CLCV 3202

Major Project

Roxana Chan, Mira Richard-Fioramore, Matthew Robertson

Monday, December 9, 2013

Amphitheatres - YouTube Videohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m67jKUuBhiI

Introduction:

Let’s start with the history of the amphitheatre. Various amphitheatres can be found

across the world, ancient and modern ones, and are and have been used for venues,

performances, and sports. The story of the amphitheatre and its spectacles from their origins to

the pinnacle of their development and into the decline and eventual fall provides a unique insight

into the evolution and fall of the Roman Empire itself. Our intention is that after this video, you

the viewer can walk away with a thorough knowledge of the amphitheatre. You will know it

inside out, from the arena to the top of the canvases, you will gain insight into the Roman mind

and see why they were drawn to these spectacles of sports for centuries. By studying the

amphitheatre, you will learn various aspects of the amphitheatre, like how many people it could

accomodate. Finally, we will be presenting a comparison between modern stadia and their

ancient counterparts.

History:

The amphitheatres have had multiple uses over the last centuries. The first historical

references that exist concerning gladiatorial combats are from the First Punic War. It is believed

that the origins of these spectacles originated from the Samnites of Southern Italy, Campania,

1

and Lucania, whom then later passed on the tradition to the Etruscans. (Bomgardner 32) The

gladiatorial combats originated in 264BC when three pairs of gladiators fought simultaneously

during a public funeral. (Bomgardner 33) Human sacrifices were nothing new for this time

period as we can see in Homer’s Iliad, during the funeral of Patroclus, Achilles sacrifices

multiple Trojans. Combat to the death became a tradition for funeral rites, as a gladiator’s

military prowess and success in battle conveyed absolute glory to himself, his family, and the

nation. (Bomgardner 33) These combats made a profound impact on the public who attended

these funerals, and they became later in time increasingly popular. Later in the republic, the

Roman families would compete against each other for political positions, and the funeral rites

became a sort of bribe for political support. The funeral spectacles sky-rocketed in popularity

and the number of gladiators increased tremendously. The demand for well trained gladiators

increased and training schools and barracks were created to train men into professional

gladiators. The gladiators were usually chosen from the slave population of the empire. There

were many famous gladiators such as the gladiator Spartacus, who led a slave revolt against his

master. Julius Caesar, established his own training school and was considered the best showman

in his organisation for his mass spectacles. The era transitioned from religious rites to a popular

entertainment of exploitation where votes were being given to the politicians who could organise

and deliver the best spectacle.

Athletic competitions and dramatic performances were part of the Ancient Greek culture.

The Romans, who inherited the gladiatorial combats from the Etruscans however, needed

theatres and stadia to stage these events. The Greek buildings were carved out on hillsides, but

the Romans decided to build their own facilities, and so they created great vaulted structures to

create a slope needed for spectator seating (Mofett, Fazio, Woodhouse 129).

2

According to Pliny the Elder, the amphitheatre was invented in Rome around 53 or 52

B.C. But although Pompeii was presented with a building of such kind also by the duoviri

quinquennales Gaius Quinctius Valgus and Marcus Porcius in 70 or 65 B.C. The building in

Pompeii was first called the spectacular, meaning “a place from which all points were visible”. It

is not until later when the word amphitheatre appeared during the Augustan period before 2 B.C.

Besides the amphitheatre in Pompeii, the oldest ones are found in Campania. Only a few of these

are known, discovered when constructions were being done over it but not enough of the

structure is left to reconstruct it. The amphitheatres in Capua, Liternum, and Cumae are dated

back to the end of the second century B.C., and the amphitheatres in Avella, Cales, Pozzuoli, and

Telese are dated from the first half of the following century (Coarelli 27).

Gaius Scribonius Curio built the first architectural form known as the amphitheatre in

52BC when he constructed an ingenious theatre/amphitheatre for the funeral spectacle of his

father. He constructed two full-scale wooden theatres back to back, where spectators would

come and watch the tragedies or comedies on either theatre stage. The twin theatres would then

rotate on two massive pilots and join together to become one amphitheatre, and gladiatorial

combats and athletic competitions would then take place. (Bomgardner 37)

Another example of an early theatre would be the Theatre of Marcellus in Rome, built in

a semicircle and could accommodate around 11000 people. Enough of the original construction

has survived to reuse, first as a medieval fortress, and then as a Renaissance palace. Only the two

lower levels remain which were changed to housing, the third level, which was made of wood,

disappeared over the years (Mofett, Fazio, Woodhouse 130).

It is hard to determine when the earliest amphitheatres were built as most of them have

suffered enormous damage over the years and are not fully intact. The design of theatres

3

undoubtedly inspired that of amphitheatres, which were circular in oval plain, with raked seating

on all sides. Having said that, there is one amphitheatre that is well preserved and well published

even today: that of Pompeii. The amphitheatre at Pompeii, dating from about 80 BC, was built

so that the seats at one end of the oval could be supported on rising ground (Mofett, Fazio,

Woodhouse 130). The volcanic ash from Mount Vesuvius has protected it and left it intact until

it was excavated years ago. The amphitheatre at Pompeii has been frozen in time for the past

2000 years or so. The city of Pompeii had done without an amphitheatre for years, however the

cities around Campania had started building or had already built amphitheatres, and so Pompeii

had to have the prestige monument just to keep up with the competition. It was intended as a

place to go and be seen. (Bomgardner 42)

By studying the amount of people an amphitheatre can accommodate, the term locus was

used in a study on the Colosseum where Hulsen translated the term as “measurement of a foot”

rather than a “seat”. But in other studies, the two terms may be overlapping and a seat is indeed

about a foot in length. Some measurements were done and a seat at an ancient venue was about

40 cm. However, there are other documentations such as in the Theater of Dionysus in Athens

that has seats that were about 33cm. So with the difference in seat spaces in different

amphitheatres, it is not certain how many seats there were available for each of the

amphitheatres. So even with the written records available, the space of the theatre and the seat

size is still measured differently. Also, not everyone is allowed inside the theatres based on the

status they have. Women, prepubescent boys, foreigners, and slaves were not allowed to attend

events that were held there (Coarelli 15).

Architecture of Pompeii:

4

The amphitheatre at Pompeii is located at the south-eastern corner of the city.

Constructed around 70 B.C., the amphitheatre was used for meetings, recreation, and political or

commercial negotiations. The building was divided into three sections. Ima cavea, the front row,

was for aristocratic citizens, and the medea and the summa were for the rest of the citizens and it

could accommodate up to 20,000 people. The amphitheatre consists of an arena that was dug

into the ground about 66 meters long, an arena wall that was probably decorated with frescoes or

with marbles 2.18 meters high, two tunnels on each opposite side that gave access to chambers

that were used to hold props or as a waiting room for the gladiators. They used the spoil of the

arena excavation to construct the stone seating all around the arena. A series of tunnels and stairs

gave access to the seating area from the outside. The higher class would sit in the section closest

to the arena, and the lower classes would sit behind and so on. The seating arrangements in the

amphitheatre reminded the citizens that social order and dominance was present.

Architecture and history of Verona amphitheatre:

The Verona amphitheatre is located between the modern cities of Milan and Venice in

Italy. It still provides an impressive reminder of its former glory and importance. It is one of the

few well surviving amphitheatres of Northern Italy. This amphitheatre, just like the Colosseum,

consists of three storeys, and the style consists of Rustic masonry, which was quite popular in

Rome during the reign of the emperor Claudius. It is the earliest record of Roman numerals

being used above the arches to indicate where someone’s seat would be. It had sophisticated

passageways and stairways that guided spectators from the exterior of the monument to their

seats inside. The amphitheatre was able to seat around 38,000 spectators. The arena held a large

shallow basin fed by a branch of aqueducts that entered the amphitheatre beneath the northern

entrance passageway. No one knows for sure what went on in the basin, it could have been used

5

as a play where there would be a small rowboat imitating a Roman naval ship, or could have

been used with people on rowboats fishing or hunting, or gladiators engaging in combat. The

amphitheatre held gladiatorial barracks that no longer exist, but traces of an inscription found

states that there were some (Bomgardner 64-70).

Architecture and history of the El Djem amphitheatre:

The amphitheatre of El Djem is located in the ancient town of Thysdrus in the central

region of Tunisia. There is actually a smaller amphitheatre in the city that could accommodate

around 9000 spectators. It was pretty rare to have more than one amphitheatre in a town, apart

from large cities like Rome or Capua. We are not too sure when the amphitheatre was built

exactly but if the smaller one was the product of municipal construction projects of the Roman

veteran colony, then the bigger one may have had represented the fruits of the liberality of either

a united community, or the now-dominant native municipality (Bomgardner 146). Various

inscriptions in the amphitheatre suggest that it played a major role in the distribution of wild

beasts and the organisation of hunters across North Africa. Next to the Colosseum, the El Djem

is one of the best-preserved amphitheatres in the Roman world. The Colosseum at Thysdrus

provided seating that allowed the incorporation of four seating sections, whereas the Colosseum

in Rome only provided three (Bomgardner 146-150).

Colosseum:

When someone asks ‘Name one example of a Roman amphitheatre’, most people would

reply, ‘The Colosseum’. The greatest of the amphitheatres was the Flavian amphitheatre in Rome

also known as the Colosseum. The words ‘The Colosseum’ convey both the majesty and might

of the Roman Empire. It dominates the space it occupies, towering above the surrounding streets

and buildings. It is a symbol and a metaphor of the imperial might of the Roman Empire that

6

dominated the ancient Mediterranean world. “While stands the Colosseum, Rome stands, When

Rome falls, so falls the world” were the words of 8th c. AD Venerable Bede (Bomgardner 2). The

Colosseum is the largest and most famous amphitheatre in the Roman world. Construction was

started by Emperor Vespasian in 72 AD and finished by his son Titus in 80 AD. The original

name of this amphitheatre, which can be found in literary, epigraphic, and iconographic sources,

was amphitheatrum or amphitheatrum Caesarum, which means ‘imperial amphitheatre’ (Coarelli

99). The Colosseum can seat up to 55,000 people and they were seated according to their rank.

The monument was the showpiece of the new Flavian dynasty of emperors. It was the

largest stone amphitheatre in the world and was designed to impress onlookers with the power,

worth and beneficence of the Flavian dynasty (Bomgardner 2). The building’s plan is the

familiar oval shape and its structure is modeled on that of the Theatre of Marcellus, but the

difference here is the size it holds. Apart from the last level, which was wood, every other level

was masonry and a combination of cut stones and concrete resting on carefully placed

foundations. Under the seating was a network of structural supports, ramps, stairways, and

tunnels to accommodate the crowds of people coming to attend a spectacle.

It is quite obvious in the design of any Roman amphitheatre what purpose they served.

They were the tool that the Roman state used to tune their citizens into the blood spectacle that

went on across the Empire. This spectacle served many purposes and had its foundations not

only in amusement; but in religious rituals. These centres of blood sport have persisted into the

modern era and it is clear why. People thirst for violence, and blood for an outlet of frustration

and stress.

The space of the amphitheatre is a multi-faceted one. Unlike the design of a theatre in the

Greek style, which allows the audience and stage to be almost blended into one. The

7

amphitheatre space is divided; the arena is divided from the cavea by the podium. (Smith, 87)

This creates the spectacle atmosphere that was exploited by those who would host the games.

But the amphitheatres were not only home to gladiatorial fights. The Roman historian

Cassius Dio goes on in great detail of the spectacles of the inaugural games of Titus in 80 AD.

He goes on to say “There was a battle between cranes and also between four elephants; animals

both tame and wild were slain to the number of nine thousand” (Dio, 25) But the arena was not

limited to scenes of slaughter on soil. For as Dio goes onto to describe, “Titus suddenly filled

this same theatre with water and brought in horses and bulls and some other domesticated

animals that had been taught to behave in the liquid element just as on land. 3 He also brought in

people on ships, who engaged in a sea-fight there...”(Dio, 25) This goes to show the lengths that

Rome's emperors would go to impress and entertain.

But let us go back to the Colosseum: by recognizing the placement of the structure this

will aid us in understanding what role it played. If you look at a map of modern Rome you can

see the Coliseum stands out. It was situated along the Via Sacra and is not far from the Roman

Forum. Using the site of Digital Augustan Rome, which is an ongoing mapping project that

brings the ancient city in the time of Augustus, along with maps of later imperial Rome to

life.We can see that the Coliseum is also within sight of the Palatine hill, another epicentre of the

city. It is clear that this shows the significance of the building and its function.

Many others predating the Coliseum are sprinkled across the Roman Empire. Other well

known sites include; Capua, Arelate (Arles), Burdigala (Bordeaux) and even as far flung as

Cirenchester in the United Kingdom. This wide spread use of amphitheatres shows that at the

time it was ingrained in Roman identity. And as discussed, they acted as a way to entertain and

subdue the population. The one at Cirenchester for example measured 49 by 41 metres. The

8

seating area was covered in shallow terraces and was supported by drystone walls made of

limestone.(ADS, 2013) Though this arena doesn't stand up to the Coliseum in comparison; it still

is a testament to the reach of Rome and her spectacles.

The area under the arena floor was a labyrinth of passageways and chambers for

gladiators, beasts, and machinery to service the spectacle above. The Colosseum is linked with

savage and cruel entertainment, including fight to the death by gladiators and the persecution of

Roman Christians (Mofett, Fazio, Woodhouse 131).

The amphitheatre did not have any direct ties to any religion, however, the amphitheatres

were used for gladiatorial combats while the forum was used for the processions and events, and

the theatres were used for plays and music (Laurence 282).

The gladiator came from the funeral practices of the Etruscans. The practice was known

as munus or “duty” which was paid to a dead ancestor. The first record we have of such games or

practices occurring within Rome was in 264 BC held by Decimus Junius Brutus.(Baker, 10) This

shows us the long history leading up to the spectacle games of Titus or Commodus.

This switch from the ceremonial to the spectacle goes hand in hand with the intent of

hosting the games. It no longer became part of honouring a lost family member but became part

of the political machine of Rome. Emperors would invest massive amount of money into these

games; not only to solidify their popularity with the masses but also the create a legacy through

the games.

Spread of the Spectacle:

As said before the spectacles of the arena were not limited just to Rome or Italy. Recent

archaeological discoveries have placed our friend the gladiator as far away as Britain. In 2010

excavations in York in the United Kingdom unearthed the discovery of over 80 skeletal remains.

9

(The Independant, 2010) Archaeologists and anthropologists believe these remains belong to

those that died in the arena. One of the skeletons is missing his head; the teeth marks denote the

presence of a large carnivore, either a lion or tiger. Other skeletons show signs of hammer and

blunt weapon blows to the head; a trademark sign of a violent death of execution.

This great distance from the epicentre of the empire goes to show how well ingrained into

the Roman identity these places of sport were. While some may range in grandeur and spectacle;

it is clear that the bloodsport of the arena was well endowed in the Roman psyche.

Other provincial sites that had large gladiatorial sites include Carthage, which has

remains of the animal spectacles that went on, even that of what he calls the “Numidian Bear”.

(MacKinnon, 7) This incorporation of animals into the spectacle was common place. Much like

our modern society's obsession with cats on the internet; the Roman spectators loved the use of

animals in the arena. Again this is depicted in Gladiator when the main character fights off two

tigers and another gladiator. This set up fight in the movie is not entirely fictitious. There were

many one sided fights throughout the history of the games.

Sometimes an unarmed criminal would be pitted against a heavily armed gladiator.

Sometimes a one sided fight can still be an entertaining one. We still see this in other blood

sports nowadays. The wrestling matches of legends such as Hulk Hogan or Macho Man Randy

Savage were set up and staged so that the crowd's favourite of the day would be victorious.

Modern Comparison:

We can still see the amphitheatre still playing a role in blood sports today. In Canada our

blood sport has taken on a new form in hockey, lacrosse and football just to name the big ones. It

is clear why we still love these sports; humans still need to have an outlet for anger, frustration

and a want for detached violence. We live for the thrill of the sport, we watch races for the

10

crashes, hockey for the big hits or soccer for those epic feigns. And where do these sports take

place? The arena.

One of Canada’s largest amphitheatre is in Fort William Historical Park, located in

Thunder Bay, Ontario. The amphitheatre was built in 2008 and can hold many small or large

events and is capable of hosting many different events at the same time. It is also a year round

venue where it can feature 6 regulation size hockey ice surfaces. This amphitheatre can

accommodate up to 50,000 people.

The Molson Canadian Amphitheatre is located in Toronto, Ontario, where the Ontario

Place Forum was located formerly. It was opened in 1995 and Bryan Adams gave an

unforgettable opening for the amphitheatre. The amphitheatre can accommodate around 16,000

people, in which it is divided in different sections. The high-covered roof covers about 5500

seats, 3500 seats under the open sky, about 7000 seats on the grass bowl, and for unreserved

seating there are about 1000 seats available in around the floor area.

San Manuel Amphitheater is the largest outdoor venue located in the USA. It was built in

1982 and has about 10,900 designated seats available and the lawn can accommodate up to

54,100 people, making it a total of 65,000.

In Ottawa we have many sports arenas; Walter Baker, Sportsplex, Sensplex but the most

well known is the Canadian Tire Centre.[PICTURE OF CANADIAN TIRE CENTER] The arena

is home to the Ottawa Senators- a coincidental team name for our discussion. Many aspects of

this modern arena draw from the Roman tradition. In the Coliseum we can see that there is a

private box for the host, most times being the emperor. (Smith, 88) This feature is still clearly

present in modern sports arena in the form of private boxes. These are closed off seating rooms

complete with private catering, and bathroom facilities. As you travel higher up into the “nose

11

bleed section” the price of the tickets go down and the view becomes worse and worse. The

Romans would have suffered from similar quams with their seats. Though thankfully our modern

hockey fans have a Jumbo-tron to aid in their viewing experience.

Another similar aspect of both modern and ancient arenas cannot be easily seen. This is

the psychological aspect that is at play. Imagine yourself in the scene from Gladiator when the

fighters are preparing to enter the arena. They are under the stands; the sound of the crowd

pounding overhead. Imagine what anxiety and adrenaline this would bring upon the fighters.

Thousands of bloodthirsty spectators waiting above for you to entertain them with iron and

blood. But we don't have to imagine, for anyone who has played minor hockey or lacrosse has

experienced this. The mental state of a gladiator about to face a lion versus a 6th grader about to

face the team from the town over might not be the same but they are similar. This ties into the

psychological setting that these places created and continue to create.

Modern Theatres:

I’ve been to several theatres in Italy and have always been in awe when there. When you

sit at the top of a theatre and look right across at the stage, the scenery behind the stage is

incredible. Whether it was the theatre in Pompeii, in Taormina Sicily, in Rome, in Catania

underground and above ground, the scenic view was astonishing.

I find it extremely interesting that even in modern days, we have adapted the same

concept. If you take the little theatre in Nepean point for example, it gives us an incredible view

of Parliament Hill and Ottawa city. The Scenic view has always been of great importance to us

now and then. The theatre aspect has also been applied to classrooms in universities, where the

professor stands on the stage and presents his lecture to the students sitting all around him. At

Carleton University, we also have a mini theatre outside of Patterson Hall and Southam Hall

12

where classes are sometimes held there during the summer, or plays, or friends hanging out.

Parks around the city such as in Strathcona park hold many plays throughout the warmer

seasons. Though these types of theatres are much more prevalent in the city; it is the

amphitheatre that functions like the Roman's did.

Movies:

Amphitheatres seem to be very popular in blockbuster movies. When you think about a

movie that featured an amphitheatre, immediately you would think of ‘Gladiator’. It features the

Roman Colosseum at its peak and luxurious grandeur. The movie depicts the Colosseum in

Rome, but it was actually filmed at the Colosseum in El Djem. The Colosseum in Rome is very

protected and the only movie crew so far that has been able to go and film inside the theatre was

for the movie ‘Jumper’. The crew was allowed a whole three days of filming, where this had

never happened before. Of course, there are several plays and concerts that are held in the

Colosseum, but never a movie until Jumper. This popularity that comes from the amphitheatre is

a testament to the role it played in spectacle. The mere sight of it conjures to mind the power of

Rome and her emperors.

13

Works cited

"Amphitheater of Pompeii."Web. <http://www.pompeiin.com/en/Amphitheater_Pompeii.html>.

"Amphitheatre." 2008.Web. <http://fwhp.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=350&Itemid=325>.

Baker, Alan. The gladiator the secret history of Rome's warrior slaves. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2002.

Bomgarder, D.L. The Story of the Roman amphitheatre. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print

Coarelli, Filippo, and Ada Gabucci. The Colosseum. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2001. Print.

Laurence, Ray. Roman Pompeii : Space and Society. 2nd ed. ed. London ; New York: Routledge, 2007. Print.

Mackinnon, Micheal, Supplying Exotic Animals For The Roman Amphitheatre Games in “Mouseion, Series III, Vol.6” 2006

Moffett, Marian, Micheal Fazio, Lawrence Wodehouse. A World History of Architecture. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2004. Print.

Smith, William. A smaller dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities. 13th ed. London: J. Murray, 1885.

14

Image AppendixMira’s pictures:

Every picture from Sicily, Rome, and Pompeii are from myself. Every other ones:Judgment of Paris :http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?

id=8CdWZyUxLSE9IjZUej54RngvX3svew%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhFuneral of Patroclus : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?

id=8CJGczI9NzldLS1WEDhzTnkrX3ksflh%2BeCQ%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhAchilles sacrifices his hair on the funeral pyre of Patroclus :

http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8CJGczI9NzldLS1WEDhzTnkrX3gidV59eic%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Judgment of Paris : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8CdWZyUxLSE9IjZUej54RngvX3svew%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Gladiatorial Combats and a Gladiator fighting a Leopardhttp://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=4iFCeTg4NCciJy8laCt2KngqXXgjcVl7eyY%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Gladiatorial combat scene, with inscription bearing the name :http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8DhbZCk2NzYrJSEnd1N7Q38rXXshfFw%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Gladiatorial combat scene, with inscription bearing the name :http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8DhbZCk2NzYrJSEnd1N7Q38rXXshfVQ%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Dying Gladiator : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8CJGczI9NzldLS1WEDhzTnkrX3gqfFl8fCY%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Falling Gladiator : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8CJGczI9NzldLS1WEDhzTnkrX3koelx6fyA%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Spartacus breaking his chains : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8CJfdzIoMloyLyw4fD91RHct&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Spartacus :http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8CJfdzIoMloyLyw4fD97RHok&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Head of Julius Caesar : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=4iFCeTg4NCciJy8laCt2KngqXXgjcVh8cCg%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Chavagnes Gladiator Cup :http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?

id=8CJGczI9NzldLS1WEDhzTnkrX3ovfF98eyk%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhErote figure as bestiarius : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?

id=8DlKaF8lLDQxKA%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhGreek Theater : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?

id=8CNaaSQwKSw0NzU8dSUURXorXXkhfV1zfg%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

15

LIBYA. 2005. LIBYA. Sabratha, roman ruins, Partially reconstructed theatre. 2005 :

http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8D1Mcjw9MjA9NEA7eD96QH0sW3st&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Pozzuoli amphitheatre: http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2081/1628596368_ba795faadd.jpgRome: Theatre of Marcellus: view from eastTheatre of Marcellus: http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?

id=8CJGczI9NzldLS1WEDhzTnkrX3otelt%2FfyI%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhRome: Theatre of Marcellus: model :

http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8CJGczI9NzldLS1WEDhzTnkrX3otelt%2BdiY%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Mt Vesuvius erupting:http://static.bbc.co.uk/earthscience/images/ic/640x360/collections/mount_vesuvius.jpgMt. Vesuvius erupting :

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_-_Vesuvius_from_Portici.jpg

Arena, Verona: exterior elevation : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8CdWZyUxLSE9IjZUej54RngvXX0ueg%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

Amphitheatre :http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=%2BThTcigjKiddLy84eD58QA

%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhAmphitheare : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=

%2BThTcigjKiddLy84eD58QQ%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhAmphitheatre: http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=

%2BThTcigjKiddLy84eD58Rw%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhArena, Verona: plan : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?

id=8CdWZyUxLSE9IjZUej54RngvUnMofg%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhAmphitheare :http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=%2BThTcigjKiddLy84eDx5Qw

%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhAmphitheatre : http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=

%2BThTcigjKiddLy84eD1xSA%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhAmphitheare :http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=%2BThTcigjKiddLy84eD1xSw

%3D%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAhThysdrus (El Djem): Amphitheater: aerial view:

http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8CJGczI9NzldLS1WEDhzTnkrX3oscFd7eCQ%3D&amp;userId=hDRGdzAh

York Skletons:http://static.euronews.com/articles/213296/600x333_richard-III-corpse-uk-bones-

0402m.jpg

16

http://www.culture24.org.uk/asset_arena/9/59/49959/v0_master.jpghttp://www.thehistoryblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/York-skeletons.pnghttp://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2010/06/06/article-1284496-09E969EC000005DC-

779_634x300.jpghttp://images.nationalgeographic.com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/280/cache/headless-

romans-tomb_28089_600x450.jpghttp://www.yorkarchaeology.co.uk/headless-romans/images/several-skeletons.jpg

Roxana’s pictures: San Manuelhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/San_Manuel_Amphitheater.jpg

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-d7-n9hBwbmU/Th-oV9RRH4I/AAAAAAAAAF4/Mwmw1HROCDY/s1600/267840_249162228433871_205810439435717_1286097_7446872_n.jpg

Molsonhttp://c308991.r91.cf1.rackcdn.com/SiteFiles/Venues/6484/d17432f6-67df-4ca9-a406-093e9676b8a0.jpg

http://farm8.staticflickr.com/7087/7283226558_99b4f28759_z.jpg

Fort Williamhttp://www.fwhp.ca/components/com_expose/showpic.html?img=expose/img/alb_12/img_1207938445_770_lg.jpg&amp;caption=Rock%20The%20Fort%20Crowd&amp;date=&amp;location=

Seats in the amphitheatrehttp://i1.treklens.com/photos/5967/amphitheatre_seats.jpg

Matthew’s Pictures: "Molson Amphitheatre."Web. <http://www.canadianamphitheatre.net/>.

"Roman Colosseum." 2013.Web. <http://www.rome.info/colosseum/>.

"San Manuel Amphitheatre."Web. <http://www.sanmanuelamphitheater.net/san-manuel-amphitheater-seating-chart/>.

17

MoviesClips from ‘Gladiator’ 2000 movie.Footage from the Canadian Tire Centre

Video of Stratcona theatre, Carleton University classrooms and theatre are from Mira.

18

MusicTime - Hans Zimmer from InceptionNow we are free - Hans Zimmer from GladiatorHonour him - Hans Zimmer from GladiatorImperatrix Mundi - Jo Blankenburg from 300

19