r photographers of our day are Dot concerned to

belabor the question ... : 'Is photography an art?' ... By their aptitude for

c reating the evocative shock , [these photographer s] prove their power of expre8­

sion , and that is their revenge for the skepticism of Daumier." George Besson , La PhologrnphiejraR(iaUe (Pa ris < 1936» , pp. 5-6. (Y8,3)

The famous statement by Wiertz on photography can very likely be elucidated through the following statement by '\Ney (of course, it becomes clear by this that Wiertz's prognosis was mistaken): "In reducing to naught whatever is inferior to it, the heliograph predestines art to new forms of progress ; in recalling the artist to nature, it links him with a source of inspiration whose fecundity is unlimited." Francis '\Ney, "Du Naruralisme dans I'an" [La Lumiere, April 6, 1851 ]; cited in Gisele Freund, La Photographie en Frame au XIX' siecie (paris, 1936), p. Ill .

[yB ,' ]

" If w~ consider only the practical s ide of divillation , thcll to believe that previous

tlVents in a man 's life ... can be directly represented by the carlls he shuffles allli

cuts, al\(I ....hieh arc thcn stacked by the fortuneteller in accordance with some

lllystcrious laws, is to believe the absnrd. But this criterion of absurdity once rulC(1

ou t tile harnessing of stcam; it still rules ont acrial naviga tion ; it ruled out many ill\'Clltions: gunpowder, prilltillg. the te lescope, engrltving, and a lso the mos t re­

Cellt grtlltt discover y of our tjme, the daguerreotype. If anyolle had come and told Napoleon tha t a man or a huildillg is illces~antly, ami at all hour s, represented hy

an image in the atmosphere. that all existing objec:t.s have there a kind of specter which can be capturetl and l.lCrceivetl. he woulll have consigned him to Charenton as a lunatic.... Yet that is wha t Daguerre's discovery proved ." HOllore de Balzac, Le Cousin Pon •• in Oeuvres compMles. vol. 18. La ComMie humlline: Scenes de m vie pflri. ienne, 6 (Paris. 19 14). 1'1" 129-130. " Just as physical oLjec:ts in fact project themselves onto the a tmosphere. so that it retai ns this slH!f: ter which the d aguerreotYlle can fix and capture. in the same way ideas, , , imprint themselvea 0 11 what we must call tile almosphere of the spiritual worlil , . , . a nd live 011 in it speclmlly (one mllst coin words in order to express ullnamed phenomena). Uthat he grunted , certain crcatures cndowed with rare facultie s are lK! rfcctly capable of discerning these forms or IIlese traces of ideas" (ihid .. p, 132), ~ [Y8a, I)

" Degas was the first to a ttempt , in his pictu res, the reprcllenl ation of r apid move­ment such as we get in instanta neous photography," Wladimir Weidle, Le, AbeilleJ d 'Aristee (Paris < 1936), p . 185 ("L'Agonie de I'art"). [Y8a,2)

What a uthor is lleing ciled by MonteS(lIl iou in the following pauage, which is taken from a handwritten text forming part of a richly ornamented volume of memora­bilia shown in a display case allhc Guys exhibitioll, ill Paris, in the spring of 1937?

" And that . in a few hasty words. is how it was: the fi rst exhibition of Constantin Guys-newest surprise 10 be ser ved up to us from his treasure-box of malice by

M. Nadar,6 the famous aerona ut and (should I say?) illustrious photograpber,

Surely. this ingenious spirit . 8tet!IJed in the past, has a right to that title. in iu noblest acceptation , and according to the admirable definition provided by a pow­erful and subtle thinker, in the course of some sublime pages: ' Humanity bas aho

invent~l , in its evening peregrina tions-that is to say. in tlle nineteenth ceDtury­the symbol of memory; it has illvented what had seemed impossible; it has invented a mir ror that remembers, It has invented photography. '" [Y8a,3)

"At no time in the past has art responded to aesthetic exigencies alone, The

Gothic sculptors served God in working for his faithful; the portraitists aimed at verisimilirude ; the peaches and the hares o f a Chardin had their place in the dining room, above the family d umer table, Individual artists in certain cases (and they were few and far between , to be sure) may have suffered from this state of affairs; art as a whole could only profit from it. 1bis is the way it has been lhroughout all the great artistic epochs, In particular, the naive conviction that they were o nly 'copying nature' was as salutary for the painters of those fonu­nate epochs as it was theoretically ul~usti6able , The old Dutch masters looked

upon I.hcmsclves less as anists than as photographers, so to speak; it is only today that the photographer is absolutely determined to pass for an artist. ror­mcrly, an engraving was above all a document, less exact (o n the average) and more anistic than a photograph, but having the same function, fulfilling by and large the same pI<lctica1 role," Together with this importan t insight we have, from tills autllOr, another no less importan t. according to which the photographer is distinguished from the graphic artist no t through the fundamentall y greater rea1­

ism of his works, but through a more highly mechanized technique, which does not necessarily diminish his artistic activity. None of tllls prevents me author from going 0 11 to say: "What is urifortunate [my italic.s] is nOt that today's pho tog· rapher believes himself an artist; what is unfortunate is that he actually has at his disposal certain resources p roper to the an of the painter." WIadimir 'M:idle, Ul Abeilles d'Aristte (Parisl. pp. 181-182, 184 ("I.:Agonie de ran") . Compare

Jochmann on the ep ic poem: "The general interest which such a poem excites, the pride with which an entire people repeats it, its legislative authority over opullons and sentimcnts-all tills is grounded in tile fact that it is nowhere taken as a mere poem." [Carl Gustav J ochmann,] Ober die Sprache (Heidelberg, 1828), p ,271 ("Die Riickschriue der Pocsic"). [Y9.l )

In the lK!riod arOllnd 1815, illustrations are already appearing in advertisements. On July 6 ofthi! yea r. the Societe Generale des Allnonces , which handled publieili for Le Journal de1l di b<lts, Le Con1lfitUjiontlel, and Lt, Preue, publishes a pro­

spectus that says: " We call , , , your attention to the illustrations which , for some years now, a great many businesses have been in the habit of joining to their a nllouncements. The power of captivating the eye hy the form and disposition of

the letters is perhaps less decisive than the ad vantage to he gained by Iilling out an often arid eXIJOsition with drawings and designs," p, Datz . Hi. ,oire de mpublicite, vol. 1 (Paris, 189" ), PI). 21 6-2 17. [Y9,2)

In his " Morale du joujou" <Philosophy of TOyln, Baude.laire mentiOD!, together with the stereoscope. the phenak.istiscope, "The " henakistiscope. which is older, is less well known . Imagine some movement or other-for example, a dancer 's or a

juggler 's performance-divided up and decomposed into a certain number of movements, Imagine that each one of these movemcllts-as lIIany as twenty, if you , wish- is represcntcd by a complete figure of the jugglcr or dancer, and that these are all prinled roulllithe edge of a circular piece of ca rdboard ," Baudelaire then

describes the mirror mcchaniSll1 that enables the viewer to see, in the twenty olK!nings of an ollter circle, twenty lillie figures moving rhythmically in a continu­ous actioll. Baude.laire. L 'Art rOil/antique (Paris). p . 146,: Compare Y7a, 1.

(Y9a,l )

It "'"as the pa ntogrllph . whose principle is ei.IU ally at work in tile physiognotrace. tllal ulidertook to tra nscrihe automatically a linear schcme originally traced 0 11

palK!r ,to a plaster mass . as required by the process of photosculpture. Serving as Illudd in this prOI'CS8 we rc twclit y-folll' simultUIlCOus villws taken from differcnt si( les. Gautier forC8~'S 11 0 tlircatt o sculpture fl'OIIi this prot'esli, ~Ihat ca n prevent the ~c ll iptor from IIr ti.'> t ic lI lly c.nlj,·clling the IIIccllllllica lly pro<luced fi gure and itll ground? " But tItCI'.' is mOI'e: fIJI' all i(.-;; c.xtravllgallce. 11..- ct'ntury remains economi­cal. I~ure art se('IIIS to it something expcnsi,·e. With tlu~ dll.-ekiIlClLiI of a parvenu , it Somc!imes da rcs to haggle o'"cr master....orkll. It is terrified of marhle and h ron:t:e.. , , But pltotosculpture iii lIot so daunting as slat llar y. , , , Pltotosclilptlire is used to morlest proportiolls alld is content with a !Jet of sheh"es for pl.'(lcll tal.

happy 10 l!II ve flljlMull y rcproduccil a he loved counlcnance.... It doell not dis. dllin an uver coat, IIml is 1101 cmbarrasscd by crinolines; it accepl8 natu re and the wurld all they ure. h I sincerit y accommodate/i ever ything, anti though its plaster casts of 8tea rin cun he tra!lsp08cII into marble. inlo terracott a, into alabaster, or into brollze • ... it !lever asks. in return for its work , what it s ehler sis ter would demand in p uymcnt ; it retluesu only the cost of material8." Thw l)hile Gautier " PhotollcuJpture: 42 Boulevard de l' Etoile," <Le MOrliteur Imil/er 8eh (Pari,:

(january 4,> 1864). pp. 10-11. The essay includes . att.he elld , a woodcut witb photosculpturelI, one of which portrays Gautier. [y9a,2)

" He refined the illusiona ry art of the panorama and invented the Iliorama . He joined forces with another paillter. ami 0 11 July II , 1822 , on the Rue de Sall80n ~

Paris ... , he opened an exhibition whose fame lluickly spread .... This inventor and entrepreneur ... was dubbed a knight in the LegiOIl of HOllOI'. Midnight Mau ,

the Temple of Sololllon , Edinburgh in the sini8ter glow of a conflagration, and Napoloon 's Tomb tranllfigured naturally by the aureole of a rOIlY sunset : such are

the wonders that wcre 8hown her c. A transla tor of Daguerre's own account of h.ia two inventions (1839) portrays very nicely the multiplicil y of lighl8 involved , great and slllull . splendid , st.-.: re t , a nd tcrrifying: 'The spectator sits in a small amphl_

theater ; the 8tage St.'ems to him covered Ly a curtain which is still bathed in dark­ness. Gradually, however, this darkne8S yields to a twilight ... : a landscape or

prosl)ect emer gell more clea rly; the dawn is beginning .... Trees stand out from the shadows; the contours of mountains, of hou8es, hc<:ome visible ... ; the day

has hroken . The 811n climbs ever higher ; through the open window of a house one sees a kitchen s tove slowly fl a ming UI), while in a corner of the land8cal)e a g'oup of

ca llipers is ra nged round a cooking pot , under which the campfire is be~ to blaze; a forge hccolllt.'i viswle. iu furnace giving orr sparks as though ... from continuous 8l0killg. After a while, ... the daylight begins to wane, and the reddi,h lusler of the artificial flalll e grows 8tronger ; once again there is ad vancing twitipt, and fili ally nocturnal gloom. Soon , however, the moonlight anerts its rights, and the region is visihle anew in the sofl tinl$ of Ihe illumina ted night : a mariner'.

lallterll fl are8 up on board a ship that is a nchored ill the foreground of a harbor; in the background of an admirable l)ers l~ctive of a church , the candles on the altar

are lighted , allli the previously invisihle parishioner s are now illuminated by the rays streuming down from thc a ltar ; or grief-strickcll men a re s tanding at the edge of u lumlslide, its devustations lit up hy the moon at the ver y spot where, 8hortly

bcfore, the Rumbcrg had formed the background to thc luvel y Swiss llliulscape of Goldau .... Citcil liS "OIH:r'sctzc l" VOII Dagller res Sc!u'ift iiher seinc heillcn Er­findungen ( 1839)," in Dolf Sternhcrger, " ,>as wUllllcr'hurl: Licht : ZUlli 150 Ge­hurts tag Dugucrres," Fn/llkjllrtcr Zeit/wg (2 1), NovemlJCr 1937. (y 1O,IJ

nrc entrance of the temporal factor into the panoramas is brought about through the succession of limes of day (with well-known lighting tricks). In t:his way, thc panorama transcends painting and anticipalcs photography. Olving to its tcclmological fonnalio n, the photograph, in contrast to the painting, can and

rollst be correlated with a well-defined and continuous segment of time (exposure time). In this chronological spccifiability, the political significance of the photo­graph is already contained in nuce. [yIO,2J

-' In these deplorable times, a new industry has developed . which has helped in no slIlall way to confirm foo ls ill their faith and to ruin what vestige of the d ivine might 5till ha \'e remained in the French mind . Of course, this idolatrous multitude was calling for 8n ideal worthy of itself and in keeping with its own nature. In the domain of painting and statuary, tire present-day credo of the worldly-wise ... is tlLis: ' 1 believe ... Ihal a rt is, a nd call only be, the e:-:act r eproduction of na.

lure.... Thus, if all industrial process could gh 'e us a result identical to nature Ihat Yo'ould he abllolute art. ' An avenging God ha8 lreard the prayen of this multi~ tude. Daguerre was his messiah . And then they said to themselves: 'Since photog­

raph)' provides 116 with every desirable guarantee of exactitude' (they believe that , poor madnlcll!), ' art ill photograph y.' From thaI moment onward, our loathsome society rushC(I, like Narcissus, to contemplate its trivial image on the metallic plate. A form of lunacy, an extraordinary fallaticism. took bold of these new

sun.worshippers " Strange ahominaliolls manifested themselves. By bringing to. gelher and posiug a pack uf ra8cals, male and female , dressed up like carnival. time butchers and washerwomen, and in lH! r sllading these ' heroes' to ' hold ' their

improvised grimaces for as IOllg as the photographic process required, people really believed they could represent the tragic and charming seenes of ancient history.... It was 1I0 t long befo re thou8a nds of pairs of greed y eyes were glued to

the peepholes of the stereoscope, a8 though they were the skylights of the infinite. The lo\"e of obscellit y, which is as vigorou8 a growth in the heart of natural man as

self-love, could not let slip such a g1oriOU! 0PIJOrtunity for its own satisfaction ....

[ po 223] ... I am convinced that the badly applied advances of photography-lilr.e all purely material progreu, for that malter-have greatly contributed to the iml)O\'erishmcnt of French a rti81ic genius, already 80 ra re .... Poetry and pro-­

gress are two a mhiliouli men who hate each other with an instinctive hatred and whell they meet along the same road one of them musl give way." Charles B~ude­laire, Oeuvres <ed . le Dantec •• vol. 2 <Paris, 1932>, pp. 222-224 ("Salon de

,. 1859: Le Puhlic moderne et la photograpILie").8 (y10a,1]

Ba.~dclaire speaks, in " QueilluC8 Ca rica turistes fraru,a is" (apropos of Monnier). or tile cruel and surpdsing cha rm (If Ilaguerrt.'Olypes.·' Charles Baudelaire, Oeu­vres, etl. Le Dnlltce, vol. 2. p . 1 97.~ (yIOa,2]

"." octr"y and Ill"ugrC8ll arc two nmhitious nl(~1l who hale euch ot her with an instinc­11\' 1' Ilat . I '" ,rCI . ant w lell I rey 1IIt.>(: t II ong the lIallle ruud , (IIiC of them musl give way. If pholography i$ ullowed 10 8npplellleul a rt in SOIll C of its functions, it will soon have 8uPIJlant ' l ". . ,Ct ur currnpleu It a logd.lier. thullks 10 the stupidit y of tilt: multitude .... Ilidl i , "t , " , - - , ­I >i I ~ natura U y. lIS tUlle. t IC Il , for 1110 rel nr ll 10 its Irue duty which ill to :>e the serva nl of t.he ~ciell ces a lil l urt8-hul Ihe vcry humhle servanl , I;ke printing or shO II " _' - " - " _r la n(, Yo lie I la ve nelt. IeI' Crt:II!CI 1101' ~ lIppleIllCn!ed lilerature" Let it

1 hasten to enrich the 10Urill l ', album and relltore to his eye the precill ion which bia memory may lack : lei it adorn the n a turalist ', library, and enlarge microscopic unimals; lei it evcu provide information to corroborate the astronomer's hypothe_

ses. In short, let it be the secretary aud clerk of whoever need, absolute fa ctual ell&clitude in his pro(el8ion- ul' 10 tha t point nothing could be bette r. Lei it resCUe

from oblivion thOle tumbling ruins, those book" prints . and manuscripts which lime is devouring, precious things whose form ia ditso)ving and which d emand • ... place in the archives of our memory- it will be thanked and applauded . But if it he aUowed to encroach upon the domain of the impalllsble and the imaginary, upon II.llything whose value depends solely upon the addition of something of II man'lloul, then it will be 80 mucb the worse for u.!" Charle. Baudelaire, Oeuvret,

ed . Le Dantec, vol. 2 , p . 224 ("Salon de 1859: Le Public moderne et la pno­tographie"). IO [Yll ,l J

Cocteau'$ LeJ Marib de fa tour EiffiJ Il can perhaps be considered a "critique of the snapshot,n insofar as in this piece the rnro aspects of shock-its technological function in the mechanism and its sterilizing function in the experience-both come intO play. [yll.2J

z-[The Doll, The Automaton1

I was always, among human ~ings , the: only doni with a heart.

-Amalie '.\limer, /I1(111oir(1l riMf &rlin" PIIppe.,for Kindn IID1I 5 bi.! 10 ]o.hrm undfiir Mm Muller (Leipzig. 1852). p. 93

Where, instead of the clock, the eyes indicate the hours.

- Franz Dingdslrol, Ein RI1mIJ.II; citro in AdolfSuodtmann, DicAkr-­profik, vol. I (Stuttgart, 1879). p. I II

"The clever Pari8iennes . ..• in order to disseminate their fa shion8 more ea8ily, made use of an cS J>et!ially cOll8picuous reproduction of their new creations­namely, tailors' dummies .... These doUs, which still enjoyed considerable impor­tance in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, were pven to little prls as playthings when their career as fashion figurines bad elllled ." Karl Crober, Kin­derspielzeug au.! alter Zeit (8erlin , 1927). pp. 3 1-32 . 0 Fashion 0 Advcrti8ing 0

{ZI ,I)

They are the true fairies of these arcades (more salable and more worn than the life-sized ones): the fonnerly ",",orld-famous Parisian dolls, which revolved on their musical socle and bore in their anns a doll-sized basket out of which, at the

t' salutation of the minor chord, a lambkin poked its curious muzzle_ When Hack­lander made use of this "newest invention of industrial luxury" for one of his fairy tales, he too placed the manrelous dolls in the dangerous arcade which sister Tlrlchen, at the behest of the fairy Concordia, has to wander in order finally to rcs~c her poor brothers. "Fearlessly, T mchen stepped across the border into the enchanted land, all the while thinking only of her brothers. At first she noticed nothing unusual, but soon the way led through an enonnous room entirely filled with toys. She saw small booths stocked with everything inlaginable-c.arousds \\ith mini:uure horses and carnages, swings and rocking horses, but above all the IllOSt splendid dollhouses. Around a small covered table, large dolls were silting on easy chairs; and as Tmchen turned her gaze upon them, the largest and most ~autiful of these dolls stood up, made her a gracious bow, and spoke [ 0 her in a little voice of exquisite refinement." The child may not want to hear of lOYS that

arc bewitched, but the evil spell of th is slippery path readily takes the form, even today, of large animated do lls. 0 Advertising 0 [Z I,2]

" Tile fllshion is lIupposed to ha\'c heen in" ented hy Longdullnps. , " 'e not leen an ything new. !Jut tonlOrrow ill their bulletins all the " Friellllly Sprite!!." aU the " Peli.,. Cou rien des Dames:' all the " p"yclles" wiU report on lie"" anire that wal alreally Ile!! iglled 1111(1 availahle before Longcllamps ever ca nlC on the scene. I strongly suspeel Iha t in III l1 n y of Ihe coaches, instead of Ihe lady who woultl seem to be seated inside. there wus olil y a dummy which the owners of Illese fine vehicle. had dressal according to their own taste in shawl!! and satins and silk,." Karl

F• Gut:l:kow. Briefe au" Pllris (Lcip:l: ig, 1842), \'01. I . pp. 119-120. IZI,3]

" From the Ombrc, Chifloisc' <Chinese Shad ows) of the Palais-Royal: "A ... demoiselle gave birt h 0 11 s tage, and the children could immediately scaml>er about

like moles. T here were fou r of them, and they danced togetJler a few nlomenl8 after Ihe b irt h in a plealla llt q uadrille. Another young woman started tou ing her head vigorou~ l y, and ill the twinkling of lin eye a se<:ond dellloiselle had slepped fuUy

clotilc.1 from out of hcr heud. T his laller at once began dancing but, the next minute. was seized ill turn with hcad ·shaking; these wcre labor pains, and a third

demoiselle stepped Ollt of her head. She. too, immediately hegan dancing but sooD look to t os~ing her hcud like the ut hers, ami out of her arose the fourth demoiselle. It continued ill this mUllllcr until eiglll generations were there 011 Ihe 8tage--aU

relatcd 10 one IInother through spontaneous generation. like lice." J . F. Henzen· berg . Briefe gescll rieben (Utj einer Reise nuch P(lriJ (Dortmund , 1805), vol. I. 1' .294. [ZI ,4]

At a certain point in time, the motif of the doll acquires a sociooitica1 sig­nificance. For example: "You have no idea how repulsive these automatons and dolls can become, and how one breathes at last on encountering a full·blooded being in this society." Paul Lindau, Dn' Abend (Berlin, 1896), p. 17. IZl.S]

" III a shop on the Hue Lcgt' IHlre, in Butignolles . a whole ser ies of fema le busts,

wi thout hca ds or legs. wi th curtain hook5 ill pl uee of arms and a percaline skin of arbitrary 11I1t'- lwan hrown , gJuring pink. h urd black- arc lincd up like a row of oniOll8. im puled on rods. or set oul 0 11 tables .. , . T he sight of this ebb title of

hosoms. til is MUSL't: Curtius of brcusts. puts one vaguely in mintl of those vauits in the Louvn' ""ilt're dU8sica i sculptures ure hOllsed , when: Olle autl the sallie torso. etel'nall ), Tl·PI·UtC.!. Iwguilcs lilt! tillle fOI' those who lovk il ovcr. with a yawn , 011

ru ill )' ,1 :IY8 .. .. I-low supl' riul' 10 the {11'cu r y s tlt tues of Vellus II,ey : 1 rt.~lhcse Ilress­III lIkcrs ' m U llll el,u ill ~. with thcir lifelike comportmcnt ; how much lIIore ,irovoea­ti" e Ill e~ I ' plul,lcti hu~ t8. which _ cXIJOst..tJ Ihere. bring 011 a train of rcverie.: lihcl'lille re\"'rics, illspin'd liy cphchk nilJpl,'s alltl s lightly hruiSCl1 hubs: c1.urita­hll: revcries. recallill l!; viII h l·casu. shril'c1C11 with " hloro~ is or "Ioalell with fa t.­Fvr VIl1' thinks or the SOITUWS of wumcn wlm .. , expcriCllct· the growing imlifferClice uf a hu~ l lIuJ{'- or Ihe immincnt {ICiicrt ioll uf u Ju,'cr. or t.he final dill­

armillg of Ihose charms which allowed them once to cOlllluer, in the unavoidable hall ics the)' wage for the c1used -up wa llct or I.he mall ." J ,· K. Huysmans, CrfJquu pMisiens (Paris, J886), I'p. 129, 13 1- 132 (" '" ' Ellage" <Ehb Tide». [Zla,l )

"Not 10llg before tile elld of the Empi re. a ver y special question arose; tbat of the

PUIHl.zzi. People wanted thelle wooden marionettes to perfonn I.e Roi Prudhomme at tht" Theatre des Varietes. The cast of charaClers for this playlet included the

En11}Cror_ Emile Olivier, ... V. I-Iugo•.. , Gambetta•... and Rochefort.... T he piet:e had heell performed in drawing rooms and even in tbe Tuileries. But these private performallt:es did not ill the least prepare for the effe<:l!I of an y public performallce. alld the aut horities refused to allow ... the theater to embark on

thi.!! path ." Victor l-I aUay.-Dabot , La Censure dramatique et Ie thiatt'e (lBSQ­1870) (Paris, 1871), p . 86. [Z l a,2]

" In the competitions surrounding the material orllament .. , of attire, the popu­

larity of dolls is pul to use ... , T he Little Hands (in which girls make up the majority) are entrusted wilh the presentation of d oUs and nlannequins, among

which a choice is to be made." Charles Fourier, I.e NOllvcall Monde indu"triel e t

sociewire (Paris, 1829), p . 252. IZ1a,3]

While writing Le, Tra vlIilleurs de la mer <The Toiler s of the Sea), Victor Hugo

kept l>efore him a doll dreued in the antique garb of a Guernsey woman. Someone had procured it for him; it served as a model for Deruchette. [Z l a,4] -Marx explains tha i " the two material base. on which the preparations for ma­chilie-olJerated industry proceeded within manufacture during the period from the sixteenth to the midd.le of the eighteenth century ( the period in which ma nufac­

\ ture "" as developing from handicraft into large-scale industry proper) were the clock and Ihe mill (at first the corll mill . spc:cificaUy, the water mill). 8 0th were inlu:ri led from the ancienu.... T he clock was the fi rs t automatic device applied

10 practica l purposes; the whole theory of the production of regular motion was developed through it . It! nature is such that it is based 0 11 a combination of semia r­listie handicraft and diret:tlheory. Cardanus, for instance, wrote about (and gave praClical form ulas for) the construction of clocks . German authors of the six­

h ....nlh century ca lled c10ckma kiug ' learned (nonguild) handicr aft ' and it would be Ilossihie tu show fro m the devclupnll'nl of the clock how entirely different the rcla lioll helwccll science anti practice was ill the conlext of lIandicraft from what it is. f(lr inslance , in mOllcrn lar ge-sca le industry. T here is also no douht that in the

cight t'I'1II 11 century Ihe i.lea or applying automat ic devices (moved by springs) to prl), luction was firsl suggcste!1 by the clock , It can he proved historically that

\'Uu,'ansoll 's eXIICrimcnts ulong these lines had a tremcndous influence on the illHlb-illaliol) of English ilH'cntorli. On the OilIer IlUntl , from the very beginning. a8 SOOn as the Wil ier mill was invented . the IIlill possessed the cssential e1emenll! of t.he organi.i111 of a lIuleh.inc. T ilc mechanieaJlllolive power. fint , the molor, on which il ,I.:: pends; Ihen tile trallsmillll ion meehanislll; alld filially the working machine,

which deals with the material---each element existing independently of the other•. T he theory of friction. and with it the investigations into the mathematical fornu of gear-wheeb, cogs. and so forth, were aU develolH!d in connection with the mill . •the same applies to the theory of measurement of the degree of motive l)Ower. of the best way of employing it, and so on. Almost aD the great mathematicians since the middle of the seventeenth century, so fa r as they dull with practical mechanica and worked out its theoretical side, started from the simple water-driven corn mill. And indeed tM wal wh y the name Miih le. ' mill: which ar ose during the manufacturing period , came to be applied to aU mechanical forots of motive power adapted to practical PUrpose8. But in the case of the mill, as in that of the press,

the forge, the plough. a nd other implement8. the work p roper- that of beatins, Cru8hing, grinding, pulverizing. and so on-ha8 been performed from the very first without human labor. even though the moving force W88 human or animal.

This kind of machinery is therefore very ancient . ... Hence, it is p racticaUy the only machinery found in the manufacturing period. The industrial revolution begins as soon IU mechanisms are employed where, from ancient timC3, the 6nal reAult h88 required human labor; hence not where, 88 with the tools mentioned , above, the material actu aDy to be worked up has never been dealt with by the human hand ." Marx to Engels. J anuary 28 , 1863, from London [in Karl Man. and Friedrich Engels, Alugewahlte Br~fe. ed. V. Adoratski (Moscow and Leningrad,

1934), pp . 118-119).2 (Z2J

In his study " La Mante religieuse: Recherehes sur la nature et la signification du -mythe" <The Praying Mantis: Investigations into the Nature and Meaniq of Myth >. Cailloil refere to the slriking a utomatism of reflexCII in the prayin@; mantis (then! is ha rdly a vital function that it does not also perform dec:apitated) . He linlu it , on account of its fateful l ignificance, with the baneful a utomatonl known to us

from myths. Thus Pandora: " automaton fabricated by the blacksmith god for the ruin of humankind, for that ' which aU shaD I take to their heam with delight, an evil to love and embrace' (Heliod, Works ond Days, line 58).J We encounter lOme­

thing l imilar in the Indian Krtya- lhose doUs, animated by sorcer ere , which brinl about the death of men who embrace them. Our literature al well, in the motif of

femmel fatales, pOS8enes the concept of a woman-machine, art ificial, mechanical, at variance with aUllving creatures, and above aU murderous. No doubt psycho­analysis would not hesitate to explain this representatiou in its own term. by envisaging the relationl bctween death a nd sexuality a nd , more precillely, by

finding each ambiguously intimated in the otller." Roger Caillois, " La Mante re­Iigieuse: Recherchel sur la nature et la signification du luylllll," Me$lIre$ . 3, no. 2 (April 15, 1937), p. 110. {Z2a,IJ

Baudelaire, in the st:dion, "Les Femmes etles filles" <Women and Prosti tutes> in hit essay on Guy •. cites the wor ds of La Bruyere: "Some women pOlle88 an ar­tificiaillobilit y which is associated wit.h a movement of the eye. a tilt of the head , a manner of deportment . and which goes no further." Compare Ba udelaire', " J.,e

Mensonge. "-In the same section , Baudel aire cites the cOllcept of " the f emilla simplex of the RonllHl satir ist" (L 'A rt roman/iqlle [Parill]. p . 109). ~ (Z2a.2J

Beginnings of la rge-Icale indu str y: " We fiml great numbers of peasauts emigratin I . . •to tie clheli, W Ilere steam energy permiu the concentration of factories th at for­

lIIerly were sca llerell along t.he banks of rivers. " Pierre-Maxime Schuhl . tUa ­

chinisme el philosophie (Paris, 1938), pp. 56-57. (Z2a,3J

"Aristotle d(:clarel that sla\'ery would cease to be necessar y ifonly the sbuttles and plectrlllllll coultl set themselvC3 going on their o...·n . The idea accords adrnirabl

widl his definition of the slave as animated instrument.... By the same token th~ ancient lwet Pherecydes of Syr os had told how the Dactyls, after building a 'new house for Zeus. had fa shioned for him male and female servan ts as weU. We ar e in the realm of fable.... Yet before three cCllluries have passed , an Anthology poet ,

Antiphilos of Byzantium . offers a response to Aristotle by singing of the invention of the water mill , which W>erates women from the arduous task of grinding: 'Spare the halld tha t grinds the corn , 0 miller girls, and softly sleep. Let Chanticleer

announce the morn ill vain! Demeter has commanded that the girls ' work be done by Nymphs, and now they skip lightly over the wheels , so that the shaken axles revolve with their spokes and pull round the loud of revolving stones. Let us live

the life of our fathers, ulld let liS res t from work and enjoy the gifts that Demeter sends us." (Note: "Anthologie Pal<ltine, vol. 9 , p. 418. This epigram . .. hal al­ready beell related to the text of Aristotle. and for the firs t time, it would seem, by

Marx"-presumably, in Kapital , vol. 3 <tr ans. Molitor [Paris. 1924]) , p . 61.) Pierre-Maxillie Schuld, iIIachinisme ell'hilosophie (Paris, 1938), pp. 19-20. $

[Z3[

promote unceasingly in the face of feudal and hierarchical powers, and that we bea clear about the fact that the movement itself comprehends mystical elements as

- well, although of an entirdy different SOrt. It is even more important, narurally,

[Social Movement]

Reveal to these depraved, o Republic, by foiling their plots, \bur great Medusa face Rffig<d by mlliglnning.

- French workers' song around 1850, ciled in Adolf Stahr, .QM Ml11UIlt in Paris (Oldenburg, 1851). vol. 2, p. 199

Rabble of the faithles5, the 5OuUess, the rootless, Who want to wipe out every an and industry, 10 crwh Wlderl'oot the cult of the Cross, And drown in an ocean of blood and flames - Its waves have risen round the fian1u of Paris­Temples, palaces, priests, peoples, and kings!

-Edouard d'Angiemont, L'lntematifIMle (Paris, 1871). p. 7

Palermo ha! Etna; Paris, fa pnu/t.

-VICtor Hugo, Paris [Littt'rlzt'lm ttP"iIowpll~ lllilk (Paris, 1861), . pp. 466-467}, cited in Georges Batault. u PrmIift tit r.~; -Vaetor Hllr;o (Paris. 1934), p. 203

_ 1 _.r· with proletarian"SO th Surrealists constantly confuse mo"u noncoruonrusm met: e . f th odc:m world, to

revolution, they attempt. instead of followmg the c~urse 0 . em. """,,,,hIe.

rdocate themselves to a historical moment when this confuSion was still Y"""'~ f a moment anterior to the Congress of Tours, anterior even to the d~O~:: Mo-;·m· the pen"ad of the 1820s, '30s and '40s." Emmanuel , . -~ . d th . nainly no aca­

Pamphlet," Europe, 75 (March 15, 1929), p. 402. An at IS c~cal materialism. dent. For, on the one hand, we have here elements-an~pologt. the other hostili toward progress-which are refractory to MarxISm, while, .on . volu' hand le will to apocatastasis speaks here, the resolve to gather agam, rmthIe " toO '. . I ' thinkin recisely the elements 0 etionary action and m revo uoonary g, p [ 1 1)

early" and the "too late," of the first beginning and the final decay. a ,

WeI ' I '<aI bearing theIt is really imperative that we unde~tand., in pre. y Its po enu . ~ w apotheosis of organization and of rationalism which the Conunurust party

not to confuse these mystical elements, which pertain to corporality, with relig. ious elements. [al ,2)

Episode orthe Februa ry Revolution. On the twenty-third , at eleven o'clock in the evening, a fu sillade on the Boulevard des Capucines: twenty-three dead . "The coqJses are illlllledia tely paradet:1 through the " reds ill a masterly, romantic m ;"'e

en 5cime. ' Midnight is about to sound. The boulevards are s till faintly lighted by

the fading illumination [the celebratory illumination occasioned b y the retreat of Guizot]. T he doors alld windows of the house. and 8hops ar e shut, ever yone ha\oing returned home with heavy hear ts .... All of a sudden , a muffled rumbling

is heard on the pa ving atones, and some windows are cautiously opened.... In a cart drawn b y a white horse, with a hare-armed worker holding the reina, five cadaver s are arranged in horrible symmetry. Standing on the shaft is a child of the working class, sallow of complexion, a fixed and a rdent look upon his face. his arm

extended , nea rly imnlObile, as though to represent the Cenius of Vengeance ; lean ­ing backward, this boy lights up, with the beama of his torch, the body of a young woman whose livid neck and bosom are stained with a long traiJ of blood . From time to time another worker, positioned behind the ca rt , raises this lifeless body

with a muscular a rm and- his toreh aU the while emitting sparks and fla kea of

fi re--casts his savage gaze over the crowd , shouting, " Vengeance! Ven­geance! They are sla u&htering the people!"""o Arms!" re.pond some voicetlj and the corpse falls back into the bottom of the cart, which continues on its way. , .. (Daniel Stern). Dubech and d ' Espezel , lI;"'toire de Paru (Paris, 1926), p . 396. oLighting 0 [a l ,3)

The massea of workera mobilized by Haussmann were compared- unfavora bly_ to those incorporated in the national workshops of 1848. 0 Haussmann 0 [a l ,41

"The favorite readings of the working~lass tailor are the histories of the Revolu­tioll of 1789. lie like, it "'hen these texts develop the idea tha t this revolution was a

good thing, and thai it inlproved the condition of the working class . He is inspired by the au ra of drama lent to men and events b y several famous authors.... Not l)crceiving thut the prillcipal cause of his social inferiority lie8 within himself. he likes 10 think Ihal these men are the models for those who, in forging a new Ilrogrcss. will preserve hilu from all kiud8 of culaluities.·' F. Le Play, u s OIl IJriers europeeru <PuriSt 1855>, p . 277. [a l ,5J

"s treel warfare tod ay has its own Iet:hllique; it wa~ perfet:tetf , aft er the armed

lakeo\'u of ,!-\tullich <1848?>, in a curiOU!I little confidentia l work published with ~eat secrecy by ti lt: government in Berlin . One 11 0 longer advances through the 8trCCts; they are left empty. A pa th is opened within tile iUleriora of houses. b y

brea killg through walls. A.II 800n 118 olle has ta ken II .IIlrect , olle organize1I it ; line. of dayS later, from out of this thicket a wonderful giant of a flower arises, whose comlllunication are laid through the holes in the waUs, wlille , to prevent the return growth is so rapid that one can witneu i18 unfolding with the nnked eye. Just 80 of the adversary, o lle immedia tely mines lhe conquered ground. .. Perha p. the paltry a nd stunted remained I.he French working clan in a corner of society, until clearest sign of progrcu, here, is that one need nol concern oneself at aU with

J sparing houses or Li ves. Compared with civil wars of the futu re, the Cl'i8ode of the

] Rue TranSlion ain <lee a lOa,5) will seem quite ... innocent and archaic." Duhech

and d ' E, pezel, Hi.stoire (Ie Poris (Paris, 1926), p . 479. 0 Haussmann 0 [a1a,l]

• Family budget of a Parisian ra~icker, 1849-1851, according to F. Le Play, Le. Ouvrier. europeefU (Paris. (855), pp. 274-275. An excerpt : "Section 4 . Expen8et

for mor al improvement , recreation, aDd health.... Instruction for the children:

IChool fee l p a id by employer, 48 francs; books purchased . I franc 45 centimes; relief and alms (workers at this level ordinarily give no alms at all). Ret:reation and festivi ties: meal taken together by the entire family at one of the bar~rel of Pam (eight excursions per yea r), including wine, bread, and fried potatoes, 8 franc.; meal of macaroni . with butter, cheese. and wine, taken on Christmas, Mardi Gra., Easter, a nd Pentecost : expenses included in the first section; chewing tobacco for the worker (cigar butts collected by the worker), 6.8 kilos worth 5-34 fr anc.; snu£( for the wife h)Urchased}, 2.33 kilos worth 18 francs 66 centimes; toys and other gifts given to the child . 1 fra nc .... Correspondence with r elatives: letters from the worker 's brother s living in Italy, on average one per year.... Note: The main resource for the family, in case of accidents, is private charity... . Savinge for the year (the worker-altogether incapable of prudent habits , and desirous, above all , of giving his wife and little girl all the comforts they desen e--never managea to -save anything; he slHmds, day by day, all he earns). " [ala,2)

"The damage done to the morality of the improvident worker by the . ubl titutioD of antagoni. m for solidarity conl ists p recisely in the los. of all opportuaity of , exercising his natural virtues in the only way that "" ould be practicable for him. The devotion dil played in the wish to do well , in the concern for the interelta of the employer, or in the l acriflce of needs and desires irreconcilable with the regularity of work is, in fact, more feasible for the worker than the devotion which would lead to a.sisting his comrades with a sum of money.... The faculty of giving aid and protection of any consequence belongs to the upper classes; it can manuelt itself among the workers as an immediate and short-lived enthusiasm, but the virtue most within their reach is clearly the performance of their task for the employer. " M. F. Le Piny. Les Ouvriers curopeem (Par is. 1855), " Printed by authority of the Emperor and the Imperial Press," p. 278. [al a,3)

The "small land owners of the suhurhs." "They cultivate vines ... that produce a wine of inferior quality, for which the consumption tax in effect inside the capital ens uru a profit ahle mnrket in the suburbs.... F. Le 1)lay. Les Ouuriers europeefIJ (Paris, 1855) , p . 271. [ala,4J

"There is a tropical plallt that for yea rs remainll unrema rkable and bringe forth 11 0 blossom, Ulltil fi.nally, one day, an explosion resounds like a rille 8hot aud. lome

su<ldeniy the explosion of the Fellruary Revolution was heard . But with that , a giguuLic Llon om shot up from the unreullirkable bushes, and this bloom full of lap alld "itaLity, full of beauty IIntl l ignifica nce , was ca lled the association <a term <Ieri-'ed from tile Saint-Simonians >." Sigrnulld Englander, Geschichle der fran ­:oj ijcl!en Arbeiter-Auociationen (Uamburg, 1864), vol. 4 , p . 217. [&2,1)

Organization of the ",tate workshops (ateliers nat.ionaux) by Thomas. " It suffices to mClltion th at Emile Thomas divided the workers into brigade. and companies, and that their chjefs were elected by universal suffrage of the workers. Every company had its fl ag, and Emile Thomas made use, for this organUation , of other civil engineers and of students from the Ecole Polytet:hnique. who, through their youth , exerted a moral influence on the worker s ... . NeverthelClls, although the minister of public works ordered the atate engineers to come up with proposals for works ... , the engiueers in chllrge of bridges IIlId roads decided not to comply with the minister's order, for in France there had long been a great rivalry between state engineers lind civil cligUleers. 1 li nd it was the latter who directed the national workshop~. Tholllas was therefore left to his own resources. and he never could assign to such an army of worker., whose ranks were daily swelling, any sort of useful work. Thus, for example , he had trees from the outskirts of Paris brought into the city to be planted along the boulevards , because during the struggles of Febr uary the old trees on the boulevard had been cut down . The workers with the trees paraded slowly acron Paris , singing as they went.... Other worken, who had the job, for example, of cleaning the railings of bridges, became an object of derision for passersby. and so the majority of these workers also wound up passing their time in mere cardplaying, singing, and the like . ... The national workshop. hefore long became .. . the gathering )Jlace for all sorts of vagabonds and idlers , .....hose labor consisted exclusively in marching through the streett with their stan­dard bearers, here and there mending the pavement or turning up earth. but on the "'IIOIe-singing and shouting, ragtag and unruly--tloing whatever came into

i their heads .... One day, tllere suddeuly appeared on the scene 600 actors, paint­ers , art istt, a nd agellts. who together II lIuounced that , since the republic was guanHlleeing work to all citizens, they too were )Jutting forward their claim. Thomas lIIade them ill spector~ . " SigmulI<l Englander, Geschichte der Jran%olIi­lIchen ~rbeiter-AlJIJoci(ftiolUm (Hamburg, 1864), vol. 2, pp . 26&-271. 0 F1aneur 0

[a2,2)

" Ncither tile mu yurll nur the police cOltlluissioners, who Ilad to sign the certiflcate8 attesting tu the hearen' digihilit y to work ill Paris. coul<l maintain the slightest CIJllt rol ill \·iew of the threats circulating aga inst t.hem. In their anxiety. they even ga ,·,· cert ificates to tell-year-old childrcn. who . with these in hand , presented tllclnseh 'es for admission to t ile national work"hul)S," SignlUnd Englander, Cesc"ichte tier JrulI::.osische fi Arbeiter-AuociatiQnen (Hamburg, 1864), vol. 2 , 11. 272. (a2a, l )

Episodes in the June insurrection : " Women were leen pOllring boj(jng oil or bot water on the 80ldienl while IIhricking and bellowing. In many place•• insurgentt were given brandy mixed with vanoul ingredieolll . 80 that they would be excited 10 madneili... . Some women CUI off the sexual organs of several imprisoned guard&­

J men, and we know that an insurgent dressed in woman', clothing beheaded a

] number of captured officers ... ; people saw the head, of .oldiers on pikes that were planted atop barricades. Many things recounted were pure invention_for example . that the insurgcn18 had pinioned captured guard8men between two

• boards and sawed them. while alive, into piece •. On the other hand , things did in (act occur that were no leIS horrible.... Many insurgents used bullets of a type that could not be removed from wound, after shooting, because a wire had been inserted into these bullets which sprang out from the l ides of them on impacl.~ Behind numeroUi barricadel were spray gunl, which were used to apray l uJphurie acid on auaclringloldiers. It would be impossible to detail all the fi endilh barbari­ties perpetrated by both l ides in thil action; we shall merely observe that world history can point to nothing comparable." Englander, vol. 2, pp. 288-289.

June Insurrection . "On many closed shops, the inl nrgenll would write: 'Resped ProlHlrty! Death to Thievel!' Many flags on the barricades bore the word,: ' Bread and Work.' On the Rue Saint-Martin , on the first day, ajeweler 'l Ihop Itayedopea without being threatened by any l ort of harm , while, a few stepl beyond, a Itore with a l upply of &erap iron wal plundered.... Many iwurgentl, during the bat­tle, had assembled their wives and children on the barricadel , and cried: 'Since we can DO longer feed them, we want at least to die all together! ' While the mea fought , the women made gunpowder and their children cast bulletl, usin« every piece of lead or tin that feU into their handl . Often the children molded the bulleta with thimbles. At night, while the combatants were l looping, girls wouJd dr. paving stones to the barricades." Englander, vol. 2, pp. 291,293 . [a2a,3]

Barricades of 1848: "More than 400 were counted . Many. fronted by trenches and battlemenll, reached a height of two Itoriel." Malet and CrilIet , XIX' Siecle (Paris, 1919), p. 249. la2a,4]

" In 1839, some workers in Paris founded a newspaper with the title La RucM populaire.2 ... The editorial office of thil pubLicalion was located in the poorest section of the city, on the Rue des Quatre Fils. It was one of the few worker-run newspapers to have an audience among the general population , which can be explained by the tendency it followed. That is, it took as its program the goal of bringing hidden misery to the notice of wealthy bellefaclorl.... hi the of6ce of thil journal a regisler of misery lay opell. in which every starveling couJd inscribe his name. It was imposing, this regil ler of misfortulle, a nd since at thil period LeI Mysteres de Pam. by Eugene Sue, had brought charil Y into Cashion within hiP society, one often saw priva te ca rriages puU up beCore the dirty premises of the editorial office and blase ladicl step forth to secure add.res8d of the unfortunate;

they would then deliver alml personalJy to these people and , in this way, derive a novel stimulus for their jaded nerves. Each number oC thil workers' review began ,",'ilh II summary enumeration of the poor people who had registered with the editor ; details of their plight could be found in the register itseU .... Even after Ihe February Revolution, at a time when all social clalSes looked on one another .,.dlh distrust, ... La Ruche JJOpulaire continued to facilitate personal contacll between rich and poor .... Thil is aU the more remarkable in Light of the fact that , e.'en during this lH!riod , aU articles in La Ruche populaire were written by actual "'orkers engaged in some practical occupalion. " Sigmund Englander , Geschichte der !ram:.osi,chenArbeiter-Au ociationen (Hamburg, 18M), vol. 2 , pp. 78-80, 82­

a. ~, l]

"The expansion achieved by industry in Paris during the past thirty yean hal gi\'en a certain importance to the trade of ragpicker, which occupiel the lowe(l t level on the industrial scale. Men, women , and children can all easily devote them­selves to the practice of this trade, which requires no apprenticeship and calli for tools that are as simple 88 itl method8-a basket , a hook , and a lantern comprising the ragpicker's only equipment. The adult ragpicker, in order to earn 25-40 soue per day (depending on the season), is ordinarily obliged to make three roundl , two during the day and one at night ; the Arst two take place from Ave o'clock in the morning unlil nine o' clock, and from eleven o'clock unlil (here, there are four pages missing from the copy in the BibLiothi!que Nalionale!1. Like salaried work­ers , they have a habit of frequenting taverns... , Like them, and more than them, they make a Ihow of the expenditures which thi, habit entails. Among the older ragpickers and particuJarly among the older women, ' pirill hold an attraction like nothing else .... The ragpickers are not alwaYI content with ordinary wine in these taverns; they like to order mulled wine, and they take great offenle if tbU drink does not contain , along with a strong dose of l ugar, the aroma produced by the use of lemonl." H.-A. Fugier, Des Claues dangereU$e, ck la population

<da", le, grande$ viile$ el des more", de le$ rendre meiUeures >(Paris , 1840), vol. Itllp. 104, 109. [a3,2J

Fregier speakl at length about the public scriveners,' who mUl t have Itood in the "'"orst repute, and from whose circles emerges one Lacenaire, esteemed for his beautiful handwriling.-"l heard teU of an old sailor endowed with a remarkable talent for fine handwriting, who , in the depths of the winter, had nary II shirt on his hack. and would hide his nakedness by Castening his waistcoat with a pin . Thie indi vidual , who was scarcely clothed , and who was not only ragged but nauseat­ingly filthy, ","ould on occasion spend five to six francs 011 his dinner." H.-A. Fregier, Des Cluues da"s ereu,es de ia population (Paril . 1840). vol. I , pp . 11 7­118. [a3a.IJ

'"' If it happens that an entrepreneur reproachel a worker in the presence of his comrades, and in a manner he feell to be unjust, ... then the worker laYI down hie tools and heads for the tavern.... In many industrial e,tahLi, hmcnls Ihat are not

rigorously mOlliton..I, the worker is not satis fi ed with going to the tavern before regular intervals , those tremors which shake l.he terrestrial globe; a city whose lh., hour when work begin' a nll at his mealtimes, which are al nille o'clock and two population IInitea, like that of no oth cr ci ty on earth , the passion for enjoyment o' clock; he goes there also at fou r o'clock and in the evening, 0 11 the way home .... with the passion ror historical action, whOle inhabitanU know how to live like the There are women who have no conlpunctions about foUowi ng t1lcir husbands to

J the barriere. in company with their children (who a re already able to work), in

] order, as they say, to live it up.... There they spend a la rge l)Urbon of the income of the entire fanlily, and return home Monday evening in a &tate bordering on

drunkenne... Indeed. they often pretend- the children no JellS thau their par­• ents--to be more inebriated than they really are, 80 that e\'eryone will know they've been drinking, and drinking well.'''' H.-A. Fregier, De5 Claue. do,,_

gerewes de Eo populo,io" (Paris, 1840), vol. I , pp. 79-80,86. [a3a,21

On child labor among textile workers: "Unable to meet the costs of food and of caring for their children on their modest salary, which oft en does not exceed forty

sous per day (not even when added to the salary of the wife, who earns barely half that amount ), ... workers find themselves obliged ... to place t.heir children, a.

800n as they a re old enough to work (ordinarily, at age seven or eight). in the establishmenu of which we are speaking.... The workers keep their children working in the fa clory or mill until the age of twelve. At that poinl. they see that

the children make their fir81 Communion , and then they secure them an appren­ticeship in a shop." H.-A. Fregier, vol. I , pp. 98-100. [a3a,3J

There', hrau in our pocket •. Pierre, let'. go live it up; On Mondays, don ', you know. I love to knock about. I know of a . ixpenny wine That', not h. lfbad. So let ', h. ve some fun , Let ',go up to the barriere.

H. Courdon de Cenouillac, Les Refrairl!l de Eo rue , de 1830 a1870 (Paris, 1879), p . 56. [a3a,4]

"And what wine! What variety- from bordeaul{ to burgundy, from burgundy to full-hodied Saint-Ceorges, 10 Lunel and the South's Frontignan , and from there to sparkling champagne! What a choice of whites and reds-from Petit Macon or

chablis to Chambertin , to Chilteau Larose, to sauterne. to Vin du I{ollssillon, and AI Moussellx! Bea r ill mind th at each of these wines produces a different l ort of intoxication , and thllt with a few bottles one can pass through 11 11 the inwrvcllillg stages from a Mlisard Iluadrille to "La Marseillaise," from tile Wl.lntoll pleasures of the ca ncan to the fi er y ardor of revolutionary fever, thence to return , with a bottle of champagne , hI the cheeriest Cll rnival m()O(l in the world ! An(1 onl y .' ranCe hal a Paris , a city in wiJich European civilization all ains its full esl fl owering, in which all the ner ve fihcr1l or Europeau his tory are intertwined , and from which arise, at

nJost refined of Athenian epicures and to die like the most uliRinching Spa rtan_ Alcibiades and Leonidas rolled up into onei a city which really is, as Louis Blanc .sa),s, the hea rt and brain of the world ." Friedrich Engels, " Von Paris nach Bern: Ein Reisefragment ." Die neue Zeit , 17, no. I (Stuttgart , 1899), p. 1O.- 1n his foreword to this publication or the IJOsthumolis manuscript , Eduard Bernstein ",-rites: "Although a fra gment , t.his travel sketch gives us. perhaps, a better picture

of its author than does any other of his works" (ibid ., p . 8). [a4,11

A song, "J enny the Worker," whose refr ain was inspiring 10 women:

In aj!;arden, ' neath a fragra nt bower, You may hear a ramiliar bird: 'Tis the singing of Jenny the worker, At heart content , content with little. She could be ricb, but prere ... The thingl Ihe haa rrom God.

H. COllrdon de Genouillac. Les Refrains de 10 rue, de 1830 a1870 (Paris, 1879), pp.67-68. [a4,21

A reactionary song, after the J line In. urrection :

See, ace thil funeral prOCfl.ll ion! -It', the arehbishol_rriendl , remove your hatl; Victim, alas, of 'aeriiegioul combat , He i.e raUen ror the hnppilH!u of all. »I ,

H. Gourdon de Genouillac. Les Refrains de Eo ,-ue, de 1830 a1870 (Paris, 1879),

p.~ -~

"The proletarians have ... comPOled a terrible, bitter " Marseillaise," which they , sillg in unison in the workshol)S . and which may be judged b y the refrain : 'Sow the

field , all you proles; l it 's the idler who will reap.·.. " Die socialistischen lind com­

munistischen Bewegungen seit <ler dritten franzosischen Revolution," opening of Stein 's Sociufi8mw tmd Communismu.J des heutigen Frankreich8 (Leipzig and Vicnlla, 1848), p. 210 [ from V. Considerant , Theo,-ie du droit de propriete et du droit de trovail ( 1848)]. [a4a,21

Buret reports 0 11 a story in l.o Revue britcl/IlI;que of December 1839 (?), 1" 29 (?): " The associated workers of Brighton consider machines to be absolutely l}tlleficial. ' Bllt ,' they add , ' they are fatui as applied in the current regime. I.n­stead of dutifully serving. as the elves serve{1 tile slu>C! maker in the German fai ry tale, the machines have behaved like "' ra nkells tein's monster (German legend), Who, after acquiring life. employed it ollly in persecuting the man who had given it

10 him.'" Eugene Burel . La Misere de, cla.ue, laborieu.,e, en AnSleterre et en Frnnce (Paris, IMO), vol. 2, p . 219. (a4a,3]

" If Ihe vicetl of the lower classes were limited , in Iheir eUecu . 10 those who in_ dulged in them, we may suppose thai the upper clalles wouJd cease to concern themselves with all these dismal questions, and would happily leave the world at large to the sway of good and bad causes that rule over it . But ... everything it linked together. If poverty is the mother of vices. then vice is the father of crime; • and it is in tms way that the interests of all the classes a re conjoined ." Eugene Buret , La Muere de. classe.labor i4!weJ en Ansleterre et en France (Paris, 1840), vol. 2, p. 262. (a4a,4)

" Jenny the Worker brings to Life one of the most terrible afRictions of the lOCiaJ organism: the daughter of the working class ... constrained to sacrifice her virtue for her family, and to sell herself ... in order to provide bread for hed oved ones.... As for the I)rologue to Jenny the Worker, it acknowledges neither the play's I)oint of depa rture nor the details of poverty and hunger." VIctor HaUay._ Dabot, La CenJure dramatiqlW et Ie theatre. 1850-1870 (Paris, 1871), pp . 75-76.

(ab,5]

" In the mind of the factor y boss, workers are not men but foroos , and expensive ones at that- in81ruments more intractable and leu economical than tools of iron and fire ... . Without being cruel, he can be completely indifferent to the suffer­ings of a cla81 of men with whom he has no moraJ commerce, no sentiments in common. Doubtless Madame de Sevigne was not an evil woman, ... yet Madame de Sevigne, while detailing the atrocious punishments meted out to tbe people of Brittany who had rioted over a tax , Madame de 5evigne. the impallioned mother, speaks of hanginp and of thrashings ... in a light, cavalier tone that betrays not the s.lightest sympathy.... I doubt that , under the rule of the current law. of industry, there could be any more of a moral community between employers. and their workers. than there was, in the seventeenth century, between poor peannts

and townsmen and a fine lady of the court ." Eugene Buret , De la ftfilere de. claJJes klbori4!we. en Ansleterre et en France (Paris, 1840), vol. 2, pp . 269-271.

(a5,1]

"Many gi rl! ... in the factories often leave the !Shop as early as six o' clock in ~h" evening, instead of leaving at eight , and go roaming the streets in hopes of meetlllS some stranger whom they provoke with a sort of calculated bashfulness.- In th" factories they call this doing one's fifth (Iuarter of the day." Villernlll, Tableau de

l'etat ph;,iIJu e e t moral de' ou vri4!rs. vol. I , p. 226, cited in E. Buret , De la MiJere

des elaue, laborieuJea (Paris , 1840), vol. I , p. 415. [a5,21

The principles of philanthropy receive a classic fommlation in Buret : "H~ty, and indeed decency, do not pennit u S to allow hwnan being! to die like animab· One cannot refuse the charitable gift of a coffin." Eugene Buret, De la Mism deJ da.sses 14borieum (Paris, 1840), vol. I , p. 266. [as,3]

"The Convention, organ of the sovereign people, aims to make mendicancy and poverty disappear at a single stroke .... It guarantees work for aU citilllen. who need it .... Unfortunately, the section of the law that was designed specifically to (leal ~;th mendicancy a8 a crime was "lore easily enforced than that wmch prom­ised the benefi u of national generosity to the poor. Repres.s.ive measures. were taken, and they have remained within the letter a8 well as. the s.pirit of the law, whereas the system of chari ty that motivated and justified these mealures has lIe"erexistcd , except in the decrees of the Convention!" E. Buret, De la Miser-e cia elolSeJ laboriewe, (Paris.. 1840). vol. I , pp . 222_224. Napoleon adopted the po. i­tion described here with his. law of July 5, 1808; tbe law of the convention dates from October 15, 1793. Those convicted three times. of begging could expect depor­tation for eight years. to Madagascar. (as,4]

Hippolyte PalSY, ex-minister, in a letter addressed to the temperance ltOCiety of Amiens (see Le Temps, February 20, 1836): "One is led to r ecognize that , however meager the share of the poor might be, it i8 the art of applying that share to bit real needs, it is. the capacity to encomllan the future in his thoughts, that the poor man lacks. His plight is due more to this lack tha n to any other." Cited in E. Buret, De 10 Miser-e des elrusea klborieu.,es (Paris, 1840), vol. I, p . 78. (a5a,l]

"There was a time, a nd it was not so long ago, when-all the while effusively singing the prais.es of work-<lne never let on to the worker that the means by wmch he derived his subsi8lence was not his freely willed labors but, in fact , a tax levied on him by certain persons who fattened themselvetl by the sweat of his brow.... It is what it called the exploitation of man by man. Something of this sinister and deceptive doctrine b .. remained in the songs of the street. . . . Work is still s.poken of with respect , but this respect has something forced about it, some­thing of a grimace .... It is nevertheleaa true that this way of viewing work it an ~xception . More often. it is praised like a law of nature. a pleasure, or a benefit . ..

~ain8llhe las)" let us alwayt do bailie­Great enemies of our society.

i For if they complain of . Jeeping on straw, It is only what they delH:rve. In our 81ock)"ards, our factories, our miUJI, Let us answer the caUat d. y't dawning: While ....e ...·ork our Jlrodigious machines. Let us hymn a fra ternal refrain ..."

- Antoine Hem)"

Charles Nisard , Des Chtltlsons popuklire, (Paris . 1867), vol. 2. pp. 265-267. (aSa,2J

"The fifteen years of the Restoration had been years of great agricultural and industrial prosperi ty .... If we leave as. ide Paris. and the large cities., we see that the institution of the preu, along with tlle various. electoral syllems, engaged omy part of the nation, and the I~as t numeroua part : the bourgeois.ie. Many in thia

bourr;eoill ie were already fearful of a revolution ." A. Malet alld P. Grillet, XIX' Siecle(Paris, 1919), p . 72. [a5a,3]

"The crisis of 1857- 1858 ... marked a sudden end to all the ililiSioll8 of iml~rial

socialism. All efforts to maintain wages at a level that would have corresponded in some degree to the eve",rising I)rices of food and housin~ proved futile." D. Rjazanov. Zur Ge$chichle der er$len l ntcrn«tiotlure, ill Marx-Enge~ Archiv, vol. I [t' rankfurt am Main ( 1928 )]. p . 145. [a5a,4]

• "'In Lyons, the economic crisis had caused a reduction in the salary of the silk weavers-the famolls canuU- to eighteen sous for a workday of fift een to sixteen

hours. The prefeet had tried to induce the workers and bosses to agree to establish a minimum salary level. The attempt havinr; failed , a n insu rreetion broke out on November 12. 1831; it was nonpolitical in character, representing an uprising of

the poor. 'Live Working or Die Fighting' read the black banner which the canu" carried before them .... Mter two d ays offighting,5 the troops of the line, which

the Garde Nationale had r efused to support , were forced to evacuate Lyons. The workers laid down their arms. Casimir Perier sent an army of 36,000 men to

reoccupy the city; furthermore, he removed the prefect frOm offace, annulled the tariff which the latter had succeeded in foisting upon the bosses , and disbanded the Garde Nationale (December 3, 1831) .... Two year s later, .. . char ges brousht

against an association of Lyons workers , the Mutualists, were the occasion for an uprising that las ted five days." A. !\falet and P. Grillet , XIX· Siecle (Paris, 1919),

pp . 86-88. [a6,IJ -"A study of working conditions in the textile illdu8Iry in 184(1 revealed that, for

one fift een-and-a-haLf-hour day of active work, the average salary was leu than two francs for men and barely one franc for women. The sufferinr; ... ~ot worse,

especially beginning in 1834, because, civil unrest being finall y queUed, indUlltrial enterprises multiplied so ra pidly that , within ten years, the population of the cities

incr eased by two million solely tllrough the influx of pea8ants to the factories." A. Malet and P. Grillet, XIX' S~cle (Paris, 19 19), p . 103. [a6,2]

" In 1830, mallY believed that Catllolicism in Fra nce was 011 its Ileathbed and that the political role of the cler gy was fmished for good.... Yet ... 011 February 24, 1848, the insurgents who commenced the sacking of tile Tuilerics removed their

hats in front of the Crucifu: ta ken fro m the chapel aud escorted it all the ....ay to the Eglise Saint-Rocll . With tile proclamation of the Rel>uhlic, univerSll1 suffrage sent to the National Assembly ... three bishops and twelve priests .... This could happen because, during the reign of Louis Philippe. the clergy had 50tleh closer to the people ." A. Malct lind P. Grillet. XIX~ Siecle (Puris. 1919). pp . 106, 107.

la6,3)

On l>t!Cember 8, 1831. the procapita list JournClI del debCl/$ takcs a stand on the Lyons inllurrection . "The a rticle ill i.e Journa l des debuts produced a great sellsa­

lion . The enemy of the workers bad brought into clear relief the international sign ifica llc~ of the Lyons symptom. Neither the republican nor the legitimist press. however. Wished to present the <Iuestion in such dangerous terlll8 .... The legiti_ nlists ... protested for purely demagogic r eason8, since at that moment it was the intelltion of this )larty to play the working class off against the liberal bourgeoisie ill the interests of reestablishing the elder line of Bourbons; the republican8. on the other halld , had an interest in playing down . as far as possible, the purely prole­tarian cast of the movement ... in order ... nol to lose the working class as a

future ally in the struggle against the July monarchy. Nevertheless, the immediate ililpressioll produced by the Lyons uprising was so wholly incommensurable, so IJainful for contemporaries, t.hat for this rea80n alone it has already attained a special place in history. The generation which had witllessed the Jul R , .y evo ubon : .. was .thought . ~ eff~.t , to have nerves of steel Yet they saw in the LyoDs IIlsurre£tlon something enbrely new ... , which alarmed them aU the mo . r re lII80 ar as the workers of Lyons themselves seemed manifestly not to see or understand this ne~ dimens io~ ." E. Tarle, " Der Lyoller ArbeiterauCstand," in Marx-Engels Ar­ell/V, ed . D. RJazanov, vol. 2 (Frankfurt am Main, 1928), p. 102. [a6a,l]

Tarle cites a passage from Borne on the Lyons insurrection , in which this writer vents his indignation over Casimir Perier heeause, a, Tarle writes, " Perier re­

joices at the lack of political motive for the uprising in Lyons, satisfied that thie is

only a war of the poor against the rich." The passage-in Ludwig Borne, Guam­

~'te Schriften (Hamburg and Frankfurt am Main, 1862), vol. 10, p . 20-nme: It is said ~ o be nothing more than a war of the poor against the rich , of those who

ha~e nothing to lose against those who own IOmething! And this terrible truth which , because it if a truth , ought to have been buried in the deepest of well, the

luna~c raises alof~ ~nd flaunts before all tbe world!" In E. Tarle, "'Ocr Ly~ner\

Arbe,terauCstand, w Marx-Engels Archil), vol. 2 (Frankfurt am Main , 1928),

p . 112. [a6a,2]

Buret was a student of Sismondi . Charles Andler credits him with an influence OD

l\~a rx (AndJer, Le Manifelte communute [Paris. 1901])-somethinr; which Meh­rlllg ("'Eill methodologisches Problem," Die neue Zeit [Stuttgart] , 20 , no . 1, PI)· 450.-4 51) firml y denies. {a6a,3]

Influence of Ro ti · 1: ' , h . man cism on poubca p raseology, explaining an attack on the CO l1gregatlOlls " We are at th b . . r R .. . . e eg.llnmg 0 orna nbCISIIl , and we clearly recognize II by the 111 • b · h · , .'. a nner 111 w IC It ( ramatlzes everything. A crOS8 W88 set up atop MountValen en· this . d d . . cross ... 18 enounce as symbolizing the ascendancy of religiousSOCiety ov " 1 . , ., J . . , er C1VI society. Ie eSUlt nOVitiate refers to itself only as ' the den of 1 10 ntro · A · b·' . uge. . JU I ee IS announced for 1826, alld already men of the cloth are :hoUght to be loomillg on all sides." Pierre de III Gorce, La Re5tollration (Paris

1926-1928), vol. 2, Charle,X. p. 57. la7, 1]

1 We are nothing but maehine •. Our Uabel$ mount to the 8ky.

Rerrain: Let ue lo.·e and. when we can. Let U8 meet 10 drink a round. Let the cannon fall silent or erupl­We drink . we drink. we drink

] To Ihe independenee of the world!

• Pierre Duponl, Le Chant des Ollvrier, (Paris, 1848). [a7,2]

Last ver se and refrain :

!C, in truth, a deapieahle mob, Having: fire and iron in its 8tore, Wants to shackle the hody and lOul Of the people, true ehild of Cod, Reveal to theee depraved, o Republie, by foiling tbeir plots. Your great Medu88 faee Ringed by red lightning!

o tUlelar-y Republie, Do not aaeend to the ekie., Ideal inearnated bere on earth By univerul euffrage.

From the fourth verse:

Ah! Let no nOClurnal eurprise Break in on the polle! Stand guard round the hallot hox:

'TIs the areh of our destiny.

[a7,3}Pier;e Dupont, Le Chant du vote (Paris, 1850).

In chapters like "Le Vrai Sublime," "Le Flls de Dieu," "Le Sublime des sublimes," "Le Marchand de vms" "Le Chansonnier des sublimes," Poulot trea[S of types

intermediate between ~rker and apache. The book is refomlist; first published in 1869. Denis Pou1ot, Qyestion sociaIe: "I.e Sublime," new ed. (Paris). [a7,4]

A proposal from Louis Napoleon 's Extinction dll paupiru me (p . 123), cited in Henry Fougere. Les DcMSlIfions olwrieres /lUX exposition, tmiverse/les .!OIU Ie Second Empire (Montlu~on , 1905), p. 23: " All managers of fll ctories o~ farms, all

entrepreneurs of any kind . wouJd be obliged b y law, as soon a8 they had employed more than ten workers, to have a n arbitrator who wuuld govern tlleir affairs, and to whom they would pay a salary d ouble tha i of the simple workers." [a7a,l }

""This people, victorious, who Slrod e bareroot upon gold I Strewn across their path, and did not succumb" (lJcgcsippe Moreau). Motto of the neWSllalH: r L 'Aimable

FaubOllrien: JOllrnnl de In c(ltwille, cited in Cllriositel revolution/laires: Le, Jour/WI/X rougel, by a Giromiisl ( P-ol r is. 1848), p . 26. (a1a,2)

Th('UI·y of A. Granier (Ie Cauagnac. lIiJloire riel cl fl uel olulriere.! et <Ies cifluel bQ/lrgeoi$es (Paris, 1838): the proletarians were de8ceuded rrom thieves a nd pros­

titutes. [a7a.3]

·· Believe lIIe, I he wine of tile burrieres has prest' rvell tile gO"erlllllental framcwork from lIIall Y a s llock ." Edollard Foucaud , ,J(lris i'llumteur; Pllysiolos ie de {'im/us­

trie frrmr;(lise (puris, 1844), p . 10. [a7a,4}

Charras. from the Ecole Polyteclmillue, with reference to Gener al Lobau, who had nol wished to sign a proclamation : ''' I will han: hinl shot. '-'\lilh at are you Ihinking of?' dema uded M. Mauguin, incensed . ' Have General Lobau shot! A member of Ihc Pro"isional GOl'ernment !'-'The "ery same.' responded the s lu­dent , while leading the deputy 10 Ihe window and showing him a hundred men outside, veter ans of the fi ghting at the barracks in the Babylone district .· ' And

wcre I 10 order these brave mcn to shoot the I...o rd God , they would do il !'" G. l)iJlet , lIistoire de {'Ecole IlolytedlllilJue (Pllris, 1887) , p. 158 [evidently a li t­eral ci tation frOIll Louis Blanc]. [a7a,S}

lkon Guillemill : "There are Iwo sorts of p rovidence, ... God and the Ecole Polytcc:hnique. If Olle should be found wa nting. the other will be there." In G. Pinet. p . 161. [a1a,6)

Lamennais and Proudhon wanted to be buried in a mass grave (Delvau , Heures Pf.ruielllies ( Paris, 1866), pp . 50-51 ). [a7a,7)

Scene frOIll the February Revolution. The Tuilcries were plundered . " Neverthe­iess, the crowd had stopped , as a sign of respect . in front of the chapel. A student look a{h-anl age of this momenl 10 steal the sacred vessels, and in the evening he

had them ta ken 10 Ihe Eglise Saint-Rocll. lie chose to carry, by himself, the mag­nificent sculpted Chris t th at fo und a place on the altar; u group of people followed

quietl y in his steps. Iheir hals remo.'ed a nd heads bowed . This scene ... was reproduced on a stump t.hat could be seen , for a long time afterwa rd , in Ihe wi ndow, of all the merclUlllts who sell rclib>ious icons. The I}olytechnician was rep resented hol(lillg Ihe Chri st in his a1"l1l5. displayi ng it before a kneeli ng crowll , while lIe exciai mCII : ' Here is the master of us nil! ' These word s were not actunlly spoken . hUI they I'onform to the senlimcnts of the populalion at a time whcn ...

thc d ergy ilself, peri ecuted by the Voitaireull killg. greeted the revolution with ellthlls iasm:' G. Pillet . lIiJfoire de "Ecole po lyter/Illil/lle (P·olris. 1887). PI'. 245­U~ ~Q

T he l)olytcc:llll iciIlIlS '·ohservetl the procL"t!tiing.! or the U1amluisl c1uL Ihal met ill a haU on the ground fl oor. where demagogic Oralor s, agilating ror lhe most sinis ter of

incendiary deeds. spoke already of pulting the Provisional Government on trial:' G. Pinet . Hi3loire de I'l£cok polytechniqlle (Paris, 1887). p . 250. [a8,2}

During the February Revolution, students from the Ecol~ ~lytechniq~e bu~ed papers in the Tuileries which appe~d to them compro~mg for the ~Ignatones. but which would have had great lllterest fo r the revolutIOn: declarauons of loy.

alty to Louis Philippe (pinet, p . 254). [a8,3}

• Lissagaray, in an essay on Le& !tfuerables, in La Batailk: " One need only be in touch with the people to become r evolutionary" [Victor Hugo devant l'opinion

(Paris, 1885), I)' 129]. [a8,41

" Around 1840, a certain !lUmber of workers formed the resolution to plead their

cause directly before the public .... From that moment , ... communism, which until then had been on the offeU8ive , took prudently to the defense." A. Corbon,

Le Secret da peuple de Paris (Paris, 1863), p. 117. In question are the communiat

organ La Fraternite. which began publishing already in 1845, the a nticommuniat L'Atelier, L'Union , and La Ruche popltlaire, which was the earliest. [a8,51

On the worker : " He is, in general, incapable of understanding practical affaire. The solutions that swt him best are therefore those which seem likely to exempt

him from incessant preoccupation with what he considera the humble sphere , the drudgeries of life.... Let us take as a virtual certainty, then , that any system which would tend to rivet . .. our worker ... to the factory-though it promise far

more butter than bread- ... would be r epugnant to him ." A. Corbon , pp. 186­187. [a8,61

"The qUC5tioll of worker s, like the question of the l}(JOr. was planted at the ~try­way to the Revolution . Since the children of the families of workera and artisaPl could not cover the needs of a labor--starved industry. fa ctories made use of or­

phans a& well .... The industrial exploitation of children and women ... is o~~of

the most glorious achievements of philanthropy. Cheap food for worke~, Wl. a . hi! th IC nollon •

. . . view to lo .....ering wages, was likewise one of the ra~onte p an rop Wh n

of the factory owners a nd political economists of the eighteenth ceutllry. . . . .e the Jo"rench finally study the Revolution with a cold eye and without class preJ~­dice. they will realiJ:e that the ideas which made for its greatneu came from SWlt­

. . f . from Geneva J:erla nd , .....here the bourgeoisie was already dommant: IR act, It WB8 h

• . , I . ch created suc P Candolle imlwrted the so-called economic SOIl I) ••• W 11lh.1 A . . bl" k ' Viney

a furor ill the Paris of the Revolution .... Even the dry and UII III IIIg 0 bl could not help being moved ' at the sight of this alliance of men of .respecla e

. . f " -T , .. Paul Wargue, position eagerly occupie.-I in 8ul)CrvlSlllg a l)Ot 0 .....1 109 80UI)· 149. " Die christliche Liei)c8tii tigkeit ," Die n~ue Zeit , 23. nO. I (Stuttga rt). pp . 148- II

[a8a,

"S hould three men ha plten to be in the street talking togeth<:l r Mhou! wagel. or . h h ' labor forshould they happen to ask the entrepreneur who has grown n c 0 11 t elr

a raise of olle sou , then the bourgeois becomes terrified and cries out for strong measum .... Most of the timc, our govemment4 have exploited this sad progress of fear.... Alii can say here is that ... our grand Terrorists were by no means men of the IJeople. They were bourgeois and nobles, men with cultivated, subtle. bizarre miud&-8ophists and scholastics." J . Michelet , Le Pel.lpk (Paris, 1846),

PV' 153-154. 7 [a8a,2)

Fregier, the author of I~s Cla.ues dongerewel, WB8 head clerk at the prefecture of

police. [a8a,3)

On the description o f the February Revolution in H aubert's Etiucahtm Jenhmm· tait'-which needs to be reread-one finds (with reference to Stendhal's descrip­

tion of the Battle of Waterloo):1 "Nothing of the general movements, nothing of the great clashes, but rather a succession o f details which can never form a whole. nus is the model which M. Haubert has imitated in his depiction of the events of

February and J une 1848; it is a model of description from the standpoint of the idler, and of politics from the standpoint of the nihilist." J.:J. Nescio, LA Lilliralure sow les tkux Empires, 1804-1852 (Paris, 1874), <p. 114). [a8a.41

Scene from the July Revolution . A woman donned men 'l clothing to fight alongside the others. and then afterward , as woman again, nursed the wounded who were

lodged in the Stock Exchange. "Saturday evening, the cannoneers who were trans­ferring the artillery pieces remaining at the Bourse to the Hotel de Ville enthroned

our young heroiue on a cannon crowned with laurels and brought her with them . This eve.ning, at around ten o'clock. they brought her back in triumph to the bol1r8e by the light of lorches; she was seated on an a rmchair decorated with

garlands and laurels." C. F. Trieotel, Eaquuae de qlUlqlUs acen.el de l'inteneur de

to BOl.lr5e pendontlea journus dea 28, 29, 30 et 31 jl.lillet dernier: Au profit dea bleue5 (Paris, 1830), p . 9 . [a9,11

Lacenaire composed an "Ode ala guillo tine," in which the criminal is cdebrated

in the allegorical figure of a woman, of whom it is said : "1b.is woman laughed,. with horrible glee, I As a crowd tearing down a throne will laugh." The ode was written shortly before Lacenaire's execution- that is, in January 1836. Alfred Ddvau, Les LionJ du jour (Paris, 1867), p . 87. (a9,21

A chari ty supper at the Hotel de Ville, where unemployed worker&--in winter, above all conuruction workcrs-gatllered . "The hour for the public meal has just souJI(led. And now Little B1uecoat hauds his ivory-tipped cane to one of his aIISis­

taniS, lakes from hi.s buttonhole a silver place-setting which is attached there, dips the 8»0011 iuto one pot after another, tall tes, pays the servers, preslliC8 the out· Stretched hands of the poor, takes up his cane, refastens his spoon , Mnd goes trallquilly' on his way .... He is gone. The lIerving o£ the food begins." Little Bluecoat was the nickliMme of the philanthropist Edme Champion, who had risen OUt of ver y Diodes! cir cunulances. <See aI2a,1.> The passage from Ch.-L.

Chassin, 1,.« 1~8ende du Petit Manteau Bleu , cited in Alfred Delvau , l..et LWnt du jour (Paris. 1867). I)' 283. [il9,3J

The author. in ms pamphlet condemllillg the rural exodus. turns to tile country girl: " Poor, lovely child! The journeyman 's tour de France, wmch is of question_ able utility to your brothers, is always an evil for YO Il . Do not-if need be, until you are forty-let go of your mother 's apron strings ... j and should you be foolish enough to set out on your own, aud should you find yourself sllaring your unfur_• nisbed room with intransigent unemploymeut and hunger, then call (like a virgin I knew once), call a last guest to your side: CIlOLERA. At least in his fl eshleas arms, at least on rus ghastly chest, you will no longer fear for your 1I0nor. It And immedi_ ately following this passage: " You men of conscience who will read this. I implor<tl you once more, on my hands and knees. to make known , in every way possible , the substance of this IMmuitimate chapter." Emile Croilat , La Malodie d" lacle, ou Le, Suitel Juneltel du declouement , ocial: Ouvrage h ri' lOUS leI trute. ifllpiro.­tioIU d 'un o vocot JOIU cause, d 'un nOloire e t d'hn ot/oue safll clientele, d 'un mkdecin sans protiqlWs , d 'un negociant sans capitaw.: , d'un ouvrier lans fravoU

(Bordeaux , 1856). )I . 28. [a9,4)

lnsurreetionist movements under Louis Philippe: " It was then. in 1832, that the red flag appeared for the first time." Charles Seignobos, lIutoire sincere de 10 nafion/ron~aue (Paris, 1933), p . 418. [a9a,I)

" In 1848, there were only four cities with a population above a hundred thousand ___ souls-Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, a nd Rouen; and only three with a population of seventy-five thousand to a hundred thousand-Nantes, Toulouse. and LiIIe. Paris alone was a great metropolis with more than a million inhabitants. not count­ing the faubourgs (annexed in 1860). France remained a country of small towru." Charles Se.ignooos. Hutoire sincere de 10 nationfront;aue (Paris, 1933). pp . 396­397. (a9a,2)

I.n 1840, the pe tty bourgeoisie makes a push toward the right to vote, by demand­ing it for the Garde Nationale. [a9a,3)

National Asse.mbly of 1848. " MJle.-- asks to borrow 600 francs from the Na­tional As&embly to pay her rent." Historical fact. Paru ! OUS la Republique de 1848: Expo!ition de 10 Bibliotlleque et de! Tra vUlu hiJtorilJue! de la Ville de Paris (1909), p. 41 . [a9a,4-]

" As soon as they heard tell of a battalion of womell , the designers sel about 10 find them a uniform .. .. Eugenie Niboyet. editor of La Voix de! femmes • ... pro­nounced on the matter : 'The titJe " Vesuvian ,'" she writes, 'means that everyone of these conscripts is harboring. in the core of her heart , a volcano of revolution­ary firell.· ... I-:ugcnie Niboyet t1lcn Slimmolle(1 her '~ i8 t cr8' to the dOWll8lairs galleries of tilt: BOlllle-Nouvelle bUl\uur und 10 the Sail" Taranne." Paris JOUJ to

Republi(JIIe cle 18'#8: EXIJO! ition tie il, Bibliotheqlle et des Travaux historiqlleS de 10 Ville rle Puris ( )909). I). 28. [a9a,5)

Social subjects occupy a very large place in lyric poetry at midcenrury. They take all possible fomls, from the UUlOCUOUS variety of a Charles Colmance ("La Chanson des locataires" <The Tenants' Song>, "La Chanson des imprimeurs" <"111e Printers' Song» to the revolutionary lyrics of a Pierre Dupont. Inventions are a favorite theme ofsuch c/Ul1IJOfIJ, and their social significance is underscored . Thus was born a "poem in praise of the prudent entrepreneur who first re­nounced the manufacture ofa noxious product [white lead] to adopt 'the white of iIuJocent zinc.''' Paris sous fa Ripub/ique de 1848: ExpositifJn de la Ville de Paris (1909), p. 44. (.9. ,61

Apropos of Ca bet : " It is toward the end of 1848 that the discovery of the deposits became known in Paris, and almost immediately companie were formed to facili­tate the enliva tion of prospectors. By May )849 , fifteen such companieA had begun to ol.erate. The ' Colllpagnie Parisienne' had the honor of transporting the fi rst group of t.ravelers, and ... these modern Argonauts entrusted thelllselveA to a blind Jason who had never evell seen California: one Jacques Arago • .. . whose account .. . of a voyage rOlilld the world was in part developed from another's notes .... Newspapers were founded: La Cali/ornie , a general-interest paper on the Pacific Ocean ; the 'gold-bearing' Aurifere, monitor of the gold mines; L 'Echo du Sacramento. Joint-stock com)lanies offered shares of81ock at exceptionally low prices . only five francs. on the floor of aU tbe stock exchanges." Many cocottes make the trip overseas-the colonists ar e eXIJeriellcing a shortage of women. Paris SOliS la ReJJublifJlle de 1848: Exposition de 10 Ville de Paru (1909), p. 32. <On Jacques Arago, Sl.'"C a12 ,S. > [aIO,I)

There's a comparison to be drawn bet"\t:een Cabet and the following verse, which , is, ofcourse, directed against the Saint-Simonians. It comes from A1cide Centy, A

Moruieur de Chateaubriand: Pones tt prruateurs.frallfais-Sab"rt (Paris, 1838), cited in Carl LocIewijk de Liefde. Le Saint-Simonisme dam fa poisit.franfllist entre 1825 tt 1865 <Haariem, 1927>, p. 171 : "The insinuating Rodrigues will peddle to the i Iroquois JBareme and some unsmoked cigarettes." [a IO,2]

DeJphine Gay (Mme. E. de Girardin) shows herself, in her poem "Les Ouvriers de Lyons" (PoisitJ comp/ettS [Paris, 1856], p. 210), to be a precursor of the philoso­phy of innkcepulg: "The poor man is happy when the rich has his fun ." [a 10,3]

Wi th Iwo arms or iron a magnilieenl Irack

Will hegi r(1 my re IOU"'i,,: Peking to Parill. t\ hundred (Iirrer ent IteOllle •. mixing thei r tongues. Will make one colossa l car Ii Dabcl.

There, " 'ith ... heel of lire. humani ty's coach Will ... ear 10 Ihc hone the nmll<:le. or the earll, . From alol' this gleaming ",:~...I. men . all anlll?.·d,

I WiUlook out on an ocean of eatablet. The world will become a fi ne china bowl Filled up for thi! human menagerie; And the c1ean-,haven globe. without beard or hair-A monumental pumpkin-will revolve through the . kies.

Alfred de MUllet , Nomouna (Paril), p . 113 ("Dupont et Durand"). [al0,4]

] • Saint-Simonian poetry-Savinien Lapointe, Ihoemaker, " L' Emeute" <The

Riot ):

No. the (uture will dispenNl with barricadet!

You great one •• while your hand. are buildinl ac.croldl, Mine are lICauering ftowerl over the gravel. To each hU million or hi, painfulta, k: To the poet. the 10"1; to power, the ax!

Olinde Rodrigues , Poe'~1 .oeiole. de. ouvner. (Paria, 1841), pp. 237, 239. {a10~1

From Alfred de Vigoy."La Maison du berger" <The Shepherd'. HoUle) , treatinc

of the railroad:

May God guide the thunderin& ,team to it. end 'CrOll the mountaina travened by iron railil. Let an aJllCI be perched on it.loud..eJankin&; boiler When it head. underground or I'1)Cka bridv-.

Turn away (rom these tracU--tbey laek Vace. Their iron linea will take you \

With the . peed of an arrow throul h . pace, Shot whi8tlill(! from bow to bull ',-eye. Thul hurled like a bolt, human beinp LoNl their bru th, lose their li8ht, In the , motherinl cloud rent by lightning.

Diltance and time are now conquered by Science, Which encircle. the world with it. road ,ad and . traight. The World iI reduced by our experiment; The equator i. now but a tight-fiuing hoop.

Alfred de Vigoy, Poel~' comp~te., new edition (Paris , 1866), pp . 218, 220-221. [a10a,l]

To be compared with Cabel: the remarkable, beautiful poem "Le ~avre~ t.'Y Elise F1eury, embroiderer (Olinde Rodrigues, PoiJi(J Jocia/eJ deJ ()U~ .[PariS, 1841], p. 9). It describes an ocean steamer, cont:rasting the luxury cabms Wlth the lower deck. [a10a,2]

U1I~,UI"""""

Rut 1fansnonain, It 15 avril 1834 (Government Reprisal on the Rue Transnonain, April 15, 1834). Lithograph by Honori Oaumicr. Sec ala., l ; al0a,5.

"An opuscule in verse (Les Principes du Pe.i. Manteou Bleu sur Ie sy.teme de la oommunoute (See a9,3 ) , by Loreux, conlmunist [Paris, 1847J) is a species of dialogue between a partisan and an adversary of communism .. .. In order to

alleviate all , .. suffering, tbe communist Loreux appeals not to envy or to venge­ance, but to kindne.. and generosity." J ean Skerlitch , L 'Opinion publique en France d 'oprel la poelie poutique et IOCWIe de 1830 a 1848 (Lausanne. 1901). p. I94. [a IOa,3]

~ 1847, a famine; ma ny poems on the subject . [a IOa,4]

August 1834, uprising of Mutu alis ts in Lyons, nearly contemporaneous with the uprising on the Rue Transnonajn .~ At Lyons: "The army reported 115 men killed and 360 'Wounded, a nd the workers reported 200 killed and ,WI) wounded . The government wanted to grant indemnities, and a t;ommissiun was named , which proclaimed the fo llowing principle: ' Tile government does not want the triumph of

the social order to cost a ny tears or revelS. It knows that time, whicll gr adually effaces the anguish occasioned b y t.he costliest personal losses, is powerless to redrcss lhe blows of fortune.' ... The whole morality ofthe Juiy Monarchy can be roulld in these' words," J ean Skerlitch , L 'Opinion pllbliqlle en France d'opre. W Poelie polilique et lociole (Lausanne, 190 I), p . 72. (alOa,5)

"I will rouile Ihe l}tlople wilh Ill y unvarnished truth~; I I will proplwsy on eVery ~ trcct l:orncr. ,. ItcgcsipJle Moreau . d iCit in J ea n Skerlitch , I. 'O/Jinion /Jltblique en f ' rilll e!! tl '(jl}rC~ itl/'oC5ie ,W/i1if/ue el 50ciuie de 1830 ii 18,,·8. I'. 85. [a ll ,I)

" In the lll1 YS ill1l11t."tliulcly following the Re\·olution of 1830, a song made the rounds ill Paris: ' Ht"tlucte Irun ollnier it lin Juue-Milieu .' Its refrain waa l,articuJariy

ex pressive:

• I am hUlIgry! Well. thell . eat YOllr fi st. Sa\'e the olher for tomorrow.

And Ihal', m)' n:(rai ll .

... Bll rtlu! lemy ... sayl ... that .. . tile unemployed laborer hali no choice but to work in ' the ya rd of uphea \' II I. ' ... In Barthelemy's Neme5u ... the pontif Roth· schild . with a multitude of the faithCul , chants the ' Mass of stockjobbing,' l inga the

'psa lm of IInnuit y. '" J ean Skerlitch , L 'Opinion publique en France d 'opre. to p oesie(LlIu sanlle, 190 1), pp. 97-98, 159. [a ll ,2)

" During the day of J \Inc 6, a sea l'eh of t.he sewers iJad been ordered . It was feared

that they would he IIsed as a refu ge hy the vanquished. Prefect Cisquet was to

r ansack the "i lillen I'uris. while General Dugeaud was sweeping the puhlic Paris­a CO Illlt'CIt·tI tlouhle operat ion which demanded a double s trategy on the part of public power, rcprcscntcd a bove by the army and below by the police. Three platoons of officers alld sewermcn investiga tC(1 the subterr anean s t.ree18 of Pari.... ­Victor Hugo , Oeu vres compleles. novels, vol. 9 (Paris, 1881). p . 196 (La Miser(lbles). III [a 11 ,3}

Unfolding it~ wing>! o( gold . Million · arm~1 indu~tr)'. tl(uliant, Tra\'ersefl our (lomain5 Anel 8eClb Ihe: fi eM$. The d~r1 i~ l>f"oJileei at thl" iOund of il. \·oi<:e. TIlI~ arid lOil tl"l".n_ Anll (or the "'orM '~ bounl~'

It gives I.he "'orM l aw~ . « 1.205)

Refrain: All honor 10 U8. Ihe ofr~pring of ineluslr)'! Honor. honor to our works! [n 1IIIII.e II rb "'e: ha ve r.Otl(IUI"f't:(1our rivals-­A",I wuulell,c thl' hope. thl' I.riele. of our counlry. <I" 204)

Cillqll/lflre (.' 11(1111 8 !rulIf; lIis. lyrics by \'al'ious aut hors; set III music, ,with piano accoml'al1i IllCI1I , by Hougel de Lis le (Paris, 1825) [Dibliothellue Nationale. Vm7.4454J . (I. 202 (110. 41). "Chant (Ies imlustricis." 182 1.1c)(1 by lie Lisle). In the

sa llie \ ' 0 Itllll e . ' " '" urs('1 nl'II '"SC, [all ,4) 110 . :.:. ... ~a l

Hevolul.iolllll'Y IlIc ti,'s a llli ha ll.lcs on Ihe barricades. according to Le. Mi&erobte,. The night hcfore the \'arricade fi ghting: "'The invisihle police of the erne"'·

watched everywhere, and I11l1i llt ained order--that is , night. ... The eye which might have looked frOI11 ahove illto that l11ass of shadow would have caught a gl impse in the distance here and there. perhal)S, of indistinct lights, bringing out brokcli lind fanta stic lines. outlincs of l ingular COlistructions, something like ghostly gleams coming a nd goillg among ruills; these were the barricades." Oeu· vres compli tes , novel~, vol. 8 (Paris, 1881). 1'»' 522-523.-The foUowill g passage is from the clla pter "'Faiu d 'o'-' I' his toire sort e t que )' histoire ignore." "The meet.

ings were sometimes IJerioojc . At some. there were never more than eight or ten , all1l always the sa me IJerson!. I.n othen, anybody who chose to entered. and the room was so full that they were forced to &tand . Some were there from enthusiasm and passion ; otl1en because 'i t was on their way to work .' As in the time of the

Re\'olution , there were in these wine shops some female patriots , who embraced the ne,,·comers. Otherexpres~ive facu came to light . A man entered a ~bop , drank, and went out, saying: ' Wine merchant , whatever l owe, the revolution will pay.'

.. , A worker, drinking with a comrade, made him put his hand on him to see how warm he was; the other felt a pistol under hi~ vest .... All this fermentation was

"tlblic, we might almost say tranquil.... No singularity was wanting in this cri­sis-still subterranean , but already per ceptible. Bourgeois talked quietly with workers about the preparations. They would say, ' How is the uprising coming along?' in the same tone in which they would have said , 'How is your wife?'" Vic·

tor Hugo , Oeltvres completes , novels, vol. 8 (Paris, 1881), pp. 43, 50-51 (Le, Miserables). II [a ll a,I)

Barricade fightin g in Le, Mueroble5 . From the chapter "'Originalite de Paria ... "'Outside of the insurgent quartiers, nothing is usuaUy more strangely calm than

the physiognomy of Pari~ during an upris ing .... There is firing: at the I treetcor· ners , in an arcade, in a cul-de--sac; ... corpses litter the p avement. A few streets away, you can hear the clicking ofbiUia rd b aDs in the cafes.... The carriages jog

along; people are going out to dine. Sometimes in the very quar.icr where there is fighting. In 183 1 a fu sillade was ~u~pcnded to le t a wedding party pan by. At the ti l11e of the insurrection of May 12 , 1839, on the Rue Saint-Martin, a little infirm

old man, drawing a handcart surmounted by a tricolored rag, in which there were i decanters filled with Some Ii ' luid , ....ent hack and forth from the barricade to the

troops a lld frOI11 the troops to thc barricade, impartiaUy offering g1asliC8 of <:0­

coa. , .. Nothing i~ more str ange; and thi~ i~ the peculia r characteris tic of the

uprisings of Paris . which is not found in allY other capital. Two things are requisite for it ; the greatness of Pa ri~ and its gaicty. It rC(luire~ the city of Voltaire and of Napoleon . ,. Victor lIugo , Oeuvres compUites, Ilovels. vol. 8 <Paris, 1881 ) , Ill'. 429-43 1.'2 [alla,2)

Oil the motif of exutidsm. conjoined wil h Ihat of emancipation :

.AlI lire: ~cragli oB are: op'e: l1 l:d. The imam find ~ hi~ iltSJlira lion in wille. The: Orienl learn, 10 re:ad. Barnuh crOMe. lire 1IoCl8l.

Jule. l'o1ercit:r, " L 'Arche de Dieu ," in Foi nouvelle: Cha n', e' cha nson, <k Bar. r(l'llt , Vin{"fl r,' . .. 1831 iJ 1834 (Pari., January I , 1835), book I , p . 28. {aI2,1 J

Forge Ihe liberty of the Orient : Aery or Woman . on the day of deliverance, Travels rrom the harem by repeated « ho To break the horrid silence of the West.

• Vincard , " l...e P remier Depart pour l' Orient ," in Foi nouvelle: Ch(lnts et charuoru de Barraull , Vin{ard . .. 1831 Ii 1834 (Paris, January I , 1835). book 1, p. 48.

[a I2,2]

A strange stanza from "Le Oi:pan," by Vm~:

Cast off from a universe of serfdom, The old swaddling cJothc:s13 and the jargon; Lt:am the coarse and plain speech of the Ptople, The light ditty and the oath.

RJi MUlJelle, 1831 a1834 (Paris, j anuary 1, 1835), pp. 89-90. [d2,3[

Our flag haft loat palience wilh the Iky of France: Over the minarel8 of~pt il now mUlt wave.

Then will they see us, workers adept . With our ribbon. of iron Suhduing the desert .andl:

Citiet, like palmB. will spring up everywhere.

F. Maynard , "'A l' Orient ." in Foi nouvelle (P aris. January I , 1835). pp. 85, 68. {aI2,'l

In jacques Arago's pamphlet of 1848, "Aux juges des i.nsurg6;~" d~portation appears as an instrument of colonial expansion. After the author, m PI~ language, has summoned up in tum each of France's ov~as ~essIO.ns wnh­Out finding a single one suited to be the land of deportatIon, ~ e~ li~[$ on Patagonia. H e gives a very poetical description of the land and Its inhabitants. "These men, the tallest on eanh; these women, of whom the youngest are so alluring after an hour's swim; these antelopes, these birds, these fish, these phos­phorescent waters, this sky alive with clouds coursing to and fro like a 8~ of wandering hinds . ..-all this is Patagonia, all this a virgin land rich and tnde­

pendent.... Do you fear that England ~ cam~ and tell yo~ .that you have n~ right to set foot on this part of the Amencan cantment? ... CItIZens, let EnF grumble, just let it, ... and if it should arm, . .. then ttanSport to Patagorua the men whom your laws have smitten. When the day of battle arrives, those you have exiled will have become staunch mobile barricades, standing implacable at

the outposts." (aI2,5)

EdDIe Champion : self-made ma n ,14 plilla nthrollist ( 1764-1852). " Whenever he had occasion to go aero.s town. he wou ld never forgel to look inl o t.he morgue"_o

" •• Cha rles-Lo uis Chassin , I ... , U getlde d,j Petit MClll te11ll I1leu (Pu ris, ca. repo, 1860), p. 15. Cham pioll had been 1\ goldsmith a nd . during the Revoiutioll . pro­u:eted noble-born former customer8-which endangered hill OWII life. {a 12a,l J

Balzac, in EIIghiit Grmu/tl, with reference to the miser's dreams of the futu re: "That futu re which once awaited us beyond the requiem has been transported into the present."151bis is still more true with reference to poor people's fears of

the furore. [a I2a,2)

From an analysis of the s ituation arol1l1tl 1830, by police prefoct Gi8(luet . At iuue

are the workers: "Unlike the well-to-do c1allllefl of the oourgeoisie. they have no fear that, through a broader e)( tellllion of liberal principles. they will be compro­nusing an established fortune.... Just as the Third Estate profited from the . up· pression of the nobilit y's privileges ... , the working c1alls would profit today from

. 11 thai the bourgeoisie would lose in itll turn ." Cited ill Charles Benoist. "L' Uomme de 1848." part I , ReVile de5 deux monde5 (July I , 1913). p. 138.

[al2a,3)

"The great mob and the holy rabble I Made a rush at immortality." From a revo-­lutionary song around 1830. Cited in Charle& Benois t , "L' I-!omme de 1848,"

part 1, ReVile des deux monde5 (Ju ly I , 1913). p . 143. [a12a,4)

Rumford . in his economic essays. assembled recil>Ci designed to lower the cost of lIoup. kitchen fare by ull ing substitute ingrediellts. " HilisOUI)S a re not too e)(pen· . ive, seeing that for 11 francs 16 eentimcs, one hall enough to feed 115 per soDli twice a day. The only question is whether they are being prol)Crly fed .... Charltl

Benoist, "De I'Apologie dll travail a I'apotheose de )'mlvrier.... ReVile des deux mondes (J anua ry IS, 1913). p . 384. Charity soups were va riously introduced by FrCllch industries at the time of the great Revolution . (al2a,5J

1837-the first banquets for IInivt:rsal suffrage a nd the petition with 240,000 sig. 1I!1IlireS (etluivalent to the !lumber of rcgis ter t...1\'oters at that time). [a12a,6J

Around 1840, suicide is familiar in the mental world of the workers. "People are ~king about copies ofa lithograph representing the suicide ofan English worker In despair at not being able to eam a living. At the house of Sue himself, a worker Comes to commit suicide with this nOte in his hand: 'I am killing myself out of despair. It seemed to me that death would be easier for me if I died under the roof of one who loves us and defends us.' The working-class author of a little book much read by other workers, the typographer Adolphe Boyer, also takes his own life in despair." Charles Benoist, "I.:Homme de 1848," part 2. Revut des deux tI10ndes (rebruary I , 19 14), p . 667. {aI2a,71

From Rober t (tlu Var), Histoire de La clane ouvnere <depuill'etcwvejwqu'OV Charles Benoist claims to find in Corhon. Le Secret (1IttJ(!llple de Par is , the proud proletaire de not jourl) ( 1845-1848): " You have Been it witnessed in thi. hil tory, consciousness of numerical superiorit y over the olher c1assel!. 8 enoist . " I.e o worker ! When , at ,hive, you embraced the gospel , you beeRDle, unhesitatinpy, '1\I)'the' de la classe ouvricre." RellUe del clell.x morldel (March 1, 1914), I). 99 . a serf; when , 81 serf, you embraced the eighteenth-ccntury philo,aphe" you be­ [a I3a,2)

J came a Ilroletarian . Well , today you have ta ken up socialism .... What it to

] prevent you from becoming a pa rtner ? You are king, pope. and emperor­ Pamphlets from 1848 are dominated by the concept of organization. la l3a.3)

your fate. in this regard , is in your own hand.... Cited in Charles Benoitt " L'Homme de 1848,'" part 2, RevlU! de, deu.x monde, (February I , 19 14), p . 668.' " )n 1867, it was poiSible to hold conference8 in which 400 worker delegatefl, be­

• louy ng to 11 7 profellsions, ... discussed ... the organiza tion of Chambers of[a 13,l) jointl)' uniollized workerll.... UI) until then . however, workers' unions had been ver y rare--though on the other Ride, allied with the bOl!8es, there had been forty. A comment by Tocqueville on the spirit of the 1840&: " Wealthy proprietor'S liked to twO Chambers of unionized workers.... Prior to 1867, in the margins and inre<:all that they had alway, been enemies of the bourgeois clan aDd alway. been defiance of the law, there had been associations only of typographer s (1839), mold­friends of the people. The bourgeoisie themselves recalled with a certain pride that ers (1863), bookbinden (1864), a nd hatten ( 1865). After the meetings held in thetheir fathen had been laborer., and if they could not trace their lineage . .. to a Passage Raoul , ... these syndica tell multiplied." Charles Benoist , " Le ' My the' de worker ... , they would at least contrive to descend from Bome uncouth penon la classe ouvriere," ReVile del deux mondes (Ma rch I , 1914), p . III . (a13a,4J who had made his fortune on his own." Cited in Charles Benoist , " L' Homme de

1848," part 2, Revue des deux mondes (February I , 19(4) , p . 669. [a I3 .2) In 1848, TouS8enel was a member of the Commission of Lahor over which Louis

Blanc presided in Luxembourg. (aI3a,S)"The question of poverty ... has, in a few years, paued through extremely varied

phases. Toward the end of the Restoration, the debate turns entirely on the uline· To present London in its significance for Barbier and Gavami Gavami's series

tion of mendicancy, and society tries leu to alleviate poverty than to ... forpl it Ce quon fX)jl gratis aLondm <What Can Be Seen for Free in London>. (aI3a,6]

by relegating it to the shadows. At the time of the July Revolution, the situation iI reversed by means of polltics. The republlcan pa rty seizes on pauperism aad _

In Der acht:ehnte Brunlaire. Ma rx says of the cooperatives that in them the transfOrnL8 it into the proletariat. ... The workers take up the pen.... Tailon,

proletariat " renounccs the revolutionizing of the old world by means of the latter 'lIshoemaker s, and typographers , who at that time constituted the revolutioD&I'J

own great, combined resourcCll. and seeks . rather, to achieve its salvation behindtrades, nlarch in the extreme avant-garde.... Around 1835, the debate iI .....

society'& back , in Ilrivate fallhion , within it. limited conditions of existence."" pended in conllequence of the numeroUll defeats dealt the republlcao party.

Cited in E. Fuchs, Die Karikatllr des ellrO/Jiiischen Votker, vol. 2 <Munich, 1921>, Around 1840, it resumes, ... and bifurcates ... into two schools, culminating, OD

p.472. la l3a,7) the one ha nd , in communism and, on the other, in the alliociatioDJ deriving froID the mutual interests of workers and employers ." Charles Louandre, " Statittique

On Poi,ie, socialel de. ollvriers , edited by Rodrigues, La Revue del deux mondes Ilueraire: De la Production intellectuelle en France dupuis quinze aRll," Revue "­

writes: "You pau from a reminiscence of M. de Beranger to a coarse imitation ofdeux mondes (October IS, 1847), p . 279. (al3,3)

l the rh),thms of Lamartine and Victor Hugo" (p. 966). And the class-bound charac· ter of thi& critillue enlerges unabashedly when its author writes of the worker : " If

The Blamluist Tridon : "0 Might, queen of the barricades , ... you who fl ash in the he aims to reconcile the exercise of his profesRion with Iltcrary studies, he will lightning and the riot, ... it is towa rd you that prisoners . tretch their manacled discover how uncongcnial to intellectual development ph ysical exhaustion can he" hand•. " Cited in CharieR Benoist, "Le ' My the' de la classe ouvriere," Revue du (p . 9t?9). III support of his point , the author rehea rses the fate of a worker poet deux mondes (March I , 19 14), p . 105. [a I3,"} who was driven mad . Lerrninicr. " Dc 18 Litteralurc lies ouvriers," Revue des deux

"'ondes. 28 (Parill, 1841). (aI3a,8] Against workhouses, and in favor of lowering the lax on the poor: F. ·M.·L. Naville, De Ia Cha rite Ugale et spkialement des maisons de tra vail et de fa pro-­ Agricol Perdi bruier's Livre du compagno1llwge st.'t:ks to ma ke use of the medieval scription de fa mendicite . 2 volumes (Paris. 1836). (al3,5) guild-forms of alliance betwt.'t:1I worken for dIe new form of association . This

untlertaking is cur tly dismissed by Le rlll inicr in " De la l..iu eralUre des ouvriers,"

A coinage of 1848: "God is a worker." la l3a,l] in Revue des deux mundes, 28 (Paris. 184 1), PI). 955 IT. [a I4 ,1 ]

Adolphe Boyer. De fE'a' des Oll vrjer5 et de "on amelioration par l'organuario,. rather excessive, and certain people became uneaB), on learning that thieves

du 'ra vail (Paris. 1841 ). The a uthor of Ihis book was a printer. It was unsucceaa. ~.:;e shot 0 11 the spot. Under such a regime. they Raid 10 themselves, who could be

(ul. lie COll1mi t1l s uicide 1I 11d (according to Lerminier ) caUs 011 the workers to fo Uow of his own life in the end?" Heinrich Heine , " Die Februarrevolution ."surf: his example. The book was published in German in Strasbourg, in 1844. It wal ver y moderate and sought 10 make usc of COfflpag nonnage for worker auoeia. J -~ ~~ "Anyone who considers the harsh and burdensome life which the laboring

• classes have to lead remains convinced that, among the workers, the most re­markable men ... are not those who hurry to take up a pen .. " not those who write, but those who act .... The division of labor that assigns to some men action and to others thought is thus always in the nature of things." Lcrminier, "De la Liuerature des ouvriers," Revue des deux 11W1Ilies, 28 (Paris, 1841), p. 975. And by "action" the author means, first of all , the practice: of working overtime!

[a I4,3]

Worker associa tions deposited their funds in sa vings banks or took out tre.lury

bonds. Lerminier, in " De la Litterature des ouvriers" (Revue des deux monda [Paris. 1841] . p . 963). praises them for this. Their insurance institutions. he •• y.

further on, lighten the load of public assistance. [aI4,4]

Proudhon receives an invita tion to dinner from the financier l\tillaud. " Proudhoa managed to extricate himself ... b y r eplying that he lived entirely in the boaom 01 his family and was always in bed by mne P.M. " Finnin Maillard . La Cue da intellectuel! (Pa ris < 1905», p . 383. [al4,5]

From a poem by Dauheret on Ledru-Rollin :

The red nal! reve,.w by the French everywhere I. the ro~ in which e hritt wa. attired . Let U8 all render homal!e to hrave Robespicrre, And Maral who made him admired .

Cited in Auguste Lepage. Le, Cafts poutiques et litteraire, de Paris (Paris <1874>. p. II. [aI4,6]

Georg Herwegh , " Die Epigollt!n von 1830," Paris, November 1841:

Away. 'Wll), with the Tricolor, Which witnened Ihe deeds of your falhen, ,\ 1It1 wrile on Ihe gates U II warning: " Ilere hi Freedom's CaJlua!"

Geor g Uerwegh , Gellichteeines t ebendiBen, vol. 2 (Zurich and Winterthur, I844~, p . 15. lal4a, ]

Ucinc on the bourgeoisie during the February Revolution: " The §everity with which the IJe(lpie dealt with ... thieve, who wer e ca ught in the act seemed to lIlad1

Siimtliche Werke. ed . Wilileim 8 0lsche (Leil)zig). vol. 5. 1)' 363.17 (a I4a,2]

Alnerica in the Hegelian philosophy: " Uegel ... did not give direct expression to thi ~ con.st:iousllcss of terminating an epoch of his tory; rather, he gave it indirect

·',on He ma kes it known by the (act th at , in thinking, he casts an eye over expres~ . . . t.he past in ' its obsolescence of spiri t,' even as he looks about for a possible discov­er . in the domain of spirit , aU the while expressly rellerving the awareness of sucb

di!cO\'ery. The rare indicatiolls concerning America-which a t this period seemed the future land of liberty [note: A. Ruge, Awfriiherer Zeit, vol. 4, pp . 72-84. Fichte had alread y thought of emigrating to America at the time of the coUapse of old Europe (letter to h is wife of May 28. 1807). }-and concerning the Slavic world,

ell\'ision the possibility, for univenal spirit , of emigration from Europe as a meaDS of preparing new protagonists of the principle of spirit that was ... completed

with Hegel. ' America is therefor e the land of the future, where. in the ages that lie before us, the burden of the World's History shaD reveal itself-perhaps in a contest between North and South America .' ... But ' what has taken place in tbe

New World up to the present time is only all echo or the Old World-the expression or a foreign Life; and a8 a La nd of the Future, it has no interest for us here.... In regard to Philosophy . .. we have to do with ... that which is·n [Hegel, Philos6­phie der Cesehichte. ed. Lasson , p. 200 (and 779?)] .18 Karl LOwith, "'L'Acheve­

ment de la philosophie classique par Hegel et sa diu olution chez Marx et

Kierkegaard '" [Recherches philo'Qphique., founded by A. Koyre. H.-Ch . Puecb, A. Spaier, vol. 4 (Paris, 1934-1935). pp. 246-247]. (a lb,3]

, Auguste Barbier represented the doleful pendant to Saint-Simonian poetry. He ctisavows this relationship as little in his works in general as in these closing lines orIUs prologue:

If my verse is 100 raw, its tongue too uncouth, Look to the brazen century in which it sounds.i Cynicism of manners mwt defile the word, Alld a harred ofevil begets hyperbole. Thus, I can dery the gaze of the prudt:: My ungentle verse is true blue at heart.

Auguste Barbier, Pobi(s (Paris, 1898), p. 4. (a I5,1]

Call 1lea u publishes " Waterloo" (Puris: Au Bureau des Publications [ vadiellnes . 1843) a noll ),lIIolIsly. The pumphlet is Ilellicated to the apotheosis of Napoleon­"J esus the Chris t·Abel. Napoleon the Christ-Cain" (p . 8~and concludes with the in\'Ocatioll of "Evadiun Unity" (p. 15) and Ille signature: " III the name of the Cran,l E,·udah. in the name of God on High . Mother and Father .. . . the Mapa h" (1'. 16). <SeeU I2 ,7.) [aI5,2]

Ganneau ', " Page prophetique" was published for the fi rst time in 1840, and again Audiganne. is the air of ceremony with which the inve&tigators ca rry out their during the Revolution of 1848. The title page of the seeond edition bean the "isits to the homes or the worker$: ' If not a single special inquest undertaken

j foUowing announcement : "Thi, ' Prophetic Page: seized on July 14, 1840, Wa,

discovered b y citizen Sobrier. form er d eputy in the " olice DeparlmeuI , in the dossier of citizen Ganneau (The Mapah).-{The official report is labe led: ' Revolu. tionary page, one of 3,500 copies distributed under carriage entra nces. T' [a I5,3]

] Canneau', " Bapleme, marisge" inaugurates the era of the Evadah , commenc~• on Augusl 15. 1838. The pamphlet is published at 380 Rue Sainl. Den is, Pau ap Lemoine. Signed : The Mapah. It proclaims: " Mary ia 110 longer the Mother: III he i.a the Bride; Jesus Chris t is no longer the Son: he is the Bridegroom. The old world (of compression) is finished ; the new world (of expansion) begins!" "Mary~Eve,

female Genesiac unity" and "Christ-Adam, male Genesiac unity" appear " under

the name Androgyne Evadam." [a I5,' ]

"The 'Devoir Mutuel' of Lyon8, which played a crucial role in the insurrections of 183 1 and 1834, marks the transition from the old Mutualite to the Resistance." PauJ Loui8, Hi!toire de hl claue ouvrwre en France ch hl Revolutwn a no, joun

(paris, 1927), p . 72. [a I5,5]

On May 15, 1848, revolutionary demonstration of the Paris workerl for the liben­

tion of Poland . [a I5,6]

"J esus Christ ... , "'ho gave us no vestige of a political code, left hie work incom­plete." Honore de Balzac, Le Cure de village (letter from Gerard to Grosset&e), editions Siecle, vol. 17 , p . 183.1' [aI5a,ll

The early inquests into workers' circumstances were conducted , for the most part, by entrepreneurs, their agents, factory inspectors, and administrative officiab. " When the doctors and philanthropists who were conducting the inquest went to

visit the famili es of worker s, they were gellerally accompanied h y the entrepreneur or his representative. Le Play, for example, advises one, when visiting the fami1iel

of workers, ' to utilize the recommendation of a carefully chosen authority.' He counsels the adoption of utmost diplomacy in rega rd to individual members of the family, and even the payment of small indemnities or the distribution of gifts : one

sllOuld ' praise with discretioll the sagacity of the men, the grace of the women, the good behavior of the children , a nd, in suitable fashion , di.spense little presentl to all ' ( I.e! Oltvriers europeens [Paris] , vol. I , p. 223). In tile course of the detailed cri ti(IUe of inquest procedures which Audiganne prolilOtes in the discussions of lUI workers' circle, I..e Play is lipoken of in the following terms: 'Never was a faDer path marked out , despite the hest intentiolls. It is purdy a (Iuestioll of the sysU:dI. A mistaken point of view, an inadequate method of observation give ri lC to • wholly arbitr ar y train of thought havillg 110 relation li t all to tile reality of lucielY and evincing, moreover, an incorripble propensity for despotism and rigidity' (Audigalllle, p . 6 1). A fretluent error in t.he conduct of the inquests. accordan« to

during the Second Empire yielded concrete result! of any kind , the blame for this rests. in large part , 011 the pomp with which the investigators paraded around' (p. 93). Engels and Marx describe further the methods hy which the worken wer e induce<! to express themselves on the occasion or these recherche! sociale, and I: \ ' CII to present petitions against the reduction or their work time." Hilde Weiss, " Die ' Enquete ouvriere' von Karl Marx" [Zeit5chrift flir Sozialforschung, ed . Max Horkheimer, 5, no. 1 (Paris. 1936), p". 83-84]. Tile passages from Audi­ga llile lire tllken from his book iUbrlOires d 'un ouvrierde Pari! (Paris, 1873 >.

[a15a,21

In 1854, the affair of the carpenters took place. When the carpenters of Paris decided to strike, proceedings were instituted against the leaden of the carpenters ror violation of the ban on coalitions. They were defended , in the first insta nce and

in the appeal, hy Berryer. From his a rguments before the court of appeals: " It cannot be this sacred resolve, this voluntary decision to abandon one's work rat her than not derive a just income from it , that has been ma rked out for punish­

ment by the law. No, it is the determination, instead , to restrain the freedom of othen; it is the interdiction of work, the hindering of others from going to their place of work.... In order, then , for there to be a coalition, in the proper sense, there must be sonIc sort of restraint on the liberty of persons, a violence done to the freedom of others. And , in fact, if this is not the true construction of articles 415 and 416, would there 1I0t be, in our law, a monstrous inequality between the

condition of the workers and that of the entrepreneurs? The Jatter can take coun­lei together to deeide that the cost of labor is too high .... The law ... punishes the coalition of entrepreneurs only when their concerted action is unjust and

\ abusive. , .. Without reproducing the same set of words, the law reproduces the same idea with respect to workers. It is by the sound interpretation of these arti­

cles that you will consecr ate the e<luality of cOlldhion that ought to exist between these two classes of individuals ." ( Pierre-Antoine) Berryer, OeltVre5: Phlidoyers. vol. 2, 1836-1856 (Paris. 1876), pp . 245-246. [3 16,1) , ~fllir of the ca rpenter/!: " M. Berryer concludes hi/! plea by rising to considera­tiOlls ... of the currellt situation , in France, of the lower c1asse8---(!ondemnoo , he

says. to see two-fifths of their member s dying in t.he hospital or laid out in the

m?rgue:" Berryer. Oeuvres: Pl«idoyers. vol. 2, 1836-1856 (Paris, 1876). I)' 250 ~1 he principal8 accused in the trial were sentenced to three yeurs in prison- a Jlidgment tllut was uplleld 0 11 appeaL) [a I6,2]

"Our worker-poe ts of late have been imitating tile rhythms of Lamartine•... too oftcl! sacrificing whatever folk originality they might have .. . . When thcy write, Ih,:y ....·ca r a Ii{U1., 'allll pllt on gI I I ' I ..oves, t IUS oSlllg t. IU 8uperIOnt y that strong hands II lld Po.....erful arms givc to the people .....hen they kllOw how to use them." J . Michelet , Le l'eupJe, 2nd ed. (Paris. 1846), p . 195. At allothcr point (p . 107).

1 the a uthor accentuates the " I~uliar character of meekne88 and melancholy" at. taching 10 dus poetry.1(I [a I6,3]

u-uly to defeat him . one would have had to do things which it was impossible even to mention. " CitC(1 ill Abel Bonnard . I.e' Mo</eres, in series enutle(1 Le Drame d.l present, vol. I (Paris <1936», pp . 314-3 15. [a I6a,41

" 'II Paris ... Engel8 jotted down the 'creed ' which the Io<:al branch or tile Conunu_ nill t League had asked him to compose. He obje<: ted to the term 'creed ,' by whicb Schapper a nd Moll had designated their draft , and he d ecided that the question_

] and-answer form which was usual in such programs, and to which Considerant and Cabet had u1timately had recourse as well , was no longer in place he~."

• Gustav Mayer, Fri£drich Enseu, vol. 1 (Berlin <1933» , p . 283.~1 la16,41

Legislative repression of the working class goes back to the French Revolution. At. issue arc laws which punished any as~mbling and unionizing on the part of workers, any collective demands for higher wages, and any strikes. "The law of June 17, 1791, and that ofJanuary 12, 1794, contain measures that have proved sufficient, up through the present, to repress these offenses." Chaptal, De ['Indus­triefiaTlfoise (Paris, 1819), vol. 2, p. 351. [aI6a,l]

"Since Marx was officially exiled from France, Engels decided , in August 1846, to

shift his residence 10 the French capital 80 Ihat he could meet with the German proletarians who were living there and recruit them for the cause of revolutionary communism. As it happened, however, Ihe tailors and cabinetmakers and leather­

workers whom Grun W 88 trying to convert had nothing in common with the prole­tarian type on whom Engels was counting. .. Paris W88 Ihe headquarters of

fashion and of the arts and crafts; most of tbe German workers who had come Ihere to better their position in the trade, and then return home as master craft&­men , were 8till deeply imbued with the old spirit of the guild ." Gustav Mayer.

Friedrich Ense", vol. I , Friedrich Ense" in .einer Friihzeit , 2nd ed. (Berlin <1933». pp. 249-250.:1: [al6a.21

Tbe Brussel8 "Communist Correspondence Committee" of Marx and E~b in 1846: " Marx and he ... bad tried in vain to convert Proudhon . Engels now under­took a fruitleu mission to win over old Cabet , the leader of experimental utopi ..

communism on the continent , ... for participation in the Correspondence Com­· ·th theI ..mittee .... It was some months ... before he established closer re allons Wl

Reforme grOUI), with Lows Blanc and particularly with < Ferdinal:d .~ F1~on . Gusla v Mayer, Friedrich Ensel$, vol. I , Friedrich EDge" in .einer frllh zell , 2nd

. " A t3 [aI6a.3] ed . (Berlin (1933» , p . 2~.

Gui;(.ot writes afler the February Revolution: " I have long hcen subject to a dou­ble suspicion:' one, that the disease is much more serious than we think and say;

. . I h k· I While I held and , two , that our remedIes a re futil e, scar ce y more I. an s III (t."ep . the reills of nly country and directC(1 ilS affairs, this double awarelless gr~""

. I . . I · , ~ . , 1111 reillaiued Instronger IIY the tlay; an( I preCise y III proporllon as SUCCeet eu . power. I ca nle to fed that neither my success nor my tellure in offi ce was hav)nl! Dluch errect , that the defeated enemy was willnin5 out over me, and tiaat , ill order

"If an agitator is to achieve Jasting results, he Dlust speak us the representative of body of opinion.... Engels lllust have reaJi:I:ed this during his first visit to Paris.

~n his second , he found that the door8 at which he knocked opened more easily. French socialism still refused to have an ythillg to do with political strugglee. Therefore, he could look for aUies in the cominl! battle only among those demo­cra til conllected ,,;th W Reforme who advoca ted state socialism in some degree.

Under the leader ship of a Louis Blanc alld a Ferdinand Flocon , these men be­Iiel,ed, as he did , that it was necessa ry to garner political power through democ­racy before a ttempting any social transforma tion . Engels was prepared 10 go hand in hand with the bourgeoisie whenever it took a confirmed democratic direction ;

he could not refuse to associate himself wi th this party whose program included the abolition of hired labor, although he mllst have known to what extent iu parliamentary leader, Ledru-Rollin, was averse to communism . ... He had learned from experience; he presented himself to Blanc as ' the official delegate of

the German democrats in Londoll, in Drun d s, und on the Rhine' and ' the agent of the Chartist movement. '" Gustav Mayer, Friedrich Engell. vol. I , Friedrich Ensel$ in seiner Friihzeil (Berlin ( 1933», pp . 280-281 .:4 [a I7, 1]

"Under the Provisional Government it was customary, indeed it was a neceu ily. combining politics and enthusiasm at once, to preach to the generous workers who (as could be read on thousand.!! of official placards) had 'placed three montlu of

'"'-'ery at the dUp01101 of the republre,' that the February Revolution had been waged in their own interesu , and that the February Revolution was concerned above all with the interests of lhe worker •. But , a fter the opening of the National Assembly, everyone came down to earth. What was important now wus to bring 'labor back to iu old situation, a8 Mini8ter Trelat said." Karl Marx . " Oem An­denken der Juni-Kampfer " [in Karl Marx all Denker, Mensch lind RevolUlionor, ed . D. Rjazanov (Vienna alld Berlin <1 928». p. 38; first published in the Ne~

i rheinuche killing, ca . June 28, 1848V~ [a I7,2)

Final sentence of the essay 0 11 the JUlie combatlints. coming directly after the description of the measures underlaken by Ihe stale to honor the memory of those victims who belouged to the hourgeoisie: " But the plebeians are torlured with hunger ; reviled hy the press; ubuluiolled by doctors; ahust,'{1 hy hOliest men liS thie,·es , incendiaries, galley slaves; their WOlIll!n a nd chillircn thrown into slill­det:l)Cr misery; their best sons deported overseas; uIIII it is Ihe privilege. it is the rlshl of ,lie democra tic fJreu 10 ent,,;ne the laurels r ound their s tern and dlreat­eUing brows." Ka rl Marx. "' Oem Alulenken der J uni-Kampfer" [in Karl Marx all Denker, AJensch ufI(l Reoolutiollur, cd . D. Hjazanov (Vienna and Berlin), p . 40 : flfijl published in I.he Nelle rheinuche Zeit/mg, ca. June 28 , 1848).2· [a 17,3]

011 Buret's De la Mi.fer e dell clauell laoorieluell en Anglelerre et en France and Engels' Lage der a rbeilenden Klaue in Englllnd: "Cha rles AndJer would like us to see in Engels' book only a ' recasting and sha rpening' of the book by Buret. In Our view, hO"'ever, there is grounds for comparison here only in the faci that both hooks .. . partly draw from the same source material. ... The evaluative criteria of the ~'rellcll writer rerna in allchored in t.he concel)t of natural right ... , while the German autbor . .. adduces tbe tendencies of economic and social development ... ill his explana tions. Whereas Engcls looks to communism as the sole lIHlvation • frolll the worsening situation of the preseut , Buret places his hopes in the complete 1II0biUzation of lauded "roperty, in a social politics and n constitutional system of industry. " Gustav Mayer, FrU!drich Engel.f , vol. I , Friedrich Engel.f in ' einer

Friih::eil (Berlin <1933», p. 195. [8178,1) -

Engels 0 11 the June Insurrection. " In a dia ry lIIeant for publication on the literary page of the Neue rheinillcile Zeitung, he wrote: ' Between the old Paris and the new lay the fifteenth of May and the twenty-fifth of June.... Cavaignac's bombshelU bad effectively burst the invincible Pa risia n gaiety. " La Marseillaise" and "Le Chant du depart" ceased to be heard , and only the bourgeois still hummed to themselves their "Mourir pour la patrie,'" while the workers, unemployed and weaponless, gnashed their teeth ill suppressed rage." Gustav Mayer, Friedrich. Engel.f, vol. I . Freid rich Engel.f in seiner Frijhzeit (Berlin <1933», p. 317.21

[aI7a,2]

Engels, during the June lIl8urre£tioll , referred to " Paris East and West as symhole ­for the two great enemy camps into which here, for the fi rs t time, the whole sociely splits .... Gustav Mayer. Friedrich Engels. vol. I , FrU!drich Engel.f in seiner Friih::eit (Berlin <1933». p. 3 12. (aI7a,3]

Marx caUs the r evolution "our brave friend , Robin Goodfellow, the old mole thai can work in the earth so (ast , tbat worthy pioneer-the Revolution .... In the same speech, at the concl usion: ""0 avenge the misdeeds of the ruling class, there eJI..

isted in t.he MiddJe Ages ill Germany a secret tribunal ca lled the Vehmgericht. If a red cross was St!ell IIIQrkcd on a house. people knew thai its owner was doomed by the Vehm . All the houses o( Eurol)C li re flO W ma rked with tile mysterious red cross. Ilistury is the judge; its execntioner, the proletarian." Ka rl Marx , " Die Revolu­I.iollen \'011 18-18 und das Proleta riat ." spc!ech del.h-ered on the fourth annivenary of the fouudation of n,e {'caple's l'uper. Publislll!d in 1'he People 's Paper, April

u nov19, 1856~H [ ill Karl M(lr:c '1/11 Dellker. Mensch I/m/ Revo/utiofliir, cd . D. Rja:(Vieullu II I1tI Ilcrlin <1928 ». pp . 42. 43)' • (a17a,4]

Marx defends Cabel against Proudholl as " worthy of res l~t for his practical altitutle tnward the prol1"l uriat ." Mar x III (J ohallll > Schweit:wr, London, January 24 , 1865, in Kurl Murx und Friedrich ElIgcls, A ,ugewijMle Brie/e. cd . V. Adoral­ski (Moscow a nd U:ningr utl. 1934), p . 143.:!'I [a I8,1]

Marx on Proudhon: "The February Revolution certainly clime at a ver-y inconven­iell t moment for Proudhon, who had irreful ably proved only a few weeki before Ihat the 'era of revolutions' wa~ ended forever. Hill speech to I.he National Assem­bly. however little insight it showed into existing conditions, wu worthy of every praise. Corning after the June Insurrection , it was an act of great courage. In addition, it had the fortuna te consequence that Thiers--by his reply (which was then issued .11& a special booklet), in which he opposed Proudhon's proposal&-­proved to the whole of Europe what an infantile catechism formed the pedestal for Ihis illielleclual pillar of the French bourgeoisie. Compared with Thiers, Proud­hOIl's slature indeed seemed that of an antediluvian colossus .. . . His attacks on religion , the church, and so on were of great merit locally at a time wben the French socialists thought it desirable to show, by their reUgiosity, bow superior Ihey were to the bourgeois Vohaireanism of the eighteenth century and the Ger­nlan godJennen of the nineteenth. Just u Peter the Great defeated Russian bar­barism by barbarity, Proudhon did his best to defeat French phrase-mony:ring by phrases." Marx to Schweitzer, London , Janua r-y 24 , 1865 , in Karl Man: and Frie­drich Engels. Aw gewahlte B,w/e, ed. V. Adoratski (Moscow and Leninsrad , 1934), pp . 143-144.- la18,2]

"You ' ll be amused by the following: Journal des economute., August of this year, contains, in an article on ... communism, the following: 'M. Marx is a cobbler, as another German cOlllIQunist , Weitling, is a tailor .... Neither does M. Marx pro­ceed beyond ... abstract formulu, and he takes the greatest care to avoid broach­ing any truly practical question. According to him [llote the nonsense), the emancipation of the German people will be the signal for the emancipation of the human race; philosopby would he the bead of this emancipation, the proletariat ita hear!. When all hu been prepared , the Gallic cock will herald the Teutonic resur­rectioll.... Marx say! that a universal proletariat mwt be created in Germany [ !!] ill order for the philosophical concept of comrnunism to be realized . , .. Engels to Ma rx , ca. September 16, IM6, in Ka rl Mar x and Friedrich Engels , <B,w/wech­.el, > vol. 1, 1844-1853, ed . Marx-Engele-Lenin Institute (Mo&cow, Leningrad , <and Ziirich ,> 1935). pp. 45-46.]1 [a I8,3]

, " It is a necessa r y result of every victorious reaction that the causes of the revolu­tion alld eSI)Ccially of the counter revolution should pass into utter obUvion." Engels to Marx, Manchester, De.:ernber 18. 1868, apropos of Euge.ne Tenot's hooks o.n the coup d 'elat of 1851; in Karl Ma rx and Friedrich Engels, Awgewiihlte Urie/e, ed . V. Atloratski (Moscow and Leningrad . 1934), p . 209.u [a I8.4]

On national holidays, certain objects could be redeemed gratis from the pawn shops. [a I8a,l]

Lartiue ca lls. himseU "a citizeu with possessions." Cited in Abel BOllllurd . Le, Moderes, ill series entitled Le Drame dll pre,ent , vol. I , (Paris ( 1936» , p . 79.

[a I8a,2]

" Poetry ... hat 8allctiont!(J the greal error of separating the force of Labor frora Art . Alfred d e Vigny·s J ellunciation of I.he railroads is succeetled by Verhaeren'. inn't:live again81 the ' lcnlacll,.'{1 citie8. ' Poelry has taken Right fro m the forma of modern civilizatiuli.... It has not untlerstuotl Illat the clements of art call he foulIJ in any human activity what8oeVer. ami thai ils U""1l powers a re diminished by ils refusal to entertain the possibility of inspirlltioll in the thing!! actually SlIr. ruumlillg it ." P ierre Hamp , " I..a Littcrature, image tie 13 societe:' Encyclopedie Jram;tli!e . vol. 16. Aru e! litferafltres dtltls la !ociete cOllteml'or(line, I <Paris,

• 1935>, p . 64. [aI8a,3)

" From 1852 10 1865, France lellt four anti a half billion francs abroad . ... The worker s were even more Jiret: tJy affeclCd than the bourgeois republicans by cco--•

nomic developments. The consequence of the trade treaty with England and the unemployment in the cotton induslry caused by the American Civil War inevitably

made them realize their OWII J epelldence upon the international economic situ. a lioll ." S. Kracaller, Jucflues Offenbacll lind dtl! I'{lris !einer Zeit (Amaterdam,

1937), pp . 328, 330.33 [aI8a,4)

Pierre OUPOllt 's hymn to peace was s till sung in the stret:ts during the world

exhibition of 1878. [a18a,5),

In 1852 , establishment of Credit MobiJier (Pereire) for fina ncing the railroad.. Eal1lhlishmellt of Credit Foncier <laml bank> and of Au Bon Marche. [aI8a,6)

" In 1857, a yea r of crisis, a series of bi~ flllancial tr ials sta rted, under the inftueaee

of the opposition to Ihe Saint-Simonian democr alil;ation of credit ; they diAclosed an enormous amount of corrupliou alltl shady practice, !O uch aH fraudulent bank­

ruptcies, abuse of cOll6dence, and artificial Jriving up of prices. An enormoua lICnsation was caused by the Irial of Mires , which started in 1861 and dragged OD for yea rs." S. Kracauer, Ja cques Offenbach und da! Paris seiner Zeit (Amsler-­

dam , 1937), p . 262." [al8a,7)

Louis Philipl~ to Cuizot: " We shall never be a ble to effect anything in France, and

a day will come when my children will have no "read ." S. Kracauer, Jacquu Offenbach /lnd das Pari! seiner Zeil (AmstcrJam. 1937), p . 139.3.\ [a18a,8)

The manifesto of the Communist party was prece(ied " y mallY otllers. ()&' 3: Cop· s itihalll 's " Manifeste de la Democralic pI.ICifiqllc ..•) [al 9,l)

Fourier speaks of cubblers as " me.n 11 0 less poLile thall other s whell the.y gather in association:· Fourier. Le Nou veau MamIe illflustriel et socicllIire (Pari8. 1829),

. [aI9 ,2]p.22 1.

III 1822. Fra nce had 0 111 )' I().()()Q l'assi" e dl,.'Ctu~ and 110,000 aClh'e cleetoN. Acc'ortling 10 Ihe law uf 181 7. a lIIali WIIS a passi'·e eh.'t: tor <cLigi"le for clt.'t:tiOIi to

the Chamber of Deputies) ifhe had rt:ached the age of forty and paid 1.000 francs _ ,-,- I taxation . He was an active e1et: tor <eligible to vote for deputies > if he had1111 . ....

.,1 tile age ofthirt y ami paid 300 f rallcs.)<> (Defaulting taxpayers IHld a llIall_ reaC",II BoIJier?_luartercd with thelll , ""hom they haJ 10 maintain ulltil such time as

they had settled their J ebt. ) [a19,3)

£' rolldholl on lIegel: "The anlinomy is not resolved : here is the fundamelltal flaw of all Hegelia n philosophy. The two terms of which the antinomy is composed bil iallceollt .... A balallce is by no meanB a synthesis ." " Let us not forget ." adds

Clu'illier, " that PrOlldholl was for a long time II bookkeeper." Elsewhere, Prond· hOIl speaks of tbe ideas determining his own philosophy as " elementary ideas, COllunOIl to bookkeeping and meta physics alike." Armand CuvilLier, "'Marx et !' roudhon;' Ala Lumiere du marxi! me, vol. 2 (Paris, 1937), pp . 180-)81.

[aI 9,4)

The foUowing premise o£ Proudhon 's, claims J\larx in Die heilijJe FamiJie <?>. had been previously advanced by the English economist Sadler in 1830 . Proudhon says: "'This immense l)Ower that results from the union and harmony of lahorer s,

from the convergence and simuJlaneity of their efforts, has 1I0t been recompensed by the capitaLi8l.' Thus it is that 200 grenadiers succeeded , within several hours, in rai8ing the obelisk o£ Luxor on the Place de la Concorde , whereaa a sinye man working for 200 days would have obtained no resnlt al aU. 'Separate the laborers

from one another, and the amount paid daily to each would perhaps exceed the value of each individuail}rOOucl , but this is nol what is at issue here. A force of a

tholl8and men working over a period of twenty days has been paid whal a single man would earn in fifty -five years ; bnt this force of a thousand has produced, in twenty Jays, what the power o£ a single man , multiplied across a million centuries ,

\ could not achieve. Is there equity in the marketplace?'" Cited in Armand Cuvil­

lier, " Marx et Proudhon ," A la Lumiere du mtlrxi.lme, vol. 2 (Paris, 1937), p . 196. I [a19,5)

Unlike Saint·Simon and Fourier, Pro ucihon was not interested in history. "The ihistory of property among ancient peoples is, fo r us, nothing more than a matter of erudition and curiosity" (cited in C uvillier, "Marx et Proucihon," p . 20 1). Conservatism bo und up with a lack of historical sense is just as petty bourgeois

as conservatism bo und up with historical sense is feudal. [a l 9a, I)

PI·outllwll 'S a pology for the coup 11';: tat : 10 be found ill his letter to Louis Na poleon of April 2 1. 1858, where it is saill of the d ynastic principle " Ihat tlus principle, Which before '89 was simply the inca rlllltion . ill une choscn family, of J ivill" right or rclib';ous tlwlIght , ... is or ca ll I", Ileflll etl today liS ••• the incarllatioll. in olle c11 t18ell fami ly, of humall right or the rationaltlwllght of the revolution ." Cited in Arnland CuviUier, " Marx et Proud llOn ," A la Lumiere clu marxistne. vol. 2. pa rt I (Paris, 1937), p. 219. [a I9a.2)

Cuvillier presents Proudhon as a precursor of "national socialism" in the fascist sense. {aI9a,3]

" Proudhon believed that one could abolish surplus value, along ""ith unearned

J income, without transforming t.he organization of production.... Proudhon Con­

] ceived thi8 prepo8lerou8 dream of 80cializing exchange within a context of nonso­cialized production ." A. Cuvillier, " Marx et Proudhon." A la I..umiere du

marxume, vol. 2 , part 1 (Paris, 1937), p. 210. [a I9a,4] • "Value measured by labor ... is ... ,in Proudhon's eyes, the very goa l of pro­

p-en . For Marx , it i8 quite otherwise. The detenninalion of value by labor is not an ideal; it is a fact. It exists in our current sociely." Armand Cuvillier, " Marx et­Proudhon ," Ala Lamikre du morxume, vol. 2, part I (Pari8, 1937), p . 208.

{a I9a,5]

lYoudhon spoke out extremely maliciously against Fourier, and he spoke no leq derogatorily of Cabet. This last provoked a reprimand from Marx, who saw in Cabet, by reason of his political role in the working class, a highly respectable man. [a I9a,6J

Blamlul '8 exclamation, on entering the salon of Mlle. de Montgolfier on the evcnill8 of July 29, 1830: " The Romantics are done for!"JT [aI9a,7]

Be.pnning of the June In8urrection : "'On June 19 , the diuolution of the national work8hops was announced 88 imminent ; a crowd gathered a round the I-lUtel de

Ville. On June 21 , Le Moniteur announced that , the following day, worker8 a~ seventeen to twenty-fi ve would be enwted in the army or conducted to Sologne aDd other re.pons. It was this last expedient that most exa8perated the Paris worken. AU these men who were used to doing detailed manual work in front of a work­

bench and vise rejected the idea of going to till the earth and layout roads in • marshland . One of the crie8 of the insurrection was: ' \lfe won' t go! We won ' t go!'"

Gustave Ge£froy, L'En/erme (Paris, 1926), vol. I , p. 193. [3.20,1)

Blanqui in Le Liberateur, March 1834: "'He demolishes, b y a comparison, the

notorious commonplace, ' The rich put the poor to work. ' ' Approximately.' he saY8, ' as plantation owner s put Negroes to work , ""ith the tlifference that the worker is not ca pital to be hushalllietl like the slave. '" Gustave Geffroy, L 'En­/erme (pari8, 1926), vol. I , p . 69. [a20,2]

Garat 's theme of April 2. 1848: " Establishment of a corllotl 5(mitflire urotlnd the dwellings of the rich . who are destinelito die of hungcr." Gusta\'c Geffro y, L 'En­f erme (puri8, 1926), vol. I , p . 152 . [a20,3]

Hefrll in of 1848: " Ha t in hllnd whcn facin g the CU I), I Klu:d tlown Iwfore the worker! " [a20,41

Fifty thou8and ""orker s in thc June IIIStll·' ·t...: ti,," in Paris. [a20,5)

Proudhon tie/inc,. himself ItS "11 II CW ma n , a man uf Iloll'mics ami not of thc " a rl"i ­clI,lcs: a ilion who woult! know Ito"" to n'al;h hi ~ goal IIy Ililling c\·cr)' .Iay with the pl~rec t of police 111111 taking for Ilis confi.la nt~ 11 111111' Ot· la Hoddes of tluo world ." This in 1850. Cited in C,·ffroy, I.. 'Ellferme (p:lris. 1926). \ ' 0 1. I . pp . 180-18 1.

(a20,6]

"Ulilier the Empire--to its \'cr y end . ill fael- there was a rellc",·al li lid de" elop ­ment of the ideas of till' eigillccnth cen tury. . Pcopll!. in those days, readily caile,1 themsd \'es atheists, llIaterialis t8. positil'is ts; and th e vaguely religious or lIIanifcs tly Clltholic republican of IS.UI bt...:amc a ... curiosit y:' Gustave Geffroy,

L'En/erme (paris. 1897). p . 2,n . la20,7]

Blan<fui. ill the proccetlingl> takcn against till' Societe ties Amis du Peuple, under questioning by thc presiding jutJge: "'What is YOllr profcssion'! ' Biamlui: ' Prole­tarian. ' JUllge: 'That is nut II profession .' Blalltjlli : 'What ! Not a professioll? It i8

the profession of thirty million F'rCliclUllen who live by their labor and who are depri\'ed of politicul right8.' Judge: ' Well , so be it. Let the c1crk record thai the accuscd is a prolctarian.'" De/elise till eiloyen LOllis Auguste BlcJ1I(IUi devunl h, COl'" d 'ussises, 1832 (paris, 1832) , p. 4. [a20,8)

Baudelaire on Barhier'8 Rimes heroi"qucs; " 1I1' re, to Sllea k frank ly, all the folly of the ccntury appea rs, resplendent in iu unconscious lIakedness. Under the pretext

of writillg sonncts in hOllor of great men , Ihe poet has celebratal the Lightning rod and the automaleli loom . The prOtligious absurdities to which this confusion of ideas and fun ctions could leall us is obviou8.·' Baudelai re, L '..1rt romuntique , ed. Hachelle, \'0 1. 3 (Paris), 1' . 336.:111 [a20a,l )

81allllui, in his De/elise tlu eita)'e,. l.ouis Auguste Hlllllqlli clellant la cour d 'as­SUes, 1832 (Paris, 1832), fl . 14: " You ha\'e conf....ca ted the riRes of July- yes. But tile bullets have been fired . E" er y bullet ofthc workers of Paris is on its way rouud

,. the worl.!. " (a20a,2J

"1'1 .Ie l1Ian of gClIIlIS n!l'resents ut 0111 '" tl ... gr eatest ,; tn 'lI l;llI alld tilt" greatest weak­lIess of humanit y.... He "·11 ,, tile lIutiuns that till' inten'sts of the weak and tllc ill"' r~$ t s of genills l'o:llescl· . II UI'lI thai ti lt' one ca nnot lIe cluluugered wit llOut ell­II:m l,;"l"Ing the 011...1", slidl tllUt tl1l: IIltimutc limit of pCdCdihilily ",ill bc reached ollly wlwlI thc right uf the wl·uk, ·~ t wi.1l hU \'e rCl'lal·l.d. lin tilt" thnn\\". the l'igllt of Ihc stroll!;cst .·' Au gusit. OIullt lui . Critique suciu/e (f':lri 5. 1885) . \101. 2. fmgmellt s et I/O/I·S . p. 46 (" Prlll'l"ietc illll.III.I·IIIt'Il'· ... 1867---condIl5ion! ). [a20a,3]

0 11 1111" compliments pnitJ hy L:lIIl:lrtirw to II II,1I5..1lilol : " ~1. lie L:llnurtinc . this C:l1'tuin Cook of ocea ngoing politil's , thi" Siullll,1 t Iw Suilo'· of 1111' lliIW I I~'llt II ,·,·n­h,r),. . .. tllis ~' oyagt'r 11 0 less rO\' illg Ihull UIY88Cs. tlwugh huppi'·I·. wllo has ta ken

the Sirens to he crew of his ~ hijl and aired upon the shores of all the parties the evcr-vllrictl lIlusic of his cOllvictions, M. de Lamartine, in his nt:vel'-fl.nding OOY8. sey. hll8 jUlIl gentl y heached his aeolian hark under t.he porticoes of the Stock Exchange." Auguste OIal1tlui , Crili(llIe 50ciale (Paris, 1885). vol. 2, I). 100 ("La. martine et Rothschild ," April 1850). [a20a,4)

Doctrine of Blanqui : "No! No one has access to the secret of the futu re. Scaredy

possible for even the most clairvoyant are certain presentiments , rapid ~impses, a• vague and fu gi tive coup d ' oeil. The Revolution alone. as it clears the terrain , will reveal the horizon. will ~raduaU y remove the veils and open up the road•• or rather the multiple paths. that lead to the Dew order. Those who pretend to have in their pocket a complete map of this unknown land- they truly are madmen.-" Auguste Blan«ui . Critique 50ciale (Paris. 1885). vol. 2 . pp . 115-116 ("Lei Seetes et la Revolution ," October 1866). [a20a,5)

Parliamellt of 1849: " In a spt.'Cch delivered to the National Assembly on April 14. M. COll8itlerant . a disciple ... of Fourier, had this to say: ' The time of obedience is pa8l : !lien feel that they a rc equal, and they want to be free. They do not be· Iieve any 10llger. alltl they wish to enjoy themselves. There you have the lIate of 8ouls .·- 'You mea n the ~ ta te of hrutes!' interrupted M. de La Rocheja'lue-. Iein. " L. B. Bonjean, Socialisme el sens commun (Paris, May 1849), pp. 28-29.

[02 1,11

" !\t . Dumas (of the Il18titut) exclaims: ' The blinding dust of foolish theories railed by tile whirlwind of Febr uary has dissipated in the air, and , in the wake of thit vanished cloud . the year 1844 reaplH!ars with its shining countenance and iu sublime d octrine of material interests . '" Auguste Blanqui , Critique sociale (Paris. 1885). vol. 2, p . 1M ("Discour'S de Lamartine," 1850). [a2I,2)

In 1850, Blalltlui pens a polemic: " Rapport gigantes«ue d e ThieN sur I' assistance pliblitille." [a2 1,3)

" Will mailer ... assume the form of a single point in the sky? Or he content with.

thousa nd , ten thousa nd , a hundred thousand points that would barely enlarge its meager domain '! No-its vocation, its law, is infinity. It will not in the least allow itsclf to be outflanked hy the voitl. Space will not become its dungeon. " A. OIanqui,

t 'Eterflih~ p(lr/es (litre! : IIYIJOl/lese aMrOIlOmi(lue (Paris, 1872). p . 54 . [a2 1,4)

At the end of II meding in the early days of the Third Republic: "Louise Michel

anlloliliCetl that lUi effort would be Inalle 10 cOlltact Ihe wives anti children of imprisolled comrudcs. 'What we ask of you,' she said. 'is 1I0tlin lIet of ehllril Y but an acl of solidarit y; for thol!\' who bestow cha ril Y. when they do bestow it , are proud alltl sclf· lla tisfiCtJ . hUI we-we arc l1 e~'er satisfll"d .··· Dallicl Halt':vy. p(lyl I)llri&iens (paris ( 1932 ~). p. 165. (321,5)

Nouvelle Ntmisis, by Barthelemy (Paris, 1844), contains, in chapter 16 ("The \l\brkersn), a "satiren which very emphatically takes up the demands of the working class. BartM:lemy is already acquainted with the concept of proletarian.

[021,61

Barricades: " At nine o'clock in the evening. on a beautiful summer night . Paris without streetlights. without shops, without gas. without moving vehicles, pre­sented a unique tableau of desolation. At midnight , with its paving stones piled high, its barricades. its walls in ruins, its thousand ca rriages stranded in the mud its boulevards devastated , its dark streelll d eserted . Paris was like nothing eve:

aeen before. Thebes and Her culaneum are less sad. No noises. DO shadows, no living beings-except the motionleas worker wllo guarded the harricade with his rifle and pistols . To frame it all : the blood of the day preceding and the uncertainty of the morrow. " Barthelemy and Mery. L 'lnsurrection: Poeme (Paris. 1830), pp. 52-53 (note). 0 Parisian Antiquity 0 [a2 l a,I)

" Who would believe it! It is said that, incensed at the hour, I Latter--day Joshuas , at the foot of every c1ocktower. I Were firing on clock faces to make the day stand

still. " At this point a note: "This is a uni1lue feature in the history of the insurrec. tion : it is the only act of vandalism carried out by the people agaiost public monu­ments. And what vandalism! How well it expreues the situation of hearts and

minds on the evening of tile twenty-eighth!:J9 With what rage one watched the shadows falling and the implacable advance of the needle toward night-just as on ordinary days! What was most singular about this episode wu that it was ob.

served, a t the very same hour. in different parts of the city. This was the I!Xpres. sion not of an aberrant notion. an isolated whim , but of a widespread. nearly general sentiment." Barthelemy and Mery, L 'lnsurrection: Poeme tUd~ Bwr

Parisiens (Paris, 1830), pp. 22, 52. [a21a,2)

During the July Revolution, for a shon time before the tticolor was raised, the Hag of the insurgents was black. With it the female <body> was coven=d, presum­ably the same one carried by torchlight through Paris.4G See Barthelemy and

,. Mery, L'Insurrection (Paris, 1830), p. 5 1. [a2 Ia,3)

Railroad poetry:

To a ~tation ·neal.h Ihe rail~ e\'erybody is hound. Wherever Ihe train <: rill&cronest he land , There'l no more ~lis lin<: li on twixt humble IInri grllnd ; All c1assel are elJulll six ret:! underground.

Ilar thelemy. Nouvelle Neme5is. no . 12, " Lu Vapeur" (Pari8, 1845) <I" 46>.

[a22,I)

? I>e.ning of the preface to 'I'issot 's De hi Mall ie dtl suicide et de i 'espri. de re uoile: It ·· .

IS Impossible not to be struck by two moral phenomena which are like the

aymptoma of a disease that today, in its own particular way, ia ravaging the body ami limbs of aociety : we a re speaking of . uicide alld revolt. Impatient with aU law, discontentetl with all position , the individuul r ises lip (:. Iuuliy ugainst human na­ture and against munkiml , against hillUlelf and agaiust society . ... T he man of Our tillle. and the "' rend ullan perhapa more than any other. having ,'iolently broken with the pust ... alld looked witl. fear toward a futlln! whosc hori :..:on already ~et!rlls to !tim so glOOlllY, kills himself if he is weak , .. , if he lacks faith in . . . the betterment of men and , above all, lacks fa ith in a providence capable of deriv~

• good from evil ." J . Tissot , De la Manie du SILicide el de l'esprit de reVOile (Paris, 1840) <p . V ), The author claims 1I0t to have known the books b y Fregier, ViUerme,

and Degeraude at the time he drafted his work . [a22,2)

Concerning Flora Tris tan 's " Mcphis": "This proletarian name, which now is 80

readily inteUigible , ... sounded extremely romantic and mysterious in those d ays.

h marked the pariah , the gaUey slave, the carbonaro, the artist , tbe regenerator, the adversar y of the J esuits. From his encounter with a beautiful Spalliard wae

born the inspired woman who must redeem the world." J ean Cassoll , Quararlte­

hui, (Paris ( 1939» , p . 12. {a22,3}

With regard 10 the exotic enterprises of Considerant and Cahet, 81anqui speaks of experimentil carried out " in a corner of the hunlan species." Cited in CU!!Ou ,

Qua rante-Ilui" p. 41 . [a22,4}

The uDemploynlent rate in Engla lld between 1850 and 1914 rose only once above 8 pe rcent. (In 1930, it reached 16 1>cn:ellt .) {a22,5]

" The typographer Burgy, in hi il book Pre,em et avenir des ollvners, preaches ... celibacy to his companions: the picture of Ihe proletarian condition would not be , complete if one left oul the shadows of resign ation and defeatism, " J ean Cauou,

QlIllran,e-huil (P aris <1939», p . 77 . [a22a,11

Gui1.ot , ill 011 Mouvemelll e! tlu resishlllce en polilique: " Au y man of above-aver­uge intelligence who has neither property nor business-that is to say, who is unwilling or unable to pay a tribute to the li ta te--should be considered dangeroul

fro m a polil ical sialltipa int. " Citt!.1 ill Cassou, Quarmrte-hllit . p . 152. [a22a,2]

Guizot ill 1837. to the Chamber: " Today- apart fro m force of law- you have but one effectivc gt;aruIII{',' against Ihis revolutionary disposition of the poorer classes:

. r k "C· I · III Cnssou , I'p . .10)-.,- ... . [a22a3]work, Ihe e'lIIstalit nCt:c.'I81I y 0 ....or , Ilc. 1'3 ,

U1 all((ui. in his leiter to Maillurd : "T hunk hea vclI there are ilO many bOllrgeoill ~ the calliI' uf tim pl'oll'la riut. It is tllcy ....ho I'eprcsellt the chief strc llb>1h of t1u~ calli I' , or al least illl moSI lus ting strcnglh . They prm·itlc it wilh a cUliting.ent o~ Iliminarieil lj llch us tht. 1.eol'Ic themselves, unfortunately. "anllot ycl furnISh . 1 WII S tllC hOllrgeois ... IUI fint rll isc.1 Ihe fla g of the prolcillrint , ...·hu formulated,

propagated, ali(I maintained the egalitarian doctrines, and who restored them ufter Iheir downfuU. Everywher e it is bourgeois who lead the I>cople in their battles aguinst thc buurgeoisie. ,. A pUilsuge immediutdy following deals with the buurgeoi­sit" iI ellpioitation of the proletariat a il political shock troopil. Maurice Dommanget,

IJlaliqui aHeile-lie (PliriS, 1935) . 1'1'. 176-177. [a22a,4]

"'fhc terrible scourge of poverly, 80 relentless in ils lorments, requires a no less

lerrihle remt.'tly. and celilJacy apl>ca rs the mosl certain among those pointed oul to liS hy social science." In connection with Ii reference to Malthus: " In our day the piti less Marcus [evitlelltly used for " Mahhus"1, unfolding the dismal conl5e(luences of a limitleils incr ease in l)Opulalion . , , , lias venlured to propose asphyxiatinr; those bahies horn to indigent families that already have three children , and then

compensating Ihe mothers for suffering an act of such cr uel necessity, . , . Here we ha\'e the last ....ord of the economists of England!" [ J uJes Burgy.1 Pre.ent et avenir des OlllJrier. (Paris, 1847), pp. 30, 32- 33 .

[a22a,5]

There e:ltistt on earth an infernal vat Named Paris; it is one large oven, 1\ ~tony "il or wide circumference, Hinged by thr~ bends or a muddy yellow river. h il a seethinll volcano that never flol18 erupting; It. shock ...aves t ra\'e!through human mailer.

Auguste Barbier, lambe. et poemes (Paris , 1845), p. 65 ("La Cuve" <The Vat». [>23,11

The Paris purebred is this pale guttersnipe, Stunted growth, yellowed like an old penny, 'Th.is boy hooting. out at all houn Strolling indolent down unfamiliar lanes, Routing the: skinny mutU, or, all along the high walls, Chalking a thousand unchaste figurc:s , whistling the while, TIm child, believing nothing, who turns up 1m nose at mother;

t lllC: admonition to pray is for him a bad joke.

Auguste Barbier, lambes d ponneJ, p. 68 ("La Cuve"). Hugo had already re­touched these traits in the figure ofGavroche . {a23,2}

b -[Daumier]

A paradoxical description of Daumier's art: "Caricature, for him, became a son of philosophic operation which consisted in separating a man from that which society had made of him, in order to reveal what he was at bottom, what he could have been under different circumstances. He extracted, in a word, the latent self." Edouard Dnunont, UJ HiroJ d Ie; pitre; (Paris <1900» , p. 299 ("Dau­mier"). [bl ,l]

On Daumier 's bourgeois: "This Olllified , inert , crystallized bein~ who waiu for the omnibus leans on an umbreUa that expres&ee some unutterable idea of absolute petrifaction." Edouard Drlllllollt, Les lIeros et U!' pitrea (Paris), p. 304 (" Oau. mier"). [bl ,21

"Many writers ... acquired fame and fortune by mocking the fault. and infirmi­ties of others. Monnier, 0 11 the other hand. did not have 10 go very Car to find bit model: he planted himself before the mirror, listened to himself Ihinking .ad talking, a nd , findin g himself highly ridiculous, he conceived this cruel incarna­

tion , tlus prodigious satire of the French bourgeois, whom he named Joseph Prud­

homme." Alphonse Daudet , Trente ans de Pam , p . 91. [b 1 ,3~

" Not only d oes caricature greatly accentuate the techniques of drawing, .. . but it

has always been the means of introducing new subject matter into art. It wu

through Monnier, Ga varni , and Daumier that the bourgeois society of this century

was opened up to art. " Eduard Fuchs, Die Kurikutur der eltropiii&chen VOlker. 4th ed . (Munich <1 92 1» , vol. I , p . 16. [b1,4)

""On August 7, 1830, Louis Philippe was . . . proclaimed . .. king. O n Novembe~" of that same year. the fi n t iu ueof La Curicafure appeared , the journal created Y

PhiliJ>o n ." Eduard Fuchs . Dk Kurikatur der ellropiiuchell VOiker'(Mwucb), vol. I , p . 326. [bI ,5)

11>1,61M..ichelet wanted to 8t.'e Oll t' of hi8 wor ks illus tra ti!(1 by Da llmicr.

" Philipoll invenlcd a lIew chll l""ln:ler type, . .. which was sa id to havc hrought him

nearly a8 much ... popula.r ity 88 hi8 pean: '!tobert Macaire; the type of the

tllIscrl11>u lous s lJecuJator and promoter."1 Eduard Fuell8. Die Kuriku lllr tier ell ropiiilcilell VOlker (Mullich). \'01. 1. p. 354. [b I,7)

"T llI' lust issue of IAI CtlriClIf llre. daletl Augusl 27 . 1835. wa~ ... Ilc \'o tetl ... to

Iht' pl"olllulga lion of the ... Septemhe r Laws •... which ... wen~ represent t.'(1 in

tin: f01"1II of pca n." Eduard Fuchs. Die Karika'"r tier ellropiiisclu!.II Volker. vol. I ,

~m /bl~

Travics , the crca tur of Muycllx; Gavurni . the creator of Thomas VirclOIIUtl; DUII­lIlicr, thc (·rcator of Ha lapoil- Ihe UUIIUlla rtist IUlllpenprolctarian . [bI ,9]

0 11 JUIlUUI'Y I, 1856, Phili llon rebaIJt.ize. I.e ) a,, -ou/ po . I.e ), ur rlre a8 ol/nlt,[ unUMallt . /b1 ,101

""Whenevcr a priest ... exhorted the girls of II viUage never to go to the dance, or

the IJeaBlI lI ls never to fre<lucnt the ta\'ern , Courier 's epigrams would climb the beU

lo ...·er and sound the alarm , proclaiming the advent of die Inquisition in France.

His pampllJels, mclln ...·hile. would make tile whole country listen to the sermon."

A1fretl Ncttemelll , Hisloire de la litterafllre!raru;(file sou..! ta Re51UIlr(lli<m (Paris. 1858), vol.l , p .42 1. [bh,l )

" Mayeux ... is aClua Uy an i.mita tion . Under Louis XIV, ... II particular costume

dance cau800 8n uproa r : children made up .118 o ld me n , a nd s porting enor mOU8

hunchbacks, cJl:et! lIted grotesque 6gures. It was known 8 S the "Ma yeux of Brit­

tany" dance. The Maycux who was made a memher oftbe C arde Naliolluie in 1830

was merely a very ill· bred descendant of these old Mayeux." Edollard Fournier Enigme, tIcs rue, tie Paril (Paris. 1860), I). 35 1. [b l a,2j

,::til Da Ulllicr : ....By 110 one more than Daumier lias the bourgeois been known and

IO\·etl (afler the fashion of a rtists)--thc bourgeois. this last vestige of the Middle

Ages. thi, C othic r uin that dies 80 ha rd . this tyPtl at once 80 commonplace and 80 t.'CCcnlr · . "CI I 8 I I .i IC. la r es aUf e a ln!, us Deuills de DlIllmier (Paris <1924» . p . 14.2

[bl a,3)

011 Oa umiel"" " II · .. I r · 1 I . Ilj ca rll;aIUl'c las 01"11111 11 Jle lirca dlh . but it is quile witllOlil bile or rU IlCUI·. III a ll Ilis . k ,I . , . r I · r ."' ur II rc IS a Utili( atlOlI 0 deccncy ami honhonnc. \'1i'e should 1101., Ihat I I r r I I . . . Ie las 0 tCIi rc u~,~ to landlc certain \'er}' finl' and violcllt 811 111'1I"1I 1Ihl'lliCS I ., . I, · 1 I · . . .

• It eU II ~ e. II "HilI , I. ICY cxccI·de.llllC IlIIlIt i> of the comlt· lultl 1:0111(/ ...·uU nt/ ll ... fl"eli r I · ' r II "CI . IIg80 II" 1' . 0 .... men . lad es n a uddllirc . /--es Deuitu tie Dtw . "1I1'r ( 1':lri ~ ( 1924 »). p . 16 . .1 [b I:JA)

0 " MUlJllil· r · " nul '1 · , " I .. . . . ... la a grcill S(lurec I. u'sc m.·rcl l l·s~. IInpI_' rlurbaMc cummClll a­t0 l"!! rCulai ll ! Balzac look t il · " " 'C· I 0' r. " .' 0 e amc... 1. ' 0 I U III 0 111111' ''. a.o; ....cll lls II ... II11me8

c~"OChC8' ." , I ' 0 . , A I \ I" .. { esculIlgs. III I nlllo e rUllce I< HJk from Ilim the IIl1me ' Mil ' I1 lIlIle llcr· '0 ' · "I' I d k .gcn:. JusI a8 lIuuc.r ll& la ell , wlth a \'c ryslighl altcral.io ll . llic name

"-­

' Monsieur Pep;uchet. · .. Marie-J eanne Durry, "De Monnier II Balzac," Vendredi, March 20. 1936, p. 5. (b la,5]

When does Gavroche first appear? Who are his forebears? Is his first appearance: in Lei MiIirabfes? Abel Bonnard on the hommt ji-tfilli <adulterated man>-"good only for provoking events he could not control7' "nus type of individual, origi­nating in the nobility, has undergone a descent-and lost all his gilding in the process-through the whole spectrum of society, to the point where what was bom in the foam at the surface has come to rest in the slime at the bottom. What began in persiflage has ended in a sneer. Gavroche is, very simply, the marquis or the gutter." Abel Bonnard, Lei ModiriJ, in series entitled Le Drame du prisent, vol. 1 (Pan. <1936» , p. 294. [b",6)

" Everyone kntlw Daumier'a mythological caricatures. which, in the words of Baudelaire, made Achilles, Odysseus, and the reet look like a lot of played-out tragic actors, inclined to take pinchea of snuff at moments when no one was look­ing." S. Kracauer, Ja cque, Offenbach wuJ. dm Paris seiner Zeit (Amsterdam, 1937), p. 237.' (b2,1]

Fourier. " Not content with extracting from his works the innumerable amusing: inventions to be found there, the gazetteers add to them-for example, the btl8i­DCSS oftbe tail with an eye O D ill! tip , supposedly an attribute ofmeD of the future. He protests vehemently against tIm maliciow f.brication ." F. Armand and R. Mallblanc, Fourier (Paru. 1937), vol. I , p. 58. (b2,2]

The Pagan School is opposed not only to the spirit of Christianity but also to the spirit of modernity. Baudelaire illustrates this, in his essay "UEcoJe paienne," with the aid of Daumier: "Dawnier did a rc:markable series of lithographs, L'Huloire anciennt, which was, so to speak, the best paraphrase of the famous saying, 'Who .will deliver us from the Greeks and Romans?' Daumier pounced brutally upon antiquity and mythology, and spit on them. The hotheaded Achilles, the prudent Ulysses, the wise Penelope, that great ninny 1elemachus, the beautiful Helen

( who ruined Troy, the ardent Sappho, patroness of hysterical women-all were POrtrayed with a farcical homeliness that recalled those old carcasses of classical a~rs who take a pinch of snuff in the wing3." Charles Baudelaire, I.:Art roT1ldn­

Honore Daumicr, ca. 1857. PhotO by Nadar. Collection Societe Fran~ de hqUt, ed. Haebette (Paris), vol. 3, p. 305.$ (b2,3j

Pho<ognphi'. Ty~: Mayeux (Travies), Robert Mac-u ire (Duumier ). Prudhomme (Monnier). [b',' )

d [Literary History, Hugo]

"Thien, a rgue d h ' , d., .lion was ' the beginning of ease, and l inceeaaewu1 at, Since • h '" ' "0 should not he within reach of aU . Moreover, not reserved for all, t en t:\Iuca I n

. e8. .... nll ible for the events of June ... and deeta.ndhe held lay Instructors ... r ...- . . '" A Mal t aDd himlelf ' ready to put the clergy in charge of all pnmary educabon. . c[dll) P. Grillet, XIX' Si«.le (Paris, 1919). p. 258. ,

25 1848' "Durin, the afternoon, armed mobs demanded that the redFebruary . . L tin a.....:l to ' I fl' , After a violent debate, anlllr e maD-e"'"Aag replace the Inco or . . . . d ' d h ' I . i.sed address whose conclu IRS wor II ave re­turn them back WIt I an unprov '.., hit 8 r blood

. ed famous: 'I shall repudiate 10 the very death . he cned . t ag 0 ~ mam I F his edftag that youwave be(orew

'P~~::8~;=::ou8:r:r;;ei~ =I~~eo~:~e Ch:::P d:Marl, loaked Wld'~ tbheblood1do:y: -

Ie in ' 91 and ' 93, wherea8 t he tn' co Ior fla, has bee~ n pa ra cut .. eworalet aad• peop d h libert of the Fatherland. A. M with the name , the glory, an t. e y [dl,21 P. Grillet , XIX' Sieck (Pari8, 19 19), p . 245.

'Le 0 ' t ' Balzac lamented the fall of the" In an admirable article entitled epar , d th . h of the 80.,boD8 which for him meant the death knell of the arts an e. tnumPlci . ,

, . h el I 'chthe ng wa8 depart ......Idlerfl of political n08trum8. Invoking t e vess on ~ n b the stonDI. , .. ....... . I d I '. beyond this bttlc oat areing he exclaimed : ' There IS awan oglc, . 1927 233. [dl,3) J . Lucas-Duhreton . Le CornIe d 'A,-tou. CfuJ,-k, X <Pans, ), p .

k h bear the name of M. Dumas? Does beb" Who knows the titles of all the 00 s tat . d " h debits and d k P a two-column ref:or Wit ofknow them himself? IJ he oes not ee I f those children

I I f otten more I Hili one 0 credit8 he will no dou)t lave org . . . I If ther His output• f h II latunl falher, or t Ie gOt a .

whom he is the legit.imate a t er, or Ie I . I . " Paulin Limayrac• in recent months has amounted to IIOt less than t1urt y vo ",1111:8. del 11 no. 3

. " ReVile del (eux mOtl • •"Du Roman actuel ct de nos romanClers, [dl ,4] (Parill, 1845), pp. 953-954.

__•. ....allantI f M tic Balzllc-to I'rel.u ct a y ­1 Olucal ' " What a happy thought un t Ie part o. . . . g in that?

r . ff d r t Whlltuilosurpnsln n:\'olt and demand the rt.."Cstahlishment u ell a Ism. 11\1 S )"k wise To eacb It is lUll idea of socialism. Mme. SlIml has a nother. all( . lie I e·

nO\·e1is t his owu ." Palllin Limayrac, " Du Roman actuel et de U08 romaucierfl," ReVile del deux nlf.Jllliel, 11 , 110.3 (Paris. 1845), pp. 955-956. [dl .5]

"Citizen Hugo made his tlebut al the tribune of the National Assembly. He was "'hal we expected ; a phrasemaker and a gesticulator, full of empty, high-fl own oralory. Continuing along the perfidious a nd sla nderous path of his recent broad_ 8ide. he spoke of the ullemp loyed , of the indigent , of the idlerfl and do--nothinp, the 8coIlJldrds who are the praetoriaus of the uprising, the cotldoltwri. In a word ,

he ran the metaphor ragged to arrive at all attack 011 the national workshops." Le, HOlllel ,-ollgej: Fellilk till club pacifique des droit, tie l'homme. ed . Petiu , ht ycar. J line 22-25 [ 1848] ("Faits divers"). [dI a,l]

" It is as though Lamartiue had made it his miu iou to implement Plalo's teaching on the necessit y of ba nishiug poets from the r epublic, and one cannot help l miling as one reads dus a llthor '8 account of the worker who was part of the la rge demon_ stration in frout of the Hotel de Ville, aud who I houted at the speaker: 'You ' re nothing but a lyre ! Co sing'''' Friedrich Szarvady, Paris , 1848-1852, vol. 1 (Ber­lin , 1852), p . 333. [dla,2]

Chateauhriand : " He hrings into fashion that vague sadness, ... 'Ie mal du siecle'

<the infir mity of the century ). A. Malet and P. Crillet, XIX~ Sieck (Paris, 1919),

p, 145.. (d1 a,3)

"'U we couJd have our wish ... ' This desire, this regret- Baudelaire was the firet to interpret it , twice giving voice, in L'Art romantiqu.e, to uuexpected praise for a

poet of his day. the author of a "Chant des ouvrierfl," that Pierre Dupont who, he tells us, ' after 1848 ... attained great glory.' The specification of this revolution­ary date is very important her e. Without this indication, we might have trouble understalldiug the defense of popuJar poetry, and of an art ' inseparable from

utilily,'1 on the part of a writer who couJd Jlan for the chief architect of the rupture of poetry and a rt with the masses, .. , 1848: that is the hour when the

&treet beneath Baudelaire's wi.ndow begins in ver y truth to tremble, when the ,. theater of the illterior fIIUSI yield him up in all magnificeuce, to the theater of the

exterior, as SOmeone who incarnates. at the highest level, the concern for human ernallcipation in a ll its forms . as well as the consciousness, alas, of everything thai is ridiculously ineffectuul i.n this aspira tiou aloue. whereby the gift of the artis t

alit! of the IIllin hecollies total- Baudelaire's anonymous collaboration on u SOlid

public of f'ehruary 27 lind 28 effectively proviug the IKl int. .... This communion of the poet, of till: a uthentic IIrtisl , with a "'asl class ofpeoplc impelled b y their ardent hllnger for fn...·doul . ,'V"n partial fn-cdom. ha ij every chance of t:mergiug sponta ue­ousl)' at ti meH of grl'al sociu! ferment . ""hell reservatio"8 call be laid asitle. Rim­bllllt! . in wllolll the d aims of the human tcud . nOIlNhcleu . . , . 10 folio". an iufinite COUrse. plact>JI , from the olllsct . Il ll hi.s confidence allli elan vital in the Commune. M")'llkovsky goe~ to grellt Icnph8 to silence in himliClf- bottUng it up to the l)Diul of explosion--t: ...erytIaillg horn of individual feeling that nught 110 1 com'uce to the

exclusive glory of the triumphant Boillhevik Revolution." Andre Breton, "1.. Grande Actualite poetique," Minotaure, 2, no. 6 (Winter 1935), p. 61. [d2, 1] -"Progrelll il the very fOOtilep of God." Victor Hugo, " Anniversaire de la revolu_ tion de 1848," February 24, 1855 (on Jersey), p. 14. [d2,2]

" Victor Hugo it the man of the nineteenth century, 81 Voltaire wall the man of the eighteenth ." "The nineteenth century thull comel to a c10le before its end. ItJI poet

it dead ." Obituary notice. for Hugo in Le National Republicain th l'Ardeche and Le Phare de. Charente. [VICtor Hugo devant l'opinwn (Pa ril, (885), pp. 229,

••4]. [<12.3)

Student, or the IJChooh or France, CheerfuJ voluntf!en ror provell, Let UI rouo" the people in it, wUdom; Let u,turn our back. on Malthu and hit decree.! Let UI up.t up the new road"aYI Which labor Ihall open; For lJOCiali, m &oar, on two winp, The . tudent and the worker.

Pierre Dupont, Le Chant de. itudian'. (Parill, 1849).

A. Michiels, HisJoin des idieJ liJtlraire.s en R-ana au XIX' Jiic/e (Paris, 1863h vol. 2, provides, in his portrait of Saime'Beuve, an outstanding description of the reactionary man of letters at midcentury. [d2a,IJ

I cau&ed a revolutionary wind to blow; I made the old luicon don the inlurtenu' red cap. No more word., Senator! Commoner, no more! I raised a ' torm at tbe bottom or the inkweU.

Victor Hugo, cited in Paul Bourget, obituary for Victor Hugo in Le Journal_ dibou [Victor Hugo devant l'opinwn (Paris , (885), p . 93]. [d2a,3)

On Victor Hugo: "He wall ... the poet not of hil own l ufferings ... but of tile panion, or thOle around him . The nlOurnfui voicel or the victiml or the Terror .• • made their way into the Ode •. Then the trumpet bl8ltl of the Napoleonic victone. resounded in other odes.... Later on, he felt obliged to let the tragic cry cl militant democracy pass through him. And what i8 J.a Ugellde de • •iede• ... it not the echo of the great turmoil of human hil tory? ... It often seems 88 thouPt be had coUected the sigh8 of all families in hi8 domestic verse, the breath of aU lov~ in hi8 love poems .... It is for !hill reallon that , ... thanks to some mystenolP

quality in him that ill alwaYIL collective and general , Victor Hugo'l poetry po~ an epic character." Paul Bourget, obituary notice for Victor Hugo in Le Jourrutl del debatl [Victor IIuso devant "opinion (Paris, 1885), pp. 96-97]. (d2.,.)

,

,

i Viaor Hugo, ca. 1860. ~Ioto by Etierme Ca!jat. Courtcly, Mweum ofFme Arts, ~t~n. Rtproduool with pomission. 0 1999 Museum or Fme Arts, Boston.

nghts reserved.

It is worthy of no te that the preface to Matkmoi.stlle de Maupitf already seems to be pointing the way to ['art pour /'ar/. "A stage play is not a railroad train."

[d2i,5]

Gautier on the prtl8ll : "Charleij X a lone h u understootl the question rightly. III ordering the suppression of the newspapers. he rendered a greal .erviee to tbe artt

and to civil.ization. Newspapers are akin to courliera and go-betweens. those who interlJOSe themsclvell between a rtiliU and the pubUc. betwcell the king and the peuple .... Theile IJCrpctual yelping! ... crell te such 11 11 atmosphere of mi8trutt

thll t ... r OYlih y allli poetry, the two greatest thing/! in the world , become impo8li. ble. " Cited in A. ~1iChiel8. ll istoire des idees liueraires en France au XIX' siecle (Paris. 1863). vol. 2. 1). 445. Thill attitude earned Gautier the friendship of BalQc.

[<13,1)

"'In the transports of hi. hatred [for the critics1. M. Theophile Gautier dewell aU progress . especially in the a rea of Utera ture a nd art, as docs his master, Victor

Hugo. " Alfred ~1iehieJs , Histoire des idees lilleraircs en France au XIX' .ieCM

(Paris . 1863), vol. 2, p . 444. [dJ,21

"Steam will conquer cannon. In two hundred yeari-well before. perhaps--g-eat

armies from England. France, and Americil .. . will descend upon old Aliia under the leadership of their general •. Their weaponll will con. ist of pickaxes, and their horse8 will be locomotives. Singing, they will fa ll upon these uncultivated, u.nuaecl lands.... It is thus, perhaps, that war will be waged , in the future, againJt aD unproductive nations, by virtue of that a,uom of meebanics which appliet to aD thingtl: there must be no \o<\'ali ted energy!" Maxime Du Camp, Le, Chonu modema

(Paris, 1855), p . 20 (" Preface"). [d3,3)

In the )lrt:face to UI Comedw hilt/mine, Balzae declares himself on the 8i~~ of. B088uet a nd Bonaltl , and affirms: " I write by the failltlight of two eternal ventlel: .

ReUgion and Monarchy." [d3.'1

Bubac on the press, in the preface to the fi rs t edition of Un Grand Hom",: ~ province aParis: "The public is unawa re of how many evils beset literature lJl.tI

commercial transforma tion .... 1.11 the old d ays, newspapcrl! ... rctluired a ~r­lain number of copie!! ... Tlus was over a nd above pa yment for articles attracUve to ... bookseUen-paymellt oft en made without an y guarantee that these articl: would aplJCa r ill print . . .. Today, this douhle lax has heen dr ivclI up ~y t ~ exorbi tant price of ad verti ll ing, which costs as much as tl lll at:lUal prociuctJOn ~

[1[ ' 00 W"t­the hook ... . One ca n ollly conclude that newspa l)CrI! a re ala or m ern .

ers:' Cited in GeorgclI Bata uh , Le I'ol.tife (Ie 10 ,/emf/gogie: Victor Hugo (~;j 1934) . p . 229.

l&l8-J uIiC rcp "cssioll- VictorIII thc d.·hale ill the Cha mber un NO\'cmher 25.

[d3,6)Hugo vuted against Cava ign ac.

"The nlUhiplica tion of readcrs is the muhjplication of loaves. On the day Christ ,lisco\·ert...1 titis !!ymbol, he foreshadow ....1 the printing p ress." Victor Hugo . Wi1-­/iom Sh(""e~/,c(lre , cilt...1 ill Bata ult d~ POlltife de UI (/Cmllgogie (Paris, 1934).

~Ia ~~

Maximc LislJUnlle commentll. ill t 'Ami du /Jell/,Ie . 011 Victor Hugo's will . Beginning alld cOllclusion of tlus statemeut : "Victor Hugo divide8 his fortune of 6 million francs as follows: 700 ,000 fra ncs to the memhers of Ius fam ily; 2.5 million francs 10 J eatHIt' II ml Georges, his grlllHlchildr cn .... Alltl for the revolutionaries who, siuce 1830, !!lIcrificed "'ith him for the republic . and who a re 8till in this world . a

Lifetime alllluit y: twenty IIOU!! pe r day!" Cited in Victor IIlIgo devont I'opinion

(I'"aris. 1885), pp. 167- 168. [d3a, IJ

In the debate in th e Chamber o n November 25, 1848, Victor Hugo voted against

Cavaignac's repression of theJune revolt. But onJune 20 in the Chamber, during the discussion of the national workshops, he had coined the phrase: "'The Mon· archy had its idlers; the Republic will have its do-nothings." [d3a,2]

Seigneurial elcments still o btain in nineteenth·century education. Saim-5imon's declaration is characteristic: "I used my money to acquire knowledge. Good food, fine wines, much alaoiry vis·a·vis the professors, to whom my purse was opened-these things procured for me all the opportunities I cou1d desire." Cited in Maxime Leroy, La Vie umtaiJle du cornie Henri de Saint·SirnfJTJ (Paris, 1925),

p.21O. [d3a,3]

As regards the physiognomy of Romanticism, attention might focus , first of all, on the colored lithograph in the Cabinet des Estampes, Sf. 39, vol. 2, which undcnakes its allegorical represen tation . [d3a,4]

Engraving fro m the RestoratiolllJCriod , showing a crowd gathered before Ihe shop of a publisher. A placa rd announces that the Album po"r 1816 bas a ppeared.

Caption: " Ev" rything new is beautiful ." Cabinet des Estalll lJes. [d3a.5] i

Lithogr aph . A poor (Ievillookll on dolefull y as a young gentleman signs tbe p icture "'hich the fOrllle r has painted . T illc: L'A rtiste et l 'tlmtlteur dll XIX' siecie. Cap· tio ll : "" It is liy me. liecing th at l li ign il. " Cahinet des Esta mpe.. [d3a.6]

Li th<Jg~a ph , /·\·I.r·,·selltillg a painter walking ll iong and ca rrying un(ler his a rm two 10llg 1I ~II'ruw "hUlks, 0 11 each of whicll he has painted va rious garnishes ami ar­ar nge'lIelils of IIwats. T itle: Les Arts et In misere <Poverty and the Art!!). " Oedi­

C""'tIto (\I t'lis iellrs the Purk Butchers." Ca ption: "The lIlan of art in the toil!! of Ius trade:' CII \'illet lles ESlampl·lI. [d3a.7]

J IlCtlltUI tic MireeOtlrl pu!Jli ~ ll cli AieX(IIl(l re 1J,,,mu et Cie, fa briqlle lIe rOllllln" <Alexa .u lre Dumas 11 1111 Co. • Manufactory of Noveu> (Parill, 1845). (d3a.8)

J1.-~-/-rr ~··r< .

£'Artiste et l'amatnJr du dix-ntUWme JiicJe (The AnUt and the Amateur of the Nineteenth Cc:nnuy). Courtesy of the Bibliot:heque Nationale de France. Sec d3a,6.

Dumas pere. " In September 1846, Minister Salvandy proposed to him tba' ~ travel to Algeria and write a book about tbe colony .... Dumas, ... 'who wa:::., by five million Frenchmen at tbe very leal t , would give 80mefifty or aixty tho the of them 8 talte for colonialism .... Salvandy offered 1O ,(M)() franca to cover C08t of the voyage; Alexandre demalliJed , in addition to this, ... a 8tate VeIIse) ....•

Why bad the Ve:Joce. which was charged with picking up freed,p~50Deri in M~ gone to Cadiz ... ? Memhenl of Parliament .eized on the meldeD!. And M.

CasteUane pointedly que.tioDed the logic of entru. ting a lICienti6c mi88ioD . . • to. journalistic entrepreneur: the French flag had debased iudf in granting ' that feUow' ila protection; 40,000 franc, had been spent for no reason, and the ridicuJe was clearly audible on aD sides." The affair ended in Duma.' favor after hU challenge to a duel was dec::lined by Ca.teDane. J . Luca.-Dubreton, La Yre d 'Alex­(I,wre DumaJ perc (Paris <1928», pp. 146, 143-149. Id4,1]

Alexandre Dumas in 1848. "Hi. proclamations ... are ... a.tonisbing. In one of them, addrel8ed to the working people of Paris. he cnumeratee bia 'worb for worken, ' and proves, by citing figu res, that in twenty yean he has composed four hundred novels and thirty-five play., which have enabled him to provide a livins (or 8,160 person. , including tYpe!letters, (oremen, machinUtI, wherettes, and

............. .~

•

r

l.'1!0I1I.me tk ·/art dans l'tmharr4S ~ Jf)/'I mltier (The Man ofAn in the ~il.s of His li'ade). Coonesy of the BibliothCque Nationale de France.

d3a,7.

professional applauders. " J. Lucas-Duhreton , La Vw d 'Akxandre Duma$ pere

(Paris), p. 167. [d4,2]

"Tile bohemian of 1840 .. . is dead and gone.­ Did he really exist? I have heard it said that he did not.-Whatever the case may he, you could comb through aU of Paris at the present moment, and not come upon a single example .... There are certain neighborhoods, and a very great number of them, where the bohemian has never pitched his tent . . .. The bohemian flourishes along the boulevards, from the Rue Montmartre to the Rue de la Pail:.... Less frequently in the Latin Quar­ter, formerly his main abode .. .. Where does the bohemian come from? Is he a product of the social or the natural order? ... Who is to blame for the develop­ment of this species-nature or society? Without hesitation, I answer: nature! .. . As long as there are idlers and fops in the world , there will be bohemians. " Gabriel Guillemot, Le Boheme, in the series entitled PhY$i.onomie$ parisienne$ (Paris, 1869), pp. 11 , 18-19. 111-112. Something similar on the grisettea in this series.

[d4,3[

It would be useful to trace historically the "theses" of bohemia. The attitude ofa Maxime Duchamps <Du Camp?>, who holds success to be a proofof the lack of artistic quality, stems directly from that which is expressed in the statement, "There is nothing beautiful but what is forgotten," which occurs in Lurine's Trritieme ammdwemenl de Paris <Paris, 1850>, p. 190. [d4,4]

The RaIaiers' Club (Cercle des Rafales) : "No famous names there. Should a mem­ber of the Rafalers ' stoop so low as to make a name for himself-whether in politics, literature, or the arts-he would be mercilessly struck from the list." [Taxlle Delord ,1 Paris-Bo~me (Paris, 1854), pp. 12-13. [J4.,5]

Victor Hugo's drawings, in his house at 6 Place des Vosges, where he lived from , 1832 to 1848: Dolmen W/rm tire Voice ofShadow Spoke 10 Me; Ogive; My Destiny (a

giant wave); 1M Sail Recedes, the Rock Remains (gloomy rocky seashore; in the foreground a sailing ship); Ego Hugo; VH (allegorical monogram); La«work and

( Specter. A sail with the inscription "Exile" and a tombstone with the inscription "France" (pendants, serving as homemade frontispieces, to two of his books) j

Alexandre Dumas perc, 1855. PhotO by Nadar. Counesy of the Bibliotheque Nationa1e The Borough ofArigelI; Village irl Moon/ig"t; Practa Sed ImJicta (a wreck) j a break­de France. Water; a fountain in an old village, around which all the stonns on earth seem to

have gathered. [d4a,l ]

;'We have had novels about bandita purified by imprisonment- the tales of Vau­trin and of J ean Valjean ; and it was not to stigmatize t.hem ... that the writers eVoked these melancholy figures .... And it is in a city where 120,000 girls live seCretly from vice and 100,000 individuals live off gi.rls. it is in a city infested with hardened criminals, cutthroats, housebreakers, carriage thieves, shop breakers, shoplifters, rabble rousers, COli men, pickpockets, predators. shakedown artis18, guardian angels.3 swindlers, and lockpickers-in a city, I say, where aU the wrec::k­

age of di80nlcr alul vice rUIiSaground , ulIll where the dightcst spark call set fire to the suhlima tell populucc. it is hcre that this corrupting litcruture-- ... L.e" iUy3feres de ' Juris. I(OClllllboie. allli u s Miserabies-is IIrulluccd ." Cha rles LoUlintire, l .es Idi.'es subver sives de nOire lemps (Paris. 1872), III). 35-37. [d4a,2}

"The incomplete copy in tJu: Dihliotha lue Nationale is ~ ufficiellt for us to jud~e of the holdnC8s and novdty of the I)rojeet cOllceived by Balzac .... u f'euiileton de. journaux politillue" aimed at lIothin~ less than the elimina tion of booksellers . Din:ct sale from publisher to purchuer was the plan ... b )' which everyone would benefit- the Imblisher ami the a uthor by ma king a profit , the purchaser by payin~ less for books. Tbis a rrangement ... met with no success at all, doubtJc s bec:a uae

the booksellers were against it ." Louis Lumet , introduction 10 Honore de Bahac,

Critique litteraire (pa ris, 19 12), p . 10. [d4a,3}

The three short-lived periodicals founded by Babac: u f'euilietoll des joltrnaw: politiques ( 1830), L.a ChroFlique de Paris (1836-1837), La Revue poriAienne (1 84<)), [db,4]

" Recollection has value only as pretliction . Thus, Ilis tory shouJd be classed as a scicllce: practical " ppliCalion constantly proves ils utility." Honore-de Bahlac,

Critique lifteraire, intrmJuctio n b), Louis Lumet (Paris, 1912), p . 117 (r eview or Les Deux foIlS . by P. L. J acob , bibliophile). (d4a,5]

" It is not by telling the l)(H)r to cease imitating the luxury of the rich that one will make the lower class happier. It is not by telling girls to stop permitting themselves to be seduce.1 that one will suppress prostitution . We might III well tell them. ' ... Wben you have 110 bread . you will be so good as to cease being hungry.' Bul

Christian charit y, it will be sa id , is there to cure all tbese evils. To which we reply. Christia n charity cures \'ery littJe and pre\'ents nothing at all. " Honore de Baiue,

Critu,ue litteraire , introductioll by Louis Lumet (Paris. 1912), p . 131 (review or fA

Prerre [Pa ris, 1830 )). (dS,l ]

" In 1750 , no hook- not even ~ 'Esprit des lois'-reacbed more than tbree or four thollsand pt..'Qple .... In our day, some thirty thousand copies of La martine', Pre­

mieres medilll/iotis ami some sixt), thollsand books by Bcrangcr have been sold over the past len yl' lIrs. Thirt y thousand volumes of Voltairc, MonlcStluieu , B.nd Moliere IHlve cnlighlcncil mcn 's mbllls." Balzac. Critillll€ iiI/entire, introductIOn h y Louis LUlllct (Paris. 191 2), p . 29 ("Dc l' Etat aclud de III lihruiric" ( On th~ Currenl Stutc of thc Bookstnrc) , sample from I.e f'cuilleton lIes j OllrnllUX 1'011­

titllles, published in t 'UlliverM:I, Ma rch 22-23 . 1830). (d5,2j

dVictor Ilugo heu l·kens lo till' inner voice of the cro ...·d of his a ncestors: "The cro..... to ....hiell 11Il lish'nell allmiringi), i.n himself. a nd which ht: hea rd as the IJerald of his popll.la rit y. inelil ll'd him , ill fact . towanl the exterior crowd- toward the Idolo Fori,S to ....a nl the inorga nic hod y of the masses .... lie searcln..'tl in the IIIlIlult or

the sea for the roar of applause." " He spent flrty years draping his love of confu­sion--<Jf a ll confusion , provi{lt:d it wu rhythmic-in his love for the pe<l1)le." ikon Daudet , l.es Oeu vres dalls tfM hommes (Paris, 1922), PI). 4 7~, II. [d5,3)

A saying ofVacquerie's about Victor I-IlIgo: "The towers of Notre Dame were the H of his name." Cited in Leon Da udet , u s Oeu vres dam ies homme" (Paris, 1922),

p.8. [d5,4)

RellOuvier ....rote a book on Victor Hugo's philosophy. [d5,51

Victor Hugo in a letter to Baudelaire-with particw ar reference to " Les Sept Vieillards" and " Les Petites VieiUes" (both poems were dedicated to Hugo, and, at

Baudelaire indicated to Poulet-Malassis, for the second of them Hugo't work

served as the poet 's model): " You have endowed the sky of art with an indescrib­able macabre gleam . You have cr eated a new frisson .''6 Cited in Louis Barthou AldOllr dc Baudek.ire (Paris, 1917), p . 42 ("Victor Hugo et Baudelaire") . (d5,6j

Maxime Leroy, I.e; Premier; Ami;franfai; de Uilgner, suggests that a revolutionary impulse played a very large part in Baudelaire's enthusiasm for Wagner; indeed, Wagner's works inspired an antifeudal Fronde. The fact that his operas dis. pensed with ballet infuriated habitues of the Opera. [d5,7)

From Baudelaire's cesay on Pierre Dupont: " We had been waiting so many yean

for some solid, real poetry! Whatever the party to whieh one belongs, whatever the prejudices one has inberited , it is inlpossible not to he moved by the sight of that

\ sickly throng breathing the dust of the workshops . swallowing lint, becomin, satu­rated with ....hite lead, mer cury, and all lhe poisons nccenary to the creation or masterpieces, sleeping among vermin in the heart of districts wbere the bumblest

and greatest virtues live side by aide with the most hardened vices and with the ~regs from prisons. That sighing and Janguislting throng to whicb the earth owes

.-u, ma rvels, ....hich feels flowing in irs vein, an ardent red blood, which looks long

and sadly at lhe sunshine and shade of the great parks and, for illl only comfort and consolation , bawb al the top of its voice its song of salvation : Let /.IJ love one «nothe " " Th 'II ' r ... - er e ....' COllie a lime when Ihe accents of this workingman 's Marseill · ' ·11 ' I I' k ' alsc " I clrcu ate I e a Masomc password and ....hen the exiled the aban­d~ ll ed , 'allli the lost , whcther under the devourin'g tropical sky or in 'the snowy ....lltlcrlless, will be able to 8a)" ' ( ha ve nothing more to fea r- I am in France!' a8 he

heurs this virile melody perfume the air wi111 its primordial fra grance : 'Nolls dont la lallll", 1 'f A I ' I ' . e matlll u c alron (u coq se rallume. I Nous tous qll 'un salaire incer ­laIn I R, ' I' I ' I' I "--0" Wh melle avallt au >e a CIIC lime. . . n the "Chant des ouvriers":

en I heard that wonderful cr y of melallcholy and sorrow, I was awed and " IIXlIllC .es PIilolled . "~ C'lie d ' Ill " ' ,ueroy • I remlers , Amis fra m;a is de Wagner (Paris

<192- ) ;») , pp.5 1-53,5 1. [d5a. lJ

On Victor HU50: " He placed the ballot box on tur ning ta bles." Edmond J aloux "L' Uomme du XIX' siecle,'" u Teml'S, August 9. 1935. (d5a,2]

"Eugene Sue ... was in certain reslH:cts ... simiJar 10 Schiller-not only i.n h ill

preference for tales of crime, for coll)()rtage , for black-and-white depictions, but also in his predilection for ethical a nd social issues ... . Balzac an(1 Hugo viewed him as a competitor." Egon FriedeU. Kullurgeschichte der Neuzeit , vol. 3 (Mu­nich, 193 1), p. 149. Foreigners, such as Itellstab, dought out the Rue aux Feves where w MYlferes de Paris was begun. [d5a,aj

On Victor Hugo: "This Ancient , this unique genius, this unique pllga n, this man of unparalleled gcnius was ravaged by, at the ver y least, a double poli tician: a politi­cal polltician that made him a democrat , and a literary poli tician that made him a Romantic. Thi. genius was corrupted by talent(I). " Cha rles Pe~y, Oeuvre. eom_ p~te., 1873-1914: Oeuvres de prose (Paris, 1916). p. 383 ( .. Victo ....Marie. comte Hugo"). [d6, l j

Apropos of Victor Hugo, Baudelaire "believed in the coexistence of genius and foolishness." Louis Barthou, Aldour de Baudelaire (Paris, 19 16), p. 44 ("Victor

, Hugo et Baudelaire"). Simila rly, before the planned banquet for the t€rcentenary of Shakespeare's birthday (April 23, 1864). he speaks of the "book by Victor H~ on Shakespea re, a book which-full of beauties a nd 8lupidities like all his books.­is almost certain to vex even the most ardent of his admirers" (cited in Barthou, p. SO). And: " Hugo, p riestlike , with his head always bent- too bent to see any- -­thing except hill navel" (cited in Barthou, p. 57).' [d6,2j

The publishers of Balzac's Feuillelon des journaux po/itiques offered certain books at 10we ....than.oClicial prices by bypassing book retailer s. Balzac h i.nueli ta kes pride in this initiative, which he defends against criticisms from without , and which he expects will create the immediate bond between publisher and public that was his aim . In a sample i88ue of the newspalH:r, Balzac sketches the history oftbe book trade a nd of publishing since the Revolution of 1789, to conclude with the demand : "We must finally lee to it that a volume is prod uced exactJy like a loaf of bread, and is sold like a loaf of bread, 80 that there would be no intermediary between an author and a purchaser other than the bookseller. Then this business will be the most secure of a U .... When a bookseller is requi red to layout .ome twelve thousand franca for ever y project, he ",,; U no longer engage in any Ihat are risky or ill-conceived . They will realize, then, that inst ruction i8 a necellsity of their profession. A clerk wllO has learnw in whnt year Gutenherg printed the Bible will no longer imagine that being a hookseller is only a mailer of having one', name wrille.n over a shop." Honore de Balzac, Critique litteraire, introd uctiOn by Louis Lumet (Pa ris. 1912). pp . 34--35. [d6,a]

Pelin Jluhlishes the leiter of a publisher who dedares him~lf rea<ly to buy the malluscript of a n author 0 11 the condition tha t he can Jlublish it under the nallIe of

some otht'r author of his choosing ("on the condi tion ... Ihat il be signed by someone whose name would be. according 10 my calculations. a spur to , ueee88"). Gabriel PHin , us l..aideurs du beew I'llris (Pa ris, 1861). PI', 98-99. [d6,4]

Fees. Victor H ugo ~ceives 300,000 francs from Lacroix for u; Misb"ahle;, in exchange for rights to the novd for rn'C!ve years. "It was the first time Victor Hugo had ~ccived such a sum. 'In rn'enty-eight years of furious labor: PauJ Souday has said, 'with an oeuvre of thirty-one volumes ... , he had made a total of about 553,000 francs.... H e never earned as much as Lamani.ne, Scribe, or Dumas pe~....' Lamartine, in the years 1838 to 1851 , made close to five million francs, of which 600,000 we~ for the Histoire de; Girondin.s. n Edmond Benoit. Uvy, "u; MiJ&ahles" de Victor Hugo (Paris, 1929), p. 108. Connection between income and political aspiration. [d6a, IJ

"When Eugene Sue, followillg upon ... us Mysteres de Londre, <by Paul Ftivah , ... conceived the project of writing u. lUystere. de Paris, he did not a t all propose to arouse the interest of the reader with a description of lIOCiety's under­world. He began by characterizing his novel aB an histoire fan ttuliq u.e . ... It was a new. paper article that decided his future. La Phamnge praised the beginning of the novel and opened the author's eyes: ' M. Sue has just set out on the mon penetrating critique of society .... Let us congratulate him for having recounted ... the fri ghtful sufferings of the. wor king cia .. a nd the cruel indifference of soci­ety.' The author of this a rticle ... received a visit from Sue; they talked-and that is how the novel already underway was pointed in a new direction .... Eugene Sue convinced himself: he took part in the electoral battle and was eJected ... (1848) .... The tendencies a nd the far-reaching effects of Sue's novels were such that M. Alfred Nettement could see in them one of the. determining cau.e. of the Revolution of 1848." Edmond Benoit-Levy, "us Miserables" de YK: IOr HU80 (Paris, 1929), pp. 18-19. [d6a,2J

A Saint-Simonian I)oem dedicated to Sue as the author of us lUy.tere. de Poria: Savinien Lapointe, " De Mon Echoppe" <l\fy Workshop>.' in Une Vou d 'en baJ (Paris, 1844), pp. 283-296. [d6a,3]

"After 1852, the defenders ofthe educator 's a rl are much less numerous. The most important is Maxime Du Camp." C. L. de Liefde, u Saint-Simonisme daM m poesi~frlln('(lise dharlem, 1927 ). p. 115. [d6a,4]

" f.Als Jesuite •• by l'Itichelct uud Quillet , dates from 1843. (Le luif errant <The Wandering Jew> a pIH:areti in 1844)." Charles 8 r un , u Roman socill l en France all XIX' siecle (Paris, 1910), p . 102. [d6a,5)

" / ..e CO II Sli! u,iQnnel going from 3,600 subscriLers to more thull 20,000 ... 128 ,074 \'Oles giving Eugene Sue a ll electoral mandate 10 become a del)Uty." Cha rles Brun . i.e Roma n social en Frernee au XIX" siecle (Pa ris . 19 10), p. 105. (d6a,6)

The novels of George Sand led to an increase in the nwnber of divorces, nearly all of which were initiated by the wife. The author carried on a large correspon_ dence in which she functioned as an adviser to women. (d6a,7j

Poor, but cleanly-is the philistine echo of a chapter title in UJ MiJ&abltJ: "La Boue, mais l'i m e

n <Mire, but $oub .LO [d7,1]

Balzac: "Mutual education produce8 100-solls pieces made of human flesh. Indi_ viduals disappear in a population leveled by instruction ." Ci ted in Charles Brun , Le Roman , ocial en France a.u XIX' ,iecie (Pari8, 1910). p. 120. (d7,2]

Mjrbeau anti Natanson, Le Foyer <The Hearth> (1, 4), Ba ron Courtin : ..1t is not desirable that education should he extended any further. . . . For education is the beginning of ease, and ease is not within ever yolle's r each." Cited in Charles Brun, Le Roman social en France all XIX' sieck (Paris, 1910), p. 125. Mirbeau merely repeat8 here, in satirical vein , a sayill!; of Thien <cited in d I , I >. (d7,3)

" Babao-unbridJed romantic by virtue of the 1yricaltirade8, the bold simplifica­tion of characte rs, and the complication of plot- is at the same time a realist by virtue of the evocation of place and social milieu. and a naturalist by virtue of his taste for vulgarity and his scientific pretensions." Charles Br un , Le 80man social

en France au XIX' sieck (Paris, 1910), p. 129. (d7,4]

Napoleon's influence on Babac, the Napoleonic in him . "The spirit and mettle of the Crande ArmCe in the form of greed , ambition , and debauchery: Grandet, Nucingen, Philippe Bridau , or Savaru8. "11 Charle8 BTlIII . Le Roman social en France au XIX' ,ieck (Paris, 1910), 1). 151. [d7,5]

"Balzac . . . (Iuotes as a uthorities ... Geoffroy Sainl-Ililaire and Cuvier," Charlet Brun , Le Roman social (Pa ris, 19 10), p. 154. [d7,6]

Lamartine ami Nupoleon. " In Le! De81inees de la poesU!, in 1834, he speaks of ...

his contempt for this age .. . of calculation and power. of nu~~s and t~e 8word .... It wa8 1.he uge in which Esmenard sang tile praise8 of navIgatIOn, Gudio of astronomy. Rkard of spheres. Ajme Martin of physics and chemistry.... La~ martine said it very well: ' Number alone is allowed , honored, prote<: ted, aD recomlJensed . Since number does nOI think , since it is a n ... instrument .. . th.at

never asks ... whether it is made to serve Ihe oppre8sion of hUl~allkill~,.ore:~ d )........ ,h'" military leudcr of Ihis era wunted no oliler ellussar y. Je Iv..ran"", . . . ... 19(1) Skerlitch . L 'Opinioll publique en Fmnce (l'apre, la lwesie (La uS1\nlle, Id7,7j p. 65.

)') ," Romanticism proclaims the 1 H!rty tI art. nily of wonb (all under one entitlemenl Georges Hcnnnl , I.AI Methode !ciell' ifjqlle

th I " ~ 0' gcnres and the frat er­e etluu , y , .. as ci tizens of Iile Frcnch language).) de 1181Q1re .Uenure ar ." , ' " ' (p. i8 1900,

"

pp. 2 19-220, ciled in Jean Skerlilcil , L'Opinkm IJublilflle en fi"n,"ce d '(lpre8 m pot!, ie(La usannc, 1901 ), PI). 19-20. [d7.8)

The magnificent seventh book of the fourth part of UJ MiJir-ahleJ, "I..!Argot,n winds up its penctrating and audacious analyses with a gloomy reSection : "Since '89, the entire people has been expanding in the sublimated individual; there is no poor Illall who, having his rights, has not his ray; the starving man feels within himself the honor of France; the dignity of the citizen is an interior armor; he who is free is scrupulous; he who VOtes reigns.n Victor Hugo, OeuureJ com­pleteJ, novels, vol. 8 (Paris, 1881), p. 306 (UJ M u&ablu).LI {d7a, l]

i\'ettellleni on the digressioll8 ill I.e, Mi,erable!: "T hese bils of philosophy, of lIistory, of social ccononlY are like cold-waler taps lha t douse the frozen and discouraged reader. It is hydrotherapy applied to literature." Alfred NeUement , I.e Roman contemporain (paris, 18M), p. 364. [d7a,2J

MM . Sue. ill Le Juif errant, hurls ill l Uh8 at religion in order 10 serve the antipathies of Le Con8fitlltionnel . ... 1\1 . Dumas , ill LlI Dame de Momoreau,

heaps scorn 0 11 royalty .. . to accolllmodate the passions of this lIame newspa­per, .. . while in La Reine Margot he conforms 10 the taste of the gilded youth at La Prette for ... ri8tlue pa intings , ... and . .. in Le Comte de Monte-Cristo he deifies money and inveighs against the Restoration to please the world of civil servants who congregated around I.e JOllrnal de! deoou." Alfred Neuement, Elude! critique, 'IIr kjeuilietoll -roman , vol. 2 (Paris, 1846), p . 409. [d7a,3]

Victor Hugo: owing to a law of his poetic nature, he has to stamp every thought with the fonn of an apotheosis. {d7a,4]

A wide-ranging remark by Drwnont : "AlmOSt all the leaders of the movement of the school o f 1830 had the same sort of constitution: high-SbUng, prolific, enam. ored of the grandiose. Whether it was a matter of reviving the epic on canvas, as with Delacroix, of portraying a whole society, as with Balzac, or of putting four

l thousand years o f the life of Humanity into a novel, like Dumas, all . .. were: POssessed of shoulders that did nor shrink from the burden.n Edouard Drumollt, UJ HiroJ (/lu pitre.! (Paris <1 900», pp. 107- 108 ("Alexandre Dumas peren).

[d7a,5J

;'· J.'or Illtl pl.l ~ t fift y year~,' suill Ooclor Ol·murquay to Dumas fil s one day, 'all our IlIorilJlUld plilicnts luu·c dicd with one of YOll r falher's novds under their pillow. '" E:douard DTlIIIIOII I, I.e, Heros e t ie , pitre, (Paris < 19(}(}», p . 106 C'Ale): alldre OUlllas l>erc·'). [d7a,6)

) I ­n t Ie preface to I.e, PO)"8l1l1,. HuhlUC ~peaks reproachfu lly of the year 1830,

...... Ilich Ili{lnOI remelllber Illa l NUllolcon hud preferred ttl risk failure rathcr thun

arm the massell. " CiI L't1 in CII . Culillpe. Balzac : Ses Idees sodale, (ltdllls and Puris (1906 » . p . 94. (d7a,7]

" Bourget has relllurkcd that Balzac's characters . . appcured in reul life even

more fret:(uently ufter til(' death of the novelist : ' Balzac,' lIe ~ays . 'SL't!ms lesa to have observed tile aociety of hill age thun to have contributed to the fornlution of a n age. Certa in of his char acten were more true-to-life in 1860 t.han in 1835.'

Nothing more just: Balzac deserves to be c1a!sed among antici patol"8 of the first order.... Thirty yean later, reality arrived 0 11 the terrain that his intuition had already crossed in a single bound. " H. Clouzot and R.-H. Va lcnsi, Le Pa ris de la Comedie humai,le (Paris, 1926), p. 5 ("Balzac et SC8 fournisseurs" ). [d8,1]

Orumont , too, inclines to the view Ihat Balzac's gift was a prophetic one. Occa­

sionally, however, he reverieS tbe terms of the equation: "The pt.'Ople of the Secolld

Empire wa nted to be characters from Balzac. " Edouard Orllmont , Fie"re, ck brom~e 011 shltlles de " eise (Paris (1900», p. 48 ("Balzac" ). [d8,2]

Balzac, speaking through his coulltry doctor: "The proletarians seem to me to be the minors of the nation . a nd should always remain ill a II tate uf tutelage."" 's Cited

in Abbe Cllllrlcs Calippc, HU/zll c: Ses Idees soci(lle, (Reims and Paris <1906» ,

p . 50. [dB,'[

Balzac Oike Le Play) was opposed to the parceling out of large estates : "My God, how could anyone fail [0 realize that the wonders of art art impossible in a -country without great fortunes!" (cited in Charles Calippe, p. 36). Balzac likewise

draws attention to the disadvantages that result when peasants and petty b0ur­geois hoard their money, and ca1culates how many billions art in this way with­drawn from circulation. On the other hand, the only remedy he can recommend

is for the individual, by hard work and wise economy, to become a landed proprietor himself. H e thus moves within contradictions. [d8,4)

George Sand bei:a llle aCI(ua inted with Agricol Perdiguier in 1840. She sayl: " I wal

struck by the moral illlportance of the topic, a nd I wrote the 1I0Vel Le CompoSnon <III tOllr de Fmnte out of sincerely progressive ideas." Cited ill Charles Senoilt, '"'L' Honunt: tie 1848," pln·t 2, ReVile des deux mo"de" (February I , 19 14), pp. 66&-<>66. [dB,5[

Olllllas pere occupied almost simult aneously, with thn'C uf his novels. the feujlJe­ton sections of IAI Presse, I-e Constillltiollllel, and l.e JOIIl"fwl de5 (/ebll/$. [d8,6)

Nellclllcnt un Ihe style uf Oumas perc; " It is usuall y natura l ami relatively rapid, but it lacks fon:e beclI Llse Ihe I hought it eXIJl"esses does not go ver y llecJI . It i8 to the style of grell t wrilers what lit hography is to engraving." AU rCII Ncttclllcnt . lJillOire de III liuernturejrutl(;ui,e "0' /.1 Ie GOllvernement de JI/illet (Paris. 1859). vol. 2, PI" 306-307 . [d8,l )

Sue, compared wit.h George Sand : "Once again we have a protest against the state of society, bUI , this time. a collective protest .. . undertaken in the name of the plIssions and intere8ts of the largest ciassea of society." Alfred Nettement . Hiltoire lie la litteraturejmll(;(li,e SOli' Ie COlI lJerllement de JlliUet (Paris, 1859), vol. 2,

p.322. [d8a,I)

Neltement (>oints out that Sue's novell, which sought to undermine the July Mon­

archy. ""ere published in newspapers, (i.e Journal des deoot, and Le COllltitution_ nel) that were on its side. [d8a,2)

Regular customers at the brasserie on tile Rue des Ma rtyrs: Oelvau , MUl'ger, Dupont , Malassis, Baudelaire, Cuys. [d8a,3)

Jules Bertaut sees Bauac's importa nce in terms of the action of significant figu res in a milieu determined by the tYI)es ofthat day 's society- wbich is to say, in terms of character study lK!rmeated by the study of manners. Apropos of the latter, he

writes! "One need ollly peruse the innumerable physiolosies ... to lee how far this literar y vogue has come. From the Schoolboy to the Stockbroker, and taking

account of the Dry Nurse, the Sergeant , and the Seller of Countermarkl in be­tween, it is an endlell8 lI uccession of petit, portraits . ... Bauac knowil the genre well ; he has cultivated it. Small wonder, then , Ihat he leeks to give UI , through these means, the picture of an entire society." Julea Bertaut , " i.e Pere Corio' " de Bahac(Amiens, 1928), pp. 11 7- 118. (d8a,4]

"'Victor Hugo,' sayl Eugene Spuller, ' had gone along with the viewl of the reac­tionaries .. . . He had consilllentiy voted on the right .' ... AI for the question of the national workshops , on June 20, 1848, he declares them a doubleerror-from

a political as well as a financiai ll ta ndpoint .. .. In the Legislative Alsembly, on the other hand , he turns to the left , bei:oming one of ill ... most aggressive orators. Is thU because of an evolution . .. , or il it due to wounded pride and personal bittem ess against Louill Napoleon , under whom he supposedly wiahed--even ex­pected-to become minilller or public instruction?" E. Meyer, YlCtor Huso a fa.

,. tribulle (Chambiry, 1927), pp. 2, 5, 7; cited in Eugene Spuller, Hillo;re parlemen.­tuire de la Secollde Repllblique. pp. 111 , 266. [d8a,5)

"1\ diScussion having opened between Le BOIl -Selll and La Preue over the ques­tioll of Girardin 's forty-fra nc newspalJers. i.e NlI tiollal intervened . Because La

Preue had taken this opportunit y to mOllnt a l)Crsonal attack on M .. Carrel, all enCOUnter took place bctwcenlhe latter a nd the editor-in-chief of La Preue. "-"It was the politica l press dlat fell , ir.1 the l)Crson of Carrel, before the industrial Ilress: ' AJfred Netlement . Ili!loire de I I I tilterlltllre jran{lIile 5011., Ie COli verne­merit de Jlliller (Paris, 1859). vol. I . p . 254. [d8a.6]

~Comruunism , .. . that .. . logic of democr acy. is already boldly attacking society In its moral assumptions. whence it is evident tha t the proletarian Samson, grown

prudent , will henceforth sap the "illars of society in the ceDa r, instead of sha killfl: them in the banquet hall ." Balzac.1A1 PaYl onl;" (ci ted in Abbe Charles Calippe, Bohac: Sel ldeell ,oci(Jie, (Heim, and Paris (1906 » . p . 108. [d9,1]

Travel literature: .. It is France that fi rs t ... reinforced it s armies with a brigade of geographers. naturalists, a nd archaeologists. The grea t achievements in Egypt ... marked the advent of an order of works previously unknown .... The Expedition scientifique de la lUorb? and the Exp/,orolion ,cientifique de I'Algerie are worthy additions to this great line .... Whethcr scientific in spirit, serious or light, ...

accounta by travelcrs ... have, in our time, found a considerablc vogue. Alons with novels, they form the staple fare in reading rooms, numbering, on average, some eighty works per year, or twelve hundred publications in fifteen yean."

Thill, on aver age, is not much more tha n in other fields of natural science. Charle. Louandre, "Statisti'lue litteraire: De la Production intellectueUe en France depllis

quinze an8," Revue del deux monde, (November I , 1847), pp. 425-426. [d9,2]

From 1835 on, the n erage number of novels produced annually is 21O---approxi_

mately the lIame al the number of vaudeville productions. [d9,3]

Travel literature. It fmdll an unexlJeCted application during the Chamber 'a debate on del)Qrtations (April 4 . 1849). " Far conet , who was the first to oppose the proj­

ect , brought up the question of the salubrity of the Manluesas Islands.... The member who had presented the report replied b y reading some trave1 accounlt

which depicted the Marquesas as ... a veritable par adise .... This. in turn, drew ... the angry response: 'To offer idylls and bucolics on a subject so grave i.

ridiculous.'" E. Meyer, Vic tor HUlJo ii la tribune (Chambery. 1927). p . 60. [d9,4)

The idea for La Ccmldie humaiM came to Balzac in 1833 (the year in which Ie Mititcin tit campagne was published). The influence of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire', theory of types was decisive. To this was added, on the literary side, the inBuencc: o f Scott's and Cooper's cycles of novels. [d9,5]

In its 8econd year of publication , in 1851, the "Alnaanach des re!ormateurl .. . •

in which the government is pre8ented as a necessar y evil , bring8 together the expose of communi8t doctrine with verse translations of Martial and Horace, witb sidelightll on astronomy and medicine. and with all sorts of useful tips." Charles Benoist . "Le ' My the' de la classe ouvrier e," Revue del deux monciel (March 1,

1914), p. 91. [d9,6}

Derivation of the feuilleton novel, whose appearance in newspapers iJ.nmediate1y entailed dangerous competition for periodicals and a marked decline in the pro­duction of li terary criticism. The periodicals, in tum, had to decide whether to publish novels in installments. The first to do so wen: La Revut tit Paris (edited by Yeron?) and La RtlJut dts dtux montlts. "Under the old state of affairs, a joumal with a subscription rate exceeding eighty francs was supported by those whose

political convictions it expr~d.... Under the new arrangem ents, a journal had to live by advertisements, ... and in order to have lots of advertisements, the fourth page, which had become a publicity display, had to pass befon: the eyes of a great many subscribers. In order to have lots of subscribers, some bait had to be fou nd that would speak to all opinions at the same timc, and that would substi­rule, for politica1 interest, an item of generaJ interest. ... lb.is is how, by starting from the fOr1)'-franc newspaper and proceeding 011 to the advertisement, we arrive, almost inevitably, at the serial nove! .n A1fred Nettement, Histoirt de fa littiraturejranfaise sou.s It Goulltf7ltmenl dt JUlllet (paris, 1859), vol. 1, pp. 301­302. [d9a,l ]

Sometimes. in 1111blishing a novel in scrial form, one would leave out part of the work in order to get the new8 1)aper-readin~ public to buy the hook . [d9a,21

In the edito r's preface toJ oumet's Poisies et chants hannoniens, Uncle Tom's Gahin, by Harriet Beecher Stowe, is quite appropriately placed on an equal footing with Les Mysteres tit Paris and us Misirahles. [d9a,31

" From tillle to tillie, one could read , in 1.£ Jou rnal d es debats, articl~ by M. !'IUchel Chevalier or M. Philar ete Chaslell, ... articles of a socially progre88ive tendency ... , The progressive articles in the Debatl were customarily published

during the fortnight preceding subscription renewals, which occurred every four months. On the eve of large renewals . Le Journal des debau could be found fli rting with radicalism. This helps to explain how Le Journal del debats cou1d

undertake the bold publication of Le, My"eres de Parill ...-but this time. that imprudent newspaper had gone further than it r ealized . As a consequence, ma ny

wealthy banker s withdrew their support for the Debatl ... in order to found a ne"," palH! r, ... Le Globe. This worthy pred eceilsor of L 'Epoqll.e ... W88 aimed at doing justice to the inccndiary theories of M. Eugene Sue and of La Democratie

p(lcifique." A. Toussenel , l.el Juifi, rou de l 'epoqlle, cd . Conet (Parill ( 1886». vol.' 2. pp. 23-24. [d9a,4)

The boheme. " With Un Prince de la boheme (1840), Balzac wanted to l)Qrtray a ... characteristic of this nascent boheme. T ile amorous preoccupations ... of

HlIs ticoli de la Palferine are only II Ba lzacian expansion upon the triumphs of Marcel and H()dolphe.'~ which would soon folio",".... Thill novel contains a gr an­dilOt:luent definit ion of bohcmianism •... the first ... ; ' The bolleme-what sholl li;! be called the doct rine of the Bouleva rd des lt a l ic lI~oJl ili s t s of young pcople, ... all men of gCllius in thcir way, mell as yct little known . but soon to

bccome known .... Here one meets writers. udministratoril. soilliers. journalis ts, art ists! If the empe ror of Rusilia purchase(l this hohemi a for twent y million fra llCS, ... and if it ","ere ubseq llcntiy tleportc!1 to O,lcilsa, t.hen ill a yea r Odessa Would be I~ rill. ' ... During t.his sa me pt:"iod , Goorge Su nd ... Mild Alphollse Ka rr ... initiatc,l hohcmi all ci rcicil.... But thc~e wcre imagina ry hoilelllia8; and that of Ba lzac ","a il entirely fa ntastic_ The bo ilemianiSIll of Theophile Gautier, on

the other hand, a nd that of Murger, have been talked aoout 80 much ... thai today we can get a n idea of what they were. To teU the truth , Gautier and hit friend! ... did not realize right away, in 1833, that they were bohemian!. they wer e content with calling themselves 'J eune France' <Young France> .... Their

poverty wal merely relative .... This bohemianism ... was the boheme gaian'e; it could just as well be called gilded bohemianism, the boheme doree . ... Ten or fifteen years later, a round 1843, there wal a new bohemia ... , the true boheme. Theophile Gautier, Gerard de Nerval, Arsene Houssaye were then approachi~ forty ; Murger and his friendl were not yet twenty-6ve. This time, it wal a genuine

intellectual proletariat. Murger was the liOn of a concierge tailor; Champfleury's father was a secretary at the town hall in Laon ; ... Delvau '8 father was a tanner in the Faubourg Saint-Marcel; Courbet'a family were quasi-peaaants.... Champ­

fl eury and Chintreuil wrapped packages in a hookttore; Bonvin was a working_ e1att typogr apher. " Pierre Martino, Le Roman reamte lOW Ie Second Empire (Paris, 1913), pp. 6-9. (dIO,I]

In the early )840s. there was a copying procells known as the Rageneau preaa,

evidently hased on lithography. (dIO,2J

Firmin Maillard, La Cite des intellectueu (Paris <1905», pp. 92-99, offen an

abundance of infonnation aoout author '8 fees. [dlO,3]

" Balzac ... compared his critique of Parisian journalism to Moliere'. attaclu OD 6oancien , marquis, and doctort." Ernst Robert CuMius, Balzac (Bonn, 1923),

pp. 354-355. (dIO.f] ­On Balzac: " What enables UI to say that he W 88 perhap! not very truthful alter

1820 is the often expreued view that he wondrously painted in advance. and prophell ied, the society of the Second Empire." Edmond J aloux, "Les Roma ncien

et Ie temps," Le Temps. December 27 , 1935. [dIO,5)

From Lamartine's "Leure en vers aM. Alphonse Karr":

Every man can proudly 8e11 the aweat of hi8 brow ; I tell my bunch or grapt'8 as you do your Rowe". Ibppy when its nectar. under the cnleh of my loot. flows in amber etreaml throush an my ...·orkll . Producinlil for its master, drunk with its big. price. Much [Sold with which to buy much freedom! Fate has reduced IU to counting our wagu; Day-wagea you, night-wage. me: two mercenariea. But bread well earned i. bread well broken. too: o the glory ollree men beholden 10 none for their u lt !

Veuillot. who ci tes this text , haa thia to say: "Until now, it waa felt that tbe fr eedom th at can be purcha8ed with money is not the sort that mell of conlcience are in the lIabit o(pursuing .... What! ... You don ' t know that the way to be free is to heap

Icorn on gold? To lecu re thil freedom aC(luired through gold . .. you prod uce your bookl ill the same mercena.ry (ashion 88 you prOtluce vegetablet and wine. You wiu dellland of your facultiel a double or a triple Il arvest ; you will start to nlarket your ea rly produce; the IIlUle will no longer vi&it voluntarily, but win toil night and day like a drudge.... And in the morning, you will cau before the public 11 page scribbled over in the course of you r nocturn al Jueubl"lltions; you wiu not even bother rereadjllg the rubbish that coven it , though you will certainly have counted the number of lines it containl." Louis Veuinot, Pagel chouies. 00. Antoine Albalat (Lyons and Pa ri&, 19(6). pp . 28 , 31-32. (Karr sold Rowen grown

on his estate nea r Nice.) (dIOa, l]

" Ill vain Sainte-Beuve aUow! h.imseLf, out of a deep-rooted alltipathy, to fl y into a

rage agaillst the author of La Comedie lIunwine. But he is right to observe that ' the vogue for serial publication , which rC(luired , with each new chapter, that the reader be struck a hearty blow, had driven the atyliuic effects of the novel to an

ext.remeand desper ate pitch . '" Cited in Fernand Baldensperger, " Le Raffermisse­ment des techniques <dans la litterature occidenta le de> 1840," Revue de liuera­ture comparee, 15, no. I (January-March 1935), p . 82. (dIOa,2]

In reaction to the seriaJ novel, there arose-around 1840-novcl1as (Merimee) and regional novels « Barbey> d~urevilly). (dIOa,3]

Eugene de I'tli recou rt , us Vrau Muerablell (Paris, 1862), recalla Lamartine's lIu­Loire des Girondim and surmises that Hugo wanted to prepare his political career with his novel as Lamartine had done with hil popular his tory. [dlOa,4]

Apropos of Lamartine and Hugo: " Instead of fostering the notion ... that people

should follow devotedly in the s teps or these sincere souls, we should inYe8tigate the undenide of all sincerity. But bourgeois culture and democracy are too greatly in Jreetl of this value! The democrat is a man who wears his heart OD his sleeve; his heart is an excuse, a testimonial, a subterfuge. He il profe88ionally heartwarming, so he can dis)H!llse with being truthrul. " N. Guterman and H. Lefebvre, La Con.­

f· 'cience myslif,.ee (Paril < 1936» . p . 151 ("Le Chantage et la sincerite" <Blackmail and Sincerity). [dll ,l ]

On Lamartine: "The ratui ty of the poet is indescr ibable. Lamartine dt.'ClIIs himse)( a statt!Sman in the mol(1 or Mirabeau , and he boasts (another Turgot!) of having Illhored twenty ytlurs ill the s tudy of political economy. An eminent thinker, he'l convi nced that he draws up from thtl depths of his 80 111 ideas that he actually catches 0 11 the wing and clothes in hjs OW" image." Emile Barrauh , " La ma rtine," extract from U i\'utionul of March 27, 1869 (Paris, 1869), p . 10. [dll ,2J

Alrred DeI~au (1825--1867): " li e Wil l a child or tile qll(lrtier MOllf(etard.... In 184a, he beeume I)rivate secreta r y 10 Led r ll-Rollin , who wa~ then millil ter of the

interior. Even16 having hru!t(luei y removed him from active politics. he devoted himseU to letters, making his {Ielmt wilh several newspaper articles ... . In Le jOllrrwl (rml/stlnt. Le. fi8 f1ro , IIml some olher jou "nals, he published articles deal. ing mainly with Purisian customs alld practices. For some lime. al Le. Siecle. his sp·ecial assignment was the Paris town council. " During the second half of the 1850s, he was in ex ile ill Uelgium , where he had fl ed to escape a prison sentence incurred while he was editor of I.e Rubelo;.,. Later. he would endure prosecutions for plagiarism. Infomlation in Pierre Larousse, GnHld Dictimlnuire IIniver'el du XIX·tiecle. vol. 6 (Paris, 1870), p . 385 (arlicle: " Delvau"). [dll,3]

During the reign of Napoleon III . Benjamin Gastineau had alread y been twice deported toAJgeria. "Under the Pa ris Commune, M. Ganineau was named inspec:_

tor of communal libraries. The twentieth council of war. charged with trying his case, could filld no evidence of a ny breach of common law. He was neverthele81 condemned to deportation in a fortified cell ." Pierre Larousse, Grand Diction­noire universel dll XIX' sieck, vol. 8 (Puris , 1872). p. 1062.-Gastineau had be­gun his career as a typesetter. [dll ,4]

Pierre Dupont: "The poet, as he says in one of his little poems, 'listens, by turns, to the forests and the crowd.' And in fact it is the great rustic symphonies, me voices through which nature in its entirety speaks, as well as the clamor, me grids, the aspirations and lamentations of the crowd, that make for his double inspiration. The song such as our fathers knew it ... , the drinking song or even the simple ballad, is utterly foreign to him." Pierre Larousse, <Grand> Dictionnaire uniumei du XIX' Jiede, vol. 6 (Paris, 1870), p. 1413 (article: "Dupont"). Hence, with Baudelaire, hatred for Beranger is an element of his love for Dupont

[dlla,l)

Gustave Simon describes Ihe scellcs thai took place in front of Paguerre's book­shop when the socond antllhird parts of l.es Mi.terablct were delivered: " 'On MIlY

15. 1862 ,' he writes, ' a little before 6:00 ill the morning, a dense crowd was gather­ingon the Ruc de Seine hefore a shop Ih al was still closed . The crowd kept growins larger and , impatient with wailing, became 1I0isy, even riotous .... The pavement

wall obstructed by an im passable jumble of delivery carts. pri,'ate carriages, cabs, ca rioles, and even wlu.:dbarrows. People had empt y baskets 011 their backs.... It was nol yel 6:30 when the crowd, becoming more unruly by the minute, started

pushing against Ihe sho"frol1t , while those in the vanguard knocked with redou­ble{1 force on ti le door. Suddellly, II window was opened on the second floor ; a lady appeared and exhortetllhe assembled cilizens to be more patient. ... '{he shop to which they were preparing to lay siege was quite inoffensi\'e; only hooks ....ere sold there. It was Paguerre's hookshop . The people hurling themselves lit Ihe building were bookstore clerks. agents. llU yers, a mi hrokers . The lad y who spoke from ber

secoml-floor windo"" was Madame Paguerre. ,,, Albert de Besancou rt , I~s Pam­phlets corltre Victor III1So (Pa l'is), pp . 227-228; cilCiI in Gustave Simon , "w

Origine. des Miserable,," in Lo Revue de Pom, and in letters about the book ""hich Simon published in Lo ReVile). [dlla,2)

Perrot de ChezeUes. in his pamphlet " Examen du livre des Miserables de 1't1 . Victor Hugo" (Paris, 1863), makes tltis more general contrihution to the characteri~ation

of Victor Hugo: " In his dramas and novels he takes for his heroes a lackey like Ruy lJias, a oourtesan like Marion Delorme, physicaUy deformed beings like Triboulet and Quasilllodo, a prostitute like Fantinc . a convict like J ean Valjean." '6 Cited in Albert de Besancourt , Let Pomphleu contre Y.H. (Paris), p. 243. [dlla,3)

Les Muirabfes depends, for its principal facts, on actual events. Underlying the condemnation ofJ ean Valjean is a case in which a man who had stolen a loaf of bread for his sister's children was condemned to five years' penal seJVitude. Hugo documented such things with great exactitude. [dI2,1]

A detailed representation o( Lamartine's behavior during the February Revolu­tion is provided by Pokrowski in lin IIrticle that ba&ell itself, in part , on diplomatic reports by Kisseliov, the Russian ambassador to Paris at that time. These reports

are cited in Ihe course of the article. "'Lamartine ... admitted, ' Kineliov writetl , ' that , for the time being, France found iuelf in a . ituation that always tends to

arise when one government has just fallen and the other is not yet firmly in place. He added, however, thai the population had given proof of so much good sense, of such reslHlC::t for family and property, thllt lawful order in PliriS would be pre­

served through the momentum of things in themselves and through the good will of the manes.... In eight or ten days, continued Lamartine, a national guard of

200,000 men would be organized, in addition to which there were 15.000 mounted police, wh08e spirits were exceUent , and 20,000 front-Line troops, who already had encircled Paris and were to march on the city.' Here we must pause (or a moment .

It is weU known that the pretext for recalling the troops, which since February had been' stationed at a distance (rom Paris , WIIS the workers' demonstration of April 16; the conversation between Lamartine and K.isseliov, however, took place on

April 6. How brilllantly, therefore, Marx divined (in Die Klauenkiimpfe in Frank­, reich) that the demonstration was I)rovoked solely in order to be able to call back

into the capi tal the most ' reliable' part of the 'forces of order. ' ... But let u. go

further. ' These masses . says Lamartine [that is. the bourgeois national guard , the hlohile guard , and the line infantry-I't1.N. P.1, will keep in check the club fanatica, who depend O il a few thousand hooligans and criminal elements (!), and will nip ever y excess ... in Ihe bud .'" M. N. Pokrowski, Hutoruche Auf,at:e (Vienna a nd Ilerlin ~ 1928», pp. 108-109 ("Lamartine, Cavaignac und Nikolaus I"). [dI2 ,2)

011 Ihe sixlll of April , a directive went out from NesseLrode ill Petersburg to K.is­8diov:" ' ic~olas and his chancellor did not conceal from their agent the fact that they needL't1 the alliance wilh France against Gemlauy- againsl the new red Ger ­Illany that was beginning, with its revolutionary colors . to outshine the France

which had already come r ather far on the r oad 10 reason." M. N. Pokrowski, Iclters . is always hawking his opi nions and his COliscienoo..Ili$tori,.,cl!e AUf$iit:::e (Vienna a.nd Berlin). p . 11 2. . Thc worM as[dl2,3) paili lcd by M. tie Oalzac is ... a cesspool." J (ae<lu(.·lI) Chamlcs-Aigues, l..es Ecri­Michelel on Lamartine: " He glides on his grea.t wing, rapid a mi oblivious." Cited

!il, i,u mOllenles de III Fnmce (Puris, 1841). p . 227. [dI3,IJin J acque. Boulenger, " le Magie de ~tichelet ," Le Temps, Ma )' 15, 1936. Id12a, l} "Nowllilays, so llIany allested alltl autilelllicalt:d fact s hu ve emerged from the " A shrewd observer remarked , one d ay, that fa scist h aly was being run like a large

occult .ciences tha t the time will come when these liciences will be ta ught at muver­silics j llst llS chemistry and astronomy a re. Just now, when 80 many professorialnew. paper and , moreover, by a great journalist : one idea per d ay, with sideligbta ..hairs are being sel ul' in Paris----ehairs in Slavonic, in Manchurian studies, and inand sensations, and with an adroit and insistent orientation of the reader toward \iterulUres so .mprojessllbk as thost: of far northern lands; chairs which , insteadcertain iuordina tely eular ged aspects of social life-a syltematic deformation or of offering instruction, sta nd in neetl of it themselves ...- is it not a mailer ofthe understanding of the reader for certain practical ends. The long and the . hon surprise that , uuder the name of anthropology, the teaching of occult philosophy,of it is that fascist regimes a re Jlublicity regimes." J ean de L.ignier es, "I.e CeD­

teuaire de La Preue," Vendredi , June 1936. one of the glories of the oid-tillle university, has not been re8tored? I.n this respect ,[d12a,2] Gerlllan )' ... is a step ahead of France." I'Ionon! de Babac, Le COlUin Pom, l? inOeulJre$ completes, vol. 18, La Comedic humlline: Scenes de la vic parisienne, 6" Baluc was one of the collaborators on La Preue ... , and Girardin was for bim (Paris, 1914), p . 13 1. 0 Physiologies 0one of the best guides to the society in which the great man lived ." J ean de Lis­ (d I3,2]

w eres, "Le Centenaire de Lo Preue," Vendredi, June 1936. [dI2..,3] On Lamartine: " He iS lhe most feminine of Illen in a century which has seen a great " In gener al, the various currents of I\ealism between 1850 and 1860, that of

many such men, several of whom seem to announce themselves by the very article ChampAeury like that of F1a ubert, are considered ' the school of Balzac.

preceding their numes: Lafa yette, La mennais, Lacordaire, Lamartine.... There ' " EnutRobert Curtills, Bauac (Bonn , 1923), p. 487 .

are very good reasons for thinking that he had prepared for the red fla~ the same[dI2a,4] 81>Ce<:h he delivered for the tricolor fl ag." Abel Bonnard , Le, ftfoder es, in the series " Modern ma88 production destroys the sense of art, and the sense of work, in

entitled Le Dmme du pre,ent , vol. I (Paris ( 1936», Pl' . 232-233 . [dI3,3) labor: ' We have product.; we no longer have works.''' Ernst Robert CUrtilD, ­ "The novel ... is no longer only a ""ay of telling a story but has beconle anBa/:::oc (Bonn, 1923), p . 260; citation from Beotrix ( Baluc edition in La CoUce­ investigation , a continual discovery.... Balzac stands at the limit of the litera tureti01I Mk hel-Uvy (Paris, 1891- 1899». p . 3. (dI2a,5] of imagination and of the literature of ellactitude. He has books in which the spirit

of inquiry is rigor ous, like Eusenie Gmndet or Ce$or Biroueau; othere in which'"The or ganization of intelligence i. Balzac's goal. In this he sometimes, like !be the ullreal is blended with the real, like VI Femme de trenfe 011$; and still others,Saint-Simonian8, enterta ins notions of corporation such as marked the Middle like Le Chef-d'oeu lJre inconnu, coml)()sed of elements drawn from a variety of jewt Age•. At these times , he returns to the idea ... of a n incorporation of inteUectuai . d'labor into the modern system of credit . The idea of the state'B remunerating intel­

esI' r it." Pierre Hamp, " La L.itterature, illlage de la societe," Encyclopedic! ram;oue, vol. 16 , Arts et litteratures dllll.! la societe conremporaine. I , p . M .lectual production also surfaces here and there." Ernst Robert Curtiw , BoUGe

(Bonn , 1923), p . 256. [d 13,')(dI2a,61 " "Oy I862, the yea r in which Victor Ilugo IHlhlishes I.e. Muer(Jbfe., the number of" Intelligential workers"-a coinage of Balzac'B. Sec E. 1\ . Curlills, B(I/:::ac (Bonn,

1923), p. 263. (dI2a,1] iUiterates has cOllsider llhly diminished in France.... In proportion as an edu­til te,l popuillee hegills to patron ize bookshops . authors befooln choosing their he­roes .from the crowd , allIl the one ill wholll this phenomenon of sociali7.ation cand .-A.) Chaptal, De l 'lndwtricfron{(lue , vol. 2 (Paris, 1819), p . 198, estimatet best be Slutlic<1is Hugo himself, the first great pool who gave to hiHliter ary worksthat the number of books published anlluall y is 3,090. (d I2a,8J conullunplace titleij: Le. lIIi$erublc$. I.e. 'I'rU lJuiIlCllr. de It I mer." Picrre Uamp," La Litli!ru tllrc, image lie la socict i! ," eflcyciollcdie f mtl{llise. vol. 16. ArB et From the hi -~Iy unfavorahle " M. de Balzac," by Chaudes-Aigues: " Dullgeon" li tterutllres d f1tl$ la societe cOfltcmlJOrflille. I , p . 64).6" •brothels . and prisolls would be asylums of vlrlue ... compared to the c

ivilized (d I3a, I]

cit.ies of M. de Oalzac. ... The banker is a llIan who has ellriched himself throupembezzlement alld IIsur)' ; the politician ... owes his stature ... to cumulative acU

These remarks o n Scott might be applied to Victor Hugo: "He regarded rhetoric,the an of the orator, as the munediate weapon of the oppressed.. .. And it is oddof treacher y; the maJl ufacturer is a pru<lellt and skillful swindler ; ... the man 01 to reflect thal he was, as an author, giving free speech to fi ctitious rebels while he

was, as a srupid politician, denying it to real ones?' G. K. Chesterton, Dickn.s, trans. Laurent and Martin-Dupont (Paris, 1927), p. 175.11 [dI 3a,2]

The same holds for Victor Hugo as for Dickens: "Dickens stands first as a defiant monument of what happens when a great literary genius has a literary taste akin to that of the community. For this kinship was deep and spirirual. Dickens waa not like our ordinary demagogues and joumalists. Dickens did not write what the people wanted. Dickens wanted what the people wanted .... He died in 1870; and the whole nation mourned him as no public man has ever been moumed; for prime ministers and princes were private persons compared with Dickens. He had been a great popular king, like a king of some more primal age whom his people could come and see, giving judgment Wlder an oak tree." G. K.. Chesterton, DicAeru, trans. Laurent and Martin-Dupont (Paris, 1927), pp. 72, 168." [dI3a,3]

Le Nain jaune is founded by Aure.lien Scholl ; La Vie Parisienne, by Marcelin, a

friend of Worth 's. L'Etnlnement founded in 1865 by Vdleme88ant , with the partici­pation of Rochefort. lola. and others in Ihe opposition . [d13a,4)

" Mires and the Pereire brothers . following the example of the Rothschilds. would

from time 10 time cause an unexpected shower, nol of gold but o( 8eCuritietl, to descend on well-known poets, journalists, and playwrights. without involving any

direct obligation in return ." S. Kracauer, Jacque, Offenbach und dw Pon.. .eiM,. -Zeit (Amllterdam, 1937), p . 252.:10 [d14,I)

" A single one of the new sciences-that o( analogy.-,ught to yield authors a profit o( five million to six million (rancs (or a sixteen-page installment." Charlet Fourier, Le Nouveau Montle indwtrielet ,ocUltai,.e (Paris, 1829), p . 35. [d14,2]

Number o( Paris newspaper subscribers: in 1824, ca. 47,000; in 1836, ca. 70 ,000; in 1846, ca. 200,000. (Details (or 1824: 15,000 (or the government papen Jounaal de Poru , Etoile, Gazette, Moniteur, Drapeau blanc, Pilote; 32,000 (or the opposi·

tion paper s Journal de. debGt" Con,uitutwnnel, Quotidienne. CourMe r M Pom. Journal du Commerce, A,.utarque. ) [d14,3]

With the increase: in public advertising, newspapers turned against the annonuJ

diguisies <advertisements in disguise), which no doubt had brought in more for journalists than for the administration. [dI4,4)

Aroulld Le Globe gathe,.ed , 88 edilors, the m01l1 importanl o( the laler OrleaoisU;

thill editorial sta(( included Cousin . Vulemain. Guizot . In 1829. Blanqui entered the offIce aSlItenographe,., particularly a8 parliamentary stenographe,.. [d14,5)

The journalistic strain in the novels of Dumas: the first chapter ofLa Mohicans de Paris already provides infonnation about what impost must be paid, in the event

one is arrested. for the privilege ofan individual cc.ll; where the Paris executioner lives; and what the best-known apache pubs of Paris arc. (dI4,6)

A young man (rom SI. Petersburg called I.e. Myste,.e, de fh ru "the foremost book uft e,. the Bible." J . Eckardt , Die bulfi$chell I'rovillzcn Ru.ui<lnd, (Leipzig, 1869),

~- ~ I~

Valer )', in his introduction to Les Flcurs du mul (Pa,.is, 1928). 11 . xv, a ll Hugo: " For more than sixty yea rs, this extraordinary mall was at his desk ever y day (,.om five

o'clock ill the morning until noon! He unremittingly called up new combinations o( lallb'lJage, willed them, waited (or them, 1I11t1 hatl the satisfaction of hearing them respond to his call . He wrote one or two hundred thousand lines o( poetry and acquired . by that uninterrupted ext:rcise, a curious manner o( thinking which

superficial critics have judged as best they could.":l [d I4,8)

For nearly all the Romantics, the archetype of the hero is the bohemian; for H ugo, it is the beggar. In this regard, one should not lose sight of the fact that Hugo as writer made a fortune. (dI4a,I)

Hugo in Post-sc,.ipturn de rna vie: L 'Esprit; Ta.s de pierre. p. 1 (cited in Maria

Ley·DeutiCh , Le Gueux chez VlCtO,. Hugo, seriell entitled Bibliotheque de la FOil­

dation Victor Hugo, vol. 4 [Paris , 1936], p . 435); " Do you want a measure o( the civilizing power o( a rt ... ? Look in the prisonll (or a man who knows o( Mozart,

Virgil , and Raphael, who can quote Horace from memory, who is moved by 0,.­phee and Der Freuchiitz . ... Look for such a man ... , and you will not find him ." [dl48,2)

Regill Me8sac speak, o( an "epic period" which the (euilleton under Louis Philippe enjoys. before it becomes a mass item in the Se.:ond Empire. The novels o( Gabriel

Feny belong to the beginning oftbe latter era, as tlo those o( Paul Feval. (d 14a,3)

One can speak, in cc.nain respects, of a contribution made by the physiologies to ,'detective fiction . Only, it must be borne in mind that the combinative procc:dure

of the detective stands opposed here to an empirical approach that is modded on the methods of Vidocq, and that betrays its relation to the physiologies precisdy through theJ ackal in UJ MohicaTIJ de Paris (cited in Messac <u "Detective .NOfJ(1" t t I'itiffuenu de fa pensie srienhjique [Paris. 1929]>, p. 434), of whom it is said : ~One look at the ripped-open shutter, at the broken pane, at the knife slash was enough: 'O h ho t' he said, 'I recognize thist It is the modus operandi of one 0/ them.'" [dI4a,4)

Veron pays 100,000 francs for Le Juije,.runt befor~ a line hilS !.teen penned. [dI4a,5)

"E Ver y time a serial novel threatened to carry 0(( the prize. Balzac redoubled his efrortll with Vaulrin . It wall in 18F-I838 thai Les ~temoires du dwble seemed to be

dominating t ile 8erial format , and it was just at that point tll8t the series entitled

S/Jle1Uleur$e' mi"ere" rle" COllrti"lHU!" began, In 1842- 1843, 1.£$ MY"'ere$ de Pan., a ppeared . and Balzac respondetl wi th A Corllbie" l 'Amour revient mIX vieillardt. In 1&14 MOIlt e-CriMo. and in 1846 u. Closerie (/es Celie",; the latter year saw the publiclIlion of Ba lzac', Oli miment les mauvau chemills; the ycar after that, to Dernicre incarllation de Va utrin . %Z If tlus dialogue ... did not continue any fur. ther, it is lH!(:ause Balzac ... died shortly afterward." Regis Mt.'8sac, Le "Detective Novef' et "influence de Ie. IJe Il"&! scientifique (Pa ris. 1929), pp. 403-1().1..

[d l h,6]

Under the Second Republic, an amendment to the law of July 16-19, 1850, designed "to strike out against an industry that dishonors the press and that is detrimental to the business of the bookstores." So declaims de Riancey, the author of the amendment. The law imposes on each feuilleton a tax of one centim e per copy. The provision was arutulled by the new and mon: seven: press laws of February 1852, through which the feuilleton gained in importance.

(d15, I(

Nettement draws attention to the particular significance which the period for subscription n:newal had for the newspapers. There was a tendency, at such times, to begin publishing a new novel in the feuilletons even befon: the old one had finished its run. In this same period of development, the reaction of readers to the novels started to make itself felt mon: immediately. Publishers took note of this tendency and gauged their speculations beforehand according to the tide of _ the new novel. (dI5,2)

The novel published in installments can be seen as a precunor of the newspaper feuilleton. In 1836, a periodical of KarT's for the first time undenook to publish such installments-which later could be gathered under one cover-as a supple­ment for its readers. [dI5,3)

Political attitude of Romanticism, according to Baudelaire's conception in " PetnP Borel" : " If the Restoration bad turned into a lH!riod of glor y, Romanticism would

not IUn'e parted compan y with royalty." " Later on , ... a misanthropic republi­ca nism joined the new school , and Petrus Borel was the ... most paradoxical ex pressioll of the spirit of the BOllSingots . ... Thi.s spirit •. . . contrary to the

democratic and bourgeois passion which later so cruelly oppressed us. was excited both by an aris tocr a tic ha tred ... for kings and t.he bourgeoisie, ami by a general sympa thy ... for 11 11 that ... was ... pessimistic II I1tI Byronic." Chllrle& Baude­lai re, t 'Arl romlUltie/"e. t.'ti. lI uc hettc, ,'oJ. 3 (Paris). PI" 354 . 353-354.. 23 [d 15,4)

" We i.1I 1'lIriH have ... St.'1! 11 the evolution of Romanticism fa"ored h y the n1 0118""

chy, whilt' 1iI1~:ra I8 ulIIl republiculls alike remaint!(1obstifllliely wedded 10 the rou­tilles of t.lml litl'ra tlli"1' "u ll,'d c1ussical. '· Baudelaire. I, 'A rl romulItie/lle (Pan.), p . 220 ('" Uicluml Wagner ct 7hllllliiillser").:· [dI5,5]

Three forms of hohemiani. m: "Thai of Theophile Gautier. Anent! Houssaye, Cerard de Nerval. Nestor Rotlueplun , Camille Rogier, Lassailly, Edouard Our­Iiuc-a voluntary boheme . .. where onc played at poverty ...• a bastard sciOli of tbe old Romanticism . .. ; thul of 1848, of Murger. ChampReury, Barba ra , Nadar, J ea n Wllllon. Schunne--truly needy. thill boheme. but as quickly relieved , tbanks to all intellectual camaraderie ... ; and that finall y of 1852, our boheme. not "Ohlntary at all ... but cruelly grounded in privation." Jules LevaUois , l'ttiliell de

'~Ie' iIIemoire' d 'un crit..· ue(P aris <1895 » .1'1'· 90-91. [dl 5a, l j $ I ... ~ •.

Balzac sees human beings magnified through the mists of the future behind which they move. On the other hand, the Paris he desai~ is that of his own time; measured against the stature of its inhabitants, it is a provincial Paris.

[d I5a,2]

"What I have in mind here will become sufficiently clear if I say that 1 find in

Balzac no interior life of any kind . but rather a devouring and wholly external curiosity. which ta kes the form of movement without p assing through thought."

Alain , Avec Balzac (Pari. <1937», p . 120 . [d l 5a,3j

Laforgue on La Fill de Satan: " . remember a pbrase by M. Mallarme: Each morn­ing. on rising from his bed. Hugo would go to the organ-like the great Bach . wbo piled up score upon score without concern for other consequences." Earlier. on

the same page: "'('he organ continues as long as the score of the visible world lies open before hill eager eye., and as long as there i. wind for tbe pipes ." Julea Laforgue, Melall8es posthume$ (Pari. , 1903), pp . 130-131. [d l 5a,4j

" It has often been asked whether Victor Hugo bad an easy time composing. It is clear that he wa. not endowed . or afRi cted , with that . trange facility in improvisa­tion thanks to which Lamartine never cro.ted out a word. T he iron pen of the laut; r sped rapidly along, barely touching the satiny paper it covered with liplt

marks.... Victor Hugo makes the paper cry out under his pen, which itself cries out. He reRec18 on each word ; be weigh! every expression ; he comes to res t on periods, as one might s it upon a milestone--to contemplate the finished sentence,

along with the open apace in which the next sentence will begin." Louis Ulhach , Le, Contemporains (Pa ris, 1883); cited in Raymond Escholier, Victor H~o raconte pur ceux qui l'ont VII (Paris. 193 1). p. 353. [dI5a,5]

;'SOnl~ of the letters which reached him were addressed simply: Victor lIugo,

Oce(m ." Ra ymond Escholicr. Victor H"8o racollle par ceux qui l'on' VII (Paris. 1931). p. 273 ("Autornnc"). [d15a,6]

An early, highly characteristic specimen of the feuilleton style in the letlre parisirnne of January 12, 1839, from the pen of the vicomte de Launais (Madame de Girardin): "There is a great deal of excitement over M. Daguerre's invention, and nothing is more amusing tlwt the explanations of this marvel that are offered

in all seriousness by our salon savants. M. Daguerre can rest easy, however, for no one is going to steal his secret. . .. Truly, it is an admirable discovery, but We understand nothing at all about it: there has been too much explanation." MIn de Girardin, Oeu!lt'tJ comple/e;, vol. 4, pp. 289-290; cited in Gist.le Freund ~ Pn%grapnit en Frana au X/X, Jiecit (Paris. 1936). p. 36. (d;6,1]

Baudelaire mentions "an immortal feuiUeton" by Nestor Roqueplan, "OU Vont lee chiens?" <Where Do Dogs Go?" in Le Spleen de Pari&, ed. R. Simon (Pari.), p. 83 (" I.es Bons Chiens"). u [dI6,2]

On Lamartine, I-Iugo, Michelet: "There is lacking to these men so rich in taleot_ as to their predecessors in the eighteenth century-that secret part of study whereby one forgets one'. contemporaries in the sea rch for truths. for that which afterward one can lay before them." Abel Bonnard, Les Modere,. in the aene. entitled Le Drame du present , vol. I (Paris (1936,) , p. 235. (dI 6,3)

Dickens: "There was a great deal of the actual and unbroken tradition of the Revolutioll itself in his early radical indictments; in his denunciations of the Fleet Prison there was a great deal of the capture of the Bastille . There was, above aU,. certain reasonable impatience which was the essence of the old Republican, .Dd which is «uite unknown to the Revolutionist in modern Europe. The old R.dical did not feel ex:actly that he was ' in revolt '; he felt if anything that a number of idiotic institutions had revolted against reason and against him." G. K. Cheeter­ton , Dickens, trans. Laurent and Martin-Dupont (Paris, 1927), pp. 164-165."

[dI6,4)

Gusta ve Ceffroy (L'Enferme <Paris, 1926" vol. I , pp . 155-156) poinll out thai Balzac never described the unrest of the Parisian population in his day. , the dub life, the 81reetcorner prophets , and so on-with the pon ible exception of Z. M.,.... cas, that slave of Lows Philippe '& regime. (dI6,5]

During the July Revolution, Charles X had handwritten appeals distributed among the insurgents by his troops. See Gustave Geffroy, L 'Enferme. vol. I, p. SO.

[dI6,6)

..It is ... importa nt to conceive of the possibility of reorienting aesthetic•... toward influences operating on man thanks to r eprescnt ations engendered by the morphology of society itself. .. It is still more important to demonstrate that phenomena of this kind occur witll tile advent of universal li teracy [ that is to eay, with the instiltJtion of compulsory primary school education. which was estab­liehed at precisely the same time that the myth of Paris was formed (_Note)]." Roger CaiJlois, " Paris, my the moderne;' Nouvelle Revuefram;aise. 25 , no. 284 (May I , 1937). p. 699. (dI6a.l}

Caulier. ill his " Victor Hugo." on the red waistcoats at t.he premiere of Herna";": "'To avoid the infamouJI red of '93, we had added a slight amount of purple 10 0Ul'

tillt. We di,l nol wi.sh to have any political motive attributed to us." Cited in Ra ymond Escholier, Victor Hugo rtlcollte par cenx (1(li 1'0111 VII (Paris. 1931), p. 162. [d16a,2J

1852: "The reputation of the a uthor of Hemflni had I)asseti , by the peculiar con­duits of bohemerie and utopianism. from the Latin Quarter to tbe faubourgs or PariS. Then, suudenly, the grea tmctaphorist had had the r evelation of the dogma of the sovcreign people .... This revelation encompassed, at the same time , the projects of Michelet and Quinet and many another writer of lesser ability, such as Considirant ." LeOIi Daudel , lA. Tragit/ue Existence de Vic tor Hugo (Paris <1937,), p. 98.-Around trul time, Hugo made a speech to the troops . Id16a,3]

Hugo: " It was during one of those desolate excursiolll that the sight of a ship run agrounu 011 a namcless rock, its keel in the air, gave Hugo the idea for a new Robinson Cr wDe, which he would call Les Tm vaiUeurs de to mer <The Toiler s of the Sea" labor and the sea comprising the two poles of his exile .... Whereas in . . . Les Contemplations he hatllulled hil agonb:ing regret for the loss of his eldest daughter to the sea, he went on, in the prose of Les Tra vailleurs. to soothe the sadness he felt for the daughtel' who had 8ailed away. This marine element, tben, was decidedJy linked , by chains of black, to his destiny." Leon Daudet , La Tragique Existence de Victor Hugo (Paris), pp. 202-203. [dI6a,4]

Juliette Drouet: " It is likely ... that , beyond the question of former lovers a nd of debts, this propensity for ancillary amours , wruch attended the poet ... from his thirtieth year until the c.nd of rus life, made him want to reduce his pretty actress to a subordinate position , to the position of begga r woman , ... and the famous expiation might well have been only a metamorphosis of desire." Leon Daudet , La Tragique Exi&tence de ViClor Hugo (Paris), pp . 61-62. (d I7,1]

Leon Daudet maintains that the failu re of Le Roi s'amwe in 1832 turned Hugo llgainst the monarchy. (d I7,2]

Hugo's panegyrics to wuis Na poleon were published in L ·Evenement. [d17,3)

From the record of the spiritualist sessions on Jersey (cited in Albert Beguin, ~mt romantiqut tt It relit (Marseilles, 1937], vol. 2), to which Beguin appends the JUSt remark (p. 397): "Hugo transports all that he takes up-and which could ~ppear pure foolishness wcre reason alone to judge-into his mythology, a little like the primitive savage initiated into the beauties of free and compulsory public education. But his vengeance (and his destiny as well) will be to become, himsclf, the myth of an age devoid of all mythic meaning." Hence, Hugo tranSported spiritualism into his world. "Every great spirit carnes on in his life twO works: the work of the Iivi.ng person and the work of the phantom.... Whereas the living ~ perfoons the first work, the pensive phantom- at night, amid the universal Silence-awakes within the man. 0 terror! 'What,' says the human being, ' that is llot all?'-'No: replies the spe~er. 'Get up! Up! There is a gmt wind abroad, the

hounds and the foxes are yelping, darkness is everywhen, and nature shudders and trembles under the whipcord of God.' .. . The writer-specter sees the phan. tom ideas: \\b~ take fright, sent~~ces shiver, ... the windowpane grows dim, the lamp IS afratd.... Take care, livmg man, 0 man of a century, 0 proscript of a terrestrial idea! For this is madness, this is the tomb, this is the infinite-this is a phantom idea" (p. 390). The "great spirit," in the same contat: "He encountcn

certitude sometimes as an obstacle o n his path, and clarity sometimes as a fear" (p. 3 91 ).-From Prut-Scriptum tit ma vie: "There exists a hilarity of shadOWs.

Noctumallaughtcr Soats in the air. There are merry specters" (p.396). (dI7,4]

Hugo famously intoxicates himself- and not o nly in William Shakespeare--with long lists of the names of great geniuses. In this regard, o ne should recall the poet's passio n fo r imagining his own name writ large; we know he read an HiD. the towers o f Notte Dame. Another aspect o f the matter is disclosed by his spiritualistic experiences. The great geniuses whose names he tirelessly rehearses, always in a different o rder, are his "avatars ," incarnations of his own ego, and the more p resent for being ranged so before it. [dI7a,l)

Just as, during the ",,"ling o f Notre·Dame de Paris, Hugo every evening would

visit o ne of the towers of the cathedral, so on Guernsey U ersey?) he sought out the rocher des prrucrits <exiles' rock>, &om which every afternoon he would c0n­

template the ocean. [dI7a,2]

TIlls decisive passage, which explodes the status o f consciousness within the __

century, &om "Ce que dit Ia Bouche d 'o mbre" :

VW:ep for the unclean spider, for the worm, For the slug whose back. is wet as winter, For the vile lowe that hangs upon the leaf, For the hideous crab, and the appalling ccruipcde, For the dreadful tOad, poor monster with p ue eyes, Who is always gazing at the mysterious sky.

The last line should be compared with that o f Baudelairr: 's "Les Avcugles."27 [dI7a,3)

Sainte-Beuve on Lamartine's role in 1848: " What he did 1I0t foresee is that he

would be the Orpheus who later, for a time, would di rect alld goverll , with hd golden lyre, this invasioll of barbarians." C. A. Sainte-Beuve. Le, COrl,olarioru:

Perl$ee, d 'aolit , poems, IJa rt 2 (Paris, 1863), p . 118. [dI7a,4]

"'One remembers that the china a lld the tables began to dallce, while the rest of tbe world seemed to be standing Still- ill order to ellcourage the others." Karl Mars, Da~ Kapitai ( vol. I >, ed . Korsch (Berlill <1932» <p. 83 >. i!II [dI7a,5]

III a note ill Oru Kopilal (ed. Korsch . p . 541). Mar x speaks of " Bab ac, who sO thoroughly studied ever y shade of avarice.·>1'0 IdI 7a,6)

Le Bolieme-was, a t fi rs t, the or,;all of the proletarianizetl inteileetuaJIJ of Del·

Villi 'S gcncr atioll. [dla,l ]

Bou rget 0 11 lJal:w c: "Certain of his characters were 11101'1' Iruc-to-lifc in 1860 than in 1835:· ,\ . CerfLerr a nd J . Ch.ristophe . RelJerlOire de i ( 1 Com« lie lillmcline (Paris. 1887), p. v (illlr()(luClion h y Pa u] Bourgct). <See {IS. I. > [d I8,2]

Taking a cue fro m H ofmanns thal (VerJuch iiber Vic/or Hugo <Munich, 1925>, pp. 23-25), onc could provide an account of thc binh o f the newspaper from the

spirit of rhetoric,:JO and emphasize how the sp irit of rep resentative political dis· cou rse has confomlcd to that o f empty chattcr and civic gossip. [dI 8,3l

0 11 the feu.illetoll : " Avid for gain , the editors of the big newspapers have not wauted 10 demand that their feuilletonists write criticism fOlWded 011 convictioll and 011 truth . Their cOlivictiOIiShave too often changed. " This the judgmellt of the

Fourierisl press. H. J. Hullt , Le Socilliisme et /e romcmtn me en France: Etude de fa preue , ocia/isle (Ie 1830 a1848 (Oxford , 1935) <po L42 >. (dI 8,4]

Lamartine's politico-poetic program , mOlh:1 for fascist programs of today: "The ignor ance and limitlity of governlllents . . . has the effect, within all the parties, of disgusting one by Olle those men endowed with breadth of vision and generosity of

heart . EaciJ , in his turn , disencha nted with the mendacious symbols that no longer represent tiJem, these men are going to congregate arowld ideas alone .... It is to help bring forth cOllviction , to add one voice mor e to this political group, that I

tenllHJruily fC.nounce my solitude." Lamartine, " Des Deslinees de la lKt&ie" [sec­ond prefll ce to Le, Meditations] , in Le5 Cr(Jtld Ecri lJ(Jin~ de la France: La­marti'le . vol. 2 (Paris, 1915), pp . 422-423. {dI8,5j

On the serial novel in Sue's day ; "The need to whieh these fa ntasies respond is that of discovering some relation IIlIIong evelils that appear 10 be utter ly r andom. Ob­

scurely, the imagililltion per suades itself t.hnt aU these inequalities of social exist­ence, thelie downfalls li nd ascents, constitute one ancllile ,ame great aClion~in

other words, tha t they prO(.'eed from a single cause a mi a re connected one to

anothcr. Tilt: tlc\'e!opmcnt of Ille scrial novel pa rallels the creation of the social ~ ~cie licC8." Cassoll . Q,W I'{Ulle-Jlllil (Pll ris <1939» . p . 15 . [d 18,6]

Cassou on the "dcmocr ll tic lyricism of La lllal'tiJlt:'·; " We t1.iIiCO\·er in thi li a secret

thouglll : our POSIiCIi8ioIlS. II10nl; wilh all thl~ ir II'ain uf spiritual delights, accom­\lany liS tu the \'er y thl'eshuld uf imlllortalit y. Ilarllly bwaehetl in Milly. 0 11 la terre fl u/(.Ie. this theme hu rsts forth ill U I Visne et In mui$Oll . exp ressing Lama rtille's sUprellle .Iesire-th ll t of living u ll in a realm of ph ysical immortality where e\'er y object I'I'\'scrw~s it!! perfc.·t <llId 8uvury rCllli ty. This j·schut ol"gy. no .Iou"t . differs a lill ie fl'u lII the PUI'{' spiritualism uf l.a Mort de Socrrr tc. wit h its Pla lunic inspira­tion .... Uut it revcals the prUfOlilltlll ll tu.re of this IIristOl' r atic lalltlOI'O·ucr." J ea ll Cassou. Qun l'{lnte·huit (Pa ris), I)' 173. [d I8a, I]

The gargoyles of Notre Dame must be jwt about contemporary with Victor Hugo's noYd. "Here VioUet·le-Ouc., ... whose work was so sharply criticized, has ac.complished something remarkable. These devils and monsters are ac.tua1ly d~ndants of the gro~ues created in the ~dd.le Ages ~ the possessed imagi. t--------­nabon, everywhere seemg demons, really scemg them." Fn tz Stahl, Paris (Berlin <1929» , p. 72. ~ meet with the anaJogous phenomenon, it seems, in Hugo. At stake here, perhaps, is a question, one that coincides lVith the question: Why is the nineteenth century the century of spirirualism? {d18a,2]

An important relation bet,,:ttn information and feuilleton is indicated by LaVtt. dam (this, at any rate, is how the signet "Lm" is read by Hunt, Le SociaJisrTk et Ie romantisme (II France [Oxford, 1935]) : "The distressing disputes ... between Ger. many and France, the war in Africa-do not such facts deserve as much attention as skillfully told stories of fornler times or of individual misfortunes? lbis being the case, if the public ... reads these great national novels chapter by chapta; why do you wish to impose on it, all at one time, your tale or your doctrine? ... Division 0/lahar and ;hort ;ith'ngs: such are the requirements of the reader." Lm, "Revue critique du feuilleton," La Phalange, July 18, 1841; in La Phalange. 3rd series, vol. 3 (Paris, 1841), p. 540. [d18a,3]

" Victor Hugo, ... according to a description by Theophile Gautier. would mD together on the same plate a cutlet , beans in oil , a ha m omelette, and Brie eh_. and would drink cafe au Jai t seasoned with a d ash of vinegar and a spot of mu.­tard." R. 8[runet] . " La Cuisine rigionale," Le Temps, April 4. 1940. [dI9] ___

[The Stock Exchange, Economic History]

';Napoleon N!1)r Csented the last onslaught of revolutionary terror against the bourgeois society which had been proclaimed by this same Revolution. and against its policy. Napoleon. of coune, already discerned the euenee oftbe modern state;

he undentood that it is based on the unhampered development of bourgeois soci­ety. on the free movement of private interest , and so fortb.... Yet , at the same time, he still rega rded the state as an end in illielf and civil life only as a pune­

bearer.... He perfected the Terror by substituting permanent war for permanent revolution .... If he despoticaUy suppressed the liber alism of bourgeois society-the political idealism of its daily practice--he sbowed no more consideration for its

essential material interests, trade and industry. whenever tbey conRieted with his political interests. His scorn for industrial homme. d 'a/Jaire. was the complement

to his scorn for ideologues .... Just as the li.beral bourgeoisie was opposed once more by revolutionary terror in the person of Nal)oleon, so it was opposed once more by counterrevolution during the Restoration , in the penon of the Bourbons. Finally, in 1830, the bourgeoisie put into effect its wishes of the year 1789, the only

difference being that illl political enlightenment was now complete, tha t it D O

longer considered the constitutional representative state as a means for achievinr; tbe ideal of the state, the welfare of the world, and universal huroan aims but, on the contra ry, had acknowledged it as the official expreu ion of iu own exclusive

power and the political recognition of its own special interests." Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels . Die heilise Familie; cited in Die lIelie Zeit, 3 (Stuttgart. 1885), PI>. 388-389. 1 {gl , l]

A schema from Edgar Quinet's De la Revolut ion et de 10. phiuuophie: "The devel­

0llmellt of German philosophy ... a sort of theory of the French political revolu· tion . Kallt is the COllstitucnt Assembly. Fichte the Convention , ScheUing the Empire (in light of his veneratioll of physical force). and I-Iegel appears as the nC~torati OIi lind the Holy AUiallcc." <Eduard > Sehmidt-Weissenfels, Portraiu

au.s Frankreich (Berlin , 1881). p . 120 (" Edgar Quinet uDd der fra n.r:osische Na· tionalhaO" <Edga r Quinet alld Frcnch 'ational Hatred> ). {g1.2]

Cuizot n~i lli 8lry. "Corrupting the electoral colleges WIi S a simple mailer. T hese Colleges gcnerally comprised few eleclon; man y cont ained less than 200. among

which were government bureaucrats. The Istter obeyed the orders they were given ; ss to ordin ary e1ec;tors. one could lilly them hy giving their dependents snd favorites things likctohacco shops or ~cholu rship8 . or by giving the elector himself somc impo rts nt administrative post. III Ihe Chumber, as in the electoral colle~

government bureMucrMls were 'Iuite numerous: more than a third of the deputi~ (1M out of 459, in 1846) wertl prefects. magistrates. officiuls. The minister Con. trolled them by fueling their hopes for s d vancement .... To reach a majority thirty or forty deputies were needed. Guizot 101'011 them with concessions for tar • state projects (this was in the early days of rai lroad construction) or by giv! them a share of die contract for supplies to the s tate. Corruption was thus built u

into a systcm of government , Mnd the numerous scandMls Mt I.he end of the r~ make glaringly elear that the underlingtl worked the system just as well as the prime minister." A. Malet and P. Grillet, XJX~ Siecle (Paris, 1919), pp. 95, 97.

Lamartintl81)Oke, at this tinle, of the danger of an "electoral aris tocracy" (1847).

[gla.l ]

"On July 2S, 1831 , a Parisian man displays his portrait together with that of Low. Philippe. providing them with the foll owing caption: ' There is no dis tance separal. iug Philippe from me. He is the citizcn. kiug; I am the king-citizen,''' Gi.&e1a

Freund , " La Photographie au point de vue sociologiquen (manuscript . p . 31). citing J ean J aures, HiJtoiresociamte: Le Reglle de umu-Philippe. p. 49. [gla,21

''' Paris is as sad as l)I)ssible; wrote the author of Colomba at the height or the ­exhibition . ' Everyolle is afraid withoul kllowing why. It is a sensation akin to tbal produced by the music of Mozart wheu the COllllllelidatore is about 10 enter.! ...

The leasl little incident is awaited like a catastrophe.'" Adolphe Oemy. E" oi hu torique ,ur les exposition, univer, elle, de Paru (Paris, 1907), pp . 173-174.

[gla,3]

Some light on Nal)Oleon's relatioll to the bourgeoisie around 18 14. "The emperor hod evince,1 the greu test relucta nce Itt the prospect of arming the PariSI)Opulation. Fearing the revolutionary spirit, he had refused the services of 50,000 workers,

most of th tlm forrner 8oldiers; he had wanted to organize companies ... made up solely of citizens of the IUllll tl hourgeoisie--thal is to ~ay, tllose who were inclined 10 regard the allies MS lihera tors.... Pt-,ople cur!llld Napoleon's naille. Witnen. leiter to Colonel Greiner, se.:olld ill COlllmand at the Ecule ... : 'April II . IS14. J

Cowa rdly slave of all equally cowardly Illas ter! Give me hack my son! lJIoodthiral­il-, r evell than the tyrallt , you have outdolle him in cruelt y by delivering up to enemy fire the chiM ren we entrusted to your carc--we who Ldie' ·e in the law that guarantet:d their education . Where are they? Yuu will answer for this with your 1\I:ad! All the 1I10tllel's III·e nUI/'ching against you , and I myself, I promise you , will

" wring your m . .-c k wilh Ill )' ow n two hallli ll if III )' SOli does nut reappear soon . G. Pinet . Jli.stoi,.e de rEcofe IJo f)·tecllfliqlle (Paris. 1887) . PI' . 73-74.80-81. The I,·ltcl' is from the futher of Enflllliin. {g2,I]

" Protesta ntism ... did away with the saints in heaven 80 118 10 be able to abolish their fea Bt days 011 earth. The Revolution of 1789 underslOOII s till hetler what it \O.IIS allOut. The reforll1ed reiigiou had held 0 11 to Sunday; Lut for the revolution­IIr)' bourgeois . Ihat ontl day of rest coming every seven days was too much , and the). therefore substituted fur the se" en-day week the ten. day week <it. decode), so that the d ay of rest recurred but ever)' tell tlays. Alld in order to bury all memory of the ecclesiastical holy days ... , they replaced the Dames of saints, in the repuhlican calendar, with the names of metals . planu, and animals." Paul Lafargue, " Die christliche Liehestatigkeit" (Die neue Zeit, 23, no. 1 (Stuttgart).

W~~· ~

" 1.11 the fi rst days of the Revolution , tilC (Iuestion of the poor assumed ... a very distinct and urgent character. Baill)" who initially had been elected mayor of Paris

for the express purpose of alleviating the misery of the ... workers, I)acked them into masseS and cooped them up--!lome IS.(M)() peoplc--like wild animal8, 011 the hill of Montmartre. Those who stormed the Ba8tille had workers with cannons

emplaced there, lighted match in hand .... Had the war not drawn the unem­ployed a lld destitute laborers from town and countryside ... into the army, and shuttled them off to the borders• ... a popular uprising would have spread across

the whole of France:' Paul Lafargue. " Die christliche Liebe3tatigkeitn [Die neue Zeit. 23, no. 1 (Stuufl:a rt), p . 147]. [g2,3]

"Our century, in which the sovereign is everywhere except on the throne." Babac, I P reface to Un Grand Homme de province a Pa,.u ; cited in Georges Batault. I.e

Pontife d e la demagogic: Victor Hugo ( Paris, 1934). pp. 230-231. [g2a, l ]

On the writings of Napoleon 111 : "A !Illt of commonplaces developed with sustained solemnity ...• a perpetual claslLing of antitheses, and then suddenly a striking

formulation that captivates by its air of gra ndeur or seduces by its generosity ...• along with ideas .....hich are so confused that one can no longer distinguish them in the depths where they're apparently Luried, but which. at the very moment one

despai rs of ever finding them, burst forth with the sound of trumpets ." Pierre d e la Gorce, Nupoieon III et sa pofitique (Paris), pp. 4. 5; cited in Batauh . Le Pontife ~e to delllugogie. pp. 33-34. {g2a,2]

Transition from the Napoleonic milita ry regime to the lH!acetime regime of the R~toration. Engravings titled 1'he Soldier-Labo,.e,., The Sofdier-Reaper,. Gener· osi'J of (I french SoMier. TIl e Tomb of,lie Bru tie. Cabinet des Estampes. [g2a,3]

'·WIIt!n . around 1829. M. de Saillt· Cricq . director of CII8tOIlIS, alinOUIiCed the ('ollimercial shutd"wlI .........e were incl·etiuiouij. It ..... as so serious t.iUlt it ca used the Jul)' Hevolutioll . On the eve of Fehruary 1848. dur ing tile hardl winter t.hat )Irt'cetletl ii, the shutdown returned , alltl with it UIlClII llhJ)·ment . Twenty yea rs later. ill 1869, here it is again . No one has an)' desire for ellterprise. The current goverllJllClll , with its Cri:dit Mohilier and other eompalli tlll, II ll 60 advanLageou8 to

the Stock Exchange, diverted for len years the agricultural and indul lnal capital that earne comparatively little interett . Its free-trade trea ty, opening France to ~ngli8h industry in 1860, ... bro~ght utter ruin (rom the oulaet . Nonnaody '.y. It caonot r ecover. Much lell the Ironworks of the North," J . Michelet, No.flU (Paris. 1879). pp. 300-301. [g2a,4)

A copper engraving of 1818: Xenomenia Impugned, or It ,No Disgrace To Be French. On the right, a column inscribed with the names of fa moul battlea .. weD as famous works of art and literature. Under" it, a young man with the honor roll of industry; hi. foot r estll OD a . beet bearing the ln IK: ription, " Productt of Foreip

Manufacture," Facing him, another Frenchman, who proudly pointa toward the column . In the background, an English civilian debates with a French . oldier. AD four perIODS provided with caption8. Floating above in the sky and blowin« into a

trumpet, the 6gure-eharply r educed in scale---of an angel. From hil horn banp.. a tablet with the words : "To Immortality." Cabinet del El tampes. [g2a,5j

" If you pau in front of the Stock Exchange at noon, you will see a 10I13line . . . • This line is composed of men from all walks of life--bourgeois , penMonen, lbo~

keepers , porter a, errand bOYl, postmen, artis18 and acton-who come there to PI a place in the 6rel row, around the circular enclosure.... Positioned dOle to tbe floor, next to the public crier, they pun::hase sharel of Itock which they aelI 011 during the aame &euion. That old while-haired fellow who offers a pinch of uudf to the guard passing by is the dean of these speculaton.... From the seneralblk of the trading on the 800r and off, and from the faces of the etockbroken, be iI able to divine. with a marvelous instinct , the rise or the fall of stock$. " [Tadle Delord ,) Parn-80ursier (Paris, 1854), pp. 44.-46 ("Le. Petiu Parifl"). [ga,l)

On the Stock Exchange: ""The Boune dates only from the time of M. de V1IWe. There was more initiative and more Saint-Simonianil m in the mind of thit minider from Toulouse than is generally believed .... Under hi, administration , the poei­tion of stockbroker was sold for up to one million francs. T he 6rst word. 01 speculation, though, were harely a lisp; the meager four billion in French debt, the several million in Spanish and ... Neapolitan debt, were the alphabet by which it learned to read .... One put one'a faith in the fa r m, in the hou&e.... Of. rich man it was said : he h88 land in the SUD and a house in town! ... It was not until 1832, after the ... sennonl of Saint-Simonianism , ... that the country found

iuelf . .. suddenly ripe for its great Mancial destiny. In 1837, an irrelistible force could be observed attracting attention to the Bourse; the creation of the raiJroad added new momentum to this force.... The petite-couliu:e in the colonnade (&ee

Convolute 0 , note 9> does the bUl iness of the petty bourgeoisie, just· beyond, the contre-petite-couliue handles the capital of the proletariat . The one operatel for the porters, cookl, coachmen , grill .room proprietor• • haberdashers, aDd waite"; Ihe other descend. a nOlch in the locial hierar chy. One day we said to our&dVel: ' The cobhler. the match seller, the boiler cleaner, and the fried -I)Otalo vendor know how 10 put their capilal 10 use; let'. make the greal market of the Bount'

H ;

L'Elrangrmumie blam«, ou D'Efrt Franrau it nJ apas d'aifrrmt (Xcnomania bnpugned, or It's No Oi5grace to Be Fre:nch). Counesy of the Bibliotheque Nationale de France. See g2a,5.

. ~vaiJah le to thenl.... Thus, we OIK!ned up the contre-/Je' i'e-couli.ue. tradin« be­Yond Ihe tllC ter nal market . We sold sha res at a fixed rate of 3 francs, 50 centinles, and made a profit of one centime. Business was boomiog ill this ma rket when the

debacle of la8t lIIonlh occurred .'" [TalCile Delord ,) I'(lris-Hollrsier (Paris, 1854), 1111.6-8.56.....')7 (" Les Petits Paris"). (g3,2]

Conullert'ial crisis of 1857 all cause of the Ii alian campaign. [g3.31

"Enfantin elChorts hi:8 lwlhical comrades ... 10 establish . in addition to Ihe ' i,lllu8­trial Crt:llil ~ already ill elCistence, .111 ·illlcllL..:tuul credit ...• T his wa~ ill 1863! C. L. de Liefde, 1..e Suint-Simonis me dlJlu h1 Iwetlicjru'I(;(lise, 1825-1865 dluarlclII ,1927), p . 113. [g3a, I]

Bau ac'j portrait of the speculator Dia rd in Le$ Marcma : " He demanded th,"_ and-$uch percent 0 11 the purcll ose of futeen legislative votes, which passed., in the space of one n.ight , from the bellchel of the I...eft to those of the Right . That 80rt of thing is 11 0 longer robbery, or any 10rt of crime; it is l inlply carrying on the government , becoming a silent partner in the national industry." Cited in Ahbe Charles CaLippe, 8(1iz(lc: Se$ idee$ $ociale$ (Reillli alltl Par il ( 1906», p . 100.5

[gO.,'}

" It Wil.l in ... 1838 that tbe government , in the perlOn of M. Martin from Nord

had the good idea of bringing before the Chamben the p roject of a p-eat network of !la tiollal railways-a gigantic undertaking which t.he sta te alone would carry

oul. . .. Against this untoward governmental project Le Journal del debal' launched a devastating attack , from which the project didllot recover. Two yean later, the conce88ion for the two principal lines of the West and tbe South was

granted b y the s ta te to two large COnllJanies .. . . Five years later, . .. Pere Enlao_ tin was IICCretary of the administra tive council of the Lyonl railr oad , ... and the pact between Saint-Simon a nd Judea. . was sealed forever . ... All this wal the work of the .' a ther (see U14a . 1> . . . . Too many J ewish names appea r 00 the membership rolls of the Saint-Simonian church for us to be surprised at the fact

that the system of financial feudalism was el tablished by the disciples of Saint­Simoll ." A. Toussellel, I.e! l uif$, rou de J'epoquB (Panl <1886» , ed. Gonet.

pp . 130--133. fg3 a,3}

"It was 1I0t the Frellch bourgeoisie as such that r uled under the bourgeoil kinI, ­but merely . . . the fmancial aris tocr acy. The entire industrial corps, on the other

hand, was in the opposition ." Eduard Fuchs, Die Karikatur der europauchera

VOlker (Munich <1 92 1» , vol. I , p . 365. [g3a,4}

"Before 1830, large-scale agriculture held /iway over public policy; after 1830, the manufacturer s took its place, but their reign had alread y developed under the . regime which had been overthrowlI by t.he harricades . . .. Whereas 15 factories had bei:n e(luipped with machines in 1814, there were 65 in 1820 and 625 in 1830." Paul Louis, IJiJloire de w cwu e ouvriere en France, de la Revolution ano! joun (Par il, 1927). I.P. 48-49. [g3a,5]

"'The ensla\'ement of governments is 011 the incr ealC, and the inlIuence of speeula­

tors has grown to such an extellt thai the gandlling dell of the Boun e hal beco~ the compan of puhlic opinion ." Cited in f: Armand and R. J\taubianc, FoulUr

(Pa ris , 1937), vol. 2 , p . 32. [g4,l j

Fourier's Bourse: " There is much more animatioll and illtrigue at the Stock Ex­change of a Phalanx than t1lcre is a t the stock exchangell of Londoll alld Amster­d am. For every ind ividual lIIust go to the E"c1lange to a rrange his work and pleasure SC!jllionll ror the fo llowing daYIl . .. . Assuming thai 1,200 individuals are prc~cnt , 1I1111111at ellch one has twcnty IIcssion8 to IIrra llg.~ , this means that , in ,be

meeting 11.1 a whole, there are 24,000 transactioDs to be concluded. Each of these IrailSaCtiOIll! ca n involve twenty, forty, or a hUlidred illdividuals, who must be consulted and illtngued with or against. ... Negotiations a re carried on quietly, by means of l iptals. Each negotialOr holds up the escutcheons of the grolllJ' or phalanxes which he reprelCntS, aud by certain prea rranged signs he indicates the approJ(imatc number of members he has recruited ." Publication de$ nlelnl/lerit! de Fourier (Pa ris, 1851- (858), 4 vola. , Year 1851. pp. 19 1- 192.6 {g4,2)

T he term Bour!e de tra vaiJ <Labor E"change) Was coined b y Fourier, or a Foun­

erist. [g' ,3}

In 1816 there were lIeven listingB on the Stock Exchange ; in 1847, more than two

hundred. [" ,' }

In 1825 , according to Marx ,' the fi rs t crisis of modern indul try-that is, the 6n t

crisis of capitalism. {g4,5)

I • -[Reproduction Technology, Lithography1

"The social philosophy of the art of lithography at its beginnings ... Mter tbe image maker, of the Napolt:onic legend, after the literar y artisu of Romonticiam, came the chroniclers of the daily life of the French. The flrll group I1Ilwittin«ly paved the way for political upheavals, the second hu tened the evolution of litera­ture, a nd the third contributed to the profound demarcation between the aritto(:_

racy and the people." Henri BOIiChol , La Lithographie (Paris <1895», pp. 112,

114. [il ,l]

Pigal portrays the people; Monnier, the petty bourgeoisie; Lallli, the aristocracy. [;1,21

The important contribution of amateurs can be observed in the early days or-­lithography, exactly as it can later in photography. [il,3)

"The contest bell. ..een lithography ami stipple-engraving accelerates from d.y to day. bllt , since tile eud of 1817, the victory h as belonged to lithography, thanks 10

the existence of ca ricature." Henri 8 0llchot , La Lithographie (Pan. <1895)), [il ,fl .p. 50.

&uchot looks on lithographs produced before 1817 as the incuna~ oflithog· raphy. From 1818 to 1825, lithographic production in France steadily ~ds. Polilica1 circumstances made this upsurge much more visible there than m other countries. I ts decline, too, is in part conditioned by politics: it coincides with the: rise of Napoleon III "The fact is ... that, of ~e illustrious number present un;; the reign of Louis Philippe, there remained, m the early years of Napoleo~ ,

barely four or five exhausted , disoriented survivors." Henri Bouchot, La LI~~lo~i raphit (Paris), p. 182. I •

'''S 11 · 1.... workedLithogra phy towanl the c luj of tile 5econd Emplre: 0 man y III .....

agaiml it! The ncwl y revived e tching, the nascent lu·liogrnphic proceslw.8. a l.ld ~ !lomc eXlent 1111: hllrin . Materially, il fOllndere(1 undcr the difficult ies a!l!OClat

with print.ing- thc encumiJra nee of those very Ilt~lIv)" stones. wllieh the edilOrI

" ' I ' I ' h h ' (I' ') p 193.refu!ietl to warcllOu,.e as beforc. Ilenn 8 0uc lOt . IAI "" ogr(fp Ie ans, '. 61 [11 ,

Raffet undertook lithogra phic reportage in the Crimea . [iI ,7)

1835-1845: .. It should ... not he forgoth~n tJlllt the l a r~e-sca lc con~lIIercia l opera­, ,I ,'~h II tlll lit lillie was IlJUlerwa)" in wood engr avlllg ver y (IUlckly ... led to1.10 11" I ", · ,

_ , odUCtiOIl tecimi1llle8. A woodcutter wouJd make onJy the head8 or figureslIIa~S-p . . work while a nother Jess skilled. or an apprentice, would make the acceuo­III a , d ' , , f I b c ,_ ' fi d' _ ,I b.- kgroulltls and so on . Out of such a IVIIIIOIi 0 a or notlllJlg Ullt er"~~ . Ie... ,

emerge" Eduard Fuci18, lIonore Dtlumier : llolzschnitte. 1833-1870couIII . . . .

(MulI.ich <1918», p . 16. [il ,8]

The first a tlempt a t introducing lithograph y into France, undertaken by Selle­fei !ler-8 associate Andre d 'Offcnbach , was a complete failllre. " H e had ... moved

10 France solei)" with tile intention of selling musical 8cores printed by means of

lithography. The pa tent had beell taken out in ILis name in 1802, and he had

opened a 8hop, ... little suspecting: : . what Was in store fo~ the di8oovery.... :-s a mallcr of fa ct , it was not an ausplclOliS moment for the nunor arts of transcnp­

tiOIl . The master David expressed olily the haughtiest disd ain for engraving; at

most , he had a few kind words for the copper-plate technique. Andre's enterprise

was very 80011 in jeopard y." Henri 80llChot , La Lilhographie (Pari8 ( 1895)),

W- p l~

On Oore's contributions to Le J OUrrlcrl illuJtre and Le Journal pour tow: " These

publications that sold ror two sous-Le JOllrnal pour 1011.1, Le Journal iUwlre. Le Tour du monde-where Dore gave of himself with s tupefying prodigality and

verve, served him . above aU, B8 a laboratory for his researches. Indeed, in the

grande, edilion, Imld in bookshops. produced at high cost (ror those days) by Uachette or Garnier, lhe imagination , the fantasy, the energy of Gustave Oore

were ... • to a certain extent . disciplined and contained by the requirements of a

deluxe edition .... Roger Devigne, "'Gustave Dori, illustrateur de jOllrnaux i dew:

sous e t rel)()rter du crayon ," Arts et Melierl grophiqucs, 50 (December 15, 1935). ~ a P I~

"The Paris worker ill revolt appea rs, ill hooks and in illus trations, as a veteran of

the street wars. a seasoned revolutionary. going about half naked with a cartridge

belt and saiJer crisscrossed over his shirt , with a headdress like an Mrican chief­

laill_ a gold-hraid!:11 kcpi or a plumed hat- penniless , worn Ollt, magnanimous.

:blackcnetl with powder anll SWt' li ting from the Slln , ostelltaliollsly calling for water

" 'llen he is offen!tl a gllllJS of ....ine. installing himself comfortably on the IIl'hol­

stt' rctlt llrOlle in the Illllllller or the $CI/I $ clIlotlcs of ' 93 , e)"eing his companions at

til l' exit to tilt: ro)"al llpurtlllcnlS . shooting ully thieve,.. Take a look al drawings hy

Chll rle t and hy HaffcI; rcud t.hc accounts, in tile form of glorifications that were

80it!. a fe.... tia)"s aft er II hUllle_ for the iJenefit of widows, orphans. and the

"·OundL'tI ..·' Custllve Gerrroy. L 'Ellferme (Puris, 1926). "01. 1. p . 5 1. [ila,3)

Cer1aill pamphlcts iJ )" Marx were litilograpllt!il. (According to Cassou , Quarante­huil ( Pa ris, 1939>, 1" I,m .) [i2)

k ,erved as pretexts. This type of ' theatrical' presentation completely defied all et/ntrol."-" When revolution. hreak Ollt , one often hears admissions that can be

[The Commune1

"The hislory of the Paris Commune has become a touchstone of great importance for the queuion: How sbouJd the revolutionary working clan organize its laelict and str ategy in order 10 achieve ultimate victor y? With the fall of the Commune the lasl traditions of the old revolutionary legend have likewise fallen forever ; ...: favorable turn of circumstances, no her oic spirit . DO martyrdom can take the place of the proletariat', clear insight into ... the indispensable conditions of ill emancipation. What holds for the revolutions that ",'ere car ried out by nUnoritiet, aDd in the interests of minorities, no longer holds for the proletariaD revol.... tion .... In the histor y of the Commune. the germs of this r evolution were effec­tively stifled by the creeping plants that, growing out of the bourgeois revolution of the eighteenth century, over ran the revolutionary workers' movement of the aiDe- ­

tee-nth century. Missing in the Commune were the firm organiza tion of the prole­

ta riat 8S 8 c1asll and the fund amental clarity al to its world-historical millllioo; oa these grounds alone it had to succumb." [F. Mehring,] " Zum Cediichtnis der Par­iser Kommune," Die neue Zeit. 14, no. 1 (Stuttgart, 1896), pp. 739-740. [kI,I)

" We will say but two words about the lecture-presentatiolls tha t have multiplied io

recent years.. . . M. Ballande, who fi rs t thought of devoting Sunday afternoooa to

the inexpenllive performance of masterpieces or the exhibition of certain monu­

ments of a rt , preceded b y a historical Mild literar y explica lioll of the work, had hit upon a happy and rewarding idea.... But success breeds imit ation , and it is rare that the imitations do not bring out the troublesome aspects of the things they

copy. This is indeed what happened . Daily presentations were organized at the Chutelet a nd the Ambigu . In these performa nces, questions of artistry were rele­gated to a pollition of secondary importance; politics predominated . SOllleone

fetched up Agne, de Mera nie; another exhumed Co la5 a nd Chorie, lx. 0 11 L 'Ecole, de, rois. ' ... From here. things could only go downhill ; I.he m08t benign of works, b y II strange inJlection of the I)oliticalmadness. provided material ... for the most hetcrugeneolls decla mMtions on the Mffairs of the day. Moliere anti Louis XJV would certa iltly have I>&;,n sur p rised , at times, hy the attack •... for which they

highly illst ructh·e. Here is what wa. sa id in Le Mot c/ 'orc/reof May 17, 187 1, on the ~\l bj et! t of the ci tizenship cards: : ' The overly assi{luous rea {ling of Le Cllevfliier de !lIclisofl-RolIse and other novels by Alexandre Dumas certainly inspired the mem­bcr~ of the Commune to come up with this decree. We regret having to inform them thut lti~lOry is nol made by reading novel~. '" Victor Hallays-Dabot . La CemlUre

tlrtmw tilJu e et Ie theatre, 1850-1870 <Pa ris, 187h , Pl" 68-69, 55. [L..e Mot d 'ortl re iS ll reliumably an organ of Rochefort .] [k l ,2]

The Commune felt itself to be, in all respects, the heir o f 1793. [kl .3]

The passage in Hallays·Dabot, p. 55 <cited in k l ,2>, is very imponant for the connection between colportage and revolution. [k1,4)

"AI several intersectionB , our pa th opened out unexpectedly into vast ar ched domes . . .. Surely, each of these clandestine colos&eums would p rovide a useful I tronghoid fo r the concentration of for ces in certain eventualities, just as the

infinity of subtcrranean networks, with its thousand galleries running under every com er of the capital. provides a ready-made sap from which to attack the city

from below .... The lightning bolt that annihilated the Empire did not leave it time to act on this conception. It is harder to fi gure out why the leaden of the Commune, ... so resolute in evcr ything, did not make use of this formidable

\ means of destruction when faced with tbe appearance of troops." Nadar, Quand j'etais pholographe (Paris ( 1900» , p . 121 (" Paris souterrain"). Refen 10 the "Letter from N- (Pa ris) to Louill Bla nc (Ver sailles), 1\Iay 1871," which voices just 8uch an eX I~cta tioll . [kIa, I]

" if Rimbaud is in fact admirable, it is not for having fallen silent but for having

spoken . Hhe fell s ilent , it was d oubtless for lack of a true audience. It was because the society in which he lived could not offer him this audience. One ought 10 keep

in mind the ver y simple fact that Arthur Rimbaud came to Paris in 1871, quite natur ally, to join the a rmy of the Commune.. .. In the barracks of the Chateau ­d'Ea u, the young Rimhaud did not yet question the utility of writing aud singing aboul the hands of the Wench , of the J eanne-Marie of the fa ubourgs, who is not the plaster Mar ianne of the town halls:

They are the hamb nOI o( a cousin Hut o( worlci ng women with large foreheads Hurned. in wOQ(I8 slinking of a faclory. II)' a aun drunk on lar.

They have paled. marvdo" l , Under Ihe great sun (ull o{loo'e, On Ihe hronze of machine gun~ .

Throughout insurllent Pari~!l

Then , in the Ancmblies of the Commune ... , side by lI ide with the worken at Pllri~ ... • with the warriors of lIocialism , one could 8~ til t:: poet of the Interna.

j tiolla l , Potier ; the lIuthor of L'lmurse, Jules Valles; the painter of L 'Enlcrreme,., (l Onwn$. Courbet ; and the brilliant r esearcher into the physiology of the cerebel. lum, the great floureD,," <Louis) Aragon, " D' AJIred tie Vigny a Avdee.nk ..

0, Commune. 2 (April 20, 1935), PI'. 810,815. {k.1a,2]

~ .. "The Commune. which accorded seats only to those elected from the worker.' distrielll . w aR formed of II coalition of revolutionaries without II common pros;r . .....

Of the seventy-eight members. only II score were intent on projects of social re.

form ; the majority were Jacobin democrats in the tradition of 1793 {Delescluae)." A. Malet, P. Crillel , XIX~ Siecle (Paris, 1919), pp. 481-482 . [kla,3]

Within the Commune emerged the project of a Monument to the Accursed, which

was supposed to be raised in the corner of a public square whose center would be occupied by a war memorial. All the official personalities of the Second Empire (according to the draft of the project) were to be listed OD it . Even Haus8mana',

Dame is there. In this way, an " infernal history" of the r egime was to be launched, although the intention was to go back to Napoleon I, " the villain of Brumaire--tbe

chief of this accursed race of crowned bohemians vomited forth to U8 by Conica, this fatal line of bastards 80 degenerated they would be 108t in their own oati,."

land ." The project , in the fonn of a printed placard , is dated April 15, 1871. (Exhibition entitled " La Commune de Paris," Municipal Office, of Saint-Venit.)

(>.2,11­

"There are your fruit s, bloodthirsty Commune; I Yes, ... you wanted to annihi­late Pa ris." The lau line is the r efrain of a poem, "Lea Ruinea de Paris ," printed ..

a pamphlet (Exhibition hy t.he Municipality of Saint-Denis) . (U,21

A lithograph by ~turcier, Le Depart de m Commune. published b y Deforet d

Cesa r Editeurs, showa a woman (?) riding aD animal that is half-naS aDd balt hyena, wrapped in a giant shroud , and brandiahing tile tattered , dirty red 0.,. while leaving behind her a murky aUey filled with the amoke a nd fl amea ofburninl

houaes. (Exhibition , Municipality of Saint-Denia.) [k2,31

Mter the taking of Paris, L '/llull lration pubLisheil a drawing entitled ChCUll6 Ii l'homme dnull les cUf(lcombes <Manliullt in the Ca tacombs>. In fact , the cata­

combs were scarched olle day fo r fugitives. Those found were ~hot. The troop' entered at the Place Dellfert-Hochereau , while the outlets of the catacomba toward

the plain of Montsouris were guarded. (Exhibition .) (k2,4]

A COlllmunard pamphlet puhlishes a drawillg captioned LeJ C(I(lu vres decouvert. daTil! lell JouterrClillJ de rEgliJe Sai flt -Laurent <The Cad avers Di~covered ill the Vaults of the Church of Saint-Laurent >. It was claimed that female coq)SCS had

))eell discovered alliJia underground site--hodiee which could 1I0t have been ther e lollger thall a couple of years, and whose thighs were forced open and hands bOUlld . (Exhibition .) [k2.5J

l..cafll.t: lithograph . She. The rcpublic 88 a beautiful woman wrapped around hy a s.na ke. whose fea tures a re those of Thiers. The woman haa a mirror high over her heuI!. Bcneath . a ,·erse: " Many the ways you can take her- I She is for rent. but

110 1 for sale." [k2,6]

The illusions that still underlay the Commune are given striking expression in Proudhon's formula, his appeal to the bourgeoisie: "Save tlK: people and save yourselves-as your fathers did-by the Revolution." Max Raphael, Proudhon, Marx, Pic(lJ.lo (Paris (1933»), p. 118. [Ua, l)

Remember the words of Chevalier: "Glory to us! ~ have entered into the treasury of kings, escorted by poverty and hunger; we have walked amid the purple, gold, and diamonds; when we came out, our companions were hunger and poverty." "Religion Saint-Simonienne: La Marseillaise" (Excerpt from L'Or­ganisateur of September 11, 1830) (author Michel Chevalier, according to the Cata10gue de la Bibliotheque Nationalej, p. 2. [Ua,2]

One of the COlllmune's laat centera of resis tance: the Place de la Bastille. [k2a,3]

\ Charles Louandre, us Jdies subumiueJ tU nom Imps (Paris, 1872), is a charac­teristic example of the reactionary pamphlets that followed in the wake of the Commune. [k2a,4]

A caricature of Courbet : the painter s tanding on a broken column . Beneath, the caption : "Actuality." Cabinet del Esta mpea, kc 164 a I.~ [Ua,S]

"Louise Michel, recounting, in her memoira, a conversation she had with Gustave Courbet, sho ....s us the great Communard painter enraptured on the topic of the futu re, losing himself ill visions which , though they are redolent of their own nUleteenth century, are despite this----or perhaps because of it- marked by a WOII ­

~rous alii! touching grulu!cur. 'Since e\'cryone will be able to give himself ovcr, unfet tered , 10 hjs OWl! specia l gcniU!J.' prophesied Courbet , ' Paris wiU double in importance. And Euro"e'~ illlcr-national cit y win he ahle to offer to the arts, to indUstry. 10 comnU!l"ce, 10 Ira ll ~ lI clions of 1111 kinds, and to visitors from all landa an illlped slillble (lnler : tilt' ci tizen-crenteil ortier, which cannot be disrupted by thc pretexts of lIIo ll s tro ll ~ pretenders . ' It is II I!ream ingenuous as the world exhibi­tiullS, hut one which nUllcthdeu implies prufollllil realit.ies-ahove all, the certi­hltle that a unanimous ortler will he fuullt!ed , ' the citizell-crea ted order. ,., J ean CIl IiSOU. ·· L.a Semaim: ~a ngla llle:' lIeru/redi, May 22, 1936. (k2a,6)

..

ACTUALITE

.--',..... ' ~~"4k"lI;h ..._... .,...... ' -''­

Actualj/i (Acrual.ity), a caricature of the painter GuS[a~ Cowbct. Courtesy of ~ BibliothCqut: Nacionale de France. Stt k2a,5.

In France', First Empire, and especially its Second. Engels &eel Itatel that could appear 8. a court of media tion between an equally 81ro08 bour~i8ie and prole­larial. See C. 1ttayer, Friedrich Engeb , vol. 2 (Berlin <1933» . p. 441 . {k2a,l]

The deslJerale struggle of the Commune: " Delescluze then issued hi' famous proc­lamation : ' Enough ofthil militarism! No more of these officers dripping gold braid and embroidery! Make way (or the people. for bare-armed fighter.! The hour of revolution has atruck .... ' An impatient enthusiasm awake. in aU hearl., and oae will go off to get oneself killed , 8 S the Polish strategists intend ,S Each man will return to hifl lleighborhood , hi. native turf, to the I treetcorner where it is good to live and bravely die-the traditional barricade! This proclamation is the lasl cry of Blanquiam, the supreme leap of the nineteenth century. One still waoU to be­Lieve. To believe ill the mystery, the miracle, the feuiJleton, the magic power of the

epiC. One has Ilot yet undeutood that the other clan has organized it8e1f scien~

tificaUy, bas entr usted itself to implacable anniee. Its leadeu have long since ac~ ,)uired a clear visioll of the situation . Not for nothing had Haussmann built broad , l}erfectly straight avenues to break up the swa rming, tortuous Ileighborhoods , the bret-oding grounds for mystery and for the feuilleton, the secret gardens of popular cOlispiracy." J ean Cauou, "La Semaine sanglante," Vendredi. May 22, 1936.

[k3,1]

Engels and the Commune: " As long as the ~ntral committee of the Garde Nation~

ale was directiug the military operations, he remained hopeful. It was doubtless he who gave tbe advi~ which Marx transmitted to Pam: ' to fortify the northern slopes of Montmartre, the Pruu ian side.' He feared that , otherwise, the uprising 'would land in a mousetrap.' But the Commune failed to beed this warning and, as

Engels regretfuUy confirmed, let tbe right moment for the offeDllive slip past. ... InitiaUy, Engels beUeved that the struggle would drag on.... In the General Council, he emphasized ... that the Parisiao workeu were better organized mili~

tarily than in any earlier rebellion; that tile street widening undertaken during the administration of Napoleon III would neceuarily work to their advaotage, should the assault on the city succeed; that for the fiut time, the barricades would be

defended by cannons and regularly organized troops." Gustav Mayer, Friedrit:h Engels , vol. 2, Engels lind der AU/ltieg der Arbeiterbewegung in Europa (Berlin (}933»,p.227.~ [k3,2]

In 1884, Engels "admitted to Bernstein tbat Marx 'had upgraded the unconscious \ tendencies of the Commune into more or leu conscious projecta. ' and be added

that this improvement had heen ' justified, even nece81ary, in the circUDl8lances.' ... The majority of the participanu in the uprill ing had been Blanquillt&-that is to say, nationalistic r evolutiona rieB who placed their hopeti on immediate political

action and the authoritarian dicta torship of a few resolute individuals. Ooly a minority had belonged to the (First> International , which at that time Wall still dominated by the spirit of Proudhon , and they could tberefore not be described all

social revolutionaries, let alone Marxists. That did not prevent the f\:0vernmenu lind the bourgeoisie throughout Europe from rega rding this insurrection ... as a conspiracy ha tched by the General Council of the International. " Gustav Mayer,

Friedrich Engeu , vol. 2, Engeu ,HId der AU/lltieg der Arbeiterbewegung in (Europa (Berlin), p . 228. ~ [k3a, 1]

The first comnlllllio: the city. "The German emperors-Frederick I and Frederick II , for ilistunee--iSSllcd c~lic t ~ aga i ll ~t these comnllwiones [communities]. conspi­rfll ione,.... quile in tile spirit of tile German Federal Diet . ... It is qu.ite amusing that the word conlllilmio was used as a term of abuse, just 8S 'communism' is loday. The pa rSOIi Cuibert ofNogellt writes, for illstallce: 'Communio is a new and extremely. had word. ' There i8 fre<lucntJy something rather dramatic about the Way ill which the philistines of the twelfth century invite the peasanU to fl ee 10 the cities, 10 the commllnio jurCl,a (sworn communes)." Marx to Ellgels, July 27,

Genuan race with the seal of predestination? ... Let us defend ourseivel. It is the ferocit y of Odin , magnified by the ferocity of Moloch. that advances against our d ties; it is the harba rity of the Vandal and the barbarity of the Semite." Cited in Gusta\'e Geffroy, L 'Enferme (Pa ri.ll. 1897). p. 304. [k4,2]

Georges Laronze in hi8 f1u foire de la Commune de 1871 (Paris, 1928), p. 143, 00 the shooting of the hostages: " by the time the hostages fell, the Commune had lost power. But it r emained accountable. "II [k4,3]

The Pa risian administration during the Commune: " It pre;;erved intact the entire organism, animated , al it was, by a keen desire to set its sJ4htest cogwbeels rolling a,;ain and to augment further-in good bourgeois fashioo--the number of middle­clan fupctiona rieB. " Georges Larooze. f1 u roire de la Commune de 1871 (Paris,

1928). 1)·450. [k4,4]

Military formationB in the Commune: "A company little inclined to go beyond the city'll ramparts, preferring, to combat in open country, the battle atmo.llpbere of illl own quartier, the fever of public meetinge , the clubs, the police operatioD.II , and, if necellary, death behind the heaped-up paving stones of a Pari. street."

A barricade of the Paris Commune, Rue &sfroi (II ' ammdi.mmm~, March 18, 1871. Ph0togra­ Georges Laronze, Hu toire de la Commune de 1871 (Paris, 1928), p. 532. [k4,5] pher unknown. Sec: k4,5.

Courbet took sidell with several other Communard.ll against Protot, to protect

1854, from Londoo (Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel!!, Awgewiihlte BrM/., ed. Thien'.II collectionl from destruction . I! (k4,6]

V. Adoratsk, (Moscow and Leningrad , 1934), pp . 60--61]. ' [k3.,ij \ The membel'1l of the International got themllelvell elected, on the advice of Varlin , to tbe Central Committee of the Carde Nationale. (k4,7)

Ibsen saw further than many of the leaders of the Commune in France. OD December 20, 1870, he writes to Brandes: "Up till now, we have been living 00 nothing but aumbs from the revolutionary table of wt century, and I think we

'"This orgy of power, wine, women, aod blood known all the Commune." Charles Louandre, Les IcUe. subversil.le' de notre temp. (Paris, 1872). p. 92. (k4,8]

have been chewing on that stuff long enough.... Liberty, equality, and fra~ are no longer what they were in the days of the late-lamented guillotine. nus_ what the politicians will not understand; and that is why I hate them." Heruik Ibsen, samtliche Wer..te, vol. 10 <Berlin, 1905>, p. 156.' [k.3a.3)

II was the Proudhooist Beslay who, as delegate of the Commune, aUowed bimIdf to be persuaded 00 March 30, by de Ploeuc, deputy governor of the Banque de France , to leave untouched, in the interests of France, the two billion franc,­" the true hostages." With the support of the Proudhoni8ts on the council , hi. view prevailed. (k4,1]

Blanqui, in La Patrie en danger, the newspaper he l)Ublished du~ing the sieg::I •

" It is Berlin that supposedly will be the holy city of the future. the radiance thai enlighten. the world . Paris is the usurping and corrupted Babylon , the great pr,* titute which God's emissary, the exterminating angel. with Bible in hand , will wipe from the face of the earth . You mean you don't know that the Lord has ma rked the

I -[The Seine, the Oldest Paris]

.Around 1830: "The quartier was full of those gardens which Hugo has de8crihed ill <his p6em of 1839> 'ee qui Ie pR88ait aux: Feuillantlnes.· The Luxembourg, rather

more grand than it is totlay, was bordered directly by houses; the proprietors each

had a key to the garden and could walk up aDd down there all night lo~." Dubeeb and d ' Espezel. Hu roire de Pari.! (Paris, (926), p. 367. [11 ,1)

" Rambutea u had two rows of l rt:e s planted"-on the Boulevards Saint-Denie and Bonne-Nouvelle-"ta replace those old and beautiful trees which had gone into the barricades of 1830." Duhech and d ' Espezel, Histoire de Paris. p. 382. [11 ,21

"Housewives go to draw their water from the Seine; the more distant neapbor-_ hoods ar e supplied by water carriers." Dubech and d ' Espe7:el, Histoire lh Poris, pp . 388-389 (section 011 the July Monarchy). [U,3)

Before Hauu mann : " Prior to his d ay, the old atlueducts were capable ofbri..nAiDI

water only as high Ri the se£ond stor y!' Dubech and d ' Elpezel, Hu toire de Poris, p.418. [11 ,4)

" Anglomania ... has had an iufluence on ideas since the Revolution, on fashiorY

since Wa terloo. Just as the Constituents copied EngJand 's political institution., the archi le£ts copied the pa rks and squares of Lolldon." Dube£b and d ' El pesd,

~- ~~

"The rOllte or the Sei.ne. as allest l!(i in Sirabo, bega n tu be used and appreciated .

Lutelia hecame the cenler of an associalioll of navigators or mariners, who. durin« the r eign of Tiberius. raised to the emperor a nti to Jupiter the fall!ous altar thaI was discovered under NOire Dame in 1711." Dubech aud d ' Espezel. p . 18 . [11 ,61

' '"The wiuler here i6 not severe. You can iiee vineyanl8 and e\'en fi g trees, sw ce care

is taken to cover them wilh straw." Julian in the MUol'ogofl ; cited in Dubecb aDd d ' Espezel , p. 25. [I1 ,lJ

"The Seine seems to exhale the air of Paris all the way to its moulh ." Friedrich Engels. " Von Paris nach Bern ," Die nelle Zeit , 17, no. 1 (Stuttgart , 1899). p . 11 .

111 ,8]

" If reudiug iu the public gardcns is now perm..illcd . smoking there is not- liberty (as pt:ople are beginning 10 say) nol being Ihe sallie as license!' Nadar, Quand j 'ewis pllOwgrufJhe (Pari8 ( 1900», p . 284 ("1830 et environs"). [11 ,91

"Not long ago we witncssed Ihe ere£tion of the obelisk brought back from Luxor by the princc de J oinville. L We were made a bit nervous by noise1l that mUl l not have

heel! reassu ring tu the engineer LebK8, supervisor of the operation: tbe EngJish , always so jealolls, ... wer c supposed to have paid a traitor to cut tbe insides of the cables. Oh , those English! " Natlar. Quulld j'etuu I'llOtographe (Paris), p . 291

("1830 et environs"). [11 ,10J

Liberty trees--poplars (peuplier, J-were planted in Paris in 1848. Thierl: " Peo­ple. you will grow tall ." They were cut down in 1850 by order of the prefect of

police, Carlier, [11 ,l1J

Afler the July Revolulion : "Tlltl endleu number of felled trees OD the r oad to Neuilly, on Ihe Cbamps-Elysees, on the bouleva rds. Not a single tree hal been left standing on the Boulevard des itauens." Friedrich von Raumer, Brrefe 01" Pam und Frunkreich im Jahre 1830 (Leipzig, 1831), vol. 2, pp . 146-147. [11 ,12J

"Oue sees ga rdens measuring only a few square feet , which offer nonethelell a bit of greencry in which to read a hook; here and there, even a bird is chirping.-But

the Place Sa inl-Georgcs is an altogether charming spot. Rustic and urban tasles are blended here. It is surrounded by buildings that look towa rd the city on ODe aide and toward the country on Ihe other." Add to thi. fountains, terraces, green­

houses. flower beds. L. ReUstab . Pa m im Friihjahr- 1843: Brre/e, Berichte und Schildenmgen (Leip7.ig, 1844). vol. I , I)P' 55--56. [l1a,I)

" !'aris is hetween two layers , a layer of water and a layer of air. The Jayerofwater, lyillg a l a eonsi{lerahle depth underground•... is furnished by Ihe bed of greeD

SlIntistOlle lying belween the chalk and I.he Jura!lsic lime&tone. Thi. bed can be ,representl!(l by a disk with a r adiu s of seventy miles. A mu.ltilude of rivers and hrouks filt er into it : we drink the Seille, the Marnc. the Yunlle, the Oise, the A.iSlle, the Clter. II1\' Viellnc, anti the Loire in a singlc glass of water from the well of Crl:nclle. T ile laYI'L' of water is salubrious; it comes fi rs t rrom heavell , then from the l:ar tIL . The layer of air is IIl1wliOleioLllc, it cOllies from the sewers." Victor Hugo, Oelll:rel completes, ILOvcl~. \ ' 1.11. 9 (Paris, 1881). p . 182 ( I.es Miler-abies). :

[11 &,2)

A. I Ihe he~nnilLg of the nineteent h century. there werc Hill truins de bou (timbe r ra rts?) guing Ilown Ihe Seine; a nd Cil . F. Vie! funis fllult . ill hi!! work De l'lmpui,­

..anee de .. mathfl matique.. pour au urer la ..olidite de .. ootiment.. , with the piefl of the Pont du Louvre. on which such rafts a re dashed to pieceB. [Ha,3]

On the " netB of Saint-Cloud" we have the teBtimony of Mercier (Tableau de Pan. [Amsterdam, 1782]. vol. 3. I)' 197), among othe ... ; "The bodies of tho8e unfortu_ nates who have drowned are pulled up (except when the river is iced over) by the nett of Saint-Cloud ," There are many, such as Dulaure , who speak of these net..•otbe... , Like Gozlan and Touchard-LafOS8e. deny they ever existed , The archives of the Seine make no mention of them. Tradition maintains that they nopped beins used in 1810, This according to Firmin Maillard, Recherche .. hi.s toriques et cri­

tiques sur la MorBue (Paris, 1860). T he last chapter of this book (p . 137): "Le. Filets de Saint-Cloud ," (lh,4] -On "an underground river in Paris," which was, in large pa rt , covered over at the beginninr; of the seventeenth century: "The stream thus ... descended gradually along the slope , all the way to the house which, as early as the fifteenth century. had two salmon on its signboard, and which would be r eplaced by the PauJl8C dll Saumon . There, bavinr; swelled with the added flow of water colllin&: from Lee HaUes, it plunged underground at the site where the Rue Mandar begin. today,

and where the entrance of the greal sewer, which had long stood open, save wa)' , , . , after Thennidor .. , ,10 busts of ~1arat and Saint-Fargeau... , The . trea. di.sappeared ... in the current.1! of the Seine, well below the city .... It was quite

enough that this filthy strea m cr eated a stench in the districts it crolled, which bappened to be among the most populous in Paris.... When the PlaPle broke oat-­

her e, its first manifestations were in tho&e streets which the stream, by ill in­fec:Lious contiguity, had already made a center of disease." Edouard Fournier. Enigmes des rues de Paris (Pa ris, 1860). pp. 18-19,21- 22 ("Une Riviere souter­

rain da ns Paris"). (!2, l j

" We recall the divine lamp with the silver burner, shining ' white like an eleetric light ,' as it pasSel, in Les Chants de ft1aldoror, slowly down the Seine tbrouP'

Paris. Later, a t the other exl.reme of the Cycle, in Fantomas , the Seine will also come to know, nea r the Quai de J avel, " inexplicable fl ashes of Light in iu deptbl ." Roger Caillois " Paris mythe moderne," Nouvelle Revuefran(aise, 25, no. 284

, , (12,2] (May 1, 1937), p , 687.

"The quays of the Seine Likewise owe their realizaLion to Haussmann. It was only

in his day that the walkways were COlIHtructed up above and the trees planted . uI t the form of down below. along the banks; and these are w hat serve to arbC a e .

. . . h ' " Fntsthat great thoroughfare, With Its avenuel and boulevards, that 18 t e nver.

Sta hl, Paris (Berlin < 1929». 1" 177. {12,3j

" 1£ Lutetia wall not yet in direct communicatioll with the great cities of northern lands, it was lIevertheless 0 11 the commercial route thai ran overlalld beside tbe river.. , , It Willi the grell t Roman way a long the Right Bank which became the Rue

Saint-Martin. At the crOSBroads ofehateau-Landon, a fJeCond route branched off, that of Senlis. A third , the Melun road , a pa thway cut through a trock marsh near the Bastille, came into existence perhaps, at the height of the empire, . , ; this "" ould bec:ome the Rue Saint-Antoine. " Dubech a nd d ' Espezel, Histoire de Paris

(Paris. 1926), 1)· 19, [12,4)

'"Tur ning oCf from the boulevards . let us go down the Rue de Rougemont. You will notice thai the Comptoir d ' Escompte <Discount Bank > occupies the bottom of a marked depression: you are in the earliest bed of the Seine." Dubet:h and

d' Espezel, Histoire de Paris (Paris, 1926). p . 14. [l2a, l ]

"The bourgeois center, Paris Ville, sharply distinguished from Paris Cite, grew up

on the Right Bank and on the bridges which . at thai time, were erected every­where. The most influential segment of the population conl isted of the merchanlJ; here again, the hanse <merchants' guild > did its part to steer business to the water.

The mosl important marketplace a rose on a 8pOt near the Church of Saint­Eustache, wbere the streel by which ocean fis h a rrived crossed the street on which the marsh farmers of tbe region brougbt their vegetablet to town. It is the same , spot on which , today, the central market halls stand ," Fritz Stahl , Pari! (Berlin

<l929», p.67. [l2a,2]

Bi/am tkr preuJJiscl!en Revo/uh'on, in GeJammeite &I!rfften oon Karl Marx und nud­m ricl! Enge/;, vol. 3 (Stuttgart, 1902]. p. 2 11.)~ 1mIa, I]

In the figure of the dandy. Baudelaire seeks to find some usc for idleness, JUSt as -[Idleness1

Notewonhy conjunction: in ancient Greece, practical labor is branded and pro­scribed. A1though essentially left in the hands of slaves, it is condemned not least because it betrays a base aspiration for eanhly goods (riches). This view after. ward plays a pan in the denigration of the b'adesman as the servant of Mammon: "Plato, in the lAws (VIII, 846), decrees that no citizen shall engage in a mechani­cal trade ; the word banausOJ, signifying 'artisan; becomes synonymous with 'con­temptible' ... ; everything relating to tradespeople or to handwork carries a stigma, and defonns the soul together with the body. In general, those who practice these professions ... are busy satisfying ... this 'passion for wea1th . , . which leaves none of us an hour's leisure.'! Aristotle, for his part, opposes the excess of the chrematistic to ... the prudence of domestic economy.... In this way, the scorn Cdt for the artisan is extended to the merchant: in comparison co­the liberal life, as absorbed in srudious leisure (Jdwli, otium), the affairs of trade (neg-otium, tJJenolitJj, 'business affairs: have mostly a negative value." Pierre­Maxime Schuhl, Macllinume et plli/ruopllie (Paris, 1938), pp. 11- 12. [ml ,l]

Whoever enjoys leisure escapes Fortuna; whoever embraces idleness falls under her power. The Fortuna awaiting a person in idleness, however, is a lesser g0d­dess than the one that the person of leisUl"e has Bed . This Fortuna is no longer at home in the vita activaj her headquarters is the world at large.~ "The artists of the Middle Ages depict those men who pursue an active life as bound to the wheel of fortune, ascending or descending according to the direction in which it rums, while the contemplative man remains immobile at the center.n P.-M. Schuhl. Macll inisme et pllilruopllie (paris, 1938), p. 30. [ml ,2)

He the characterization of leisllre. Sainte-Relive, in hill essay on Joubert : ''''1'0 converse and 10 seek to know-it was in this above allill at, accordihg 10 Plato. the:

happineu of private life consisled. · This class of conlloisscurs and amatcurs ... haa practically disappeared in France. now that everyone here has a trade:' Cor· N!:$ponclance de Jouber! (Paris, 1924), p. xcix. [ml ,3)

In bourgeois society, indolence- to take up Marx's word-has ceased to be "heroic." (Marx speaks of the "victory ... of industry over a heroic indolcnc:c-'"

leisure once had a use. The vila conlemplativa is replaced by something that could be called the vila conlemplilJtl. (Compare part 3 of my manuscript <"Das Paris des Second Empire bei Baudelairen).) [mla,2)

Experience is the outcome of work; immediate experience is the phantasmagoria

of the idler! Imh,3]

In place of the force field that is lost to humanity with the devaluation of expcri· ence, a new field of force opens up in the fonn of planning. The mass of un· known unifonnities is mobilized against the confinned multiplicity of the traditional. To "plann is hencefonh possible only on a large scale. No longer on an individual scale-and this means neitherfor the individual nor by the individ· ual. Valery therefore says, with reason: "The long·hatched enterprises, the pro­

, found designs of a Machiavelli or a Richelieu, would today have the reliability and value of a good lip em tile StOtA Exchange." Paul Valery, Oeuvre; completeJ, J<(Paris, 1938), p. 30>. [m",' )

The intentional correlate of "immediate experience" has not always remained the same. In the nineteenth cenrury, it was "adventure." In our day, it appears as "fate," &l!icAulI. In fate is concealed the concept of the "total experience" that is fatal from the outset. War is its unsurpassed prefiguration. ("I am born German; it is for this I dien_the trauma of birth already contains the shock that is mortal. 1bis coincidence <Koimidmv defines "fate., [m h .S)

\r\buld it be empathy with exchange value that first qualifies the human being for a "total experience"? [mia,6]

With the trace (SpU'f) , a new dimension acoues to "immediate experience." It is no lo~ger tied to the expectation of "advenruren; the one who undergoes an expenence can follow the trace that leads there. ~oever follows traces must not: o~y pay attention ; above all, he must have given heed already to a great many ,things. (!be hunter must know about the hoof of the animal whose trail he is on; he must know the hour when that animal goes to drink' he must know the course ofth· L'ch' ' e nver to Will It rums, and the location of the ford by which he himself can get.across.) In this way there comes into play the peculiar configuration by dint of which long experience appears ttanslated into the language of immediate experi· ence J Ex' . r . . pcnences can, m lact, prove mvaluable to one who follows a trace-but ~pc~en~es ~f ~ particular son . The hunt is the one type of work in which they

nCllon Jntnnslcally. And the hunt is, as work, very primitive, The experiences ~fahrungen) of one who attends to a trace result only very remotely from any Work activity. or are CUt off from such a procedure altogether, (Not for nothing do \\.~ speak or"fomlOe huntin~.") They have no sequence and no system. They are

I

a. p~u.Ct of chance, and ha~e ~boU[ them the essential intenninability tbit dlSnngUlshes the preferred obligations of the idler. The fundamentally unfiniab.

J able collcc?on of things worth knowing, whose utility depends on chance, has ita prototype m study. [m2,I]

Idleness has little about it that is representative, though it is far more widely exlubited than leisure: The man of the middle class has hl=gun to be ashamed of labor. He to whom lwure no longer means anything in itself is happy to put his idleness on display. [m2.2]

The intimate association between the concept of idleness and the concept of study was embodied in the notion ofstudio. Especially for the bachdor, the studio became a son of pendant to the boudoir. (012,3]

Student and hunter. The text is a forest in which the reader is hunter. Rustling in the underbrush-the idea, skittish prey, the citation-another piece "in the bag." (Not every reader encounters the idea.) [m2a.IJ

There are two social institutions of which idleness forms an integral part: the news service and nightlife. They require a specific form of work-preparedncu, This specific fonn is idleness. [mla.2)

News service and idleness. Feuilletonist, reporter, photographer constitute a gra­dation in which waiting around, the "Get ready" succeeded by the "Shooc.:. becomes ever more important vis·a·vis other activities. [m2a,3)

What distinguishes long experience from immediate experience is that the f0r­mer is inseparable from the representation of a continuity, a sequence. The accent that falls on inunediate experience will be the more weighty in proportioo as its substrate is remote from the work of the one having the experience-froID the work distinguished by the fact that it draws on long experience precisdy where, for an outsider, it is at most an immediate experience that arises. [m2a,')

In feudal society, leisure-freedom from labor-was a recognized privilege. In bourgeois society, it is no longer so. What distinguishes leisure, as feudalism understands it, is that it communicates with two socially important types of behavior. Religious contemplation and coun life represented, as it were, the matrices through which the leisure of the grand Jeignr.ur, of the preJate, of the warrior could be molded. These attirudes-that of piety no less than that of representation-were advantageous to the poet. His work in IUrn ben~6~ed them, at least indirectly, insofar as it maintained contact with both the rdi~oP and the life at coun. (Voltaire was the first of the great literati to break with ~ church; so much the less did he disdain to secure a place at the coun of FredeOc:k the Creat.) In feudal society, the leisure of the poet is a recognized privilege. It IS only in bourgeois society that the poet becomes an idler. [rn2a,5]

Idleness seeks to avoid any son of tie to the idler's line of work, and ultimately to the labor process in general. That distinguishes it from leisure. (m3,1]

"All re.ligiou!!, metaphysica l. hiSlOrical idell8 are, in the last analysis. merely ,reparations derived from the great experiences of the past-representations of

:he eX I,erience." Wilhelm Dilthey, Deu Erlebnu und die Dichtung (Leipzig and

Berlin. 1929), p . 198. (m3,2]

Closely cOimected with the shattering of long experience is the shattering of juridical certirudes. "In the liberalist period, economic p~dominance was gener· ally associated with legal ownership of the means of production.... But after the development of technology in the last cenrury had led to a rapidly increasing concentration .. . of capital, the legal owners we~ largely excluded from ... management.... Once the legal owners are cut off from the real productive process ... , their horizon narrows; ... and 6nally the share which they still have in industry due to ownership ... comes to seem socially useless .... The idea of a right with a fixed content, and independent of society at large, loses its impor' tance." "\\t 6nally arrive at "the loss ofall rights with a determined content, a loss ... given its fullest form in the authoritarian state." Max Horkheimer, "Traru. tionelle und Kritische Theorie," <:,eit.ullnfl for Sozio./fqrJChu~ no. 2 (1937), pp. 285-287. Compare Horkheimer, "Bemerkungen zur philosophischen An­thropologie," <:,eil.scllriflfor SoziaJfimchung, no. 1 (1935), p. 12.' [m3,3]

"The authentic held of operations for the vivid chronicle of what is happening is the documentary account of immediate experience, reportage. It is directly aimed at the event , and it holds fast to the experience. This presupposes that the event

also becomes an immediate experience for the journalist reporting on it.... The capacity for having an experience is therefore a precondition ... of good ... professional work." <Emil > Dovifat , " Formen und Wirkungsgesetze del Stila in der Zeitllng," Deutsche Presse, July 22 , 1939 (Berlin), p. 285. (m3,4]

Apropos of the idler: the archaic image of ships in Baudelaire. [m3,S)

The stringent work ethic and moral doctrine ofCalvinism, it may be said, is most \intimate1y related to the development of the "ila umttmplativa. It sought to build a dam to stem the melting of time into idleness, once such time was frozen in COntemplation. (m3a, l]

On the fcuilleton. It was a matter of injecting experience-as it were, intrave· nously_ with the poison of sensation ; that is to say, highlighting within ordinary experience the character of immediate experience.7 To this end, the experience of the big·city dweller presented itself. The feuilletonist rums this to account. He renders the ciry strange to its inhabitants. He is thus one of the first technicians caJ.J.ed up by the heightened need for immediate experiences. (!be same need is

I

evinced in the theory of "modem beauty" expounded by Poe, Baudelaire, and Berlioz. In this type of beauty, surprise is a ruling element.) [m3a,2)

The process of the atrophy of experience is already underway within manufac_ ruring. In other words, it coincides, in its beginnings, with the beginnings of commodity production. (Compare Marx, Da.s Kapilal <vol. I>, cd. Korsch <Ber­lin, 1932), p. 336.)8 [rn3a,3]

PhantaSmagoria is the intentional correlate of inunediate experience. [m3a,4)

Just as the industrial labor process separates off from handicraft, so the form of communication corresponding to this labor process-information-separates off from the form of communication corresponding to the artisanal process of labor, which is storytelling. (See <Walter Benjamin,) "Der Erz1ih.Ier," <Orient und Occi­drol, new series, no. 3 (October 1936) p. 21 , par. 3 through p. 22, par. 1, line 3; p. 22, par. 3, line 1 through the end of the Valery citation.)9 This connection mwt be kept in mind if one is to fonn an idea of the explosive force contained within information. This force is liberated in sensation. With the sensation, whatever still resembles wisdom, oral tradition, or the epic side of truth is razed to the ground. [m3a,5)

ror the relations which the idler loves to enter into with the demimonde, "srudy" is an alibi. It may be asserted of the boheme, in particular, that throughout its___ existence it studies its own milieu. [m3a,6]

Idleness can be considered an early form of distraction or amusement. It consists in the readiness to savor, on one's own, an arbitrary succession of sensations. But as soon as the production process began to draw large masses of people into the field those who "had the time" came to feel a need to distinguish themselves en, masse from laborers. It was to this need that the entertainment industry an: swered; and it inunediately encountered specific problems of its own. Before very long, Saint-Marc Girardin was forced to conclude that "man is amusable only a small part of the time." (The idler does not tire as quickly as the man who amuses himself.) [014,1]

The true "salaried Baueur" (Henri Beraud's term) is the sandwich man. [014,2)

The idler's imilatio de;: as flaueur, he is omnipresent; as gambler, he is omnipo­tent· and as student, he is omniscient. This type of idler was first incarnated

, th· d' 1~ [ro4,3)among e}eunelJe oru .

"Empathy" comes into being through a diclie, a kind of gearing action. Wi~ it. the inner life derives a pendant to the element of shock in sense perc.epDon. (Empathy is a synchronization,!! in the intimate sense.) [1U4 ,41

Habits are the annature of connected experiences. 1bis arrnatu~ is assailed by individual experiences. [m4,5)

God has the Creation behind him; he rests from it. It is this God of the seventh day that the bourgeois has taken as the model for his idleness. In Bauerie, he has the omnipresence ofGod; in gambling, the omnipotence; and in study, it is God's omniscience that is his.- This trinity is at the origin of the satanism in Baude­laire.-The idler's resemblance to God indicates that the old Protestant saying, "\>\brk is the burgher's ornament," has begun to lose its validity. [m4,6)

The world exhibitions were training schools in which the masses, barred from consuming, learned empathy with exchange value. "Look at everything; touch

nothing." [m4,7]

The classic description of idleness in Rousseau. This passage indicates, at one and the same time, that the existence of the idler has something godlike about it, and that solitude is a condition essential to the idler. In the last book of UJ Confim'onJ, we read that "the age for romantic plans was past. I had found the incense of vainglory stupefying rather than Battering. So the last hope I had left was to live ... eternally at leisure. Such is the life of the blessed in the other world, and henceforth I thought of it as my supreme felicity in this. ! Those who reproach me for my many inconsistencies will not fail to reproach me for this one, too. I have said that the idleness of society made it unbearable to me; and here I am, seeking for solitude solely in order to give myself up to idleness.... The idleness of society is deadly because it is obligatory; the idleness of solitude is delightful because it is free and voluntary." Jean:Jacques Rousseau, us OmfiJ­JionJ, ed. Hilsum (Paris <1931» , vol. 4, p. 173. 1~ [014a, l )

Among the conditions of idleness, particular importance attaches to solitude. It is solitude, in fact, that first emancipates-virtually-individual experience from every event, however trivial or impoverished: it offers to the individual experi­ence, on the high road of empathy, any passerby whatsoever as its substrate. Empathy is possible only to the solitary; solitude, the~fo~, is a precondition of authentic idleness. [014a,2)

When all lines are broken and no sail appears on the blank honzon, when no 'Wave of immediate experience surges and crests, then there remains to the iso­lated subject in the grip of laedium vitae one last thing- and that is empathy.

[m4a,3)

~ may leave the question undecided as to whether, and in what sense, leisure is also determined by the order of production which makes it possible. we should, however, try to show how deeply idleness is marked by features of the capitalist eco~omit order in which it Bourishes.- On the other side, idleness, in the bour­geoIS society that knows no leisure, is a precondition of artistic production. And,

l often, idleness is the very thing which StampS that production with the trait! that make it! rdation to the cconomic production process so drastic. [m4a,4)

The student "never stops leaming"; thc gambler "never has enough"; for the Baneur, "there is always something more to see." Idleness has in view an unlim­

• ited duration, which fundamentally distinguishes it from simple sensuous pleas­~, of whatever variety. (Is it correct to say that the "bad infinity" that prevaili in Idleness appears in Hegel as the signature of bourgeois society?) [mS.l )

The spontaneity comm~n ~ the student, to the gamblet! to the BantuI' is perhaps that of the hunter-which 1$ to say, that of the oldest type of work, which may be. intertwined closest of all with idleness. [mS,2)

Flauben's "Few will suspect how depressed one had to be to undertake the revival of Carthage" makes the cOtulection between study and melt1lColia <sic> transparent. (!be lauer no doubt threatens not only this fonn of leisure but aD CornlS of idleness.) Compare "My soul is sad and I have read all the books" (Mallanne); "Spleen n " and "La Voix" (Baudelaire); "Here stand I, alas, Philoso­phy I behind me" (Goethe).13 [m5,3)

Again and again in Baudelaire, the specifically modem is there to be recognized as complement of the specifically archaic. In the person of the Bineur, whoec: idleness carries him through an imaginary city of arcades, the poet is confronted by the dandy (who weaves his way through the crowd without taking notice of the jolts to which he is exposed). Yet also in the Baneur a long-extinct crea.nm -­opens a dreamy eye, casts a look that goes to the hean of the poet. It is the "SOIl of the wildemess"-the man who, once upon a rime, was betrothed, by a gener­ous nature, to leisure. Dandyism is the last glimmer of the heroic in times of dicadena. Baudelaire is delighted to find in Chateaubriand a reference to Ameri­can Indian dandies-testinlony to the fonner golden age of these tribes. [mS,4)

On the hunter type in the lI i neur: "The mass of tenant8 and lodgers beginl to 8tr.,. from shelter to Ihelter in this sea of houses, like the hunten and Ihepherdt 01 prehi8tory. The intellectual education of the nomad il now complete." OlwUd SIH!ngler, Le Deciin de l'Occw ent <tran8. M. Tazerout> , vol. 2. pa rt I (Pam, 1933), p. 140.11 [mS.5]

"Man a8 civilized heing, as intellectual nomad, is again wholly microcosmic, wholly homelell, as Cree intellectually as bunter lind herdsmun were free sensU­ally. " Spengler, vol. 2, p . 125.1 5 . [m5,6)

p [Anthropological Materialism, History of Sects]

GUStav: ~ 'Jbur bot[om i5 ... divine!" Berdoa: ~And immortal as well, I hope." Gustav: ~Wha[?"

Berdoa: "Nothing."

-Grabbe, HalO, 1"k«J(}r' /lOll Golhkuull

The grandiose an~ lacJu:rmose ~bnoim de Cllodruc-Dudru, edited byJ. Arago and Ed?uard Goum ~, 1843), Ul two volumes, are occasionally interesting as the rudiment! of a phYSiology of the beggar. The long preface is unsigned and says nothing about the manuscript. The memoirs could be apocryphal. ~ read at one point: "Let there be no mistake about it : it is not the refusal that humiliates so much as the almsgiving .... I never sttetched out my hand in supplication. 1

\ wo~d ~ more quickly than the man who was going to accede to my request; passmg him, I would open my right hand, and he would slip something into it" (v.ol. 2, pp. ~1- 1 2). At another point : "Water is sustaining! ... 1 gorged myself WIth water, smce I had no bread" (vol. 2, p. 19). (P 1,I )

S.cene. in the dormitory of a pnl on at the beginnin~ of the 1830s. The pauage i, clledm D

- ' , ' h . d' . f h " . OCOOl8 WIt out In Icabon 0 aut or : In the evening, with the dormitory I~ an uproar, ' the republiean workers, before goin~ to bed , performed La Revolu­tion de 1830, a theatrical charade they had conlpDsed. It reproduced all the 8ceoe, of the glorious week, from the de<:isioll of Cha rles X and hi8 ministers to sign the july Ordinances. to the triumllh of the people. The battle on the barricade8 was represented by a battle with hoillers carried 011 behind a lofty pile of beds and In~Uresses. At tile end , victors and va nquished joined forces to sing " La Mar­seill aise '"'' Ch lB ' ,,­. ares enOlst , Lllonlllle de I848 ," partl , RelJuedesdeuxmondes (Jul ), I , 19 13), p . 147. The passage citcil presumably comes from Chateauhrialld.

[P I,')

Gallneau "Th" Iwh . e" apa I ... appears to 118 under Ihe aspect of the perfect dandy, . 0 loves horiles, adores women, and lUll a tas te for the high life but is enlirely Imr>Ccuniol1s. This lack offu llds he makc8 up for through gambliog; he is a habitue or aU the ga mhling den8 of the Palail-Royal .... li e believes himself de8tined 10 be

t.he redeemer of mun '~ beller half, and ... takes the title of Mapah, a nahaecl formed frolll Ihe first syllablcs of the two words ' mama' and 'p.". ' H . e g008 On to slly thai all proper names should be modified in thi.s manner : YO II should no IOIl8er bear Ihe name of your rather, but rather should use the firs t syllable f

'.d " °yourh en n ame combllled Wllh the first syllable of your r. th, ' mOl. e r I mal r I name. Ahd 10 mark the more clearly that he forever renounces his own former name. . h· If 'H h ··, besigns IIIIM! : . e W 0 was Ganneau . , ... He d istributes hit pamphlettl a llheexit3 of

thealer s or Icnds them through the mail; he even tried to persuade Victor H . h· d . JIB .. ~o,opatronu:e 18 octrme. II es ertaut, Le ·Mupah ...• Le TempI, September 2

1935. I,[p , ~]

Charles Louandre on the phYl iologies, which he charges with corruption of mor­als: "This drear y genre ... has very quickly run its course. The physioloK)' ..

produced in 32mo fo rmat suitable to be sold ... to those out walking or drivin~, it repre8e.nted in 1836, in the BiblWg raphie de la France. by two volume,, ; in 1838

there are eight VOlume." listed ; in 1841 there are seventy.six ; in 1842, forty. four; .. fifteen the year foU owlDg; and hardly more than three or four in the two yean since then. From the physiology of individuals, one moved to the physiolOl)' 01 cities. There was Paru la nuit; Paris a. table; Paris dan$ l'ea,,; Pan. achevol; Paru piltore$(IUe; Paru bohemiell ; Paru liueraire; Paris marik. Then came the phYlL iology of peoples: Les Frarn;au ; Le5 Anglau peint5 par eux..meme •. Thete wer e followed by the physiology of animals: Le$ Animaw: peint. par ew::·meme,,, deuine, par d 'OIdres. Having finally run out of subjects, ... the authors .. .

turned in the end to portraying themselves, and gave us the La Phy,iolop da ..... phy,iowgUte,." Charles Louandre, " Statistique liueraire: De la P roductioo iDtel­

lectuelle en France depuis quinze aos," Revue de. deux monde. (November 15. 1847). pp. 686-687. (p1a,1)

T heses of Touuenel: "That the happinetl! of individualll ill in dired proportion to

female a uthority"; " that the rank of the species is in direct proportion to female authority." A. Tous8e.nel, I.e Monde de, oueaux, vol. 1 (Parit, 1853), p . 485 . The . first is the " formu la of the gyrfalcon" (p . 39). [p1a,2]

Tous8e.nel on his Monde des oueaw::: "The wor ld of birdll is only its incidental

subject , whereas the world of men is its principal subject ." Vol. I , p . 2 (prefaCfl by the a uthor). [p 1a,3]

Toussellel ill his preface to Le Monde des oi,eau,x: " He (the author] has soughlto underline the importallce of the culinary side of his suhject h y according the item " roast meat" a more prominent place than it usually occupies in scie~tific worke. " Vol. I. p. 2. [p1a,4]

" We admire the bird . .. hecause with the hird , as in all well-orga ni:r.ed politic., ... it is gaUalltry that determines r ank.... We feel instinctively that the woman, who came from the Creator's hand aft er the man , was made to comnllUll1 the latter,

just as he WII S hor n to commllnd the beal is who came before him" <I.e Monde de, oise(w,x. vol. I , p. 38>. [pla,5]

According to TOll8llenel, t.ite races t.hat most look up 10 the woman stand highest : at times the Germalls, but ahove all the French a.nd the Greeks. " As the Athenian ami tile Frenchman are delloted by the falcon , so a re the Roman and the Eliglish. plan hy the eagle." (The eagle. however. "docs 1101 rally to the service of human .

ity: ') A. TOlluencl . Le Monde des oueQlU", vol . I (Paris, (853), p . 125. (pla,6]

Coptic physiologies: Mli&ee pollr rire; iUlUee Philipon ; MlUee or Magasin com. iqlle; Musee Pori,ien; Les Metamorphose, dujour. [P2,1]

Series of drawings . 1£, Vemviennes, by Beaumont: twenty prints. Daumier 's ~ ries Le5 DilJorcelUe, <Divorced Women >. A series (by whom?) titled Le$ Bas.blew <The Blueslockings). ! (P2,2)

Rise of the physiologies: "The burning political struggle of the years 1830-1835 had formed an army of draft>l Dlen •... and this a rmy ... waR completely knocked

out , politically speaking, by the SePlember Laws. At a time, that is, when they had fathomed all the secrets of their art , they wer e suddenly restricted to a l ingle theater of operations: the description of bourgeois life.... This is the circum·

stance that explains the colou a l revue of bourgeois life inaugurated around the middle of the L830s in .' rance . ... Everything came into the picture: . .. happy days and sad d ays, work and recreation , marriage customs and bachelor habits,

family, house, child, school. society, theater, types, professions." Eduard Fuchs, Die Karikafur der europauchen Votker, 4th ed . (Munich <1921» , vol. I , p . 362 .

[P2,3]

What sordidness once again, at the: end of the century, in the representation of physiological affairs! Characteristic of this is a description of impotence in Mail· ~'s book on the history of women's emancipation, which in its overall han· dling of the matter lays bare, in drastic fashion, the reaction of the established bourgeoisie to anthropological materialism. In connection with the presentation of Claire Demar's doctrine, one finds that "she ... speaks of the deceptions that can .result from that strange and enormous sacrifice. at the risk ofwhich. under a ,tornd Italian sky, more than one young man tries his luck at becoming a famous chanteur." Finnin Maillard, La Ligrode de la/nnme inwncipee (Paris), p. 98.

[P2,' ]

A key passage fro m tlte ma nifesto of Claire Demar : "The union of the sexes in the fUture will have to he the resllh of ... tlCCll ly meditated sympathies . .. : this wiD 1"It the case even wher e the ex istence of an intimate, ~t.."t; ret . ami mysterious rapport l"ltlwccll two 1I0uis has been recognized .... AlI sllch relations could ver y well come to not hing ill the face of one 1l1li1. illdill lH!nsable. and deci.s ive test: the rF.sr of ,'CAfTER by ,'CArTF.R , the ASSA" of Fl.ESII hy FI.F.5 I1 !!! •.. Often enough. on the ver y

threshold of the bedroom , a devouring flame has come to be edi"g ui&hed; oftet! enough . for more than Olle grand pasBion , the llerfllmetl bedsheets have b«ollle. demh . hrolld. More than one persOIl . .. who will rCBd the8e lincs has entered night . into the bed of Hymen .JJu ipita tins with de.ire, ancl emotions. onl . :'

. th . " d ' "CI ' 0 ' . • Y 0awaken In e mornmg COK a n Ky. Blre emu r, Mll W. d a venir (Parls 1834), pp. 36-37. {p2,Sj

Re anthropological materialism. Conclusion of Claire Dtlmur's Ma Loj d'. .ven,,· <My Law of the Future>: "No morc motherhood , 110 more law of blood . I say: bo

more motherhood . And , in fact . the woman emancill81ed ... from the man, who then no longer pays her the price of her body, ... will owe her ex.i ..t\:nce ... to her works alone. For this it is necessa r y thai the woman pursue some work, fulfill •

fun ction . And how can she do this if she is always condemned to give up a more or lell large pa rt of her life to the care and education of one or more children? ... You want to emancipate the lComan ? Well , then, ta ke the newborn child from the breast of the blood-mother a nd pve it into the arms of the social mother, a nurH employed b y the s tate, and the child will be better raised.... T hen , and then only,

will man, woman , and child be freed from the law of b lood , from the exploitation of humanity by humanit y." Claire Demar, Ma Loi d 'uvenir: Ouvruge posthwne

publik par Suzanne (Paris. 1834), PI' . 58-59. [p2a, l ]

" What! Beeause a woman would rather not take the I)ublic inlo her confidence

concerning her feelings as a woma n ; because, from among all the men who would lavish their attentions upon her, ... only she could say which one she prefer&-- __

... is she then ... 10 beconle ... the slave of one man? ... What! In such cues .

woman is exploited.... For if she were not afraid of seeing them tear themse1ves to

pieces, ... she could give satisfaction to sever al men al once in their love.... I believe. with M. James de Laurence, in the need ... for a freed om without .. . Limits, ... a freedom founded on mystery, which for me is the basis of the new

mora lity. n Claire Demar, Ma Loi d 'avenir (Paris, 1834), PI' . 31-32. [p2a,2]

The demand for "mystery"- as opposed to "publicity"-in sexuaJ rdations is closely connected, in Demar, with the demand for more or less extended trial periods. Of course, the traditional fonn of marriage would in general be sup­planted by this more 8exible fonn. It is logical, funhennore, that these concep­tions should give rise to the demand for matriarchy. [p2a,3]

From the arguments directed aga inst patriarchy: ;'Ah , il is wilh It huge pile or parricidal daggers at my side IIial , amid widespread groa ns of la menlalion at the very mention of the words ' fll iller ' and ' mother,' I venture 10 raise Illy voice ... IIgll in8t the IlIw of b lood , the law of generation!" Claire J)c.lll il r. Mu Loi d'cwenir (pans, 1834), PI). 5<a-55. [p2a,4]

Caricature plays a considerable role in the development of the caption. It is characteristic that Henri Bouchot, La Lithographie (Paris (1895)) <p. 114>, re­proaches Daumier with the length and indisperu;ability of his captions. [p2a,5]

l:Ienri Bouellot , La UtllogrUIJhie (Pans), p . 138 , compares the productivity of

[)even a with Ihat of Ba lzac a nd DUllla~. [p2a,6]

Several passages from C laire 06nar's work Ma Lo,- d'alK1lirmay be cited by way of characterizing her relation to J anlcs de Laurence. The first comes from the foreword written by Suzanne and has its point of departure in Claire ~mar's refusal to contribute to La Tribune deJjemmu: "Up until the seventeenth issue, she had consistently refused , saying that the tone of this periodical was too moderate.... When this issue appeared, there was a passage in an article by me which, by its foml and its moderation, exasperated Clt,ire.-She wrote to me that she was going to respond to it.-But ... her response became a pamphlet, which she then decided to publish on its own, outside the framework of the peri. odical.... Here, then, is the fragment of the article of which Claire has cited only a few lines. 'There is still in the world a man who interprets ... Christianity ... in a manner ... favorable to our sex: I mean M. ]ameJ de Laurnla, the author of a pamphlet entitled UJ Enfant.s de dietl, ou La Religjon de ]iJw.... The author is no Saint-Simonian; ... he postulates ... an inheritance through the mother. Certainly this system ... is highly advantageous to us; I am convinced that some , part of it will have a place ... in the religion of the future, and that the principle of motherhood will become one of the fundamenta1 laws of the state'" (Claire Demar, Ma fo; d'auenir: Ouurage pruthume publii par Suzanne [Paris, 1834], pp. 14­16). In the text of her manifesto, C laire Demar makes common cause with Laurence against the reproaches leveled at him by La Tn·bune des jemmeJ, which had claimed that he was advocating a form of "moral liberty ... without rules or

\ boundaries," something "which ... would surdy land us in a coarse and disgust­ing disorder." The blame for this is said to reside in the fact that in these things Laurence propounds mystery as a principle; on the strength of such mystery, we would have to render account in these things to a mystical God aJone. La Tribune de; Femme;, on the contrary, believes that "the Society of the Future will be founded not on mystery but on trust; for mystery merely prolongs the exploita· tion of our sex." C laire Demar replies: "Certainly, Mesdames, if, like you, I confused trust with publicity, and considered mystery as prolonging the exploita· tion ofour sex, I would be bound to give my blessings to the times in which we live." She goes on to describe the brutality of the customs of these times : "Before the mayor and before the priest, ... a man and a woman have: assembled a long tt;ain of witnesses.... Voila! ... The union is called legitimate, and the woman may now without blushing afIinn: 'On such and such a day, at such and such an hour, I shaJl receive a man into my JIIO.lfAH'S BED/!!' • •. Contracted in the presence of the crowd, the marriage drags aJong, across an orgy of \-vines and dances, t~ward the nuptiaJ bed, which has become the bed of debauchery and prostitu­tion, inviting the delirious imagination of the guests to follow ... all the details

. of the lubricious drama enacted in the na.me of thc ,,*dding Dayl If the practice ".:hich thus converts a young bride: ... into the object of impudent glances ... , and which prostitutes her to unrestrained desires, ... does not appear to you a horrible exploitation, ... then I know not what to say" (Ma /...oid' .abrnrr, pp. 29-30). [p3.1)

Publication date of the fin' i.uue of Le Charivari: December I, 1832.

Lesbian confe.uion of a Saint-Simonienne: " I began to love my feDow woman .. much a. my fellow man .... I left to the man his physical strength and hi8 brand cl intelligence in order to exalt at hil aide, and with equal right , the physical be... of the woman and her diatinctiveiy spiritual gifts." Cited without indication: source or author in Firmin Maillard, La Legende de Iafem~ emanciph (Paril).

~~. ~~q

Empre.u Eugenie all IUCce8sor to the Mother:

Sholl1d you with, 0 bleaaed one, The whol., of humankind with joy

Will hail itt EUCENUi­

Archangd guidin!; UI to port!!!

jean Joumet, L'Ere de lafemme, ouLe Regne de l'hannonie univer,eUe (Jua&rJ 1857), p. 8. <See U14a,4 and Ul7a,2.> [p3a,2J

Maxim8 from Jamea de Laurence, LeJ Enfants de dUu, ou La Reli&ion de J... reconciUee avec Ia philo.ophie (Paris, June 1831): " It iH more reasonable to" that all children are made by Cod than to 8ay that all married couplet are joiMll together by Cod" (p. 14). The fact that jel uH does not condemn the WOIIW:II

in adultery leads Laurence to conclude lbat he did not approve of marriap: pardoned her because be conllidered adultery the natural consequence 01 __.

riage. and he would have accepted it were it to be found amolllJ: his dUcip&e.••• As long as marriage exilts, an adulterow woman will be found Crim.in~,~'~:::: , . he burdenl her hU8band with the children of othen. Jesw could not te

an injul tice; hi, sylltem is logical: he wanted children to belOIllJ: to the ...... Whence lbose remarkable worda: 'Call no man your father on earth, for 'ou ..... one Father. who it in heaven'''' (p. 13). "The children of Cod, a8 de&eellded Ina one woman. form a single family .•.. The religion of the Jew. was th.t of"... nitr, under which the patriarch!! exerci8ed their domeetic authority. The ~ of Jesu8 i, lbat of maternity, whoae symhol is a mother holding a child in her.,..; and thill mother ill caDed the Virgin because. while fulfilling the dutiee of a mother. Ihe had not reoounced the independence of a virgin" (pp. 13-14). [p3a,S]

"Some leell ... , during the fir8t centuriell of the church. lleem to have divined .... intentione of Jellu8; the Simonians, the Nicolaitana. the Carpocratiaru, the Ba8ilidians. the Marcionites. and others ... not only had abolished marria~ bid had established the community of women." James de Laurence, Le. Enfanu • dieu , Olt La Religion de Je,w reconciUee avec In philosophie (Paris. june 1831). p.8. [p3,,')

The interpretation of the miracle at Carla4 whichJames de Laurence offers, in lSI effort to p~ his thesis thatJesus stood opposed to marriage. is wholly in style of the early Middle Ages: "Seeing the wedded pair make a sacrifice

~e fuuricrist miMionaryJeanJoumet, ca. 1858. Photo by Nadar. Courtesy of the Bib­liotheque Nationale de France. See p3a,2.

'.

libeny, he changed the water into wine 50 as to demonstrate that marriage was a fOOlhardy venture undertaken only by people whose brains are addled by l'Iine." J~es de Laurence, Us EnfantJ de dieu, ou La Religion de Jesus ric01Idfiie avec fa Ph'/ruOPhi, (Paris,june 1831), p. 8. [p4,I)

"The Holy Spirit , or tile loul of nature, descended UpOII the Virgio in the form of a dove; and since the dove il the .ymhol of love, this sigoifiee that the mother of

J ellua had yielded to the natural inclination for love." James de Laurence, "­En/anu de dieu (Parill, June 183 1), p . 5. (p4,2J

Some of Lau rence'a theoretical motifs are already evident in his four.vohune novel, Le Punoruma de, boudoir3. ou L 'Empire de3 Nair3 (Pa ria, 1817). which wall published earlier in Germa ny and of which a frapent had appeared in 1793 in Wieland'il Deutsche Merkur. Laurence (Lawrence) was Engliah . [p4,3J

" Balzac hall described the physiognomy of the Pa risian in unforgettable fa shion: the faces drawn taut . tor mented . livid , ' the almost infernal conlplexion of ParUlaa physiognomies';s not faces but masks. " Ernst Robert Curtiu8, Balzac (Borm,

1923) , p . 243. (Citation from La Fille aur yellX d 'or.) [p4,4J

" Balzac's interest in longe\·ity is one of the things he hal in common v'1lh the eighteenth centur y. The naturalislII, the philosophers, the cha rlatans of that .. arc agreed on this point. ... Condorcet expected from the future era, which be .. painted in glowing colors, a n infinite prolongation of the life lipan . Count Saint.

Germain dispensed a ' tea of life,' CagLiostro an 'elixir of life'; others promoted 'sider eal salts, ' ' tincture of gold, ' ' magnetic beds. ,,, Ernlit Robert CurtiulI, Babae (Bonn , 1923), p . 101. [p4,5)

In Fourier (Nouutau MfJTUk <Paris, 1829-1830>, p. 275) there are outaies againIt wedding rites that recall the pronouncements of C laire Demar. [p4,fi]

Note of Bianqui'l from the I pring of 1846, when he wali imprisoned in the HOIIpitai of Tou rs: " On Communion d aya, the siliters of the hOlpice of Toun are wa.ap­proachable, fer ocious. They have eatcn Cod. They are churning with the pride J. this w vine digestion . These vessels of holinen become fl asks of vitriol ." <Cited in>

Gustave Geffroy, L 'Enferme (Paris, 1926), vol. I , p . 133. [p4,7J

Apropos of the wedding at Cana . 1848: "A banquet for the poor was planned; it

was to offer, for twenty-fi ve centimes, bread , cheese, and wine , which would be eaten and drunk on the plain of Saint-Denis. It did not take place (initiaUy ached-­uled for June I . it was postponed to JUlie 18, then to July 14) ; but the. preparatory

meetillgs that were held , the subscriptions that were collected , and the en~-. ubLic op'"ments-...·hich had mounted , by June 8, to 165.532-ser ve d to sbr up p

iOIl ." Gustn e Geffroy, L 'Eriferme (Pa ris. 1926), vol. I , p . 192. [p4a, l]

" In 1848, ill the room of J enny the worker , there were portraits of Beran~r, Nal)Oleon , and the Madonn a pinned 10 t.he wall . People felt certain t~a t the re1i5­

. r '48 Among theiOIl of Huma nity was al)Ou t 10 emerge. J esus IS a great mall 0 • , •

malilies, there were indicationli of a fa ith ill omens .... The Alm(Jn(Jch prophetllllllt

of 1849 allliounced Ihe retur n of the comel of 12&1--lhe war r ior comet, produced by Ihe influence of Mars." Gustave Geffroy, L'f;n/e rme (Paris, 1926), vol. I }'

[p4' ,2 p . 156.

Babick , deputy of the tenth arrondiu ement. Pole, worker, then tailor, lhen l)Cr­fulilcr. " He was .. . a member of the International a nd of lhe Central Committee, aud a lthe same time an a politle of the fusionist cult-a religion of recent inspira­tion , illtended for the use of brains like hili. Formed by a certain M. de Toureil , it cornbined ... several cults . to which Babick had conjoined spiritualism. All a ){'riumer, he had created for it a language which , for lack of other meri lll , was ~dole llt of drugs and oinlments. He would write at the top of his letters ' Parili­Jerusa lem,' d ate them with a year of the fusionist era, and sign them ' Babick . child of the Kingdom of God, and perfumer.'" Georges LarOD%e, lIu toire de la Commu ne de 1871 (Pa ris, 1928), pp . 168-169. (p4a,3]

''The whilllsical idea conceived by the colonel of the twelfth legion was no more felicitoua. It entailed forming a compan y of female citizen volunteeu who were

charged , for the greater shame of lawbrea kers. with securing their a rrest ," Georges Larollze. Hu toire de la Commune de 1871 (Pa ris , 1928), p. 501 . (p4a,4]

f usionu me begins itll reckoning of time with December 30, 1845. [p4.,5}

MaJ(ime Du Camp , in his Souvenir5 liuer-aires, makeli a play on words with

" Evadia nli" and "evadeu." <See a 15,2-4.> [p4•.6}

From the constitution of the Vesuviennes: " Female citizens ought to do their part

to 8er ve the armies of land and sea .. .. The enlisted will fonn an army to be designated as reserve. It will be divided into three contingentll: the COrpli of women

\ worken. the corps of vivandierel, and the corps of charity.... Since ma rriage il

an association , each of the two SI)OUSCS must share in all the work. Any husband reCusing to l)Crform his por tion of domestic duties will be condemned . . . to as·

8ume responsibility for the service of his wife in the Garde Civique. in place of his own ser vice in the Garde Nationale." Finnin MaWard, La U geruh de lafemme ema ncipee (Parili) , pp . 179, 181 . [pS,I]

"The feelings Hegel stir red up among the members of ¥oung Germa ny, and which Ructuated belween strong attraction and even !tr onger repulsion . are refl ected most vividly in Gusta v Kuhne's Quarantiine im Irrenhawe <Quara ntine in the

Illsalle AsylulII ) . . .. Because the members of Young GermallY placed the accent nlore 0 11 8ubjecti\'e volition than on objective freedom, the Young Hegelia nli hl!flped scorn upon the ' unprincipled meandering' of their ' belletris tic ego­ism' .... Although the fea r arose , within the r anks of ¥oung German y, that the

illcscapa IJlc llialectic of Hegelian doctr ine might Ileprive Youth of the strength ... to act , this concern proved unjustified ." Quite the contrary: once titese young CernlaliS " were forced to recogn ize . aft er the han on their ....ritin~ was imposed . that they them.selves had burned the hands by whose diligent labor s they had hUlled to )j.ve Like good bourgeoili, their enthusiasm quickly vanished ." Gusta v Mllyer, f' riedrich Engeu. vol. I. friedricll EnSeu in seiner friih ; eit (Berlin ( 1933», pp. 37-39." [p5.2]

nAround the time that "physiologies first appeared, historians like Thierry, Mignet, Guaot "'ere laying emphasis on the analysis of "bourgeois life." (p5,3]

Engels on the Wuppertal region : " Excellenl soil (or OUf principlf's is being pre­pared here; and once we are able to sct in motiOIl our wild , hot-1eml)Cred dye-rot

lind bleachers. you won't recognize Wupperlal. Even as it i8. the workers durins the pasl few years have reached the fmal stage of the old civilization; the rapid

increase in crimes, robberies. and murders is their protest agaillst the old social organization . At night the streets a re unsafe, the bourgeois are beatcn up , knifed, and robbed. If the local proleta rians develop according to the l a m e laws 8S the English prolela rians, they will 800n realize thai it is useless to protett againtt the social system in thi, ma nner ... and will protest in their general capacity, .. human bein~, by means of communism." Engels to Marx, October 1844, froDi

Barmen [Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Briefwech$el, ed. Marx~Enge".Lenin

Institut , vol . I « Zurich > 1935), PII. 4-5]. r [p5,4)

.. The heroic ideal in Baudelaire is androgynous. This does not prevent him from writing: "~ have known the philanthropist "...oman author, the systematic priest­ess of love, the republican poetess, the poetess of the future, Fourierist or Saint­Simonian; and our eyes ... have never succeeded in becoming accustomed to aD this srudied ugliness." Baudelaire, !:Art romanhque, ed. Hacheue, vol. 3 (Paris), p. 340 ("Marceline Desbordes-Valmore").' (p5a,11

One of the later sectarian developments of the nineteenth century is the fusionia ­religion. It was propagated by L.J. B. Toureil (born in Year VIII, died 1863 [or 1868?]). The Fourierist in.8uence can be felt in his periodization of history; &om Saint'-Simon comes the idea of the Trinity as a unity of Mother-Father to whicb Sister-Brother or Androgyne is joined. The universal substance is determined in its working by three processes, in the definition of which the inferior basis of ~ doctrine comes to light. These processes are: "Emanation, ... the property which the universal substance possesses of expanding infinitely beyond itself; ... ~ sorption, ... the property which the universal substance possesses of rummg back infinitely upon itself; . .. Assimilation, ... the property which the universal substance possesses of being intimately penneated with itself' (p. i).-A charac­teristic passage from the aphorism "PaUVTeS, riches" <Rich Men, .Ibor Men>, which addresses itself to the rich and speaks of the poor: "Moreover, ifyou refuse to elevate them to your level and scorn to involve yourselves with them, why then do you breathe the same air, inhabit the sanle aunosphere? In order not to

breathe in and assimilate their em.anation .. . , it will be necessary for you t~ leave this world to breathe a different air and live in a different aqnosphere (p.267).-The dead are "multifonn" and exist in many places on the earth at the same time. For this reason, people must very seriously concern themselves, ~ur­ing their lifetime, with the beuennent of the earth (p. 307). Ultimately, all ~~ in a series of suns, which in the end, after they have passed through the stau~n 0"

one light (unilmniire) , realize the "universal light" in the "universalizing reglon.

Rtligitm juJionienne. ou Docln'ne de /'unilKrJolisah'on rialuanl Ie ural cQlholici.Jme (Paris, 1902). [p5a.2]

" Me: Is there SOniC particula r fa cet of your religious cult thlll you could comnlent OIl? M. (Ie Toureil : We pray oflcn , and our praycrs ordinurily begin willi the "'ords: ' 0 Map supreme and eternal. ' Me: Whal is the meuning of this sound ' Mop'? M. de Toureil : It is a sacred sound ....hich combines the m signifying mere

(mother). the p signifying pere (father ), and the a signifying amour (love) .... These 1I1 rt.'e lelten ,Iesign ate the great eterllal God." AJexandre Erdan [A. A. J acoh ], La "'ranee mi$tique, 2 vols. (Paris. 1855), vol. 2, p. 632 [continuous )Iugi­

nUlion)' Ip6.1]

Fiuionume aims no t at a syncretism but at the fusion of human beings with one another and with God. [P6,2]

"There will be no hapl'inen for hunlanity until the d ay the r epublic sends the son of God back 10 the carpenter 's shop of Monsieur his father." This sentence is put into the mouth ofCourbet , in a pamphlet thai presents the heroes of the February

Revolution to the Jlublic. (P6,3]