3.0 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS INFORMATION; DECISION MAKING AND MANGING COMPONENTS OF...

3.0 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

INFORMATION; DECISION MAKING AND MANGING COMPONENTS OF

INFORMATION SYSTEMS

3.1 Information

• Information is data that is processed in a form which helps the management to take decisions.

• A particular information system collects raw data; processes and presents it for use

NOTE

Information systems contain human and material resources

Information...

• The relation of data to information is that of raw material to finished product

• It is important to note that information to one person may be data to another one

Information

• Currently information is structured into models for planning and decision making

• It is incorporated into measurements of performance and profitability

• It is integrated into product design and marketing methods

• Generally; information is recognized and treated as an asset

Information

NOTE:

• An asset is something with great value to an organization

• Information is an important asset that some companies have ceased to exist due to loss of important information files

Information..

• People can use organized data to make decisions

• Each organization needs information for daily operations

• Information can be categorized into internal and external information

Information..i. Internal Information: It is the type of

information generated within the organization

• Internal information is a result of general business transactions and generates reports, minutes, action plans.

• Internal information can be communicated from one person to another through communication networks.

Information..

• Internal information can either be formal or informal.

• It is formal if it is produced along the organizational structure (formal lines of command).

• Formal information includes; management reports, management audits, meetings etc

Information..

• Internal information is informal if it is generated outside the structured line of command of an organization

• Conversations, gossips and observations are few examples of informal information.

Information..

• Both formal and informal internal information is important for the day to day operations of the organization.

• However; managers should be very careful when dealing with informal information

Information..

ii. External Information: It is the information extracted from the organization’s external environment.

• External information is particularly useful in decision making.

• External information can either be formal or informal information.

Information..

• Information services, trade publications, industry consultants and forums are examples of formal information in this category.

• Networking, tradeshows and personal contacts are examples of informal information

Information..• External and internal Information flows

through internal and external communication networks

3.2 Information Systems and Decision Making Process

• A decision is a conclusion or resolution reached after a consideration.

• It is an action or a process of deciding.

• It is the opinion/judgment reached after considerable discussion

Decision Making..

• A decision is a choice between controversial alternatives.

• It is a choice because one has to choose between two or more paths of action, and controversial because one is initially at least unsure which path holds more promise

Decision Making..

• Decision Making is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on values and preferences of the decision maker

• Decision making is the process of making choices from a given set of alternatives

• A decision maker is the person who makes decisions

Decision Making..

• When making decisions it is important to weigh choices you have in terms of their consequences.

• Decision making process involves information gathering so as to reduce uncertainty.

• It should be noted that uncertainty is only reduced rather than eliminated.

Decision Making..

• Very few decisions are made with absolute certainty due to changing conditions occurring within and outside the organization.

• Thus each decision involves an element risk.

• A decision maker should choose an alternative with the highest probability of success and the one that best fits with organizational goals.

Types of Decision

It is very difficult to categorize decisions, however decisions can be structured or unstructured.

i. Structured decision

• Structured decisions are repetitive, routine and involve a definite procedure for handling them.

• They are frequently made that a set of procedure has been developed to assist the decision maker in the process.

Types of Decision ii. Unstructured decision• Unstructured decisions are those which

just require judgment, insight and evaluation.

• They do not have defined procedures set to assist the decision maker in decision making process.

• These decisions are made to unique and non-recurring situation. They solve problems with no cut-and- dried solution.

Types of Decision

Structured and unstructured decisions give the decision maker a number of alternatives from which a decision can be made;

• Decision “whether” enforces the decision maker to make a yes/no or either/or choice

• Decision “which” enforces one to select the best alternative from the list of alternatives.

Decision Making Environments

Decision can be made in certain; risk; and uncertain environments or circumstances.

i. Certain Environments.• Certain environment exists when

information is sufficient to predict the results of each alternative in advance of implementation.

• Certainty is the ideal problem solving and decision making environment.

Decision Making Environments..

ii. Risk Environments.

• Risk environment exists when decision makers lack complete certainty regarding the outcomes of various courses of actions, but they can assign probabilities of occurrence.

• Probabilities can be assigned through objective statistical procedures or personal intuition.

Decision Making Environments..

iii. Uncertain Environments.

• Uncertain environment exist when managers have so little information that they cannot even assign probabilities to various alternatives and possible outcomes.

• Uncertainty forces decision makers to rely on individual and group creativity to succeed in problem solving.

Decision Making Models

i. Classical Decision Theory• Classical decision theory views the decision

maker as acting in a world of complete certainty.

• The classical decision maker faces a clearly defined problem, knows all possible action alternatives and their consequences, and chooses the optimum alternative

• The model is often used to show how managers should make decisions. However the model does not fit in a chaotic world

Decision Making Models..

ii. Behavioral Decision Theory.

• Behavioral decision theory accepts a world with bounded rationality and views the decision maker as acting only in terms of what he/she perceives about a given situation.

• It recognizes that human beings operate with cognitive limitations and bounded rationality.

Decision Making Models..

• The behavioral decision maker faces a problem that is not clearly defined

• The decision maker has limited knowledge of possible action alternatives and their consequences and chooses a satisfactory alternative.

• The model fits with a chaotic world of uncertain conditions and limited information

The Decision Making Process

So as to make rational decision one has to go through six common steps;

i. Problem identification• Any decision making process must start by

identifying and defining the problem to be solved.

• A well defined problem can be easily solved.

• It is important to note that a problem will only be identified after noting that the operation is not normal.

The Decision Making Process..

ii. Identify the alternatives

• Once a problem has been identified and defined it is possible to brainstorm for tentative solutions to the problem.

• These alternatives can solve the problem.


iii. Evaluating the alternatives

• Evaluate all alternatives brainstormed in terms of their consequences.

• SWOT can be useful in evaluating the list of alternatives.

• SWOT analysis analyses the Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats associated with each alternative.


• It can also necessary to consider the impact of the external environment, PEST analysis is useful.

• One has to analyze the Political, Economic, Social and Technological influences to the decision.

• Make sure you have adequate information of each alternative


iv. Choose from the Evaluated Alternatives

• Choose the alternative which can solve the problem.

• The alternative should be the best one and relevant to the organizational goals.

• It should known that this is not the final decision as it can be changed once proved otherwise.


v. Implementing the Alternatives

• The chosen alternative can be implemented


vi. Monitoring

• It is important to monitor the effectiveness of the decision made.

• If the alternative implemented does not reduce or eliminate the problem (when the solution does not work) the decision maker should give it more time, change it slightly, try another alternative or start over.

Factors Affecting Decision Making Process

There are several factors affecting decision making process, these are:

i. Individual factors: individual factors like personality variables, perceptions, attitudes to risks, ethics and values influence decision making.

ii. Decision context: the nature of the

decision to be made (whether structured or unstructured) influence the decision making process. Structured decisions are easily made than unstructured decisions.

Factors Affecting Decision Making Process

iii. Organizational Context: The organizational politics, climate and culture can strongly shape the nature of the decision making process.

3.3 Information and Communication Systems: Management Issues

Management issues with respect to hardware:

• Whether to use latest hardware. It is easy to be attracted by the promotional literature about a new technical development, but much harder to show that the benefits will justify the investment.

• Which applications will have the greatest effect on productivity or other competitive factors?

Management Issues

• Whether to provide all mobile staff with PCs that enable them to remain connected to office and colleagues all the time.

• Whether to invest directly in computer systems, or to buy these services from other companies.

Management Issues

Management issues with respect to software:

• Whether to obtain software by buying an off-the-shelf package or investing in having it custom-made to suit specific requirements.

• How fully to involve users in such decisions.

• How much customization can be possible? For example, can departments use software to suit their needs or should they commercial software?

Management IssuesManagement issues with respect to

telecommunications are:

• How to increase speed of telecommunications to expand the business or to support the existing business more effectively.

• Is it important to link many business units together, is it managerially wise to do so?

Management Issues

Management issues with respect to database technologies are:

• Whether to develop a fully integrated customer database to enable more effective marketing.

• How to balance the advantages of this with possible ethical issues of privacy and data protection.

Management IssuesManagement issues with respect to people

include:• Does the system encourage motivation and

commitment of staff to enter data accurately and to use it appropriately.

• Does the system provide options for feedback?

• How well the IS meets their expectations?

Management IssuesManagement issues with respect to

procedure include:

• Whether the procedures around an IS mirror earlier procedures or differ from them.

• Whether staffs see them as supporting their established ways of working.

• Whether the procedures should be flexible or inflexible

Securing Information Systems

• Information System security is important in preventing attackers from achieving their objectives through unauthorized access or unauthorized use of an information system.

• Security ensures confidentiality, integrity, availability of information and safety of elements of the information system


Security prevents computer and network from:

• Vulnerability: a weakness that may be exploited, the state of being vulnerable or exposed

• Threat: an event or action that may cause harm


• Risk: the probability that a threat will exploit a vulnerability leading to damage

• Countermeasures: actions (technology, procedures, etc.) that eliminate or reduce vulnerability or threat.


Security Ensures;

• Confidentiality: Concealment of information or resources

• Integrity: Trustworthiness of data or resources,

• Availability: Ability to use information or resources


Why do we Need Network Security?• Increased reliance on Information technology

with or with out the use of networks• The use of IT has changed our lives drastically. • We depend on E-mail, Internet banking, and

several other governmental activities that use IT


• Increased use of E-Commerce and the World wide web on the Internet as a vast repository of various kinds of information (immigration databases, flight tickets, stock markets etc.)

• Damage to any IT-based system or activity can result in severe disruption of services and losses


• Systems connected by networks are more prone to attacks and also suffer more as a result of the attacks than stand-alone systems


Security Attacks and ThreatsSecurity attack is any action that compromises

the security of information. Security attacks can be in the form of:

• Interruption: This is an attack on availability of information, it disrupts traffic and causes physical breaking of communication line


• Interception: This is an attack on confidentiality

• Modification: This is an attack on integrity, corrupting transmitted data or tampering with it before it reaches its destination


Attacks can be either passive or active;• Passive attacks cause no modification of

content. • Active attacks can cause modification of

content, contents may be modified during transmission


Security threat is a potential for violation of security or a possible danger that might exploit vulnerability. Security threats can be in the form of:

• Disclosure: unauthorized access to information• Deception: acceptance of false data• Disruption: interruption or prevention of correct

operation• Usurpation- unauthorized control of some parts

of a system


Types of threatsThere are two major types of threats;• Information access threats: these Intercept or

modify data on behalf of users who should not have access to that data e.g. corruption of data by injecting malicious code

• Service threats: these exploit service flaws in computers to inhibit use by legitimate uses e.g. disabling authentication


Fundamental threats can cause;

• Information leakage; disclosure of information to unauthorized parties

• Integrity violation; corruption of data or loss of data

• Denial of service; unavailability of system/service/network eg. Yahoo!, 2000, 1Gbps

• Illegitimate use

Securing Information SystemsSecurity Mechanism and Safeguards

• Security mechanism is designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a security attack.

• Safeguard is a countermeasure to protect against a threat.

• Security service enhances the security of data processing systems and information transfers.

• .


• A security service makes use of one or more security mechanisms


Limiting Attacks to Information Systems

Various techniques can be employed in protecting information systems and networks from threats and attacks. Some of the commonly techniques employed are;

• Policies; frequent changes of passwords, educating people on how to adhere to security issues


• Software controls; access limitations in data base, in operating system, use of user accounts

• Hardware controls; smartcard, allowing only authorized people to enter server rooms

• Physical controls; control of the information system assets against physical damage.

4.0 INFORMATION GATHERING, STORAGE AND PRESENTATION

4.1 Information Gathering• Information gathering is a process by which

information resources are brought together to serve a certain purpose.

• The process ensures that organizations have adequate; relevant; and sufficient information for day to day operations.

Information Gathering

Information gathering process is a multistage process; it is effectively done if the following stages are involved:– identification of the information needs– identification of the sources of information– search for information– determining information storage strategies


a) Identification of Information Needs • Information need is the gap in a person’s

knowledge that when experienced at a conscious level as a question gives rise to a search for an answer. Information needs can be in three levels;

Information GatheringDelitescent/Dormant Information Need• At this level the user of information is not

aware of the existence of information need, but information service providers may be able to bring to light those needs

Unexpressed Information Needs• It is this level of need the information, the

user is aware of the existence of information need but has not expressed the need.


Expressed Information Need• This is the highest level of information need

where the information user articulates his or her information need and finds appropriate sources.


The following factors influence one’s information needs:– Individual’s work roles and tasks– Field of study or discipline– Level of education– Age of the information user– Sex of the information user– Physical environment (rural v/s urban)


b) Identification of Sources of Information• An information sources is a point where

information originates.• It can be a person, published or unpublished

material, and event and so on. Sources may be published or unpublished, formal or informal, documentary or non documentary, computerized, print, oral, audio, video sources etc.


• Information sources fall under four major types including the primary, secondary, tertiary and non documentary sources.

Primary Sources of Information• Primary sources of information are the

original sources of information.• It is the original point where the information

originates.


• It consists of first published records of original and development or description of new application or description.

• Information in primary sources is usually not filterer and has the original idea.

• This includes the latest available information.

Information GatheringSecondary Sources of Information• Secondary sources of information are those

which are either complied from or referred to primary sources of information.

• They contain information extracted from primary sources; information filtered, modified, selected or reorganized so as to serve a definite purpose.

• Abstracts, graphs, tables etc. are examples of secondary sources of information.


Tertiary Sources of Information• These contain information distilled and

collected from primary and secondary sources.

• They usually aid the information seeker on how to use primary and secondary sources.

• Bibliographies and directories are examples of tertiary sources.


Non Documentary Sources• These provide information which other

sources do not.• They can be formal or informal. • Formal sources include information from

organizations, governments, departments, etc. • Informal sources include conversation with

friends, colleagues, visitors etc.


c) Information Searching• After the identification of appropriate sources

of information one has to search for information so as to meet the information need.

• Information searching process has a number of elements which include:

Information Gathering– Searcher: person with information need or

intermediary who interprets the requests and translates it into the language of the search system being used.

– Search formulation: it is a complex phase of the search process, sources to be searched are to be identified, parts of the records to be searched are to be identified too.

– Search software/search engine must be identified if one is in an online environment


d) Information Storage Strategies• It is important to identify the different formats

of information before thinking of the appropriate storage technology.

• Information can be in print, electronic, graphic and magnetic formats etc. cabinets and shelves can be used to store print materials.


• Hard disks can store electronic information etc. one has to think of the storage capacity of the storage device; for print resources the physical space (measured in m3) is considered

• For electronic device, the disk space (bytes to exabytes) is considered.

4.2 Electronic Information Collection, Storage and Retrieval

Electronic Information Collection, Storage and Retrieval

Electronic Information Collection• Information (usually a file) which can be

stored in the form of electrical signals, usually on a computer, Information available on the internet.

• Electronic resources can only be accessed if there is power.


• Like print resources, electronic resources have four phases in their life time.

• Active phase which starts at creation and goes no to when the information is highly used, it is the time when information resources are organized, indexed and modified so as to improve the level of usage.

• The Semi active phase follows, during the time the level of use of information is low.


• The inactive phase occurs when the information resource is not used or rarely used.

• These information resources enter into the last phase where they are either preserved or discarded.


Storage of Electronic Information• Unlike print resources electronic resources are

stored in computerized devices. • Databases, CD ROMs and hard disks are used

to store electronic information. • Choice of what device to be used depends

much on budget and level of technology employed by an organization.


• The size of electronic information stored in a given device depends much on the storage capacity of the device used.

• Storage device capacities range few bytes to exa-bytes

• Memory is the computer's working storage: it serves as its work table or desk.


• Primary storage includes the Read-Only Memory (ROM) and Random-Access Memory (RAM)

• Secondary storage or auxiliary storage, is memory external to the main body of the computer (CPU) where programs and data can be stored for future use.


Secondary storage has the following characteristics: – Nonvolatile storage– Permanent storage– Media: Portable or removable storage

media– Capacity: disk space determines the storage

capacity of the secondary storages.


• Secondary Storage devices can be either floppy disk drives or hard disks.

• Secondary storage is a nonvolatile memory. Information is lost only when you erase it.

• Magnetic disks are the most common type of secondary storage.

• They may be either floppy disks or hard disks (hard drives).

Databases

• A database is a collection of information stored on a computer/print directory in a systematic and structured way, which should facilitate information retrieval.

• It is a set of records or pieces of information about entities such as files, books, journals, articles or conference proceedings.

Databases

Why do we need a database?• Keep records of clients, staff, volunteers• Keep records of activities and interventions• Develop reports• Perform research

Databases

Forms of Databases• Databases can be print or computerized. • A telephone directory is an example of printed

database. • Students Information Management System is

an example of the computerized database.

Databases

Types of DatabasesThere are two main types of databases; • Non relational• Relational databases.

Non-Relational Databases• These place information in field categories

that one creates so that information is available for sorting and disseminating in the way one needs.

• The data in non-relational database is limited to that program and cannot be extracted and applied to a number of other software programs, or other database files within a school or administrative system.

Non-Relational Databases

• The data can only be "copied and pasted. “ Example: a spread sheet

Relational databases

• The database contains well structured data displayed in logical and showing relationships existing between data.

• It has a collection of tables that are related to one another based on a common field.

• It is developed based on a database model that provides for logical connections among files (known as tables) by including identifying data from one table in another table.

Relational and Non-Relational Databases

• Regardless of their form and type databases can store a lot of information

• Most organizations including banks, libraries, ministries and others have databases of customers, employees, books and information etc.

4.4 Information Retrieval

• Information Retrieval is the science of searching for information in documents, metadata which describe documents, or databases.

• It is a process that comes after identifying the information sources and formulating the search strategies.

Information Retrieval..

• It is a communication process; authors/creators or information specialists submit their data and information in storage devices, information seekers consult storage devices for retrieving information.

• It ends up finding some desired information in a storage place or a database

Information Retrieval Process

• The process is possible when the information user consults an information retrieval system which is linked to the information source.

• The information retrieval system is a device interposed between a potential user of information and the information collection itself (information source).

• There are manual and automatic information retrieval systems

Information Retrieval Process• This system informs on the existence (or non-

existence) and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.

• Information-retrieval systems typically allow query expressions formed using keywords using the logical connectives AND, OR, and NOT

• These connectives help the information retrieval system to rank documents on the basis of estimated relevance to a query.

Measuring Retrieval Effectiveness

• Information retrieval systems are usually evaluated on the basis of their ability to select relevant documents and reject those that are irrelevant.

• Relevance ranking; precision and recall measure the effectiveness of an information retrieval system.

Measuring Retrieval Effectivenessi. Relevance RankingRelevance ranking is based on factors such as:• Term frequency (the frequency of occurrence

of query keyword in document)• Inverse document frequency (how many

documents the query keyword occurs in) • Hyperlinks to documents (the more links to a

document are the more relevant the document is)

Relevance Ranking..

Information-retrieval systems use index structures that support only approximate retrieval. •It is thus possible to have:

– False negative (false drop) - some relevant documents may not be retrieved.

– False positive - some irrelevant documents may be retrieved.

Relevance Ranking..

• An effective and efficient information retrieval system should not permit any false drops, but may permit a few false positives.

Precision and Recall

ii. Precision and Recall• Precision and recall are important measures

of efficiency and effectiveness of an information retrieval system.

• These measures create assess the difference between the number of items retrieved and the number of relevant items in the database

Precision and Recall

• Precision as the fraction of retrieved documents that are relevant.

Precision = # (Relevant Items Retrieved)

# (Retrieved Items) • Precision can be expressed in percentage

Recall as the fraction of relevant documents that are retrieved.

Recall = # (Relevant Items Retrieved) # (Relevant Items)

5.0 INFORMATION PRESENTATION AND EFFECTIVE MEETING

5.1 Information Presentation• Information presentation is a kind of

communication between the speaker and the audience.

• Presentation can be done for informing, persuading, entertaining and training purposes.

• Presentations transfer knowledge and understanding, introduce results, start discussions/brainstorming or entertaining.

Information Presentation Generally presentations are made in order;• demonstrate a service , product or system• create an image or strategy• entertain colleagues or outside people• sell a concept, product or idea• represent a group, company or department• promote an attitude or way of working• suggest a solution or new concept

Information Presentation..

• Information presentation as a kind of communication process must be done for a specific purpose, to defined audience and in a certain situation.

• First of all one should know the needs of the audience.

• This can help one identify the purpose for information presentation.


The following are the stages to consider for a successful presentation;

• Set your objective• Plan the presentation• Prepare the materials• Rehearse and practice

Information Presentation

Settings a Location of the Presentation• Dictates the level of formality• Seating arrangement, size and shape of the

room, size of the audience• Identify the medium you use and the size of

your visuals required• Identifying locations of cameras/sound

systems/screens etc


Types of PresentationsThere are various types of presentations some

of the common ones are the following:• Public hearings• Large meetings or conferences• Political briefings• Training sessions for partners• Seminars for staff


• Technology facilitates information presentation

• The type of technology to be employed depends much on the type of presentation and size of audience one has

Presentation Methodologies

The following are some of the methodologies used to present information to audience;

(a) Visuals: Including charts, models, objects, electronic media, Power Point Presentation, HTML, DVD/Video, Pictures scanned/Internet) and Drawings


Preparing/Designing Visuals:• Size of visuals• Can everyone see the photo, object or the

lettering style/size• Power Point Presentation; consider the size

(24 Font Minimum), slide design etc.• Take time to try out equipment like projector,

computer, remote mouse, overhead, DVD, video etc.

Presentation Methodologies..

For video conferencing/television programs one should consider the following:•Wear dark/soft colors, avoid bold, bright colors, bright yellow and red•Maintain eye-contact, focus on the camera, focus on local audience•Allow for slight audio delay•Remain within camera and audio range


(b) Verbal The IT personnel must consider:

• Speech Fillers• Vocal variety (pitch/volume)• Speedy speakers

Presentation Methodologies..

(c) Non verbal • Body language; posture, hand gestures,

facial expressions, eye contact, dress/appearance, body movement/use etc.

• Positions of cameras

5.2 MEETINGS: COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES IN MEETINGS

3.0 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS INFORMATION; DECISION MAKING AND MANGING COMPONENTS OF...

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