3 -Association Between Caregiving, Meaning in Life,

Association Between Caregiving, Meaning in Life,and Life Satisfaction Beyond 50 in an Asian Sample:Age as a Moderator

Rebecca P. Ang Jiaqing O

Accepted: 13 June 2011 / Published online: 21 June 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract The association between caregiving, meaning in life, and life satisfaction wasexamined in sample of 519 older Asian adults beyond 50 years of age. Two hierarchical

multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine age as moderator of the associ-

ations between caregiving, meaning in life, and life satisfaction. Age moderated the

association between caregiving and life satisfaction; the association between caregiving

and life satisfaction was statistically significant for the middle adulthood group but not for

the late adulthood group. Age moderated the association between meaning in life and life

satisfaction; the association between meaning in life and life satisfaction was statistically

significant for both groups, but it was stronger in magnitude for the late adulthood group

compared to the middle adulthood group. These findings highlight that there are certain

key developmental tasks encountered by individuals at the middle and late adulthood

stages, and that these distinctive relevant tasks at various developmental stages differen-

tially predict individuals life satisfaction in an Asian sample.

Keywords Caregiving Meaning in life Life satisfaction Older adults

1 Introduction

Interest in caregiving issues grew, in part due to the sheer number of grandparents in the

United States who were staying with and actively caring for their grandchildren (US Census

Bureau 2000). Typically, grandparents become custodians of their grandchildren because

their adult children had a divorce, had substance abuse issues or were incarcerated (Goh

2009). Studies typically examined the burden and negative consequences of grandparent

caregivers (Goh 2009). Disproportionately few studies have examined grandparenting or

R. P. Ang (&)Division of Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Nanyang TechnologicalUniversity, 14 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637332, Singaporee-mail: [email protected]

J. ODepartment of Psychology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

123

Soc Indic Res (2012) 108:525534DOI 10.1007/s11205-011-9891-9

caregiving by older persons in relation to positive correlates such as life satisfaction. In a

related body of literature on caregiving, often studied areas were issues such as the burden

experienced by caregivers of older adults with some form of affliction (e.g., Brazil et al.

2003; Okamoto and Harasawa 2009). Most of these studies investigated caregiving for olderadults rather than caregiving by older adults (Varona et al. 2007). There are a few studiesthat have started to examine issues of caregiving by older adults, but more research isneeded in investigating the relationship between caregiving and positive aspects such as life

satisfaction. More information is needed to understand such relationships older adults.

Meaning in life is at the very core of human existence and is highly influential in

determining a persons well-being (Tali et al. 2009). Frankl (1963) asserted that emotional

distress will eventuate if one experienced an absence of meaning in life. Older adults who

reported a sense of meaning in life felt more energized, were eager to embrace life in a

purposeful manner, and were more likely to have a longer life span as compared to those

with diminished meaning in life (Krause 2009). While researchers have paid increasing

attention to the relationship between meaningfulness and life satisfaction among people in

middle and late adulthood, the emphasis has largely neglected studying this relationship

from a non-Western cultural viewpoint using non-Western samples (Steger et al. 2008).

Stern and Kalof (1996) argue that theory building and science gains credibility when

generalizability of existing findings is possible, and this is made possible when similar

findings emerge from studies that use different procedures, populations or observers.

There is a consistently high positive correlation between general health and life satis-

faction. There are numerous studies showing empirical evidence that general health is

predictive of heightened life satisfaction (e.g., Borg et al. 2008; Gwozdz and Sousa-Poza

2010). Across studies, it appears that general health is predictive of life satisfaction in both

impaired and non-impaired adults in middle and late adulthood. Therefore, to strengthen

the studies investigating predictors of life satisfaction, researchers should control for

general health.

1.1 Eriksons Theory

During middle adulthood individuals face the psychosocial crisis of generativity versus

stagnation, in which the key developmental task is generativitycontributing to society

and helping to guide future generations (Santrock 2008). Individuals in late adulthood

encounter the crisis of integrity versus despair (Santrock 2008). A sense of integrity

develops if it is felt that life has been well-lived and productive. Eriksons theory posits

that individuals in late adulthood are more concerned with issues relating to the kinds of

meaning one can get from earlier phases in ones life compared to those in middle

adulthood. Therefore, regret resolution and making sense of life as a whole is a central

feature of integrity in late adulthood. On the other hand, individuals in middle adulthood

are more concerned with tasks such as caregiving, construed as mentoring and developing

the next generation, compared to those in late adulthood. Eriksons different psychosocial

crises that present to individuals in distinctive developmental stages were postulated to

variedly and significantly influence individuals subjective well-being across cultures (Cote

and Levine 2002).

1.2 Applying Eriksons Theory: Caregiving and Life Satisfaction

Although early findings were not always consistent (e.g., McAdams et al. 1993; Ryff and

Heincke 1983), there is increasing evidence corroborating Eriksons theory in recent

526 R. P. Ang, J. O

123

research. Generative behaviors were shown to be greater among those in middle adulthood

as compared to those in young or late adulthood (e.g., Miner-Rubino et al. 2004).

McAdams (2006) aptly observed that while measurement differences and variability within

age groups are influential, the general trend appeared to be that generativity increases from

young adulthood to reach a peak in middle adulthood and declines in the later years

similar to what Erikson had originally proposed.

Previous research has shown midlife generativity to be positively related to an interest

in fulfilling intergenerational roles, of which caregiving is key (Peterson 2002). In recent

studies, correlates of midlife generativity were also examined. Generativity was evidenced

to be linked with positive emotionality and satisfaction with both work and life in general,

and its contribution to satisfaction was suggested to be greater in middle adulthood

(Ackerman et al. 2000). Generally, research points towards generative behaviors such as

caregiving having a positive relationship to life satisfaction, and that this relationship

appears to be stronger and more salient for individuals in middle adulthood. However, to

the best of our knowledge, there have been no studies examining caregiving by older adults

and life satisfaction in an Asian sample.

1.3 Applying Eriksons Theory: Meaning in Life and Life Satisfaction

Early research showed that individuals in late adulthood considered themselves as having

more integrity compared to what they remembered of themselves some time ago, while

those in young and middle adulthood expected themselves to have more integrity in late

adulthood as opposed to their own evaluation currently (Ryff and Heincke 1983). Simi-

larly, Torges et al. (2008) reported that people who had resolved their regrets in middle

adulthood had greater integrity than those who did not 9 years later, those who had

resolved their regrets in their 60 s also had greater concurrent levels of integrity.

Studies have been conducted to examine integrity in late adulthood and correlates of

integrity. Research studies have demonstrated a positive association between integrity and

enhanced life satisfaction in diverse samples such as male retirees and well-educated

women who had graduated from prestigious colleges in the 1960s (Lowis and Rauben-

heimer 1997; Torges et al. 2009). Successful resolution of Eriksons eighth stage occurs

when the individual can accept what has gone before as inevitable and satisfying. Torges

et al. (2008) found that older adults were more likely to resolve regrets than younger adults,

and that successful regret resolution contributed significantly to better adjustment, greater

well-being, and lower levels of rumination. Collectively, it appears that individuals at late

adulthood are better able to successfully resolve issues in their lives and those who are able

to do so have a greater sense of meaning and are more satisfied. Interestingly and relatedly,

Bohlmeijer and colleagues have found that for older adults, integrative reminiscence and

life review which is a process by which individuals reconcile discrepancies and resolve

past conflicts, has been shown to enhance well being and life satisfaction (Bohlmeijer et al.

2007, 2008). Likewise, the relationship between meaning in life and life satisfaction among

those in middle and late adulthood has not been explored in an Asian sample.

1.4 Present Study and Hypotheses

The aim of this study was to examine the association between caregiving, meaning in life,

and life satisfaction in a sample of older Asian adults beyond 50 years of age We

hypothesized the following: (a) Controlling for general health and gender, age will mod-

erate the positive association between caregiving and life satisfaction, and this effect will

Caregiving, Meaning in Life, and Life Satisfaction 527

123

be stronger for those in middle adulthood than for those in late adulthood; (b) Controlling

for general health and gender, age will moderate the positive association between meaning

in life and life satisfaction, and this effect will be stronger for those in late adulthood than

for those in middle adulthood.

2 Method

2.1 Participants

The total sample consisted of 519 Asian participants between the ages of 51 and 84

(M = 61.13, SD = 6.40) who were categorized into the middle adulthood and lateadulthood groups for subsequent analyses. Adults 50 years of age and older were invited to

participate in an anonymous study through the help of a leading non-profit organization in

Singapore who organizes programs and activities for older persons in the community. The

age of the 376 adults in the middle adulthood group (168 males, 206 females, 2 did not

specify gender) ranged from 51 to 64 years (M = 57.88, SD = 3.16). Self-reported ethnicidentification for this group was as follows: 80.3% of the participants were Chinese, 4.3%

were Indian, 13.8% were Malay, 1.6% endorsed Others. Of these, 86% were married, 5.8%

were divorced, 5.3% were single/never married, and 2.9% were widowed. 62.3% had at

least a high school diploma.

The late adulthood group comprised 143 adults (68 males, 75 females) between the ages

of 65 and 84 (M = 70.01, SD = 4.59). Self-reported ethnic identification for this group wasas follows: 81.6% of the participants were Chinese, 3.3% were Indian, 11.7% were Malay,

3.4% endorsed Others. Of these, 75.5% were married, 1.4% were divorced, 4.2% were

single/never married, and 18.9% were widowed. 52.5% had at least a high school diploma.

2.2 Measures

2.2.1 Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ)

The MLQ (Steger et al. 2006) measures presence of, and the search for, meaning in life.

Participants rated items on a Likert scale from 1 (Absolutely untrue) to 7 (Absolutely true).Higher scores indicate greater meaning in life. The MLQ yields two scores, Presence

(5 items) and Search (5 items). Only the MLQ-Presence scale was used in this study. The

Cronbach alpha reliability estimate obtained for the present sample was .82.

2.2.2 Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)

This 5-item SWLS (Diener et al. 1985) measures global cognitive judgments of satisfaction

with ones life. Participants rated items on a Likert scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7(Strongly agree). The SWLS yields one total score, and higher scores indicate greater lifesatisfaction. The present samples Cronbach alpha reliability estimate was .87.

2.2.3 General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12)

The GHQ-12 (Goldberg and Williams 1988) contains 12 items that measure short-term

change in mental health and in levels of psychological functioning. Responses are given on

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a 4-point scale, ranging from better than usual to much less than usual. The GHQ-12yields one total score with higher scores indicating worse conditions. The Cronbach alpha

reliability estimate for the present sample was .73

2.2.4 Caregiving

We asked respondents on their caregiving involvement. Caregiving was defined as care for

children from birth through 12 years of age in a range of activities such as physical care for

the young, playing with the children, helping children with schoolwork, and giving advice

to children. Slightly more than half the sample from both middle (52.6%) and late

adulthood (54.9%) groups was involved in some type of caregiving. Of those who indi-

cated that they were involved with caregiving, a majority (middle = 84%; late = 87%)

cared for their grandchildren or grand nieces/nephews, while the remainder cared for

neighbors children/grandchildren or others. For the purposes of this study, this variable

was analyzed as a dichotomous variablepresence or absence of caregiving involvement.

2.3 Consent and Procedure

Division of Psychology Ethics Committee at Nanyang Technological University, approved

the study. Participation was voluntary and written informed consent was obtained from all

participants. Two versions of the questionnaire were used. The original version is in

English because English is the main language of commerce and instruction in Singapore.

No translation is typically necessary, but because this study sampled an older population, a

Mandarin option was also available. The translated Mandarin version used two forward

translations and one independent backward translation. Discrepancies were identified and

items reworded where necessary. More than half the respondents (middle = 60.1%;

late = 55.9%) chose to complete the questionnaire in English. Respondents who com-

pleted the English and Mandarin versions did not differ on age, the moderator variable to

be tested (t = -.548, p [ .05), and did not differ on life satisfaction, the dependent var-iable in this study (t = -1.82, p [ .05). Questionnaires were administered to older adultsattending the non-profit voluntary welfare organization for various activities and programs.

Participants could complete the questionnaire at their own time. Data collection took place

over a period of 5 months and the return rates were 83.6 and 80.2% for the middle and late

adulthood groups respectively.

2.4 Analytic Procedure

Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 17. A p-value of .01 was used todetermine statistical significance. Two hierarchical multiple regression analyses were

conducted. Age was dummy coded as 0 for middle adulthood (age 5164) and 1 for late

adulthood (age 6584). Caregiving was analyzed as a dichotomous variable with values of

1 and 0 representing those with and without caregiving involvement. Meaning in life as a

continuous variable was centered using the sample mean prior to creating and entering the

interaction term into the equation. For both analyses, general health and gender were

entered as control variables in Step 1 and life satisfaction was the dependent variable. The

main effect of caregiving and meaning in life were entered in Step 2 while the two-way

interactions were entered in Step 3 of the respective analyses. The testing, probing and

interpretation of interaction effects followed methods outlined by Aiken and West (1991).


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3 Results

Age group moderated the association between caregiving and life satisfaction, DR2 = .016,DF (1, 452) = 7.78, p \ .01. Detailed statistical results are presented in Table 1. The DR2

values highlight the amount of additional variance that can be explained over and above

what was explained in the previous step. In this instance, an additional 1.6% of the

variance could be explained by the two-way interaction, Age Group 9 Caregiving

Involvement, after accounting for the variance explained by the control variables and the

independent variables. The two-way interaction (Age Group 9 Caregiving Involvement)

was statistically significant, b = -.21, p \ .01. To interpret the interaction effect, weplotted separate regression lines for middle and late adulthood groups (Fig. 1), and tested

the significance of the simple slopes of the regression lines at single values of age

(0 = middle adulthood, 1 = late adulthood). The association between caregiving and life

satisfaction was statistically significant for the middle adulthood group, b = 1.73,t(456) = 2.89, p \ .01, but not for the late adulthood group, b = -1.55, t(456) = -1.54,p = .125.

Similarly, age group moderated the association between meaning in life and life satis-

faction, DR2 = .015, DF (1, 464) = 9.37, p \ .01. Detailed statistical results are presentedin Table 2. An additional 1.5% of the variance could be explained by the two-way inter-

action, Age Group 9 Meaning in Life, after accounting for the variance explained by the

control variables and the independent variables. The two-way interaction (Age Group 9

Meaning in Life) was statistically significant, b = .14, p \ .01. To interpret the interactioneffect, separate regression lines for both groups were plotted (Fig. 2). Likewise, the sig-

nificance of the simple slopes of the regression lines at single values of age (0 = middle

adulthood, 1 = late adulthood) were tested. The association between meaning in life and

life satisfaction was statistically significant for both groups, but it was stronger in magnitude

Table 1 Hierarchical multiple regression analysis: age group as moderator of the association betweencaregiving, and life satisfaction

Predictor measure and step b R2 DR2 DF

Step 1

General health -.07

Gender -.10 .016 .016 3.64

Step 2

General health -.07

Gender -.10

Age group .10

Caregiving involvement .09 .032 .016 3.78

Step 3

General health -.07

Gender -.09

Age group .24*

Caregiving involvement .15*

Age group 9 caregiving involvement -.21* .048 .016 7.78*

As a continuous variable, general health was centered using the sample mean prior to analysis. Gender, agegroup, and caregiving involvement were dichotomous variables

* p \ .01

530 R. P. Ang, J. O

123

for the late adulthood group, b = .72, t(463) = 9.60, p \ .01, compared to the middleadulthood group, b = .45, t(463) = 9.16, p \ .01.

4 Discussion

There were two major findings from this study. First, caregiving involvement and greater

life satisfaction was found only for Asian individuals in middle adulthood but not for

individuals in late adulthood. Second, Asian individuals in late adulthood, relative to those

28.21

26.61

25.09

26.87

24

25

26

27

28

29

10Caregiving

Life

Sat

isfa

ctio

n

LATE MIDDLE

Fig. 1 Regression lines forrelations between caregivinginvolvement and life satisfactionas moderated by age group

Table 2 Hierarchical multiple regression analysis: age group as moderator of the association betweenmeaning in life, and life satisfaction

Predictor measure and step b R2 DR2 DF

Step 1

General health -.09

Gender -.10 .019 .019 4.52

Step 2

General health -.05

Gender -.04

Age group .11*

Meaning in life .51* .281 .262 83.87*

Step 3

General health -.05

Gender -.04

Age group .12*

Meaning in life .43*

Age group 9 meaning in life .14* .296 .015 9.37*

As continuous variables, general health and meaning in life were centered using the sample mean prior toanalysis. Gender and age group were dichotomous variables

* p \ .01


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AndutaHighlight

in middle adulthood, showed a stronger association between having meaning in life and

greater life satisfaction.

The first finding provides additional evidence of the applicability of Eriksons theory in

an Asian sample. As researchers have suggested, generative behaviors of which caregiving

is a prime example, peak during middle adulthood and declines in the later years

(McAdams 2006; Peterson 2002). It is during midlife that adults are most concerned with

caregiving, would find these activities relevant, and caregiving involvement was signifi-

cantly associated with life satisfaction. In contrast, caregiving involvement and having

greater life satisfaction was unrelated in individuals in late adulthood. As would be

expected, caregiving would be more salient in middle rather than in late adulthood.

It is interesting to note that for the second finding, we found statically significant

relationships between having meaning in life and greater life satisfaction for both middle

and late adulthood individuals, with individuals in the late adulthood group evidencing

stronger associations. Eriksons theory posits that individuals in late adulthood negotiate

the crisis of integrity versus despair, and at this stage, individuals are mostly concerned

with the kinds of meaning one can get from earlier phases in ones life. In line with

previous research (e.g., Torges et al. 2009), the present finding suggests that older adults

who have a sense of meaning in their lives also had enhanced life satisfaction. Addi-

tionally, because successful resolution of Eriksons eighth stage involves a cumulative

process of integrating and making sense of the meaning of life across previous stages, it is

of note that individuals at both middle and late adulthood experience the positive rela-

tionship between meaning in life and life satisfaction, and that this relationship is logically

stronger at the late adulthood stage.

One key implication arising from these findings is that for middle-adulthood Asian

adults, it is possible to consider their involvement in caregiving as an added resource in

contributing to the development and maintenance of their wellbeing and life satisfaction, if

they are relatively physically healthy. In the present study we controlled for general health

and gender, and found that caregiving involvement was significantly associated with life

satisfaction in middle but not in late adulthood. These findings have also provided addi-

tional evidence for the cross-cultural applicability of theories of development. Making

sense of life is a cumulative and integrative process and in line with Eiksons theory, older

Asian adults who have a sense of meaning in their lives also had enhanced life satisfaction

and this association was stronger in late adulthood.

25.6956

27.51

29.3244

24.846

25.98

27.114

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

2.52-2.52

Meaning in Life

Life

Sat

isfa

ctio

n

LATE MIDDLEFig. 2 Regression lines forrelations between meaning in lifeand life satisfaction as moderatedby age group

532 R. P. Ang, J. O

123

AndutaHighlight

Our findings need to be interpreted with these limitations in mind. Owing to the cross-

sectional design, causality cannot be determined. Also, we acknowledge that there may be

other potentially relevant moderators that we did not include in the study and did not

assess. Finally, these limitations notwithstanding, findings of the present study contribute

to a growing database of studies on wellbeing and life satisfaction of older persons which

becomes increasingly important as our world population ages at an accelerated rate.

Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Mr. Kok Tee Phua, CEO of SAGE, and two studentassistants Shihan Loh and Eileen Ong for their help.

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Association Between Caregiving, Meaning in Life, and Life Satisfaction Beyond 50 in an Asian Sample: Age as a ModeratorAbstractIntroductionEriksons TheoryApplying Eriksons Theory: Caregiving and Life SatisfactionApplying Eriksons Theory: Meaning in Life and Life SatisfactionPresent Study and Hypotheses

MethodParticipantsMeasuresMeaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ)Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12)Caregiving

Consent and ProcedureAnalytic Procedure

ResultsDiscussionAcknowledgmentsReferences

3 -Association Between Caregiving, Meaning in Life,

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