• 304-

Chapter Vs Colon&al Rule in ThanJawr.

Much of the sociology of India has been wrl tten

w1 thin the framework ot 'tmdi tional' and •modem' social

structure1 , without a due recognition of the concrete

historical real1t.r which gave rise to the 'modern' social

s troctu re. The conceptual rrsmework of trad1 tionel and

modem social structure attempts to construct ideal typical

abstractions, of the nature of relations at each stage,

isolated from the real context of development. Rather than

a stroctual representation of the features of • traditional'

and •modem• society, a comprehensive characterisation ot

social relations can only emerge from an analysis or the

changes which gave rise to a ne'fi social structure, and the

character or the social relations that existed earlier.

It may be argued in fact, that the character of social

relations is considerably affected by the nature or the

changes which gave rise to them; that tbe complex! ty of

social relations, which cannot be reduced to ordered,

typical relations must therefore be placed in concrete

reality, for description to approach not merely

approximations but characterisations of reality.

1. See Rudolph and Rudolph (1967), Beteille (1965)

among others.

- 305 -

c The central axis of society, poll tics and economy

in India in the nineteenth century was the fact of colonial

rule. Without therefore an assessment of the concrete

changes set in motion by colonialism, the pre-eminent

rae t of the nine teen th century, and the changes which

actually took place under colonial rule, there can be ,

little concrete underst.Rnding of the social structure of

Ihanjavur at the end c:r t.he nineteenth centuzy,- nor an

appraisal or the nature of the changes in agrarian relations

through the nineteenth century.

This chapter deals \Iii th some or tbe material changes

in Thanjavur under colonial rule, which provide the basts

for a subsequent analysts or the character of social

relations at the end of the nineteenth century 1n the

following chapter. This study does not purport to be a

detailed economic study or the condition of Thanj·a.vur

under colonial rule and the economic and political measures

taken by the British in their rule or Thanjavur. The areas

indicating material changes which are discussed in this

chapter are changes in agrl"cul ture; ,demogra.phic changes;

and character of changes initiated by the colonial policy

of land revenue collection apd settlement. l'he general

discussion of these three aspects provides ,the basts for

an enelysis of the material condition of the agrarian

population, through which the emerging social relations

during the century can be later characterised.

- 306-

Although a detailed description of agriculture

cannot be attempted here, tbe essential character of

agricultural cultivation at the beginning or the nineteenth

cenmxy, and at subsequent periodS in the centuxy are outlined

in the following discussion, drawing upon the most detailed,

contemporar,y descriptions at each period.

Harris, the first Collector or !rhanjawr, wrote a

very detailed a-ccount of the agr1cul tural seasons, ·crops

and methods of cul tlvation and his report is an interesting

account of this pe- rlods

"The kadappakar nanjai crop ••• occupy different

landS but being cultivated and reaped nearly together they

are thus united and called one crop. It is sown and

transplanted in June and July and comes to maturity in

October and November. In the low dis tr1cts and European

possessions (the delta area) the inhabi tents reckon the

kaddapa ~, the ka r 25,C (34" together) of the annual nanja1

produce. In the high d1str1cts (dry areas) there is no

kadappakar crop, a scanty summer crop only is called so

because it is brought to account at the same time. Samba•

pesanam nanjai, besides the regular crop, comprehends two

irregular crops. ~he regular one occupied land different.

from that or the ka.dappakar nanjai crop. Its samba is one

and 1 ts pesanam is another crop. ~hey occupy different lands.,.

- 307-

but being cul tlvated and reaped nearly together they are

thus united and called one crop. It is sown and trans­

planted in August, September and October and rea.ped in

JanuaiY, February and Karch. One of the irregular crops

is the taladl. Its name means a second crop on the same

land in one year. It is samba paddy planted ln December

on reaped kadappa-kar land. The quantity of 1 t is very

inconsiderable; and lt is ripe at the end of March. Tbe

other irregular crop is the nanjal in punjai. According

to its name it is reared on punjai land. The land is of

the poorest kind and being broken into cavl ties and

elevations cannot be regularly cultivated. The inhabitants

commonly so\!1 upon it a mixture of kootally or interior

species of pesanam paddy, and of varegu, one or the sorts

of dry grain. If there be heavy rain they lose the punjai

and sAve the nanjai and if there be scanty rein, they lose

the nanjai and save the punjai. They usually however succeed

in rearing both. Xhe nanjai is not transplanted. It is so\!ln

and reaped at the pericds of the other kinds or pesanam.

or these irregular nanjai crops because one is samba and the

other is pesanam., they are comprehended in the regular samba­

pesanem crop. In the lo\!1 districts the 1nhab1 tants reckon

the samba 16% and the pesanam 50% and consequently the samba

pesanam 66~ of the nanje.1 produce.

- 308 -

•In the high distrlcts (non-delta area), the paddy

cultivAted is about 1/3 samba and the rest ot different

kinds, having not the na tu:re but the name of pesanam.

Chi tt1rai-kar nanjai is a single crop; 1t is kar paddy

and occupies a separAte and appropriate land viz. broken

tracts near reservoirs which situated low, retain for a

considerable time the water of the monsoon. It is sown

and transplanted in December and Janua r.Y and as it iS

reaped in the beginning or European llay or end of Malabar

April, it bears the name of the month. It is cultivated

only in a few villages which have spots or land fit for it

and only when the inhabitants are willing to incur the

danger of losing 1 t by drought in February and March and 2

therefore the quantity 1s very small."

The cultivation or dr.r punjai crops was classified

into two categories, 8ccording to the seasons in which they

were cultivated: • The kadappa-kar punjai crop ••• i& punja1

grain of all kinds reaped on and between J.2 July and 31

December. Samba pesanam punjai crop 1s of all kinds reaped

on and between Janual1' 1 and April 30; chi ttare1 kar punja1 3

crop is that which is reaped on and between May 1 and July 11.

2. BOR Vol.366 December 15, 1803 PP. 14055 passwiD\

Settlement Report of Tha.njawr 1803.

3. ibid.

• 309-

Harris also provided a detailed account of the

method by which punjai crops were cultivated 1n the

delta areasa "There are three kinds usually temed by

the inhabitantsa ta.ddal punjal, varasha pat.kat and punjai

patkat. The first alone as it yields grain and not au vegetables is properly called punjai •••• It either lies

close by the side or is slightly raised in the middie

of the paO.dy fields from which and the adjacent channels

it receives water by buckets. Its extent in these low

districts are small and scattered being only accidental •••

indeed it is so little above the paddy fields that it might

mostly be reduced to their level (but for the fact that)

the soil beneath is hard and limy. Growing 'With the taddal

punja1 And somewhat higher are, here and there, small topes

which are included in the punjai patkat. The varasha patkat

yields dry grain, fiUi ts and vegetables and therefore has

both topes and spots or land either enclosed or open and

situated between the houses and the fields, where water can

be dra'Wn by buckets from channels, tanks and hollows. Its

extent is likewise scanty and precarious... TM punjai pa tka t

also yieldS dry grain, . fl\11 ts and vegetables ••• but is different

from the varasha patkat in the following respects. It

consists of the topes growing with the ta.ddal punjai, of

house gardens,watered by wells, and of the atupadugai -·-

land lying under the banks or rivers, watered ••• so as to

- 310 ..

induce the inhabitants to cultivate on 1 t likewise a. small

quantity Of pAddy." 4

Although the main crop in the district was paddy and

then the dry crops on lands which did not have a sufficient

water supply to cul tiw~te paddy, many types of garden crops

were also grown on small extents: "Because or the consld•

erable proportion of rich alluvial (padugal) soil on the banks

of the numerous rivers upon which many kindS or garden produce

(are) raised without superficial 1rr1ga t1on, the roots being

supplied \lil th mots ture by the oozing of the water through

the ground during the rreshes. At the same time, the crop

is not so safe as where the means or a rt1f1cia.l 1rr1ga t1on 6

are at hand throughout t.he season."

Half a centu:r,y later, a report .or a collector described

in detail the systems or cultivation in Thanjavura ''The

crops 1n Thanjavur may be divided under three headS,

nanjai, punjai and bagayat or thottakal. The nanja1 crop

or paddy is cultivated on land classed as dr,y and 1rr1ga ted

by rain alone. The bagayat or garoen crops are raised on

lands of the latter description by means of baling water from

wells, tanks or channels ••••

4. TDR Vol. 3206 P.96.

6. Collector to BOR Kay 26, 1830.

- 311-

(f

The cul t1vet1on or nanja1 or paddy crop which is

the staple produce of the district fo:nns by far the mos:t 1m•

portent brancta or agr1cul tu re in :Chanjavo r being about 3/4 of

the whole extent under cultivation. The nanja1 crop is

divided into two kindS viz. kadappa-kar and samba-pesanam.

The ronner bears but a proportion of l/6 to the whole e:xtent

of cultivation and the latter cons t1 tu tes therefore the

remaining 5/6ths. The kPdappa-ka r is cul t1 va ted early and

the samba-pesanam later in the year. The to:nner 1s sub­

divided into two headS ka~ppu and kar, and the latter into

samba and pesanam, these two latter kinds comprising several

minor kinds of paddy. Ka dappu and ka r are a coarse description

or grain, the former more so. And samba and pesanam. are

finer, the fonner excelling the latter.

tt The periods or season are the following:

First series Second series.

Kadappu Kar Samba pesanam

Sowing June July July July

Planting July August August August out.

'Rars fonned Sept. November December January

Reaping October December Febzuar.r March

Total period months occupied 4 5 7 8

llThese dates are not always exactly kept to, but vary

according to the circumstances of each year. The several

- 312 ..

operatioas connected w1 th these crops commence later in

the more eAstern parts of the district than in the

western but the difference doesn't generally exceed a

month,

"The kedappu ke r 1s cul ti va ted on the best land

in the village and at a time w·hen the supply of water 1n

the river is ample and regular, being fUrther, grown within

a shorter spa.ce of time, it never fe.ils except ,.;hen the

plants are wa<1heu away by unusual noods. It 1s ~lways

produced in much greater abundance than samba-pesanam • .

Samba is the only crop that is cul ti va ted as a second

crop and kadappu is the only crop that is first zaised

on land on which a second crop is afterwards cultivated.

The cul ti va tion of kadappu as a first crop is invariably

followed by a second crop of samba.

11 Besides this, where a second crop of paddy is not

practicable, a dry crop is rAised as a second crop on

nanjai lands ••• This dz:y crop, although it afterwards

requires some rein tor br1nting 1 t to matur1 ty grows

chiefly by the moisture still remain.ing the rice fields,

it being sown generally a fortnight before the na.nja1 crop

is cut ••• The punjai cultivation in Thanjavur bears a.

proportion of 11 ttle more thau one-fifth to the whole extent

or cultivation. Punjai crops are divided into two series ••••

- 313 -

those of the first six months (kambu, ra.gi and cholam)

and those of the second .st.x months (varagu, dal, horse­

gram, uludu or black gram and gtngelly oil seed). Rag1

and cholam are also sometimes eul t1vated during the

second s 1x months ••••

!!Bagayat or ga.rden crops are cul t1vated in

Ttanjavur to a very 1 !m,. ted extent ••• less than 5~ or

the total extent cultivated. Crops most genezally grown

in the district are pls!'lta!n, betel, chillies, sugart

tobacco, turin.er1c and two species of dye roots. The

several operations ot garden cultivation are not regulated

by any unif'ozm rules or practice; th~ mode or agrlcul ture

pursued in the cul ttvation or each article being peculiar

to itself ••• pa:rtlcular lands are not set apart for

particular crops, but the same are selected quite at the

pleasure or the cul t!vators.• 6

At the end or the nineteenth century tbe crops

cultivated and the seasons ot cultivation were described

in the following tenns; '*The chief crops raised are paddy

on wet lands, and varagu, cumbu, rag! and cholam on dry

lands. As regardS paddy eul tiva tion in the delta, there are

two seasons genezally known as 'kar• a.t1C:. pasa11am' or samba,

from the two chief var1et1es or paddy cul t1vated during tho•lle

6. BOR August 14, 1865 P.B004.

- 314

seasons. When two crops are groltln the first is kar paddy

and the second generally one of the qu~cker growing

varieties or sambe. About 7/Bths or the delta is single

crop. Double crop cultivation is confined chiefly to the

western portion of the delta w!aich received the early and

small freshes. Here the kar crop is planted in June and

harvested in September; the samba crop is then put do'Wn

and reap~d in 'February. In the eastern portion of the

delta, the pasanam crop is put down in August and harvested.

in February. Throughout the delta the cul tiva t1on is by

transplanting and seed is ne·,.rer sowu broadcast.

t'fThat the ksr crop yields tar more than the

pasanam or samba is a well known fact ••• The greater yield

of the kt:1r crop is partly due to the. soil having been exposed

during the three hot months to the ameliore.ting influences

of weathering.

t'In some Villages in the west a third crop is

:raised in the shape of a pulse called vayal payaru, which is

sown ee rl y in February and reaped about the end or March ••••

On the single crop land, also,a second crop of vayal payaru 7 or gingelly is extensively cultivated, but they are dr,y crops.

7. BOR (ReverJUe Bettlement, Land Records and Agriculture)

November 1,1892 PP. 20-21. Letter· fran Clem,

Settlement Officer September 30, 1890.

- 316 ..

These three extracts from different periodS in the

nineteenth century, bring out the general eont1nu1 ty ln

::tgriculture in the distr!.ct. Paddy was, throughout,

the central crop ln the delta area and the seasons of 1 ts

cul tlva tlon, the types or paddy, their relative acreage in

individual villages, the1.r period and season of maturity

and the mode of their cul t1vn t1on appear to have remained

br:>ndly constant throughout the century. However, these

ere brof)d descriptions of the general mode of agr1cul tural

cul t1 va tion, and more specific changes in agr1cul tu re may

be gauged by pa rtlcula r indices concemiog three aspects a

the extent of cul tl va t1on, the cropping pattern and

product! vi ty.

An essential indica tor of the development and advance

or a grlcul tu re 1n a region is the expanding control ot man

over land, the potential end actual transfoma tlon of waste

to cul tlvnted land, and simultaneous changes ln the

cropping pattern, and a rise in product! vi ty through

~dvanct~ts in the methods and techniques of production.

Dqta from the first two decades of the nineteenth

century is not sufficiently detailed or reliable to indicate

the nctual expansion or retl'9ctic:m or the extent of

cul tiva t1on in the district. According to a sourcE:8

which has been cited earlier, which discussed the 1mpa~t of

B. Ross to D.Jndas May 11, 1790.

- 31 6-

the colonial wars at the end of the eighteenth centur.r,

the extent of cul t1vated land was about 630,000 acres in

1780, whil~ it decreased. by 32~ to 425,000 acres by

1787-88. According to this infoxma tlon, cul tlva tion

was severely disxupted 1n Thanjavur by the colonial wars.

In 1806 the total cul tlva ted area or the government villages

(paying revenue to the government) 'Mas estimated a.t I

9 7C5,558 acres. The 3\·e~rage extent cultivated during the

years 1822 - 1826 was however, only 721693 acrres. (See

Appendix 13) It 1s important to take into account the

difficulties of comparison in the data from the early

period; the unit of measure varied from taluk to taluk and

the figures were based both on eArlier revenue accounts

and partial surveys. Despite these problems, however, it is

significant thAt the period between 1806 and 1826 registered

a considerable fall in the extent of cultivation.

In Thanjavur, during the period fl'Oll 1822 to 1900

(See A-ppendix 13) thEre appears to have been a steady'

increase in the e:xter.;t of cultivation and it is interesting

to ex:9m1ne t."le contez1t of this change. The increase between

the period 1822-23 and 1825•26 and 1830-31 and 1833-34,

s "..-ands out as a very high rate ot increase. It 1s significant

that this period conc1des with the paimash survey or 1827-311

9. BOR July 24 1 1806 PP.4243·322.

- 317 -

during which the district was surveyed and a significant

increase in cultivated area was noted; it is unlikely

however, that this increase had necessarily taken place

only in recent years, but was probably an accumulation

of several decades during which the revenue accounts of .

the government had not been adjusted. It is more likely

that during this period an increase or 1·2% was maintained

e<Jery flve years, ns it -wos throughout the period until

1850. Between the period 1834-35 and 1838-39 however,

there 'tins a significantly larger increase of 4% which

can be related to the cons tzuction the Upper An1ka t and the

regulation of the flo~ of tho Cauvery waters. By 1885·86

ho-wever, the cultivated area had increased to 1067,897 acres,

a substantial increase throughout the century. In the case

ot Thanjavur however, this was a steady and gradual gro-wth,

and 1 ts content must be analysed.

In Thanjavur the main and most important crop was paddy.

The delta landS with their ensured i1·rlgat.1on rrom the

Cauvery ar1d its netYJoik or subsidiary rivers and canals

maintained a f1xm basis for paddy cultivation. The

cul tivntion in the delta taluks ~as almost solely of paddy

~:xcept fer the small exte-nts of punjai cultivation in the

rn14st of paddy fieldS. It is necessary to assess the quality

of the la11d newly brought under the plough in the gradual

extension of cul ti·va tion.

- 318 -

From the 1n.t"c!ma tlon that is avellable, 1 t app·ears

thn t the extent of nanja1 waste land was 11m1 ted in the

dol ta dis tr1c ts and the main type or land available for

an expansion in cultivation was punjai land. The data

from the villages 1n the Dev1kotta1 a rea (See Appendix 12)

towardS the end or the eighteenth century provides

1nfoxmo tion regarding the type of waste land available tor

cul ti va tion in tha t era a. In most of the v1ll.e.ges, the

percentage of waste to total village land was below 10~

and in fact in 13 of the villages it \!las less than 5%

ami in 12 of the remaining villages ther·e was no ViaS te land

at all. In 4 villages however, there -were considerable

tracts of wood and of salt marsh which composed large extents

of waste land. l'he report provides moreover, interesting

infonna tion roga rdJ.ng the potential for converting the was t.f>

land to cultiva,ee land. In many cases, small extents

of waste could be cultivated with specific improvements

in the distribution of the irrigation waters.

1he large per~entage of cultivable land in the delta

.villages, is also borne out by data from other villages

in the early nineteenth century. (See Appendix l2)

In Manalu r in 1817 the percentage of cul t1 va ted land to

the total extent of the village \Vas ~3.32%, and 1n

ihandan tho ttam in 1819 1 t was 88.68%.

0 319-

According to the palmash survey in the taluks of

Sirkazhi, Tiruvadi and Pa ttukkottai, the same patte:m

of restricted availability of nanjai Ylaste to be

cultivated was apparent. 10 ThC1se were the only taluks

to b_~ comple_toly surveyed before the pa1mash survey was

stopped, but the data. is or perticular interest because

or the chaltlcter of irrlga ticn in these taluks. Sixkazhl

was located at the tail-end of the cauvery 1.rr1gation

netwotk and was not therefore the most fertile of the

del~ t.Aluks; Trtv~d1 cont--::!ined some of the best landS

1n the delta near the source of t."Je Cnuve:ry, but the

major portion or Tiruvadi cons is ted or Knda :rompam land

(land thAt Wr:!S not watered by river.s) -- 65.17~ or lts

totAl 233)581 acres; and Pa.ttukkotta! w<?.s wholly out of

the reach of the Cauvery 1rr1ga tion system. Pa ttukkottal

was the largest t.Aluk or t.he district and Tiruvady the

second largest and the different types of land in these

taluks provides an interesting cross section of the pattern

of CUl tiVP t1on.

Bt"»fore the p~1mr'sh survey, according to the account

only 17.82% of the land WHS ~ms te and cf the waste land,

81.06% WPS punja1 ~este ~nd only 18.92% ~as n3njn1 land,

the smnll remA1n1ng extent be!.ng thottam wBste. After the

suT.Vey, thn tot-,1 ~xtent ~r \.:aste land 'Jins orlly 11.43~ of

the total lPnd,and of t."le waste the main extent "Wa.s sttll

10. TDR Vol. 4233 PP. 32-Bo, Collector to BOR, Uay 26,1830.

• 3~U •

punjai land-- 78.93" of the to·tal _waste, while nanjal

waste comprised 20. 86~, a_nd the remainder thottam 'N&S te.

The high extent of cul t1va t1on of nanjai lands was

particularly s1gn1t1cant.. In the pre-palmash period

92.55~ or the nanjai lands were cultivated, while only

71.48~ of the lands classified as punjai were cul tlvated.

After the paimash a still higher percentage of nanjai a!ld

purJja1 \tta::i revealed to be cultivated --96.15~ of the total

nanjai and 81.28,; of the pu.nja1.

The ava1lab111 ty or l~nd for cnl t1 va t1on \ves in tbe

early nineteenth centuiY l~rgely confined t.c tracts or punja1, the less prof1 t9ble and 1mportent crop. Only an

adv~nce in w~ter dlstrtbutton in the 1rrigat!.on works

could extend the more important nanjai cultivAtion to a,

further extent. This WAS the situation at the level of the

village, f!S the report on the Devikottai villages revealed,

and this was also the s1 tua tion at the district level.

At the district level several improvements were made during

the nineteenth centur.r; the major one being Upper Anlcut

which ~as constiUcted in 1836.

'l'h~ distribution or the c~uvP.ry -waters :rested on the

Grand Anicu t, lihich w~s eons true ted during thE'-! e~ rly medieval

period under the n1le of the Chela; 1t was built at the

junction ot the CAUVery and Coleroon and regula ted ·the

flow of l'i::l ter between the two rivers. In 1806 1 t was raised,

- 321-

in 1830 it was provided with sand scouring sluices and

at the end or the nineteenth century, they were replaced

by lifting shutters. The main purpose of this An1cut was

to control the flow of waters into the Coleroon. During

the first half of the nineteenth century, the problem of

the CAuvery bed silting and the consequent reduction of

the flow of water in the Cauvexy was resolved by the

construction in 1836 of the Upper Anicu t at the head of

the Co1.eroon, the control of the flow of water into the

Coleroon. Subsequently the Lo-wer Coleroon Anicut· was also

constructed to irrigate the north-eastem taluks of Mayuram

and Sirltali, which were not sufficiently supplied with

irrigation water. The imp;rovement And regulation or the

supply or irrigation water at these different periods

contributed subs tant1ally to the potential for the

expansion of cultivation --particular nanjai.

The character of the extension of cultivation

indicates the importance of the dis tr1bu tion of land

between the different crops, the cropping pattem in

the district. Paddy was the most valuable crop in the

district, and the ex)lAnsion or the percenta.ge of land under

paddy provides a ce rta.in indicator of the qual1 ta t1 ve

improvement in cultivation. The earliest data. available

for the district is for the government villages in 1806,

- 32;:. ..

reveals thAt 70.25~ O'f the cultivated lend

was· under nanja1 cultivation and 29.75~ was

under punjai cultiv~tion. 11 Between 1822-23

to 1853 however, there was a gradual increase

or the percentAge or nanja1 cultivation from

74.88:( to 75.17~ • (See Appendix 13) Data from

1885 ... 86 however, states that the extent of nanjai

cul tiv~tion w~s only 70.77'/. of the total cultivated

extent and the punjai extent equailed 29.23~ ot

the cultivated area. Xhis fall, however, can be

accounted for by the inclusion or inam and

zamindari lands in the es t1ma te; these landS being

located mainly in the dr,y tracts ot Thanjavur and

Pa ttukkottai taluk.

On the whole howeve~, even 1f there was a gradual,

almost imperceptible increase in the percentage or

nanj ai land cul t1 va ted, it is clear that it was so

marginal tha t 1 t c1ons is ted ot the conversion ot

nanjai W"aste to cultivated land and not the

t:rAnsfonnation of un1rr1ga ted landS to irr1ga ted

landS. tn Thanjavur the British maintained an interest

in irrlga tion recognising its central importance

on cult1w~t1on, and made several attempts (outlined nbove)

11. BOR July 24, 1806 PP. 4243-322.

- 323 -

to overcome ce rtein structural weaknesses 1n the dis tr1bu tion

of water. 12 But apart from these adjustments --important

as they were -· no decisive increase irl 1rr1ga t1on was made.

The major break through came in the early part of this

century w1 tb the Cauvery Mettur P<JOject, and the extension

or the cauvery 'W8 ters to the hitherto dry areas or

Pa ttukkottai and Thanja.vu r taluks •• the new delta. It was

only after this period, thAt paddy cul t1va tion in

Thanjavur became wholly dominant, comprising in 1936 13

90% or the cultivable area.

Improvements in cul ti va tion can also be gauged by the

indica tors of product1vl ty and intensitlca tion or cropping.

An indica t1on of the fotmer is available fran the estimates

or yields at dtr.t'erent periodS during the nineteenth

contuzy. (See Appendix 16)

--·------------------------------------------------------12. In the case of Chingl epu t district 1 t has been

argued that the British neglected minor irrigation,

the distribution or VJater to villages and fields,

but 1n 7hanjavur the experience \lias apparetJtly

different. See Djurfeldt and Lundberg (1975)

IntrodUction.

13. Statistical Atlas or Madras Presidency. (1936).

- 324 -

Certain 1mportpnt quallflca tions must be made before

a tlme-se r1es of yields can be analysed. Among the delta

lands of Thanjavur prox1m1 ty to the source of Cauvery

1rr1gat1on largely lnnuenced the fertility of the landS.

The mode of 1rr1gat1on in Thanjavur was structured hy the

flow of the Cauvery waters. Entering in the northwest of

the district, the Cauver.r flows down, dividing into several

minor rivers until it reaches the sea. The water that

irrigates the lands located closest to the original source

of the cauvery flow on through other lands until they rea.ch

the sea. As a result, water ls most plentiful ln its early

.flow and g:redually diminishes ln quantity until it reaches

the sea; the CAuveJY itself resembles a small streGJB when it

finally reAches the sea. The high utilisation of the waters

ot the Cau ve :ry ls a dis tine ti ve rea tu re of the cul ti va tion

ln. this delta, but only the lands wh1ch receive water eerly,

recel ve we te r tor a long time. An 1mportan t qual1t1ca tion

must therefore be made regarding the location ot lands in

the delta ln A.nalystng developments in the productlvl ty o.f

lands.

The evellabl'e lnfoma.tlon on the yield of nanjal land

reveAls v::~ ria tion ln y1el d between areas during the same

period, but does not reveal any sharp increase in yieldS

over the century. The yield apparently fluctuated

considerably and was largely dependent on sea.sonal condl tlons

every yeAr. This ls particularly clear from the lnfotmatlon

for the two harvests of nanj al during the years 1840·52

( rows 18·30). The same ln.fotm~ tion also reveals tba t

the yields of the two harvests also varied; the :yield of

the kar crop \tlas much higher than the pield of th~ samba

crop. The extent ot land under kar was much lower than that

under samba cul tlvatlon; the fo:nner during this perlod

ranged from 11 to 22%, alld the latter from 77 to 88~ or the

total nanjai extent ln different years. (See Appendix 15)

Apart from seasonal fluctuation and variations ln

yield in different areas of the district, it is clear that

there was no sharp increase in yieldS in the district as a

whole, over the nineteenth century. Detailed investigation

into the conditions 1n .a particular village or area, may

reveal a gradual improvement as a result of changing local

condi tlons, but as far as the gene ra.l condl tion in the

dis tr1ct, there does not appear to have been a s trlking

improvement in yields.

Another indicator oJ: the intensification or cul tivatlon

would be the incidence ot double cropping on the nanjal lands.

From the data avAilable however, the proportion of double

crop land lias very insignificant throughout the centu17.

In the latter half of the century, 1 t was estimated at under

30~, and 1 t was noted that this extent was very small considering

the fact that Thanjawr was well lrrlgated, and was attributed

- 326 ..

to the system or 1rr1gatlon: "water is not stored in

Thanjavur that the cu~tivation is carried on from rivers

and tb~ t \'ihen they cease to flow irrlga t1on for the

season is at an end. It ls only consequently in the

most western ta.luks which the rreshes reach the ~oones t

and leave the latest that there is water to be had for a

sufficient length of time for a second crop ••• ( there is )

also not much land that would bear such ceaseless cropping •••

soil is not rich and the mirasdars do not manure 1 t." 14

Although the study of agricultural developments over

the nineteenth centu;ry could tom the subject of a. very

extensive study, we have restricted this survey to a few

major indicators, in order to establish the general

character or agr1cul ture during this period. Although

Thanjavur 'Was the most fertile province in the· Presidency

with the highest percentage of cul tlvated land, it ls

clea_. that during the nineteenth century no tremendous

adv~nces were made either by extension or cul tlvation,

intensification of cultivation or the transfo%Dlat1on or

the cropping pattern. 7here was gradual, and hal tlng

growth in some areas -- largely due to the Bri tlsh attempts

tc maintain the 1rr1gntion structure ••but no major advance

was made.

14. BOR, October 17, 1874 Collector to BOR

September 19, 1874.

- 327-

The information from individual villages is

interesting in this conte~. It is possible to present·

e time series or the land use tn the villages or Manalur,

Thandanthottam, Achalpurem and Alakkudl using the original

survey (of 1817 and 1772 respectively); the palmash survey

of 1827, and the xyowari settlement and survey of 1893.

(See Appendix 12 and 14) A major problem in the compara.­

blli ty or the different sources is the variation ln the

total area of the village, a reflection of the practice of

adding one or more hamlets to the original village in the

revenue EJccounts. ~Je therefore use the percentage

dts trtbu tion or land to indicate the trends in ag r1cul tu re

over the centuxy. In all the villages, except Aehalpuram,

l¥h1ch was the only village to have decreased tn size over

the period, the percentage of cultivated land to the total

extent of the village declined. The percenta.ge of nanjal

cultivAted to the whole eul tiva ted area declined ln Kanalur,

1ncre~sed marginally in Thandanthotta.m and Alakkudi and

increased significantly in Achalpuram. It is likely that

the reduction in size of the village of Achalpuram excluded

the least fertile lands from the account of the village.

On the whole, none or these villages registered any sharp

advance tn the extent of eul tiva tion or in changes in the

cropping pattern.

- 328 -

An allalysis or the general demographic trendS during

the nineteenth century is also a necessa17 prerequ1si te

tor analysing social changes over the period. The

character and distribution or the population or an area

is of cons1der.able importance in influencing the social

structures or a people, and on the other handS, is largely

influenced by the character of the social stiUcture. A

brief' survey the-refore or the growth of the population and

its spatial distribution in the district will be attempted.

In absolute tenns the population or Xhanja.vur grew

extremely rApidly through the nineteenth century. It was

estimAted that in 1788 the population w-as 655,271; that they

were distributed 1n 86,381 houses in 4291 villages (an

average population of 163 per village) • 16 (See Appendix

1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 8). In 1802 the population was estimated

at 600,000 probably an underes t1ma t1on, ¥~hen considered

in comparison to the earlier figure. In 1813·14 the

population ¥~as stRted to be 882,872; in 1822 901,353

( a 2.0~ increase); 1n 1827 1065,560 ( a sharp increase

of 18.22~); in 1830 at 1128,730 (an increase of' 6. 93~);

in 1850 et 1676,086 (an increase or 48.4~)1n 20 years);

in 1866 at 1731,703 (an increase ot 3.32~ in 15 years) 1

15. Ross to t.undas op.t.d t.

- 329-

in 1881 at 2,130,000 (at increase or 7.92%); in

1891 the estimate was 2228,114 (en increase of 4.61%)

And 1n 1901, the estimate was 2245,029 ( n much lower

lncreas~ or o. 76'$ in a decade).

The fluctua tlons in the rote of increase retlect

the unrel1ab111 ty or the early pre-census district level

c~nsus in the Uadra.s Presidence. In many of the ea rl1er

figures, the population of t..lo)e zamindar1 tracts was not

included in the estimate. However, even wi·th allowances

for these problems the p1ctu re is one or a rapid increa.se

in populAtion. Towards the latter half of the nineteenth

century however Thanjavur had a. much lower rate of population

increase, the lowest in Mad:xas Presidency. This was in

great measure due to the high rate of emigration fran the

dls trict. Emigra t1on was pr1nc1pally to the Stroi ts

Settlements in Malaya and Ceylon, and a1 though 1 t began

earlier in the nineteenth centur,y, 1t developed significant

proportions only 1n the latter halt of the Il1rJeteeuth oentu17.

The centres or emigration were consideznbly influenced by

the economic conditions of the several districts of Madras

Presidency; a large number of emig:rt:mts fled from conditions

or famine. Dhanna Kururtr has estimated a net emigration of

at least 1/4 to l/9 of the annual gro1Nth of population of

the Presidency and argues that this would have cons.ldembly

- 330 ..

lowered the natural rate ot increase of population since

emigrAnts were in the most reproductive age groups. 16

However, Nagapattinam was a centre from which the

emigrants left {mainly) tor Ceylon, and a large number

of working people from Thanjavur also emigrated. It is

probable that this high rate of emigrants considerably

affected the rate or growth of populR tlon 1n Thanjevur.

Thus between the decade of 1881 and 1891 the ectuel rate

of increase of population w~s 4.56~ while tb tbe Presidency

as a whole it was 15.58~. If however, the number or

emigrants during this period ts added to the population

the ~ te of increase ln Thenj~vu r for the period would

have been 9.12~. 17

A. more reliable indicator or the :rate of increase

of population ls the density or population, (See AJ)pendix 9)

as a period as long as a centur.Y saw many changes in the

estimate of' the area covered by the district. Throughout

the century the high density of the district compared with

16. Dhanna Kumar (3.965} P.ll3.

17. Census or India 1891 Vol. XIII Report on the Census

Madres 1893, P.48. The impact of emigration is

discussed in the next chapter.

- 331 -

the other districts of Jladres Presidency was noted, but

whereas 1 t was below 200 people per square mile 1n the

first quarter or the nineteen'Ul centuzy, by the end of

the century, the density was over 600 per square mile.

At the end of the centur.r, the avexage dens1 ty or the

Presidency was, on the other hand, only 252 to the square

mile.

The high and rapidly growing population of Tha.njavur

was not evenly distributed 1n the district; it varied

significantly w1 th the fertility or the soil, and was

also influenced by the s tzucture of social rela t1ons in

different areas. Although, the number and area of the

different V:lluks in the district varied cons ide mbly,

making precise estimates of dens1 ty dlfficul t, the basic

distinction between delta and non-del t9 tracts is easily

1dent!f1ed, ~nd the general location and relative fertility

of the delta t9luks can be ascertained.

The ~a rl1es t 1nforma t1on :rega rd1ng the dis tribu t1on

or populr-~tion emong the taluks of Th:::mjavur relates not to

the number of people, but the number of houses and d.a tes

from 1810. (See Append!: 1) It is s tr1k1ng that the

lowest pe rceontage of houses were loeB ted 1n Pe,ttukkotta1

Pnd Uanna rgudi t.nluks together. Pa ttukkotta1 alone was the

single v~rgest teluk of the period; but Pattukkottai wholly

and Manne rgud1 in part cons is ted of lands out of the

reach of thE! cauvery irrigation system. It 1s clear

the t the high fert11i ty or the delta areas supported

a considerably higher popula t1on. The high dens1 ty or Kumbakonam ta.luk with very fertile lands 1s a case in point,

when compared with the other del t9 tsluks. Keevalur,

although Bt the tail end of the irrigAtion system, vias

more populous thar1 the other taluks similarly located,

probably as e result of the popula t1on or the sea port

of Nagapa ttinam.

This pattern or density ~as much the same at the end

or the nineteenth century. 1n 1891, Pattukkottai had the

lo~es t density in the distri~t while Kumbakonam hfld the

highest.

The distribution and occupation of villages 1n the

different taluks also brings out the influence of agr1cul tu ral

cond1 tions on the settlement pattern of the district.

(See Appendix 2, 3, 4, s, 6 and 7) Pattukkottai taluk

contAinS. the largest number of villages in 1805, 18

18. Settlement Report of Tbanjavur 1805.

18.07~ of the district total, j,n 1822 Pattukkotta1

cont~ined over 19.03% or the villages, in 1936

18.9~ , and by 1871 25.6~ or the villages in the

district -c,.;ere in Pa ttukkottai. Despite the large

number of villages, however, Pattukkottai had the

lo~est densit,y ot population. The 1822 and 1827

censes $.~1so provide 1nfonna tion regarding the number

or villages which were uninhabited. About a ;p.tR.rter

or the uninhabited villages in the district were

locR ted in Pa ttukkotta.i taluk. The more arduous

conditions or agriculture tn Pattukkottai must therefore

have led to the desertion or villages during the

dls ruption of the economy in the late eighteen century,

on R. larger scale, than in the fertile delta taluks.

The settlement pa ttem in Pa ttukkott.~i, was largely

detennined by the ecological conditions or the area,

and des~rtion or villages wag frequent in times of

economic distress. In Thanjavur as a whole moreover,

the percentage of villages that were uninhab1 ted "11BS

significantly high; in 1822 of a total of 6028 villages

enumel'!3ted, 1129 (18.6615) were t uninhabited indicating

the extent or disruption of the economy during the late

eighteenth century.

- 334 -

The. demarcatio;, of villages without any 1nhabi tants

also had another social basis. In the earlier analysis

of the data from the Devikotta1 villages in the Sirkali

taluk, it was noted that a number of villages, which were

not necessarily hamlets a tta.ched to larger vill~ges, were

not inhAbited. The incidence of absentee landlordism

moreover, tht:> control of hamlets and of tracts of land

set e.pA rt from the main vilV:tge, has also been discussed.

It is in this context that the high incidence or uninhabited

villages in the fertile taluk of Kumbakonam may be analysed.

In 1822 Pattukkottai was closely followed by Kumbakonam in

the incidence of uninhabited villages. Moreover, i~ 1827,

the incidence or un1nhab1 ted villages was the hig~es t in

KumbakO:i8m {partly a result or bifu reo tion or the taluk)'

followed by Pattukkotta1. In contrast, the density or the

inhabited villages of Kumbakonam was much higher than those

of Pa ttukkotta1. Kumbakonam, therefore, revealed a high

concenttRt1on or population 1n individual villages,

accompanied by a high incidence of uninhabited villages.

In Pa ttukkotta1 teluk, the rew inhabited villages were

sparsely populated.

The character of uninhabited villages in the two

taluks, which had such different ecological condi t1ons,

must have been considerable different. In fattukkottai,

1 t arose from the d1ff1cul t cu 1 ti va tlon cond1 ttons, wh11 e in

Kumbakonem it was probably a reflection ot the social

structure, the character or the control or lend by a

landlord class.

The settlement pattem or villages in 1871 roveals

tha s~me v~riation ~ith economic conditions. The highest

number of 1nd1v1dua.ls was in the Thanjavur taluk which had

679 people per villages; e. reflection of the high fert1li ty

of the lands on the benk of the Cauvery, where the government

villAges were locate~ apparent from the average population

per goverrment village in the taluk being 983. The villages

of Ltayuram had an average population of 635, end thoie of

Kumbakonam a11 average of 622. Ps ttukkotta1 had the least

number of persons per village --237.

The number and dis tr1bu tion of houses has been employed

to es t1mn te the dis tribu t1on of the popula t1on in the

different t9luks of Thanjavur. The classification of houses

of their type and the dis tribu t1on or the several types in

the different taluks moreover provides a useful indicator

oi' the relAtive pros pe r1 ty of the difter·ent teluks. During

t.he e~rly nineteenth century enumeration of houses, they -were

cl~ssif1ed as thatched end tiled houses; the latter were mora

- 336-

pemanent structures. In the discussion of the

cond1 tion of individual villages, 1 t was noted

earlier the t there was a high incidence or tiled

houses among the mirasdars.

According to date from 1810, (See Appendix l)

Kumbakonam, Tirovarur, fiR.nn1lam and Kivalur teluks

(nll located in the delta) had an incidence or tiled

houses above the district average. The rela t1 vely

higher prosper! ty of the delta taluks, is clear from

this dis tribu t1on.

In 1822, (See Appendix 2) the dis t1nctions were

even sharper. In most of the taluks, the ra t1o of

tiled to thatched houses was about 2s3, except in

Pattukkottai, in which 98.6~ or the houses were

thatched, in T1ruvadi with 87.14% houses thatched

and in ?l.annargudi -wi t\1 85.23% of the nouses thatched.

Bol:.b the latter contclned land outside the delta. In

1827 the pa ttem remained the same.

InfomA tion from the end of the nineteenth century

is available only for the district as a ~hole. In 1891,

23.76% of the houses were tiled; 1.30" were terraced; and

- 337 -

74.95 were thatched. 19 In 1822 the percentages at the

district level was that the tiled houses were 25.43%

a,nd thatched houses 74.57% or the total number or houses.

Apparently there had been no real 1mprovement in the

dwelling conditions or the people or Thanjavur over the

cen tu ry.

At the end or the centu17, however, 1 t was argued

by colonial adm1nis txe tors tha. t Thanjavur was more

prosperous than the other provinces ot Jladras Presidency.

In 1871 the percentage or thatched houses 1n Thanjavur

was estimated at 75.80-, while in the Presidency as a

whole it was 86.0~. In 18911 as has been noted tbe

percentage of thatched houses w~s 74. 96~, while in the

Presidency 1 t was 81.7.:!% thatched, 9.3~ tiled and

8.8~ terraced houses.

The distribution or population in the villages ot

Thanjavur was also related to the tenurial character or

the villages. Little information is available from the

earlY period regarding the population structure of' the

government, inam and zemindarl villages; but the higher

19. Report on the 1891 Census op. at p.36.

- 338 -

incidence of ~hole inem villages in the Pattukkottai

and the 'dr.r tracts ot Thanjavur taluk has already been

noted. In 1871, (See Appendix 36), 64.22~ of the

district villages were. in Pattukkotta1 taluk and

14 .1~ 1n ThanjAVU r teluk. None or the zam1ndar1

villages were located in the delta areas 86.87- ~ere

in Pa ttukkottai and the remaining 14.13% were in

Thanjavur taluk. or the total number ot Villages in

the dis tr1ct, however, Pa ttukkotta1 contained over

25.51%, although most or the government villages,

17.56~ ot e. total of 2414 villages, were in Kumbakonam

taluk. The alienation of revenue through lnam or

palayam grants was therefore almost totally restricted

to the drier tracts of the district.

The pattern ot settlement in the inam and zamindarl

villages ,.ms, therefore, broadly similar to the character

of the settlement pattern in the non-delta areas. However,

certain or these character1s tics were even more sharply

accentuated. The lnam villages were much smaller than the

government villages in size and population. Interestingly

the palayam or zamindsr1 villages were not so small 1n size

but contained an even lower population per vllla.ge.

- 339-

While it is clear that the ecological conditions

considerably influenced the grant of inam and palayakar

rights in Thanjawr, it is also likely that the social

character of the grant 1ntluenced the demographic

structure or the villages. The social stzucture ot the

delta villages, w1 th the large popula t1on of cul ti va t1ng

people under a structure of landlordism, lllould have created

the cond1 tions ot a larger population, than in the dry

tracts where inam and palayam rights proliferated.

Infol1Jla tion regarding the sex ratio and the age

structure of the population is also available. (See

Appendix 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). The early census in

Thanjavur reveal a low proportion of females to males;

938 to 1000 males in 1822 and 952 to 1000 males in 1827.

At the end of the century, in 1881 there 111ere estimated to

be 1020 females to 1000 males and in 1891 there -were

1022 females to 1000 males. According to the Report of

the Census of India 1891, this excess of malea in the

early census was entirely dUe to the undercounting of 20 females, a.nd it is wise to be cautious in assuming that

there was a sharp change in the se:x ratio over the

centu r.Y'•

20. Census of India 1891 Vol.XIV P. 113.

- 340-

The rapid increase in the population of Thanjavur

accompanied by the increase in the percentage or younger

age groups, ~hich in time ~ould increase the percentage

of the reproductive age group, increased the pressure on

the land in the district. The resulting pressure on the

available land, 1s brought out sharply by an analysis of

the gro~th or the population in individual villages over

the cP-ntu :ry. (See Appendix 11)

The increasing pressure on land was apparent ln

a.ll the villages, but interestingly the rate of growth

ln 'J.nd1v1dual villages ~as considerably different. This

may have been the result of problems -w1 th the data i tselt1

but it is significant that the Report on the 1891 Census

argues th? t the increase in population in Thanja.vur was 21 highest in taluks where the population was lowest.

It is likely howe1ler, that uneven population growth did

occur as a result of the pArticular social economic

conditions in specific areas.

It 1s against this background of very gradual

development in agriculture, and a rapid increase ot

population, resul t1ng in an increased pressure upon the land

that the impact of British colonial IUle was tel t.

21. Report on the 1891 Census op. at P.48.

- 341.

The main content or British colonial IUle over agrarian

India. was the extraction of land revenue. ~hanJavur,

with its extensive and fertile delta. -· the granary or

the Tamil districts -- was a very profitable area to IUle.

It is not the purpose or this study to investigate 1n

detail the land revenue policy or the British Colonial

power in India. However, an attempt is made in the

following pages to characterise certain essential

characteristics of the colonial land policy as it evolved

ln Thanjavur in order to assess its impact on the structures

and fonns of land control the t have been discussed 1n the

earlier chapters.

The basic driving principle of British land policy

during the nineteenth centur,y was twofold, to maximise

the l~nd revenue collections and to faclli tate its collecti.on

by the recogni t1on or if necessanr the creation ot a class

ot individuals w1 tb rtghts ln land, who would ensure the

cultivation of the maximum extent of land and the payment

of the maximum revenue. The settlement policy of the

Br1 t1sh was orlen ted to these two a1ms, and the tempore r:1

changes and adjustments in the mode of revenue collection

and the nature or the settlement were related to their

f'u rthe ranee.

0 342 -

The code of revenue collection 1n the pre­

colonial period has been brie fl)l discussed earlier;

in the wet rice-growing delta lands, a share of the

gross crops was collected blt the governcent in ees:h

village. The total nanj a1 output or each vilLage

formed the basis of the revenue collection, but the

percentage collected varied !roo taluk. tr> taluk and

even village to village, baaed as it was on local

usage and established traditions •. Under the aoani

oysteo, the harvest account of' ebeh village was

settled under the supervision of' governnent officials,

who participated in the d1v1oion of the crop, acd

the collection of land revenue and other sundry taxes

were oade f'roo each village. Under the pattakkar

systec, the collection was oade through the cediation

of the renter or pattakdar but the pri~clpal of the

oethod reoained the sane. Under this code of' collection,

the share of the crop collected b)' govemcent could

be collected either directly in grain or in coney,

the coccutat1on rate being the prevailing carket

price of grain. In esser£e however, the fora in

which the revenue was paid cattered Uttle; the

otate claicing an actual percentage or the gross crop.

- 343-

hwarcJa tlle ead of t)e e1cllteeatlll cea.tury, ae

a aatter of ceaveate•ce, tlle aYerace cress crep fer

each Y1llage waa, •• •ccas1••, eet1aa.tecJ o'fer a period

of ae'feral years, aad tlli e wae eatabliaked ae tlle baal•

tor tlle cellect1•• of tW.e ceveraaeat '• peroeatage.

Cerreapoadtacly, ta cases wllere tJI.e reveaue was collected

1a aeaey, tlle pri~e at wlltcll tlle crata wae coa.utled to

aeaey, was baaed •• aa a'ferage of tlle preva1ltac aarket

price e of craia ta tlle re ci••· Aaotller praotlce 1•

seae areas was to eapley tlle preva111ag aarket price

at tlle 1\e adqua.rters of 'J:llallj avur tewa tor all t1le 22

Y1llace.

'J:lle dry taluke were reatea te reatera, wlle

bid aanually fer tlle rtcllt to c•llect tlle reveaue frea

tlle 'filla&ee 1• tlle1r area, aJid ta retura paid a f1xe4

c aell aaeuat, tlle settled • reat • fer tllt s rl gllt to

geverueat.

22. BOR Vel.259, AU&uet 7,1300, pp.6947-95

Cellecter to BOR Juae 23 aJid July 13,1800;

BOR Vel.407, May 20,1805 Settleaeat Report ot

'J:ll&Jtja'fur 1aos p.3494; Raclla'falyeacar (1893)

pp.3•11,12-14,20,21; Report of the Tllaajore

Ceaa1esteaerei1799) para 6,7; Mtaute et BOR Jaa.

5,1318, BOR ~&.13,1798 pp.589d-5900; Report •t

tlle f&Rjere Coamtttee,Pebruary 22,1307.

• 344.

!ke 1ad1v1dual vlllace wae aa 1Wdepead~at

reveaue ua1 t 1• pre-~oloatal ttaee, all4 tlte creup

of alraedars, whe !eraed a eectal comllUaity wttllta

t1le vtlla&e, ta tlie aaaaaeaeat of v111ace affaire, were

tMse wu received tlle kudJvarM or 11lllab1taa~e• e1lare

after tlle aover•e•t •a alla.re e! tlle crop ..U kad beea

collected. Tlle rec•&•l tloa ot t1le atraedara aa tuee

w1lo kad tlle r1a1lt te t1le kudlvaraa wae &ecompaaled by

.tlle recocalttoa of t~e1r aupreaaoy over t~e ecoaoatc

.-4 social affairs w1 tala tbe vlllace, wlleee atr alra I

were eattrely uacler tll£tr coatrel, uader tlle antllor1 ty

of tlle aattaakar or leadi•i alrasdar or tlle m1ra8dare

as a croup. It was t1lrouall tae miraedars tllat tlle

State requie1t1oaed labour tor public, 1rr~cattoa or

teaple work. ·~1t1li• t1te village, we llave already

d1ecuseed t1le Hde by wllicll the crop lilae turtller

dtetributecl, aa1ata1n1ac tlle esseatlal preductl••

...ad social relattoae of tlle vlllaae.

Dur1•& tae ataeteeatll century, u.ader coloatal

rule, tllere were tunaameatal cllaR&ea la this aode ot

reveaue collecttea. Tlle amaa1 gy etea was ceattaued,

trem. 1799i1SOO, aJld tlle aeaaureeat ot laad a.lld

asseesaeat et tbe cross preduoe ef each vtlla&e based

•• pre-coloalal surveys were eaployed ta tlle collectton

- 345-

ef reveaue durlag these yeare. fhe structure ef

tlle reveaue bureauc rae y remataed 1.ntai0t a114 tlley

were seat te 1.ad1v1dual vllla&ee te aeaaure aad

cellect tae ceveraaeat•s share ef tae preduce. Durtac

tllla per1ed tae cever-eat' a allare was cellected 1•

k1Jid 1 aad tbls .w~~~.a held te llave beea tlle pre'fa111ac 23

aecie ef cellect1on ia tlle pre-coleaial peried.

Uattl 1903, tlle akare et tne preduce waa oellected

directly !rea tlle airaedara aad te quaatity varied

aaaually aad tlle quaat1ty vaned aanual wttll tlle

cress preduce amd its value w1tll tlle auual aarlcet

prtce.

Frea 1304 te 1807 a fixed aeney rate ~ waa

eetabllelled fer tlle ae .. utat1•• et the cever.ameat

allare ef tae crep, wb1cla was ba.eed •• aa est1aat1Da

ef tlle avera&e cemmercial price e:t paddy ta tlle market,

but tlle reveJIUe was still settled ea the erose predu.oe

ef eaell 1ad1v1dual village as & uait, oeparatel;v. Ia

1305 liaited atteapts were made ~e distribute tlle

demaad of pveraeat reveaue aa••& tu several a1raadars

ef e~k v1llace. .Utlleup tlae reveaue waa etill

23. BOR Vel.259, Au&uet 7,1800 pp 6947-95

• 346 ..

cellected 1» ~ luap sua ft.a tke vlllage, tke

atrasdara apporttom.ed tlte deaand waoaa theaselvea

accerd1ac te tae saarea tkat taey aeld ia tae vtlla&e,

aad aJl atteapt was made to 1seue pattam ( ~ decuaeat

recerdln& eccupatlea aDd t1le ebl1&at1•• et pa,yaeat et

reveau.e) accerdin& te t.ae s)lare et eaca atrallda.r.

Ia 1805 1 tae ·mtraedars et Tl!anj avur were requested

te d1str1bu.te the tetal ase@ssment ea eac~ villace

•• t.ae fields er tlle village •

. Ia 1807, tlle repert ef tlle Taaal)avur C••mtttee

kewever, halted tlle var1eue stepe tewarde tadtvldual

aeeessaeat. I• ita rep•rt tlle ceamittee rejected

beta tae ryotwart (1nd1V1dual assees.eat) amd

zaaladart ( tae establtsllaeDt •f reatere an l»ter-

aedtaries to collect tlle reveaue ae ta tbe .leraaaeat

Settleaent ln BeR&al) syeteas lm faveur ef tie vtll~&e

reat systea. AQcerdiB& te this syetea tke p~aeat et

a fixed ameuat et aeaey calculated •• the avera~e ef

t1le ce-utatien prlcea ef severalfJears, was made bJ

tae ere up ef at ra8d are te tlle ceve r.ame at: uTJae

C.aaittee t'euad taat a 'Ylllage lease supported taat

cenaectl•• aDd uaity ef iatereste watch existed aaoac

tlle aeredita.ry preprtet11rs ef laad er atraadars ef

tae saae Yilla~e. Tke Cemmtttee t~ou&kt1t .. re

- 347-

desirable te preeerve thaa te deetr.y these 24

tnett tutteas"

During tae first six years of the alaeteemta

century, the preva111nc; market prlce ter paddY lD

TllaJtj avur llad bee a e:xeeptienally hl ca as TlllaR.j avur

was tke na1Jt seurce ef gralm to supply t1D.e celealal

armies wmich f•u.c;kt tee ant1-c•lea1al struc;gle led

by the palaYakar in tlle ure seutllera Tamll prevlaces.

By 1809 aewever, wltk the authority •f celenlal rule

establi saed ill these areas, tlle atrasdara asked ter

con.oeaelone ta tae preva111Dg h1gb ceuutatlen rate,

and as a ~sult there was a return te tae earlier

uaai aystea after tJaree years •f the fixed villages

rent la 1807-1309.

In 1810, the ooleatal ~~tVer•eat returaed

te a vlllace rent &Jetem, a cress a~~euat in casll

be lag settled en e&ell village, which lasted fer a

perl~d et five years. Tke cemmutatlen prlce was

redaced by 10%, aBd the c;ever.aaeat cellected a re&Ular

aftd subeta.11tlal revertt)e. Tlle qulnqaennlal lease eystem

----------------------·--------------------------24. Mukllerji (1962) p.69.

- 349 -

was centlaued betweea 1815·1820, but w1t1l a turtller

reduction 1a tae cemmutat101l rate.

I• 1820 tae preble•• be•ett1B& tlle eatabliell­

aeat ef a fixed cemmutatiea rate which ceuld be e.

easily enterced; were reselved by aD elaberate aetaed

ef calculatten called the eluneu eystea. 'llle basic

prtac1ples were the saJRe -- a meaey asseseaeat ea

eacll v1lla&e as a ualt but tlle aethed ef arrlvtae

at tile aasessmeat involved several atacee ef calcu­

lattess. A irain value fer eac11l v1lla&e wae eatab­

lteaed by ill. ceapa.rtnea ef feur earlier valaat1ella

(aet aecessarlly •f tBe immediately precedin& years

but •f •typical' yea.re); tlle meney assessment fer

eacll village wae fixed at a cemmutat1ea price wlt1c1l

was adl usted 1• ti.e subdi vi slons ef' every taluk at

the current &ur.rk:et price ef paddy every year.

Its m:dn features were that aa exteat ef

lalld fer a~ja1, punjai and eardea cult1vat1en wae

fixed as tae d1tti1JD { eeta.bl1a1led aaeuat) fer tae

cultivation of each villai~; t•pes were taxed net

accerd1ni t$ t~etr extent but accordiae te tke type

ef trees t11at were grotin; and fer atilij ai a certain

- 349-

ameuat ef eraln was flxed as t1le standard cress

preduce ( atter t1le deduct1en ef the cueteaary

autllat1l1raaa) trea wlllcll tlle atraadars share was

fixed at 50~ ter rlver 1rr1eated laads a.1!ld 55% fer

tae nea-r1 ver 1 rr1&ated lands. Tlle cemautatlea was

aet b~ ceaparia& tlle curreat prices frea Navember te

May, wtth certa1B stalldard rates fixed accerd1DC te

tae actual aell1ag prlce in each Jli&CiJlM (aubdlvla1ea

et taluk, ceaetetln& ef a varylac auaber ef vlllaees)

durlac t1le tlve years frea 1815 - 1819. Nt realaelen

was aade •• tlle cevernaeat•s e1la.re ualess t1le fall'

la prlce was creater tllaJ!l 5% 1 la wblc1l caee, tlle

excess abeve that was realtted alld cerreepeDdlncly 1

t1le ceveraaent•e reveane wae censtant ualees t1le

current aarket price et paddY was creater than 10~

la wlllch caee tlle excess abeve 10% was added te tlle

ceamutatlen rate fer that year.

Ia tera, tae aede et cellect1nc ceveraaent

reveaue wasJdurln& t1le first twenty years et tae

ataeteeat1l ceaturyJ larcely t1le &iille as lt 1lad beea

tewarde t1le end et the elc1lteenth century -- a

perceatage et t1le cress crop ef eacb V1lla&e was

tae ceveraaent reveaue. I• erder te eatablls1l

ceaataat ratu er reveaue, Mlrlever, tae celenlal

• 350-

ceveraaeat set fixed peroentaces at wkick tke revenue

was te be cellected -- abe11sk1a& tke 'farlatlen

betweea vlllace•, aeted 1• tke earlier perled. Ia

1801, tae ellare et t:H 1nab1 taat• wae aet at • 45:C

fer laJtde watered by tae C&llvery aJtd 8 alles trea t:H

ae a; at 5~ fer laad s watered by tae Caavery alld

wltkla 8 alles fr.a tlle sea .. d tlleretere ef peerer

fertility; aad at 55• fer laJade aet watetred by tlle

Canvery. Taese ra.tee were deteralaed te apply tllnu&ll

eat tlle dletrlot and aa a result te varlatteas betweea

vlllaces aad etaer extra-eceaea1c ceaelderatteas ceued

te latlue~e tlle extracttea ef reveaae.

Ia 18054 . tlle paselac atteapt te dlvlcte tlle

cress orep w1 tkla tke vlllace was .... •et aside

despite tae ebservatiea et tlle ada1aletratere tltat

"tlle staadard preduce llas beea al.letted ea eacll

kattalai er field e:f eack vlllace, by te ceaeral

oeaaeat ef all tke alrasdare ef eacll vtlla.&e, wllere

taere was aere tlla.a eae laadllelder la ••e vtllace, 25

tlle alletaeat •• eacll field was aade by lllaeelt."

It ls slcalflcaat tllat durla& tlle tlrat

26. Mtaute ef BOR Jaauary 5 11818.

- 351 -

tweaty years ef celeni a1 rule, t1le aajer t1lruet ef

reveaue pel1cy 1lad beea te establish a fixed, er at

least a fixed aetaed ef calculatia& t1le 1 aeney assees­

aeat. 'f1te eettleaeat was still en t1le v1lla&e as a

uaity auad alt'Muca t1le percentage e1lare ef t1le pvera­

aeat •• tlle crese crep was settled, t1le Yilla&e wae

treated as a uai t. !1le basis ef revenue cellectiea

was the aeaaure, with tiae, t1le eetiaat1ea, ef t1le

cress preduct •f t1le 't'llla&•·

Frea t1te aid 1820s llewever, tlte first ce110rete 26

atteapts t• cllauaee tllia ••de were aade. It waa

ar&Ued taat alt1leug1t t1te uluncu aystea aic1lt ever

tiae 1lave led t• a fixed aeaey aeseesaeat fer eac1l

villa&e, it atill left tlle exteat ef laJ!ld aad tlle

rate ef aesessaeat •• eac1l field uacertala. ne

decieien t• survey aad aettle t1te T1laaj aYur accerdiA&

26. Fer a detailed diecuseien et t1le aetlled ef

assessaeBt that ceaprised tlle ryetwarl systea

aad ceanee ted pe lie y deb ate s see ltlklle rj 1

(1962), wlttch hewever relies uacr1t1cally

•• tae recerde ef' tlle celeatal revenue

ada1R1 etrate ra.

- 352 -

te tke ryetwar1 syetea was takea after tke teur et

!Aall3 avur by tke tkea GeverMr •t Madraa. Presidency,

!keaae Muare, preta&••ist 1• tke esta.blls)lleat ef

the ryetwar1 eystea ta tke Presidency. '.this term et

aettleaeat was based ea tlle aeaaureaeat ef eacll

field aad tlle valuattea ef ite preducttvtty accerdtn&

te watch tlle Lndivtdual preprleter et tke laad wae

t• pa,y a fixed c aea reveaue te tke c•verueat. It

was decided taat tJI.e survey •••uld cever all cultivated

laad, waste, :kill aad.juaale aad elleuld estlaate bet:a

tlle cra1a al1d uaey reveaue •• eac:k field aad craat

a patta ae receca1tten ef tlle eccupaacy rt&kt alld

reveaue pQ11ll 11ab111ty ef t11e i.Ddi vidual • ryet'.

T1le survey (pat•aeh) was ceameaced 1• 1827,

aad was aet ta actuality, a detailed mea.eureaeat

aad aeeeseaeat ef tlle la.ildfl •t every Vllla&e• !lle

aetlled tlla.t wae fellewed was te eatlaate t:ae tetal

exteat et eaca catecery ef laad ia eaclt villa&e,

lte preductlvity aad te distribute tae vllla&e

tetal •••c tae surveyed fields, primarily by tlle

autual acreeaeat ef tlle ryeta tlleaselvee aad tJI.e

result was c:aecked aad reaedelled by aeeeeeeee wb.e

were appeiated by tlle Cellecter. Altlleuca t1le

• 353.

eettleaeat did •urYey t~e tetal exteat et laad

1» ~ch Villa&e &114 d1d estiaate t:ae extent ef

cultivated laad•, it 41d net ceaply with tae ryetwarl

re&ulat'lea ef aseeesln& aJid .ettlla& tae value ef

eaca ladi vidual tleld. ne villa~e tetal wae d1a­

trlbuted ~·~ tae airasdare by taetr ceamea ceneent.

Atter feur years et t:be aurvey, tae &everaaemt dle­

aareed w1 t1l the aetud eapleyed aad stepped tlle

eurvey ta 1353. At th1 s etap l/2 ta 3/4 er tae

cUetr1ct kad been •urveyed, aRd 1a t1lese V1llar;ee

t1le aew survey was eapleyed as tke basis ef t1le

cellectien ef reveaue.

Betweea 1833 te 1859, tkeretere, tae Villa&es

et 7l1aaj avur were ullder different aedes ef eettleaent,

aaan1 ia ca~es waere the airaedars 1lad retueed te

accept a villa&e er uluacu. settleaeat ia tlle 1820s;

aa ulua~ aettleaeat; aid tae new ryetwari aettleaeat

watca was tente4 tlle aettallf'aisal system etace it was

a lu.ap aeaey aaeeeeaeat aet liable te vary aecerd1Jlc

te current prices wlltcll llad beea 1atreduced preparatery

te ite beta& distributed ever eacll field.

Tae aaaa1 systea whlca ceaeieted er tae

cellect1en er a. fixed perceata&e ef tlle &etual cress

- 354 ..

euttura ef t:l.e Village wae retained in a alp.ificaat

auaber et villa&es until the paiaas:l. aettleaeat

ta 1827, despite atteapts te eaterce t~e Village

reat ayetea tllreug:l.eut 'r:l.aJlj avur. Uatll 1827, abeut

620 vlllaces( ceapris1ac 10~ ef t:J.e tetal auaber et

villages 1a1tle district) were uader te aaaal systea.

After t:J.e 1atreduct1oa ef t:ae pa1aas~ survey, t~e

auaber ef villages uader t:l.e aaaal aettleaeat decreasea

censiderably, but aa tate ae 1857 t:aere were 28 sue~

villaces, altlleuc:a after 1870 tllere was ealy eae aaaal

village which ceat1Dued uader t~e syatea et reveaae

cellectlen uatll t:l.e ceapre:J.eastve ryetwarl settlemeat

•t 1893.

tlle .. ttaataleal aad uluacu eettleaenta

cevered tlle larcest pr.pertlea of tlle Vllla&es tr.m

1820 to 189~; ever 6]$ et tae geverue».t ( aea-laaa

•d ua-zpiadarl) villages were uader tale settleaeat

durtag tllie peried. '.tlle ••ttaaf'al•al, uluaeu alld

aaaal aetuds all used tlle Village as tlle ual t ef

revenue assesemeat ~ ''Tlle settleaeat ta TllaJtj avur llas

beea by Villages. Censlderable ebjectieas were

atarted by a class et vlllaae preprteters, called

tller7a1rasdars te ••••• ryetwar • • • • cltief'ly ••

acceuat ef' tlle distribution ef tlle waters. It is a

- 355-

ceuatry tructltled entirely by lrrlgatlen trea tJae

Cau'fery aa.d 1 t was stated aJtd urced that lf tae

vllla.&ee were net assessed lD cellllell taere weuld

be perpetual centests alld quarrtla a.beut tae dl•·

trlbutlen ef tJaese waters te dlttereat fields, aad

that •• aede was tlleretere applicable te Tb.an,l avur 27

but a vllla&e asse sSilent.

TJae dlvlalen ef tlle grese aseeesaeat •• tlle

vllla&e aa••c tJae 1nd1Vldual alrasdars was lett te

tllemeelves; ttbut dld net lleQJl te laply tllat tae

alrasdars lteldtn& land W.lcll returaed 150 kala

te Vell pald tlle saae teerva as lle wllese laad returns

300 kal&E te tlle veli. All land ln aa ulUDIU reated

village is c lasslfied ( by tlte mlra.edara tlleaselvea)

accerd1ac te lts fertility aad ae~a ef lrr1ga.tien

and 1e livlded lnte •Jaaree ef panau. Eacll paacu

centalniac la.ad ef every claas ••• every airaadar­

tllerefere accerdlD& te tlle aUIIber ef allares ef paJl&ll

'Zl. Evidence en East Illdla-Cellpa.DY .At'fa1rs.

Select Ceaaittee ef the HOuse ef Ceameaa

(1853) p.44a. Evidence ef P.Gerden.

- 366 -

1le possesses 1lae geaerally speakt•c - equal prepert1en

ef ped alld llad laad aJtd all Call equally af'ferd t• pal' 28

tlle rent accerdinc te tlle Villa&e avera&e•" :Pattae

were distributed t• tlle individual laDd1lelders accerdiRC

t• tlle dietr1butien ef tlle tetal V1llace aesessaeat

•••est tllea.

In 1859, a request ter an extraerdinartly hicll

reatsstea tn the eluncu settled villacee attracted tlle

attentten ef the geveraaeat, aDd it was decided te

replace the uluncu eettl~aent ta tlle villa&ee w1lere

it was empleyed by tlle .. ttamfaiaal systea. Ia ti•e,

h&wever, it was decided te witlldraw t1le ept1en ef aa

amant settleaent, whtc1l aad been efi'ered te tbe

sir&adare ef Thanj avur 1n 1830.

Evee durtnc tlle p&illae1l survey aJAd aettleaeat,

in certala villages, t1le aettamfallsal aeseesaeat 1lad

been distributed te the individual fields ceaprlslnc

a Vlllace. .Utlleucll ne detailed survey was aade,

this was~be clesest &pprex1aat1en te tlle ryetwart survey 1

. 28. TDR Vel.3206 PP• 91-133, Cellecter te BOR,

Jaauary 31,1302.

- 357 -

&lld eettleaeat ill tJaaaj a.var prier te 1893. Betere

1870, abeat 28~ ef' tlle aeveruent Vlllaiee t:a tllanj avar

were aader this field aesessaeat eettlement, in wlltcll

tlle atrasdars aDd assessers llad te&et~r dlvlded tlle

cress vllla&e aeseasaeat ea tlle fields ef tbe Yilla&e.

It was la tlle 1870s that a debate be i&Ji aaeaa

tlle oeleatal admtnlatraters ef Madras .P.reetdenc;y te

laplemeat a tllereucaptna ryetwar1 survey &Jld settle­

ment 1a. the district et Tllallj avur. It was ultimately

put late practice tn tlle 1890s. Altll•\l&ll tae dtstrt­

but1•• ef tlle aettamta1•al eettleaent Jaad been la.ple­

meated in certain vllla&es, the pllyeical appearance

at villages ia Thanj avur etlll remained aucll t1te

sa.ae as 1 t llad at tae be ctnnt.na •t the century, w1 tll

tlte ladlvldual vllla&es Ret eaallY ldentlflable;

"the fields er a village are eftea ceatasedlY

t.nteratxea, not enly ameaa themselves, but wttla tlle

f'lelde ef' etller vlllaces, as, fer tastaDCe, t.n a

part ef' the Slrkall talt1k ef tlle 'fJaaaj avur cellecterate.

(a taluk w1lere the paiaash survey 1lad been carried

eut), w1lere wlthla tlrle space ef 2i sqaare 11lli.s tllere

are ef 17 vllla&es aad even tllese parte ef vlllaaes

are actually net a. slacle ceuected piece ef laDd,

but tlle coab1aat1on ef several i.etac1l.ed tracaerata,

- 358-

while 111 eeae places twe er ••re vlllaees are

cem.pesed ef fields beleae1ni te ene aDd aJJ.ether

vlllaiee alteraately and et~ers waere four-tlttlle

ef a sin&le field bel•ni te ene Villaie and ••e-tittll 29

te .-etller." Tlle ryetwar1 surve et 1393 was 1atended

te e stabllell the beuadarle s ef t~e indl vidual revenue

vllla&es, as well as te settle tae aeuat er asseas­

aent te tlllf be paid by eacll tndvidual preprieter,

by tlae valuattea ef tlle preductlvtty ef eacb. field.

A aajer lapact ef tlle land settleaent pellcy

ef tlle celeatal pver:maeBt was the result et tlle aaale

at which revenue. was cellected. T1lrou&:ll the aiaeteeatll

ceatury t1lere was a steady increase ln tlle laad revenue

demand trea Tll&Jlj avur. I• 1799 1 tlle year l.m. wbtc1l

pelltical dea1Datten ever the district was eetablla1led,

te land reveDUe demand was about 3i- allllea rupeea.

ID 1901, after a ce~tury ef adjustment 1:n tlle aede

by wllicll reveDue was cellected, tlle land reve.aue

---------------------------------------------------29. Appeadtx te Ftrst Repert troa tlle Select

Cemmtttee en IJidta.a Territery (1353) pp.438-472,

Pet1 tten ef the Madras Nature As sec 1 at tea.

- 359.

cellected frea Tllaa3 avur was ever 6 allllea ru.peea. 30

ne ete.ady trell4 ef 1110rease ln laJtd reveaue

extractle.n, llewever, can be aeen in dlat1110t p1laeea.

(See AppeBdlx 23) 9 Durlae tlle flrst twe decade• et

t1le century, durin& whlc 1l tlle aarket price et crata

wae exceptienally llip, tlte celeaial. adalaletratlea

decided to set a fixed aeney rent, aaaiac uee ef t1le

ll1p price ae a baste fer fixlne tlle ceaatatlea

price. Tlle laJld revenae demaad ill 1800 re aclled tile

lll&lt level et nearly 4.8 •lllte• rupees; tlle averace

durlmc tbe flret 6 years ef Brlttsa rule was 3i JKa%8

laklls. B;y 1810, tlle avera.ce laRd reve».ue waa 3.6

a1111en rupees, bat talllft& prices had affected tlle

taolllty et cellectla& lll&k aeaey reate. Durin& tlle

decade betweea 1310 aad 1320 tlle laad revenue fell

aard.aally te 3.3 mllllea rupees, lar&ely due te tlle

refutal et the alrasdars te accede te b.i&h meney

reate and the necessity ln several vllla~es te reetere

tlle aaaal ayetea. Ia 1820, tlle uluaau aystea wa&

30. 'fhe 1nferaat1en •• land reveaue is taken frea

tlte aJUlllal settleent repert en tlle dletrlct

in TDR aDd BOR.

- 360.

1atredl.lCed and tb.e land revenue en.ce a&a1n beJaJt

te r1 se. ne avera~:e ef the years between 1818-26

beta& 3.4 a1111en rupees. After tll1s t1le rise 1n

tlle land revenue was steady; tlle aYeraae ef. tlle

decade 1828-37 beinc 3.6 a1111en rupees, aad by 1344

tlle laad revelltle reaclled a.? m1111m rupees. In

1869·60, a further atteapt was made te increase tlle

laRd revenue by extetd1n& the aetta11falsal settlement

te tlte Villa~:es wh1cll were etlll uader tlle ulun&a

ayetea, and atter the 1860s, the peuat creased 4

m1111ea rupees. Tlle final leap caae411 w1tll tlle

ceaprellenetve ryetwar1 settlement 1a 1393, wnea tke

ameunt exceeded 6 m1ll1ea rupees.

Eb.Ch sta4e of the alteratleD ef the aede ef

revenue settleamt was clearly tateaded t• tacrease

the cellectlen ef lend revenue. In !llanj aYur, tllis

pellcy was particularly ~1cn1f'1caat, etace wltll 1ts

ll1&1l percentage ef cultt vable laad and 1 ts certaim

rtce crep 1m. the delta acrtculture was llicllly

pr~duct1ve. ot the dtstr1cts in tbe Madras lres1•

deocy, fllanjavur paid the ein&le -i&hest aaeunt et

lalld revenue. Ot tae Presidency avera&e laRd reYeDl

cellectlen frea l80g·1817, Thaajavur paid 9.85~ et

tlle tetal; tn the peried 1818-27 1 !1lanj avur p ald

• 361 •

10.4~~ et the total, aad in t~e period 1323-37, !~anjavur

paid 11.92~ of t~ total. Over 8Q% of the collectlea

of revenue frea Thanj avur in the first 1talf of tb.e

aineteentll century consisted ot lan:l revenue.

Tke rate at whicla the colonial govermaent

extracted land revenue frem Thanj avur grew so rapldlJ /'-.£vl

t~at 1 t must havej a severe lmpaot en all sections of

a&rar1~ society. The impact cf tb.e rise tn tke la.ad

revenue demand aereever, accentuated the conditions of

atapatien er mal"ginal laprevement 1n acr1culture, and

t~e high erewt~ rate ef the pepulatleD in tke nineteentk

century. Fer tnatallCe if we ceapare the increase tllle

l&Jld revenue de•aad taking tae averace revenue dem~

ef the ftve year peried 1366·67 - 1970-71 as t~e tadex

auaber et 100, tae ave ra&e revenue demand ot t1le ti ve

year peried 1896-97 • 1900-01 weuld be 144. This ie

e1p1f1cantly lligber thaJl tbe exp&Jlelen ia cult1va.tiel\

fer t1le period wll1ck registered an increase trea 100

te 112, w1ltle t1le index et expansion ef naaja1 cultl­

vatloa was et111 lever -- ealy 104.

It was clearly essential te tae increase ef

laRd reveaue for tae celoa1 a1 pvemment te enceurage

tlae extension of cultivation. Ia the delta areas tke

- 362 -

colonial government toek gradual control et the

waste lands er the Villages aJ1d allotted them te

individuals whe were prepared te cultivate and pay

a regular revenue to gevernment. This pel1cy, whic~

t .. k sllape ever tke century had a direct ttpaot en

the structure of mirasi rtgh.ts and wlll therefore

be discussed subsequently.

In the tracts of land in the :Pattukkettal

and Tiruturalpund1 taluk.s, there was wider scope fer

influencing the extension ef cultivation. Ia the

fi rat decade er the nineteenta century a detailed

repert was aubaitted, statiag that large tracts ef

Pattukketta1 ta uk could be cleared and that negeti­

ations with Kallar peeple frem neighbouring areas

were already under wa3 t• encourage taeir settlement 31

and cultivation of the area.

T1rutura1pund1 aJid Jtattukkettai centat.ned

a group ef villages which cene1sted pai[y t"e:x:te•ts

31. TDR Vel.3203 PP• 138•142

- 363 -

er drift saxtd artd partly ef lew sw•py &reuad. ~lley

were pl~ed ta tlle early 1830e, 11Dder a special

eettleaent called tlle kattukqtllagai eettleaeat, by

wllicll a fixed rent was paid by the villa&e as a wllele.

A'JtY crep ceuld be cultivated Bnd wttllin tlle perted ef'

tlle fixed settlemeat any perttea •f tlle aetkal aad

aJladi taraau ceuld be cultivated, witBut tlle payaeat

et aay additional revenue. Bii01l individual was te paJ

t1le Jae adaaJ& ef tlle vtlla&e tJI.e deaand ef tlle reveaue

a&aiast llls aame aDd the la.eadaaa paid tlle cene6lldated 32

sum te &eve raaeat •

By tllese aetllede tlle reveaue pelicy e£ tlle

celeaial &evernment atte~ted te advanae tlle cultt­

vatt•• et tlle district aad te increase lte land

reveaue. But t~ easenttal cllaracter e£ t1le expuiell

ef cultlvattea, which has been noted earlier, remataed;

expas1•• did net aecessarily brta& l&Jlde of equal value

er preductivtty un!er tlle pleu&ll ••r did it taply aa

exputea ef trrt&ated area and the cultivatten e£ paddy.

/Ill exaiaattea et tlle lleldin&a ia tlle secead aalt e.t

tae aineteeatll century ellew s tll at •• tlle c eat rary,

32. TDR Vel.4237 pp.l31-6; BOR OCteber 17 ,1874;

Cellecter te BOR Septeaber 19,1874

wlllle tae tetal exteat ef lleld1Di:8 was expaJidln;: tlle

~~ereace ef puajal land rei:iatered a auoll aere suba­

taatl al erewtll taaa tlle wet l'aad s. Ia fact tlle per­

centage ef wet land te tlle tetal lleldtn& decllaed te 33

67.39~ Dy tae end ef tlle ceatury.

Tlle extraction ef aJl exoeedlnely llt&ll laad

reveaue uader sucll ceadltloaa llad a cr11olal 111p~~et

eil tlle structure •f seclety 1• 'flla.RJ avur, •• betll t1le

eceaeld.c aJld sect al ceadl ttea ef all sectieJls ef

seclety. Mereever, tlle ••de ef lte cellecttea alae

affected tlle cenditlen •f tlle •ryets•. Tlle cellectl••

et tlle e•vernmeat revenue ta ••ney, ..a particularly

tlle attempts te establt elled a fixed aeaey rate •f

cellectten tntreduced an iapertaat cllanee. "!lle

· lew.lleae et price it is certain llas aet preceeded trea

superabundaat preduce; it aust llave tllen ariaea trea

aeceeeity wllicll· alaest every individual alrasdar net

peeeessiae seae capital er credit was Ullder te dlspese

ef laree pertiens •f cra1• at fixed perieds; t• cet

rid ef tae waele ef ll1s pr•duce wttllia a ctven ttae •••

33. Statistical Atlas ef Madras Presideacy (1949)

- 365 -

tlle aede of' V1llace reate ••• readers every m1rasdar

aeceeearlly a cempetlter wit~ als aetellbeur net ta tlle

endeav•urs te aake tke aest •f lll s farm, but tn cettinc

11.is cra1B earliest te market ea a..JQ terms •••rt ef 34

ruin."

T1le impact ef' tlle f'erced cenversiGn ef craia tate

aeney at fixed rate was accravated by t~e inequality er

tbe ece .. aic pesltien ef' differeat alrasdars : '"flle

creat aajerity ef mlrasdars de net possess capital te

aeet any larce pertiea ef tlle public deaaads en taea

vi tbout c arrylac tlle preduee.er their 1 aJid e t• aarket

aDd tlle1r credit waa and la certalaly lessened by tlle

kllewledge tllat teir lands, by waicll it waa principallY

aupperted vae wlt.elly 1aalienable wlltle the Sarkar 1lad

claiae •• tbem fer tlle public reveDUe • ••. siace eale

wae required te aeet tlle public demaad a creat aultltude

ef ceapettters for purchaser coasequently existed 35

tlleref'ere tlle price ef craia was lew."

·--------------------·----------- ------34. TDg Vel.3267 PP• 135•9, C.llecter te BOR

Octeber 30,1810.

35. !DR Vel.366, Collecter te BOR Marcll 281 1810

- 366.

~lle low price of crain not oaly worked a&ainet

t1le poorer ryets wbe were forced to sell their 1ra.1n

at tlle period of reveaue cellection, but tlley furtlaer

eariclled those laJldoWBers who were 1n a position to

lleal"d tlle area.ter port1•• of their arata uatil tlae

price of arata rose te tlleir prefit. It 1s B1&Blficaat

that as a result of thls •de of collectlea, cembtaed

w1ta tae lai&l:l rate of reveaue collecU.a, tllere was a

dlYerae 1mpa::t on tlle dl!'fereat sections of the ryets

wlao paid tae reve~ue.

It 1s •reo'fer si&niflcaDt that tlle coloaial

adll1a1stratore were conscious of thls impact aJld were

1n its favour insofar as this tread weald eaeourace

tlle esta.blisllaent of a streac class of lanctowaers,

who would be responsible for filltnc the coffers of

tlle c•len1al covernaeat. Ia tae early ataeteeatll

ceatury, tlle socialist aladed ~lector Harrls llad

taken ever tbe craln trade of the d1strtct with the

lDtentlon er break1a& the ••••P•l•y of tlle pattakdar

aad otller principal airasdars ever the cra1a trade.

SUbsequeatly •re represeatat1ve colonial ada1a1s•

trators observed tllat these had beea "iapolltlc

re eulations af'fecttaa tae craln trade ••••• waen tlle

- 367 •

Ctmpany mtntptllsed the &•ver.aaeat•a skare, t~ey disturbed

tlae whele crala trade tf tlle ceuatry •••• fettered tr

tr1&~teaed the me~hante •••• ~ 11 abatlytely atccsoarx

thgt tR~leat J!Cn 9uld bux up •ri)ig 1• tiaee tf pl.ellt¥-.•

a sell at a prttlt tn times •t scucitx and tlle....atU,

AUCll ·~·are engeur~~ tae aer~sega£!,Wlll_~ t~~ 3i

~nue." (emp~asle added )

Tlle creat1e.n tf a wealtlly class tf l&Jlded prtpr1eters

tt eDeure tlle p~aent •t tile ctltnlal laad revenue was

tllus clearly the 1ate:~t1tn ef the British. Tlle purptse

er tlle ryetwar1 system was ter lnsta.DCe, "t• teapt tlle

ryet tt lapreve it ( tlle laRd), aad taus by tacreasin&

prtduce te enhance the value et the laad, et tllat 37

ultlaately 1 t mi&llt beetme a private aJld saleable prtpertyt'

T11e creat'tea er" a land market wae eltsely btuDd

wltll tlle pretectitn aad enllance•eat et ctltn1al revenue.

Barly durin& the ntneteentll century, tlle ctltnlal c•vernaeat

laid restr1ct1o.ns en tlle aale tf lfiJld •• waleh tb.e pa,yaeat

tf reveaue was pead1•&• In tiae aereever, tlle laJtd ••

36. BOR Ma,y 31,1810 pp. -'552-557

37. TDR Vtl.3393 pp.6•9.

- 368-

wllicll tlle reveaue demand llad net been aet, was ferced

inte tlle ms.rk.et as dietre es sales. The deaallds ef

celenial revenue thus created a. lad m~ket b;y tercln&

land into sale. Tewa.rds tne middle •f tM centur;y, tll!

Cellector n•ted that tttlle sale of tlle land tn the fixed

assessment villages have arisen frem tlle aecesslties et 38

the l&ndhelders ts meet the &•vera.eat demaad." But

aucll earlier tb.e Raj a ef Taaajavur lliaaelf llad ceapla1aed,

"many ef tae landllelders er alrasdars are betnc reduced

toa decree of adversity net know• befere ln tats couatr;v,

are abll~d te suffer their lands, lleuses and evea

utensils te be atld ill outcry ( a.tlCtten) fer tlle leveat 39.

prices to their ereatest alstertuae."

'llte eellectlen ef a unlfera Jver:; atc11. rate ef

reveaue frea a ~l&hly dlffereatlated pepulatlen •t

airasdars werseaed tlle eenditlen ef tlle vast &ajertty.

flle tereed eellectien et land reveaue la ••e:v aad tlle

sale ef lal'ld oa whlcb revenlle was net pald created tlle

39. BOR May 15,1845 PP• 59B2-84

39. TDR Vel.3503 p.237

Raja •r Tll&Rjavur te Beajaa•• Tedi' stpteaber 30,1811

It was uausual fer tae RaJ a te aake sucll a ceaplatat.

• 369 -

cead1t1one ••t enly fer the werseaia& cendttien ef tke

petty la.Jld ewnere, but their di epe see esiea. 'llle cenc rete

1ap~t ef celenial rule and the chan&ee in tlle tera and

ceateat ef landed preperty uader celonial mle, will be

discussed in detail tn tae tellew1ni chapter, but it is

aecessary te briefl~ summarise ene aspect ef tlle 1apact

ef the settlemeat pel1cy ef tbe Br1t1sll ta ~aanjavur.

'llae ce-ex1 etence ef different f'erae ef settlellent wllicll

llas been Aeted earlier was in part illtlueaced by tlle

reapenae s ef sect lens ef' tlle landllelders ef' ~llaaj avur te

aew •des ef settleaent. Betere exalli•t•' tkeee respensea

1 t 1 e necessary te aummari ee t1le celeni al pellcy tewarde '

~ r1&llts.

'llle ri,ht t• the collecti•n ef revenue fr.a 1nam

lallde whtcll had been &ranted in the pre-celeaial peried

te 1Rd1viduals, croups ef indiViduals, temples alld

reli&ieus, caar1 table tiJad etaer instutieae, a.lse allder­

weDt cllan&es as a result ef tlle bapact ef' eoleat4 rule.

We taerefere diseuse briefly the p•licy •f' the celental

ad mini straters towards the 1name ri&ht s in 'lllanj avur.

Early in the aineteentll century, 1Jle prepeeal t•

settle 1Da.a riihts •• revenue eff1c1ale as a pera&llent

•de ef repaYment WaR prehibi ted atter several years

et discusst••• this) llewever, did net affect tlle

- 370-

pre-celeni al alinatien ef land• wlltc llJ as llas been

discussed earlier, was extensive, althoucll several

iadependent attempts were aade te reduce the al1enatlon

ef reveaue. Tllere had trad1t1enally been craJata in

land termed a,yakat aaniJaJI& a.md callll crants trea the

state treasury teraed mara man1yaas. Tlle teraer were

resuaed and clubbed with the latter duriac tb! first

decade et celen1 al rule , and 1n tlle 1 r lieu , a p ayaen t

in aemey was made frea what wo.s lmewn as the •a aarakkal

f'Uild ' , wh1c h coast sted ef 8 aaraltkal en every 100 kala 40

of cress preduce er 0.67, ef tlle gevernaeat revenue.

By l820 it was decided that the paYment ef this

c ate eery ef crants weuld be liai ted te tlle lifetime

•t tlle peraen whe llad been recistered ia tM course ef

an enquiry cenducted by tlle Br1tisb. Clever-eat; tllat

eae individual ceuld enjey a plurali t:y ef craJlts enly

if they had been held tegetaer by tlle er1c1Dal

cra.atee; tllat aantyaa wh1c1l laad been transf'erred by sale

3alt citt er aertcage were De lewcer te. be rececnised

and paid; &lid that 1f' nG clataant appeared ter twe 41

years tlle crant was te lapse.

40. BOR February 4,1339 pp.l-331-39

41. Ibid

- 371-

Thls tread ef resua1n& tlle ,rants wh1c1l llad erlc1•

Dally been aade fer 'perpetuity' led te the accuiUllatl•n

et a larce ameunt et unpaid aeney uDder this fund 1n tlle

treasury. In 1829 1 t was estlaated that tlle aceuaulated

ameuat was mere than 8 tlmes the anDUal aaeunt te be 42 '

disbursed. Tlle Dumber ef tkeae crants llad decreased

e'fe r 10 years by 5~ te 204.7.

Tile pel1cy ef craduallN resualD& persenal aa.nlyam

crants wherever peeslble was aet telli.wed l:a tlle caae

ef temple 1naa rigltts. A& early as 1301, tbe 1ndepelldent

centrel ever the revenues ftf pa.l'ticular perts whicll

indiVidual te~~ples, such as the •ne at Vedararmlyam

exercised was apprepr1ated by tke celeatal cevernment.

In 11eu ef tbe reveaues from pert duties and trem tlte

maaafiiCture et sale ln tbeee perts 1 t was decided te 43

crant an equivalent in land er la aeney. oa further

censideration heweYer, tae coamutatien was cranted iD

meney as uanecessary allenatlen of land revenue was 44

censldered uawlse.

42. Ibid

43. BOR February 10,1301

44. BOR July 2a 1 1806 PP• 4468-74, Collecter te BOR,

Septeaber 20,1324

- 3'12 -

Uatll t~e 1860e, tae temples ef Taanjavur centtmued

te be &lven craln and meney mehlal er grants a1Ulllall3,

fer dally and perlodlc puj a.s by tlle pvernae11t. Tile

a11aber er teaples recetvlni these cra.nts llatl decreased

trea 1013 tn. 1313 te 935 tn 194'1; but tn beth years

there were a few temples whe rece1 ved the majer pertlon

ef tke eaeluaeats. ( See Appendix 45). In 194'1 the

T~~araj a teaple at Tlmvarur &nd the Brtbattewara

temple at Tllanjavur betll cellected ever 5~ ea.c:B et tlle

tetal a110uat; tlle Vydya.Datha Temple at Velur tn Slrkall

cellected ever 4~ aDd 4 temples ( tlle Na&alln&a temple

at Murdlaraj anam, tlle Raj acepala temple at Mannarcudl,

tJte KUilba.htswara temple at Ttrubllavanaa and the

zr.t-.aar•a· teaple at Martammancudl collected 28.'14%

ef the tetal cash and craln cran ts of tbe cever!lllent •.

The c aell and grain cr ants te temples were not all

ameunte distributed ln commutatten of tnam lands resumed

by the colental government, but pertlons ef' the cash

amounts were p<.J.d 1n lieu ef' tna.m. lands er manlyam

porte whleh had been resumed b~ tae government. Tke

pellcy er craduallY resuming personal ma.nlyam crante

wherever pesstble, while ma1ntatn1n& the temple 1naJD

rights largely intact, 1ncrea.oed the revenues of' the

eolental gevernment enly te a llatted extent. Durin&

the secend half' of the nineteenth century,. a concerted

.tf•rt• was made te increase the revenues ef gevernmeat

frea the inam lands.

- 373 -

A decision wae taken te condllct a detailed survey

ot all the tnam lands in the Presidency, to classify

the tYPe o! grant, to estimate the extent or land held by 11ii

e~k category and to increase the fixed assessment

collected by the government. In the course of the 45

survey, Whick was made in every village ot the district,

aR tnvestigatien was conducted regarding the original

purpe se f•r which tb.e lands had beerjgranted and whether

thetr present contrel met the original intent or the

graat; and accordtncly the government decided wlletber

the inam should be confirmed er resumed. T1le main result

er the survey was net only the resumption or the lands

wllereYer pess1ble, but the levy ef a quit rent •n all

inam lands and thereby uJt increase tn the revenue,

which amounted to over 65%.

Append1x.32,33,34 and 35 display' tre 1nformat1en by

cellecte~the survey in the district. The largest number

ef title deeds issued were te temples, but the larcest

exteat of land held tn inam was held by individuals.

The increase 1n the revenue paid to government was much

higher in the case ef individuals. Tl:lere were very few

---------------·-------------·-------45.

Lt.. Huztr Inam Register.

- 374 •

craats held by tnstltuttens et1ler tllaa teaples. ne

absence tn T1laaj avur •f cra.Rts te .. ctal taatitutiens,

which were aen-relicteua, eucll as public erclla.rds,

water paadals { wh1cll previded dri:aktnc water te

travellers), eclleols er trrtcatien werks was neticeable.

Wkea ceapared wttll the eurvey ef tat~ 1814 ( see

Appendix 30 sad 31), tbe tac~ease in the auaber ef

sarvamantyaa villa&e• ia 1860 is striktac. Durtna a

early peried et c•l•nial rule it llad been ebserved

taat tke:re were "ext~nstve altonatten ef lands &Jld

er wllele villaces er sarvamantyam tenure in this

dtstttct. It appears that there @.re a auaber •f

wllele vtllaces ef th1s de~ripti•n t)at are ef aucll 46

1reater extemt, than at the time &f t~e1r alieaattea."

Several t.asta.RCes ef this expaeieR fn particular

vtllaces were pr•vtded, and it is prebable that

the acarandisement of pr0pe rty am.,n, secttens ef t1le

alrard prepr1eters ef land was matclled by a parallel

!JtCrease in extent ef centml tn the taaa villaces.

fh1s Will be diACUSSed 1n the context ef t1le C1laJlJiaJ

--·------ --- --- ---- -- --· 46. BOR October 4,1824, pp.8506-7,

Celleet.r to BOR, Septeaber 20,la24

- 375 •

centent ef inam rights ullder celenial rule in the

next chapter.

7lle enuaeratien ef inam Vlllaees ln 1871 (See

Appendix 36 and 37) did net cerre spend te the enuaera­

tlen i• 1860, aad part et the problem •f the aumber ef

earva~~aniyam villages aay be attributed t• tbis reaeen.

Altlteuah earvaaaniyam riikte were ebserved t• 1lave

expanded by the adain'tetrators, it 1e 4itf1cult t•

establtAk the exact auaber of 1nam villace~ in tae

district even tewards the end ef the century, altheuc~

1t ls pees1ble te establish tke relative incidence ef

the dlt'tere.nce types ef tnam erants in different ameae.

The i!:f ermat ien •f the areal 41st ri butien ef the

t;v.pes of &rants establislles that alt1loup :Pattukkettal

had a 1liik cencentratien ef 1nam villacee, tlle)l were

$1' tbe type that pald a revenue te gevernment, and were

not sarvaaaniyam villages, in which the inamaare had

mere extensive rights. The conoentratien of sarvpantyu

villaeee 1n the delta area, probably prepared tlle er.ulld

ter a tranei t1en in the character Gf the inamdars centrel

ever land, which will be discussed subsequently.

- 376 ...

.Appendix 36 and 37 revealo that there t1ere

considerable variations in the Value and size of the

different types of tnao villag~o, wbich were apparently

related both to the type of grant ani tts location 1n

the district. 'the density of population did not d1rectll

vary tt1th the location, although inam Villages tth1ch

were concentrated in Pa.tt11k1tottai taluk (such as the

shrotrtyam grant) did contain a relatlvely low papu­

lation. The smalysize of the nelkuthagai Villages,

and the h1gb denetty of chattra.m villages ( which \iero

located mainly in Pattukkotta1), tJould suggest that

the character of the grant and of the holder also

influenced their settlement pattern. The temple

villages, for exanple, were very small and sparsely

populated., although the t;ypical delta Village was

densely populated.

The accuracy or the surveyed extent of the tnam

villages does not appear very reliable, but it is

interesting to note that 'Whereas in 13609 the total

extent of tnam land tn the dtstrlet \ias estimated

at 334, 875 acres, in 1371 the extent of the whole

tnam villag~s was estimated at 536, 884 acres, and tn

l89Q-91, the ~xtent of whole inam villages ~as

- 377 -

47 e sttaated at 716,323 ac rea. In 1901, tlllere were

started te be 123~ 1nam villages in Thanj avur and tlle1r

area was 534 , 200 acrea, wbicll ameuated te 22.49~ et 48

t~e tetal district area. Deapite the differences in

tllese estimates it is sufficiently clear that alt:kough

celen1al revenue peltcy eeuP,t after 1860, te increase

the g;evernment revenue demtind frem inam, tkere was st111

a cens1dera.ble au11ber ef villages under btam ceatrel.

In add1t1en te tll.ese wltele in01 Villages there

were miner lnams, &rants ef portiene ef villages fer

tlte eam.e purpese as the wllele tnam villages. Tlle

cemmutatien of several et these arants tnto meney &Ad

thetr reanmptten, tn the early decades of tlle atneteenth

century, aust ceneiderably have reduced tkeir exteat.

Altlleugh ne precise tntermatto~egardtag tllletr actual

extent ie available at tlle beilnntng et tbe ataeteeatll

century, at the end et the century there were still

81,489 acres ef' ainer lnams, lecated 1n villages uader

tlle ryetwa.rl settlement, ameuntlne te 3.43% ef tlle

entire area ef the d1strtct.49 Meet et these a1ner

47. Stat1st1cal Atlas et Madras Presidency (1904)

48. Ibid

49. Ibtd

- 378 -

tname ceneieted •f aall perttone which eupperted 50

temple e, particularly vlllar;e temples.

JU.tlloucll celenial pel1cy was aimed theretere

at restrlctinc tbe alienatioa et revenue by 1aam

crants, aad at lD.creaein& tl:le 8110uat ef revenue

cellected by tlle r;overament tr•• the exieti•& villacee,

the attempt at reeuainc iname was 11a1 ted and lla4 n•

basic iapact en the existence ef 1nam crante. Hewever,

cllances in tlle character of lallded property, whicll

were ef wider e1ga1f1cance, under celenlal rule, dld

affect the centent et tbe centrel ef tlle la&lldars ef

the land; this will be discussed at lenctll ln tlle

aext chapter.

Tllr.ur;hout tlle aineteentll century, sect1ena

ef the prepr1eters ef' land in Tllanjavur reacted cen­

sc1euely in orr;anieed pretest ar;ainst botll tlle scale

at whicll laDd revenue was extracted -d tlle ude of

settlement by wh1cll 1t was collected. In the

previous cllapter, the dlst1nct1ve pes1t1en ef' tlle

pattakdar and kavalkar 1n society was discussed.

It is interest inc that 1a the first d.ecade ef Brl tisll

51. See IUzur Inam Register.

• 379 •

rule, when the rate at vll1ch the revenue was cellected

was particularly hl&h, 1t was the pattakdar and

kavalkar who led the early pretests a&alnet the Britt•~·

In these pretests the ailltant &ectal tradltiens ef

the Kallar caste eupperted te a censlderable extent 51

the pretests led; 1n particular, by tbe kavalkar.

!be celental administrators neted the pepular

rececnttien ef the kavalkar as natural leaders, tn

times ef pretest : •ifhey ( the miraedarel are in tae

llab1t at present, en tl\e ellpteet diesatiefactien

frem the Sarkar, te threw tllemselvee uader the pretection

et the kavalkar and net oaly throu&h the aeaas of taeir

peens te lapede tlle precress et cultivation tn tllelr

eva vlllaces but te anney thelr nelcllbours t1.ll they

alee des let and brtnc the Sarkar revenue a lnte daacer • 1162

51. All tlle seurce s in whicll these ,pretest are

desert bed are colenlal reperts and consequently

lleavily biased. AS a result 1t ls d1ff1cult te

estimate the· precise etren&tll and influence ef

these str11g&lee. Hewever, it is sufficiently

clear that several pretests did occur as the

fellew1n& acceunts reveal See alee BOR Vol.202

MaY 28,1798 pp.4222-4.

52. BOR Vel.l62 Aa&uet 3,1796, pp.7635-41.

• 380-

ft.e aede et pretest was a refusal to pay the revenue

demand, and on ec.caston to leave the vllla.ces until

the &•vernment acquiesced, or mere likely , cruaked

the revolt. Unlike the southern Ttilllil districts,

there were no instances ef an armed strul:'.&le -with

a wide basts and ever a len& period of tiae;- at no

time did the 1nd1 vidual prete et s in Thanj avur deve lep

into a rebellion er a major threat to British rule.

Tae British were particularly cenecieus of

the lntlueace of the kavalkar ever tbe mirasdars

of Thanj avur. As early as 1792, durin& the peJ'lod

ln which the Bri tiea exercised euzer&inty ever

Tllallj avur, the colonial adalnlstrater wrote : nwttll

re&ard to the kavalkar of this seuba, I have only

to observe that their privileps wh1ob I have made

knewn te the Beard ( of Revenue, tke revenue

administratien centme of the Presidency) are very

extensive and that they are in aeneral leaiue with

the inhab1 tants ••. they ou&ht to be and are styled

the watcaers of the village when in tact they prove

theaeelvee in many instances the depredators of

them.... The Beard of Revenue have received se many

reports trem their different Collecters ttb.e

eeutllward of Madras relative te the ••• cenduct aDd

- -381 -

aetarleua practices ef the pala,yakars • • • • tlll

stron& and decisive measllres are adapted te (curb)

their 1nflllence and brin& them 1nte a state ef sub­

erd1natien • ~. the tranqu111 ty of the ceuntry cannet

be ensured er the Hon 'ble Company • a author! ty perma-53

nently e stabltshed. n·

Tllere are several instances ef pretest in the

first decade ef the ntm teenth centur J : "Pattakdars

and principal inhabitants ef this seuba (Mannaraudl)

acreeable I should tmactne te a precencerted plan

sanctiened by the head peeple ef tlle ether seubas

secretly fled frem taetr llemes last .l'lipt ••• prebably

in cenaequence ef their dissat1sfactten at the

(cemmlltatien) prices I have receiDilended te be affixed

en tlle two crops ( et nanj a1) which they cenelder a

ver,y lll&h assessment. This is the first t1ae they

aave wltlldrawn themselves tr.a the kacberi durin& 54

ay aupe3tiatendence."

Thla particular pretest demanded tlle resteratten

53. BOR Vel.207, Aueuet 13,1798 pp.5902-3.

54. TDR Vel.3459, p.705, Resident te BOR

Ma,y 16,1798.

er pr1v1le&es and rtghts which the Br1t1eh had

remeved ( althou&h the r1iht s and prlvller;es are net

apecitied); a crant of remission ef revenue el'14 tbe

return of the contrel ef lrrir;atlon wer~s te the

supervlslen or' the mlrasdars whlch had been the 55

tradltienal practice. It was subsequently crushed

by the iapr1senaent et ene et the principal atrasdars

ef the area who was a pattakdar ( and alee the here•

di tary trustee ef tl:e wealtlly Tya&araj a temple a.t

Tlruvarur); "The seceders new appear te shew a dls­

pesition te return upon easter terms than they at

t'lrst dictated, fer C:Rekappa Mudaliar, the prtnclpal

Pattakdar et this souba, whe I bave had ln cleee

confinement ter seae time past, has fer t:Re tlret

time intimated to me that he will de hls endeaVoltre •••

Tlle extensive privileges and number et 1lereditary

villages this man peeseeees tog6ther with the

numereus cennections ·he bas termed and his own beldne ss

and ability give him a sway in the eouba whic1a at

first would appear almest incredible and • • • I llave

55. BOR Vel.203 June 4,1798 pp.4492-3.

Resident to BOR MaY 30,1798; See alae

BOR Vel.207 Ani 20,1798 pp.6029-30

- 383 -

etrone j)reeumptive pr.efe that he was tlle chlef

lnstlgater to the seceeelen of tlle •ther Pattakdars.n56

Very tew·or these revelte stand eut fer their

a111 tancy er censistency. One ef tte .. re remarkable

was led by ~riya Vacapu, ene ef tke twe principal

kavalltarar in Mayura.m taluk between 1797 all4 .1800.

This 1ndlv1dual armed h1e • peens' and constructed

a md wall abeut hls residence, whlclt served as a

barricade. Subsequently the revelt~ was cruslJed by

the army. Hle peeltlen ef influence as Kavalkarar

was backed by Pertya Vacapu • e e,wtenslve landed preperty

1R tlle reelen. Frea the 1798 data en Mayura11 talulq

lt appears that Perlya Vacapu aad Chlnna Va.iapu, tlle

twe principal kavalkarar ef Ma..vuram, ewned 13 vlllaces

(2.73~ ef tlle t•tal number •f Vllla&ee, whlch cevered lldJ.,

88.95 ..,..... ( 587 .rtl acres, cemprleln& 1.71$ ef the

tetal extent of the area. Indlvldually, Perlya Vaeapu vlz.U

ewned 56.55 ••••,r ( 373.23 acres cempr1s1.ne 1.09% ef

tlle total area) ln 11 vtllaees, ef whick ~ ewaed 7

vilt aeee entirely, aDd perttene ef the rema1aine four

villaees.57

56. BOR Ve1.205, July 2,1798 p.510l

Resident to BOR Juae 24,1798

57. Repert en Mayuram Vlllaees ( 1798)

- 384-

It is significant that the kavalkar whe played

a lea.cUn& role in err;anieiag these revelts and in

rallying the miraedar beleaged largely te the Kallar

caste. The internal social structure of tte Kallar

was noted for its independence and militancy. Areas

1n which the Kallar constituted the bulk of the land­

helders were constdered_difftcult to cevern by the n

colonial government. Discontent has shown itself' /

newaere ..-ara.aa except tn the district of Elangad

and Vestwcanad ••• Elan&ad ( is) watered by tke Cauvery,

but ••• be1ag inhabited by Kallar never was under a

pattakdar ••• its crops used to be seld to ·tbe b1&heet

bldde·r and divided alaost at the w1ll of the

lnha.b1t~ts."58 "In regard to Vesinganand •••• its

inhabitants are the boldest caste et Kallar and were

never required by the Marattha government to unfold

a resource of P83 any other revenue than a small

Village rent because ne strong village establisb~~ent

(ot revenue efftcers) was ever appointed and adequate~ft

58. TDR Vol.3202 pp.209-232; Collector te BOR

March 12,1301

59. TDR Vel.3202 pp.209-232

- 335 -

In 1801, tae landhelders ot these twe areas, durlnc

the samba harvest season fled to the territory of

the Nawab of Arcot and established themselves ln lllld

forts in T1ruch1rapall1. T~ British subsequemtl» cut

them •ff tre11 tlleir v1llaees by military intervention

and threatened to place the control ot their vllla&es . 60

with the porakudi, and thus forced thelr submission.

Intereetln&lY, the pretest a~alnst colonial

extraction of revenue at the be&1nn1R& of tlle alneteent•

century never seems te have eone beyend tbe level of

the principal land1loldere in the delta area and the

~dy ef landholders in the Kallar areas. In few cases,

however, de thelt appear to have drawn sect1ens ef tlte

werkln& people into the protest. On the contrary, in

tbe Kallar area, the colenlal threat te replace the

Kallar landholders with the perakudl rerced eubmlselen.

J.fore•ver, tlle thirteen petty palayakar et !hanj avur

district who also belon&ed te the Kallar caste were

praised by the Brltleb. for their 'leyalty' durin& a

period when the eeuthern palayakar were en&aein& iD

armed etru&ile against colenlal rule, and were rewarded lJ

tlle recepl t1on of tlte pala,yakar rl&llts.

------------------------------------------------60. Ibid.

- 386 -

In the ceurse et a century ef steep increases

ln the land revenue demand and chances tn tae method

ef cellectien, en several eccaeiens there were pretests

from the landowners ef Thanj avur. But all tlle subse­

quent pretests shared this charaotertsttc wt th the early

protest, that they did net draw lnto their ranks the

working people, but were restricted te sectiens ef

the la.ndown1ni; classes who paid the revenue, and te

particular areas ef Thanj avurJ protesting a&~1nst

immediate preblems. In many insta.I~Ces) hewever, it was

the substance ef pretest that prevented the British

erea effecting a uniform ••de of cellecttng the revenue

throughout the district prier te 1893, although lt

did not pr~vent them from c•llecting a lllgh revenue.

Tlle dec teton to tnt .mduce a trlennal •ney

rent 1n 1807 was not ~cepted threugb.oat the district,

and even a.f'ter the decision, the gevem11ent waa prepared·

in cases where the airasdars pretested -- te consider

a reduct Len in th., rate, and te accept an annual

settlement.61 In 18Qg 1n 941 Villages ( 19.56~ ef

the total et 4818 villages), a trie-al settlement

61. BOR Ma,y 7,1807. BOR te government ef Madras en

the werk •f thP thanjavur Cemmittee.

- 387 -

oeul4 not be effected. In the felLewin& Jear, in 575

villages a settleaent • similar ' te the trienaal

settlement was reached, iR 303 an aruaual settlement

was made, btt in 63 villapa ne settlement ceuld be

aade : "airasdars ef 63 villa&es ••• llave resisted in

a. aanner wh1c1l I (the Cellecter) c annet everoeme ••••

(their ebject) either te have their vill&ies rented te

them or terms by which tr.ey c annet pesslbly lese fer

the smrt period ef ene year, er te llave them e~ther

immediately or tn the ensuin& years as may best suit 62

tlletr views, pl&Ced under amant."

Tlle Cellecter identified these a1rasdars wbo

were the mest determin~d in their resistance to tbe

British, as tnd1v1duals wbe did not centribute their

labour to productien and enjoyed a peeitlon of SGcial

prf!sti.ge in eeciety. "'In meet of the cases where I

have, in termer ye are er in the pre sent season,

ebserved a backwardness or abselute refusal to rent

.. tlte lands, the mlrasdare are generallY Brahmins, whe

have little er no direct cennectlon wltll the cultivat1en

ef' their lands which in aeet cases is cenducted by

puraltudl er sudra. cultivators enjeytng a fixed proport1•

62. TDR Vel.3266 Settleaent Report er Tllanj a.vur 1309

- 398 -

•t the ~:rose preduce varyini tre11 25% te 30~... 'fbey

furnish the cattle and seed~:ratn te r the culti vatien

independently et all cllar&e en the mtrasdars, who 111 the

cases 1lere alluded te only appears cennected with, er

interested about hle lands at the period of reap1n& the

crepe, when he ls careful te receive hte prepertlen of

tba.t p;n,duce wb.1ch he has net centrtbuted e lther by hl a

labour, ht s stock er his attentien to brlni terth er

aipment.n63

It 1s likely that enly th1s sect1en ot the

landewners ~ad the re 80urce s te held eut tor several

years witbeut the payment of revenue. Tlle metheds by

wblch this pr•test was effected was described tn detail

by Harris, 1n bls several reperts, who stated that under

amant mana~:ement in erde r to reduce the out turn •t the

R&Jtj a1 crep at every stage in nanj al cult lvatien the

lar&er mlrasdars would deliberately either starve their

la.ade et water or fl"d them, plant the seedlin~:s either

too clese to&ether or to0 tar QPart and s• en. The

resp~nae• of the colen1al &overnment was to threaten to

set aside the traditional r1~:hte of the m1rasdar wl th a

63. Ibid.

- 389 -

teken pay•ent ef 10% ef tlle kuclivaram, and recegntse the 64 peraltud1 as the actual ewaer.

Ia 1810, the year of the t.ntreduc tien ef the

quinquennial meney rent; alee the Cellecter ce•pla1ned et

a "•st determined splrl t ef resistance te every plea ef

settlement ln any de&ree ••• a spirit almeet universal ill

favour •f an amant divie1en ef the crep preva1ls."65

Inllabi tants ef flit 257 villages refused any settlement,

4 villages a1reed te an annual money rent, and 8 villages

a& reed te an annual 1ratn rent -- a tet al ef 269 v111 aif! e 66

pretested a&alnet the ••de or tbe Brtttsa settlement.

tllle main ebject of the mtrasdars appears to

llave been the retentten et the tradi tienal amani system,

by wlltcll their share ef the crep was ensured, whereas

the a•• celen1al {PVernment was determined te cellect a

tlxed aeney rent. '.rhe fluctuation of the market price et

64. Ibid; Selectten of papers frem Recerds at East India

Hause (1820) pp.501·5021 Beve.aue letter trem Madras

te C~urt ef Dtrectere February 6,1810.

66. BOR Septe•ber 17,1810 pp.3014-23

Cellecter t• BOR September 11,1310

66. Ibld; alee BOR Ma,y 31,1310 pp .4552-557

- 390-

araln censlderably affected the cendltlen of the land­

la.elders, wllere a fixed money rent was collected. ~lae

uluncu system which llade eeme allewance fer the fluctua­

tien ef prices was) therefore, a coapremiee fermula. flle

attempt te establish uncllan;eable rates ef revenue

cellectien, er even ef cemmutatien, was considerably

affected by tae fluctuation •! prtcee, and the resultinc

refusal of the la.ndew.ners to submit the meney rents.

Much later in the century 1t was noted that the ulungu

system bad resulted in the -.euat ef revenue varyln& w1 tll

the market price every year as a. result et wbich "tllere

is ne district in which tlle revenue fluctuates as auch 67 as in 1! 1laJlj avur."

In 182?, the attempt to tastS•xa laitiate a

ryetwar1 survey of all the fields 1n t~e villa&es ef

Thanj avur and te intreduce a ryotwar1 settlement en

eee:a individual la.ndew:aer, was resisted by tae land-

•wners. At this stage the landb.elders net only feared

& rutaeus rlse ln tke laRd revenue cellections but alee

that the mede ef tnd1v1dual settlemeat weuld vielate the

traiU tieaal system ef treat in~; the Village as a revenut unl t

67. Revenue Censultatiens Vel. 524, ~uly 6,1841 pp.4781-36

Sullivans Minute• en land revenue cellectien 1n

Tllaaj avur.

- 391 -

Beth tears were justified, "••• the results et the

survey ·in the Sirkal1 taluk •••• were a very lar&e

increase botk in the extent of land under cultivation

and in the ave ra&e grain assessment estimated by the . 68

taramdars above the uluncu extent and &rain avera,ee.

It was natural t1leretere, that the Cellector was met

w1 th the "m• st determined eppe ei tton ot mi raedars (de sp1 te)

mere tban a year of :f'ruitless discussien. tbere:f'ere (lle}

remeved to the taluk of '.f1ruvadi at eppeelte extremity •••

Here I found tbe same general bostility te the system

but unaccempan1ed by the .sed1tleus spirit vll1cb a pre­

longed and successful opposition had generated in 69

Sirka.li.u In part as a reeu.lt ef th1e eppesltien,

the E..etlecter did net illplement a cemprellensive valu&.tion

of all the fields tn individual villages, f1xlng in its s~ (

&rGss aase sement en the vllla&e as a wla.ole and dl v 1dir1&

this assessaent en individual fields. The survey of the

district and the division of the assessment on the fields

of the villages that had beefurveyed, was incomplete

wllen the geve rnment halted the survey and settlement. 70

63. TDR Vol.42l7, pn.l05-242 1

Collector te BOR December 24,1830

.69. Ibid.

70. BOR May 2 1 1:331.

- 392 -

In 1959-60, tbe aettamfaileal settlement was

extended te the v1llaiee which were ·etlll under the

uluncu settlement, with a resultin& increase ef revenue

demand. However, a centrlbutery tacter 1n the delaY 1n

cenductini a ryotwari survey in fllaJlj avur (meet of the

ether districts of Madras .1-residency llad already been

settled), was the fear of a similar pretestf Rfllere is

ne district (except1ni Malabar and S.utb. Csnara) where a

new survey and eettle.ment could cause such intense exctte­

m~nt and such wlde~read disturbance •t the value of

property."71 The debate regarain, tbe 1mplementat1en et

a. ryotwari survey continued Ln the celontal bureaucracy

frGm 1360 te ld90; it was alee influenced by the ep1nten

that no new extent ef cultivated land would be breu&ht te

account by the survey since the 1327 eurvey had already

uncovered a censiderable extent of cultivated land and

that newly cultivated would in any case have been ef

peerer quality since tlle delta was already intensively

cultivated.

Tlae pretests of the mtraeda.re aialnst the

rise in the rates or land rev~nue demand subsequent to

the ryotwar1 settlement of 1893 were, however, ma1nly

71. BOR Ju lll 19,1973 Ne. 756

- 393 -

cent1ned te pet1t1on1nc tbe cevernment re&ard1n& tae

inaccuracy ef t:te cla.sa1f1cat1en ef sells, ef the

results of crep experiments te estimate the produce

ef particular types ef se118, ef the calcula.t1en ef ' 72

the coste of cult1 vatien and e& on. T1le refusal te

JLal' tbe revenue demand, whick was charaeter1stic ef

the f1rst half of the nineteenth century, and dese.r­

t1~n of villa~es whtcb 0ccurred durin& tb.e t1rat

decade ef colonial rule, were ne lenaer tbe expression

ef pretest. The pet1t1•ns broucht little mtt1&at1en

tn the excessive increase tn the revenue demand, but

1t 1s s1gn1ficant that the pmtests of the mirasdare

against revenue e.xactiens were chs.nnelised threu&Ja

f•rmal •rgan1eat1one of m1rasdare at the district

and taluk level, thus reflecting the censcieus

ergantaatiene ef mtraa sections of the landewa1ni

class, which balf a century later were depleyed net

~ -~--------·------------------------

72. Fer a detailed account •f the ae pl\tte ste

See BOR ( Settlement ) July 7,1891 No.392 Press

BOB1Settlement) September 15,1896; and

letter from Secretary ef State fer India te

Govern~r in Ce11Dc11 Fert st .Geerie ,Indian

Office London .I1ly 30,1896 Ne .11 Revenue.

- 394-

a&atast celeata.l revenue e:xtrS)tten but a.&ainst tlle

••vemeat •f the acrlcultural labeurtn& peeple •f 73

Tllanj a.vur.

__________________________________ , ________ _

73. Men~n (1979)