2,CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK - International …¼ŒCONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK In Vygotskian perspective,...

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」“o”king Pape’‘s JなoL 17(2009) 1’,’e〃,ご7’iona’{力,’1昭’rs’疋アofJapan Intersubjectivity and control in dyadic dialogic comm Mohammed Ahmed Internationa藍University of Japan Abs重rac重 This paper is comceptually motivated by tlle Vygo吐5kian sociocultur interlocutors in dyadic conver呈ations do much more than transfer or they creat巴 states of intersuヒLiectivity and control. The discussion fo analysis of 星he varying 1」se of personal pronouns in task-based con involving native and non■nativ巳speakers ofEnglish. 1.INTRODUCTION Conversational interaction has been a signif玉cant area i (SLR)since the l 980s. A main fbcus of thi3 research has been on t what is called negotiation of meaning. Theoretically, negoti notion of communication as transfer or exchange of infbmユati other words, it is assumed that when two individuals enter into a messagos. Negotiation of meaning is viewed as an attempt on the only exchange infbrmation but to ciarifンeach other’s messages. l as an important variable, Tasks whieh require obligatory supposed to provide more opportunities fbr negotiation of infbrmation is merely transferred from one interlocutor to meaning makes input comprehensible which facilitates languag The discussion in thls paper fbcuses on task-based co inΨolving nativc and non-native speakers of English. Howev alternative theoretical approach to conversational interactio more complex than transfbr or exchange of infbrmation、 This pap Vygotskian sociocultural theory,1which provides a different task, and the use of language. 正n terlns of speoific data and dis6ussi the linguistic feature of personal pronouns in dyadic discussion 2,CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK In Vygotskian perspective, communication invoIves in embedded in activlty, and language has reguZatory funetions. The has been discussed by Rommetveit(1985). Rommetveit makes 1

Transcript of 2,CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK - International …¼ŒCONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK In Vygotskian perspective,...

」“o”king Pape’‘s JなoL 17(2009)       1’,’e〃,ご7’iona’{力,’1昭’rs’疋アofJapan

Intersubjectivity and control in dyadic dialogic communication

Mohammed Ahmed

            Internationa藍University of Japan

Abs重rac重

This paper is comceptually motivated by tlle Vygo吐5kian sociocultural theory.民argue5 that

interlocutors in dyadic conver呈ations do much more than transfer or exchange informa1ion;

they creat巴 states of intersuヒLiectivity and control. The discussion focuses on a discourse

analysis of 星he varying 1」se of personal pronouns in task-based conversations of dyads

involving native and non■nativ巳speakers ofEnglish.

1.INTRODUCTION

     Conversational interaction has been a signif玉cant area in second language research

(SLR)since the l 980s. A main fbcus of thi3 research has been on the interactional feature of

what is called negotiation of meaning. Theoretically, negotiation of meaning entails the

notion of communication as transfer or exchange of infbmユation between interlocutors. In

other words, it is assumed that when two individuals enter into a dialog they send and receive

messagos. Negotiation of meaning is viewed as an attempt on the part of interlocutors to not

only exchange infbrmation but to ciarifンeach other’s messages. ln this context, task is seen

as an important variable, Tasks whieh require obligatory exchange of infbrmation are

supposed to provide more opportunities fbr negotiation of meaning than tasks in which

infbrmation is merely transferred from one interlocutor to another. Such negotiation of

meaning makes input comprehensible which facilitates language acquisition.

     The discussion in thls paper fbcuses on task-based conversationai interactions

inΨolving nativc and non-native speakers of English. However, it is motivated by an

alternative theoretical approach to conversational interaction which views such interaction as

more complex than transfbr or exchange of infbrmation、 This paper is conceptually rooted in

Vygotskian sociocultural theory,1which provides a different perspective on comrnunication,

task, and the use of language. 正n terlns of speoific data and dis6ussion, it analyses the use of

                    :

the linguistic feature of personal pronouns in dyadic discussions based on specific tasks.

2,CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

      In  Vygotskian  perspective, communication  invoIves intersubjectivity, task  is

embedded in activlty, and language has reguZatory funetions. The notion of intersuヒ,j ectivity

has been discussed by Rommetveit(1985). Rommetveit makes some important assumptions

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about human discourse in general. As he puts it,‘‘human discourse takes place and deals with

a pluralistic, only fragmentarily known, and on且y partially shared world”(p.183). Hence, as

pointed out by Wertsoh, a foremost Vygotskian scholar in the West in line with

Romlnetvelt’s vievv, it ls incorrect to assume that when tWo interlocutors begin a d ialog, they

already haΨe an‘‘agreed-upon fbundation fbr communication”in terms of‘‘background

knowledge”(Wertsch 1985:160). In fact, the interlocuters may beg{n with“different

perspectiΨes”or only a vague int釘pretation”of each other’s utterances;they do not s1mply

negotiate meaning in terms of infbrmation transfer/exchange, but engage in‘‘semiotically

mediated negotiatlon,’by which they create a“temporarily shared world”(Wertsch l 985:

16D. This shared wobld is what Rommetveit refers to as intersubjectivity.‘℃ommunication

aims a亡transcendence of the private worlds of the participants,,(Rommetve1t 1979:94).

Hence, in any investigation of verbal comr口unication, researchers should fbcus on such

social-interactionai features of communication as‘ξstates of intersubjectlvity”(Rommetveit

1985:183).

      Furthermore, the relationship between the two interlocutors in dyadic communication

is not to be seen ln terms of the sender and the receiver of messages but in terms of patterns

of dyadic communication controi,’(Rommetveit 1985:184). Theso patterns of control may be

symmetric or asymmetric. In the symmetric pattern, the』interlocutors are able to pr¢sent each

other,s private worlds freely based on their respective situation definitions. Situation

definition is in itself a key concept』t means、‘‘the way in which a setting or context is

represented-that is, defined-by those who are operating in that setting,’(Wertsch 1984:8).

Simply put, two interlocutors communicating in the same context and apparently doing the

same task may haΨe different perspectives and goals. In faot, the task may be understood by

the interlocutors difflerently from what the researcher has in mind. The v自ry use of the word

“de価tion”ln Wertsch’s(1979)“situation de価ition”means the participants engaged in

communicating with each other do not passively receive instructions from the researcher but

create their own instructions while defining the task fbr themselves.

      Coming back to patterns of control in dyadic communication, in maximally

symmetric dyadic comrnunication, there is‘‘unlimited inter-changeability,, of each other’s

private world. it is a communicative situatien in which both the participants feel equally

powerfu王. However, conditions fbr such‘‘pure inte rsu bj ect ivi ty,, rarely exist. In fact, in the

real world(a pluralistic sooia]world),‘‘due to unequai distribution of㎞owledge, power,”

dyadic communlcation is mostly characterized by asymmetric patterns(Rommetveit 1985:

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184).1n short, indlvidual interlocutors, depend量ng on thelr respective situation definitions,

experience variable power-relationships between each other.

     The asymmetric patterns of control emerge in a variable manner in, what is called, the

fヒatures of obj ect-regulation, o毛her-regulation, and selfLregu1ation ln the interlocutors’

behavior in a partioular task. The concept of regulation or control in relation to language

needs to be briefly explained.夏n other words, as Frawley(1987:147)puts it:the function of

language is‘‘the regulation of self, others, and objects in the social world.”In other words, as

Frawley explalns it, we use language to controt objeets in the extemal world(e.gりnaming an

object is the most e]emental function of language、 In social interactions, we use language to

control others;conversely, others may control us. Speeoh acts are typical examplcs. The most

critical fUnction of the language is self-regulation, i.e, we use language to regulate our self.

‘‘`ll self」direoted, monological utterances have this function.”In this context, private speech,

which is self:directed speech, may bo se巳n even is an individual is talking to another

individual may come up, depending on the nature of the activity they are engaged in. In this

contexちthe important research concems are whether the individual interlocutors are

regulating or controlling or being regula重ed or controlled in a task-s董tuatlon, whether an

individual interlocutor ls able to maintain self-regulation ln the presence of the other

interlocutor, whether an individual interlocutor becomes obj ect-regulated by the non-human

facts of the task. The element of task itSelf is embedded within an interlocutor’s situation

definit…on.

      In short, in Vygotskian psycholinguistic theory, communicatlon is not seen as a

channel consisting of two discrete points, a speaker and a listener, which are connected by a

oommunicative line, i.e,, the transfer of messages through words wrapped as packages. The

interlocutors as individual beings with their own situation definitions become the fbcus of

investigation. Further, their communication with each other is viewed in terms ofthe dyadic

states of intersubjectivity. And, finally, the relationship is analyzed in terms of the dynamics

ofoontrol.

      Given these theoretioal foci, a particular notion of speaking as an activity emerges、

While speaking, humans do not understand each other,s messages,‘‘but, instead, believe, that

they understand each other”〔Frawley and Lantolf 1984:143). The act of speaking ls not to

provide information but to control a non-human objcct, anether human, or eneself in the task

situation(Frawley and Lantolf 1984:143).

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      In tllis perspective, task is seen as embedded in actMty. A basic Vygotskiarl notion is

that an object ls significant not it its external existence but the subject’s‘‘act”towards it

(stated by Leontiev, as quoted in Asmolov,1982:79). 貰n other words, an o切ect gains

significance only wilen it enters a particu旦ar context of human activlty. Hence, is simple

tcrms, a task assigned by a researcher is not significant in terms of its own features but in

reiation to the activity interlocutors engage in, and any activity at its operational Ievel is goaI

driven, Iinked to interiocutor’s motives in the end. The implication is that how the

interlocutors view an assigned task is more important than what the researcher expect5 them

to do in the task.

In fact, the concept of activity as a general explanatory princip】e underlies Vygotk量an

psycholinguistic theory. lt also provides an analytical framework in which there are three

distinct leve且s:actMty, action, and operation, corresponding to motive, goal, and conditions

ofpsychologica且behavior(Leontiev,1982;Wertsch I 985;Lantolf&Thorne;2006).

      In Vygotskian perspective, Iinguistic expressions of an individual provide insights

into thcse regulatory fUnctions of language・In a task-based conversational interaction, they

show the cognitive states of an indMduaI when dealing with the task in relation to another

individual.

This paper focuses on discussing the use of personal pronouns(a tも㎜of deixis in

Iinguistically-based communlcation). As Rommetveit(1974:36)points out, personaI

pronouns一エ, Yg!!,)1 Le-constitute the interpersonai cσordinates of dialogic communicati6n.

They reveal the personal dynamics between the interlocutors in task-based activity. In

Vygotskyan terms, their use reveals an interlocutor”s regulatory behavior in relation to the

other inter亘ocutor in a conversation. While tensc/aspect marking may show an interlocutor’s

…1・bl・・eg・i・t・ry・b・ha・1。・i・・el・ti。・t・t・・k・tim・li(di・ctis・ed・i・Ahm・d, 1994), gene,al

pronouns reveal the same phenomenon but with reference to the interpersonal relationship

established or not established by the interlocutors during the activity of dialogic

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communlcatlon.

      In simple terms, in dialogic speech, the use of三by a speaker is a means of

establishing his own identity vis-a-vis that ofthe other interlocutor, while the use of personaI

vo闘 indicates the speaker’s location and identificatien of the other interlocutor. In this

context, the use of迷…indicates the simultaneous presence ofboth interlocutors in the mind of

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speaker in relation to a specific task, It may show a sense ofjoint activity in task performance

on the part ofthe speaker.

      This paper next desoribes data and methodology. In the discusslon section, it ana且yzes

the varying occurrences of personal pronouns in the conversation data involving dyads doing

Task 1 and Task II. The paper conc王udes with some remarks.             一

3.DATA AND M ETHODOLO GY

      Data in this discussion are selected exoerpts of conversations extracted from a larger

study. Dyadic 1nteractions involved both native and non-native speakers of English. Dyads

talked to each other while doing specific tasks. In this discussion, two different tasks are

referred to:‘‘finding a safヒroute”task(Task 1)and‘‘solving math problems”task(Task II).

In task l, interlocutors were giΨen two similar, though not identical maps. They were

instructed to discus§and exchange infbmユation to find a safe route by whioh one of the

interlooutors could move倉om one specified position to another on the map. The route would

be safe ifthey could avoid certain areas and fbllow certain recommended paths on their maps.

They were instructed to discuss and exchange information on how to find the safe route. They

were asked not to see each other’s maps during the discussion. In Task II, dyads(different

丘om the task l dyads)were asked to solvc math problemsjointly. They were classmates in a

math course, and the math problems related to what重hey were doing in their math course.

The discussion activity was seen as a preparation activity for their final examination in their

math course.

      The conversations had been videotaped and later transcribed. Some non-verbal

gestures, such as eye gaze, hand movements, and facial expressions, were a且so noted. Any

expressions which remained unintelligible were not lncluded in the analysis.

      The analysis of personai pronouns in this paper is first based on data drawn倉om the

oonversations on Task l(‘‘Finding a safe route’り, Later, the discussion turns to data frem the

math conversations. The analysis doe$not fbcus on the frequency ofthe occurrences of these

pronouns. It fbcuses, instead, on the discursive environment in which they occur, and what

their occurrence means in terms of the status of the interpersonal relationship established by

the interlocutors.

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4.DISCUSSION

      In the following excerpt-based en Task 1( finding a safe route”),the NS participant

(afemale)and the NNS participant are dlscuss三ng what a safe route would be given the

constraints imposed by the wr董tten instructions and the maps they have received from the

researche「:

[1]  A.  NS(X): …so we have to stay_where there are none ofthese things

      B.  NNS(Y)l uh.um

     C.  X:  OK?/_/so now_we have to/..ノOh,豆see

      D.  Y:  OK_so      E.  X:  do we start at X?

     F.  Y:  yes_and first

     G.  X:  OK_below my camp X

      As can be seen, thc NS, utterances(C, E, and G)form an interesting l ine of speech in

which the shift from VVe toエ, and vioe versa, is significant ln(C), the NS’OK?indicates the

speaker is mentalIy getting ready to take the next step in solvlng the task-specific proble叫

whlch in this case is flnding a safe route from one point to another on a given map. The

subsequent so now(in C)indicates that she begins her attempt to find the route, The use of

we indicates that in her mind she assumes joint responsibility for the attempt by including th¢

other interlocutors, at least minimally. However, the noticeable pause fbllowing the use of we

indicates some cognitive interruption. The subsequent Oh indicates she realizes some

problem and resolves it, when she says I see a{モer a momentary hesitation. A賃his poinちthe

                                             1use of I is fUnctional in keeplng with the coghitive interr叩tion.互t shows that as a result of

some int巳rruption th¢speaker abandons her sense of jgint responsibility and expresses her

own private self Thus, Oh_I see is self:directed speeoh in that it reveals the speaker’s

atternpt to regain control fbr herselfover what she has been doing, i.e., coming up with some

suggestion to.the other interlocutor in finding the safe route. The retum to選(E)shows that

the speaker has already ga量ned control and reassured joint-responsibility fbr the task In short・

the shifting use of】匹皇and I on the part ofthe NS in this brief exchange reveals the changing

                     ゴ cognitlve states of the speaker in dealing with the task in the presence of the other

interlocutor. In this sense, the dynamic use of personal pronouns provides insights into the

regulatory fUnctions of Ianguage, It is an instance of private speech in which the speaker

engages self-dlalog. At that moment, the speaker does not intend to transfer any infbrmation

to’her conversational partner but instead attempts to understand thc task stimuli fbr herself

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      The discussion below continues fUrther the analysis of this linguistic fヒature in the

same conversation. Excerpts[2】through [5]provide additional data fめm the same

conversatlon. They show a continuous stretch of the conversation from the beg1nning. An

analysis of these excerpts reveals the significance of the use of personal pronouns in

regU重atory terms.

The following excerpt[2]presents the bcginning efthe conversation:

[21  A.  NS(X): yoU understand?

      B.  NNS(Y):ok_yes

      C・  X:  now_now..our maps are not the same/

                 But they...they’re almost the same

      D.  Y: ’almost same.../

                 And_there are some_uh_there isn,t something_

                 In_in_my map_which

  , E.  X:  ls in my map      ’

      F.  Y:  which doesn,t show

      G,  X:  OK_OK_now_you are_where are you?      H,  Y:  camp X?

      1.  X:  OK_/1,m in camp Y

                 We need to bring you

      j.  Y:  yes

      K.  X:  重ocampY

      L   Y:  yes

      M.  X:  OK

      As the oponing shows, both speakers seemingly understand the task. Speaker X takes

the initiative to solve the prob且em by being the first to sent the task goal(1). At the very

beginning, her use of our with reference to map comparison indicates a tendency to assume

joint responsibility. This tendency becomes rnore explicit in utterance(1), in which the use of

選,in fact, violates the instructions. Had speaker X intended to fbl】ow strictly the

instruotions, she should have said something likeヱΩ一. The use of

選ooupled with the speaker-oriented directionality of the verb h亘皇g makes explicit the

sense ofassumingjoint responsibility in the NS’perspective.

      Furthermore, tho use of oロr in(C)and迷…(1)presents a significant framework, a

macrostructure, within which the shift to】匹坐and l in utteran¢es(G)and(1)occurs.(G)and

(1}illustrate infbrmation exchange ill the typical ESLAR sense. However, the interlocu重ors

exchange infbrmation about specific features oftheir maps, i.e., their respective locations. On

the other hand, the use ofo皿r(C)is a generalized statement about their maps, fecusing on the

idea of similaritles and differences. Similarly, the use of】駆…in(1)stares, more lmportantly,

the task-goai set by the NS. In short, in these instances, the use of選occurs as part of Ineta一

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comments in relation to certain macro-1evel features of the task, while Yg!S andエare

embedded in information exchange about certain micro-1evel features. In this context,

inform ati on exchange is subordinated to the more impertant subsequent statement of the task

goa且.

      Following the statement of the task goal, as the fbllowing excerpt in[3]shows, the

inter]ocutors discuss stt・ategies fbr finding a safe route. We is uscd in this context of

strategies, again as a meta-comment about a macro-ievel features ofthe task. In thls respect,

the shift fromヱΩ旦to選is significant in that it is actually you which is the anticipated

pronoun, at least according to the instructions. However, the shifモis expiicable due to the

NS’s tendency to engage in joint activity.

[3]  A.  NNS(Y):so_is the point_uh_行rst point_on the river is safe point?

      B.  NS(X): right

     C.  Y:  bridge?

     D.  X:  uh.hu_Iguess the bridge_/

                 bUt_you can,t_we can’t go through...uh_the trees.

     E.  Y:  uh,hu

     F.  X:  what,s that?_fbrest.、.or swamp_or hi11...

                 or barbed wire...or the fbrd_/

                 so we’ve to stay_wh¢re there are no_none ofthese things

     G.  Y;  uh.um

     H.  X:  OK?/so now...we have to/0h_I see

     I.  Y:  OK_so     J.  X:  do we start at X?

     K.  Y:  yes...and_first

     L   X:  ok_below my camp X

      As polnted out,】ビΩ聾and I occur during moments of lnfbrmation exchange. As already

mentioned, however, I also occurs as an instance of private speeoh(as shown above in the

anatysis of excerpt 1]). Thus, in Vygotskian terms, there is no straightfbrward fbrm-fUnction

行tof a linguistic feature, In this instance,1fUnctions both as self:and other-directed speech.

In the fbrmer, it is an instance of production to provide infbrmation to the other interIocutor.

1n th¢1atter, it is an ir15tance of private speeoh, and instance oC or attempt, at comprehension

ofthe task by an individuall’

      The follewing excerpt[4]once again shows the use ofyou to seek infbrmation about

ce血in specific features:

[4]  A.  NS(X): ok_beIow my camp X

      B.  NNS(Y):uh.um

      C,  X:  in._in box A

      D.  Y:  box A?

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E.  X:  OK_see_the_the boxF、  Y:  uh.hu

G.  X:  OKH.  Y:  yes_OK_OKI.  X:  OK_ifyou go straight down

J.  Y:  downK   X:  is there anything in there?/

            walt...

L.  Y:  no_noM. X: kind ofriver partlyN.  Y:  yes                                   .

0.  X:  OKP.  Y:  just pa!t ofriver

Q.  x:  because(???)

            you go down

R.  Y:  uh.umS.  X:  and don’t_don’t...do_don’t go by the river/

            Just go straight down

T.  Y:  uh.umU.  X:  OK_we’re in B now   昌

V.  Y:  B

      However, at this point,ヱgltL is also used by the NS to issue a set ofdirectives to the

NNS to make certain specific moves, e.g.,(Q)and(S). Significantly,選occurs in(U)in a

strategic position. lt indicates that the meves have been completed. The pronoun遷…thus

occurs as a meta-comment, evaluating the move. Thus,ヱΩ旦and選are fUnctionally

differentiated in terms oftactica且movements and the strategic sense of completion.

      The fb1]owing excerpt[5], on the other hand, b巳sides continulng the pattem of the

strategic use。f】圏shows some other i典P。rtant・features:

[51  A.  NINS(Y):   on the line...and_the line betWeen..Dand E...until

      B,  NS(X):[cuts into]wel1,1’ve a little bit(???y

      C   Y:  oh_really?

      D,  X:  yeah_welL..we go down betWeen C and D

      E.  Y:  uh.um

      F.  X:  and meve over to’the right a little bit

      G.  Y:  oh_I see

      H.  X;  and then stralght down?

                 does that work?

      1.  Y:  no/_1_1yes...in my map

                 there is no_swamp

      J.  X:  ok

      K.  Y:  um

      L.  X:  so we down_now_between D and E

      M. Y: yeah      N.  X:  ok_now we go down to_where

      If遜…had not occurred in(D), then the utterances in(D),(F), and(H)woりld have

sounded like a series of directives by speaker X to speaker Y. In that case, they would have

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       been slmilar to the directives in[41 and would have further illustrated the use of聾in the

       context of spocific, tactical moves. However, the use of does that work?[5,H]shows that

       the NS ls not actually providing instructions fbr any actual moves but exploring possibmties

       fbr such moves. After the partner confirms positively(1), the possibility is l董censed and thus

       converted into an actual rnove, as shown in(L). Thus, the use of迷…in(D)is consistent with

       its meta-level use. It is used to explore a possibility, i.e.l it serv6s a planning fUnct…on. In(L),

・  it cxpresses a sense of completion, relative to the plannlng function. A sense of joint

       responsibility in this case serves strategic p11rposes in rdation to task stimuli・

      The analysis so far has shown that the use of選, indicating a sense of joint

responsibility on tho part ofaspeaker, occurs in relation to certain macro-level features ofthe

task. On the other hand, the use ofヱ叫and I refers to lower-level specific task fヒatures. In

this context, while迷…serves the higher function of task-geal statement and a sense of

completion in speolfic movements, y⊆o}1! and 1 are used fbr lnfbrmation 6xchange purposes to

attain those g。als.   ,

      So far the. paper has discussed the use personal pronouns in the NS-NNS

conversation. The other conversations-in the NS-NS and the NNS-NNS dyads--on the

same task show very few occurrences of塾…,1{owever, these occurrences provide fUrther

evidence of the meta-level use of this fb㎜. The fbllowing excerpts,[6}[151, are the only

instances of匹in the NS-NS and the NNS-NNS conversations respectively.

        [6} A. NS(Y):We start now?

              B.  NS(X):Um_we,re supPosed te start now?

        [7} NS(X):Wげre both trying to get td camp Y?

        [8]  NS(Y):Right_we11...that,s what we’re supPosed to figure out.

        正91  NS(X):we don’t have the same rnaps.[1aughs]

        [10] NS(X):How about_1 was thinklng about_       層

                    we go backwards from camp Y_

’     [II工 NS(X):here we go!(pause)

                    why we can’t wejust[laughs]

        [12] NNS(X):ok_what should we do to get where I am?

        [13] NNS(X):ok_so we take this.

        [14] A.  NNS(Y)1...can I go the_B_fbur

              B.  NNS(X):  un.um(negative tone). , .because we have a swamp

10

      [15] NNS(X):[Tells the rcsearcher}we couldn’t meet each other[both X andア

                   laugh

      In short, the use of we in the NS-NS conversation shows the fbllowing:atask-related

met&-comment in[61;the interlocutor’s concems regarding task goal in[7]and[8];a

comment on a macro・feature of the maps[9];aradical change in the task goal【10ユ;and

・ffe・tive exp・cssi。ns sh・wl・g・the i・t・・1。・ut。・’s d・・i・e t。・。mpi・t・th・t・・k・qui・kly and’ea・ily

[11].Similarly, in th碍NNS-NNS conversation, the use of the pronoun shows a statement

conceming a possible strategy fer reaching the task goal[12], a sense of completion in a

particular move[13];negation of a possibility of that move[14ユ, and a meta-comment

concern ing task performance[15]. Thus, a!1 ofthese instanoes show strategic/meta-cognitive

fUnctions of選, the interlocutor,s strategy in relation to task stimuli・

      The discussion now turns to Task 2(‘‘solving Math problems). The occurrence of聾

turns out to be more complex. The following excerpts, from[茎6ユthrough[19], show the

occurrence ofwe in the NNS-NNS convorsation:           一

[16] A.  NNS(X):ok_number 2/                 do...do you have to use...each sheet?

      B.  NNS(Y):pardon?

      C.  X:  do we have to use_uh_each problem_

                 each paper...sheet of paper

      D. Y: Idon’t㎞ow                  [Xlaughsj

                 This profes§or say_we have to use_?/

                  one problem in each paper…

                  or all present in one paper?

      E.  X:  that’s ok...we have space

                              ロ      ロ      F.  Y:  yes_we can wr1te It

      G. X: ok[laughs]_number two

[17] A.  NNS(Y):can we look at the text book?

      B.  NNS(X):no_I don’t think so_no[1aughsユ

                 Um_you have the text?

      C.  Y:  Ihave text

      D.  X:  me..,too/.../I brought

                  [paus司

                 why don’t we skip this one?[laughs】

[18] A.  NNS(Y):do we have to keep that?

      B.  NNS(X):oh...yeah/this is wastlng paper[laughs】

                 韮et’s do that that!

                 how many years〔reads the next proble’η}

[19] A.  NNS(Y):24 minutes      B.  NNS(X):only 24 minutes[1aughs]

11

                        Where are we/...number

                  Y:  six

                  )(:   nu!皿ber five

                  Y:  no we are going to number six/

                       Um_this。ne ls easy

      As these instances show,】堅…does not occur in reiation to math problem solving itself

The interlocutors use it for task-related meta・comments. In this sense it seems to serve the

same fUnction as it does ln the NS-NNS conversation in Task I(‘‘fiロding a safe route”)

discussed above.

      However, when fbcus is turned to the NS-NNS and the NS-NS math conversation8, a

more complex function of迷…is discovered. There are cases in which選appears in

utterances which are not meta-comments. The fb110wing excerpt shows how the NS-NNS

conversation begins:

      [20] A.  NNS(X):Do you want to talk about it?

            B.  NS(X):Yeah_Iguess            C   X:  6k[pause]Iguess..」ike...we have.、」ike this/

                        Yequa1_X_plus B_or whatever/

                       you have the beginning.

      In・thls case, the exchange in(A)and(B}shows task-related meta-comments, using 1

andヱg盤. On the other hand,選occurs in relation-to the actual problem solving itselfi As the

following examples show, in the speech ofNNS(X),重here is a tendency to use辺in relation

to specific features of math problem solving:

      [21] NNS(X):un_example_maybe we can plug...uh...ten or something_/

                  yQU know what 1 mean.

      [22] NNS(X);   Idon’t know why dO we have to change both.

      [23] NNS(X):why don’t we_pIug_one...one...just like a number in it.

      [24] NNS(X):・ we can selve_solve like...draw like the graph.

      Similar cases of the use of we are fbund in the speech of both interlocutors in the NS-

NS math conversation, as shown in the fb且且owlng instances:

[25] NS(X):AII right_we need a negative one

[261 NS(Y):F_of_G...equals_to the sin X

            We,ve sin X/

            So we’ve to put...G_/_/

            [pause]yeah.,.I don’t understand[1aughs]

           Look・-you… see...夏rnean...I see it...I guess/

           Because we want...2_to the sin X/

           We already have sin X

12

      [271 NS(X):ldon’tknow what we are doing.

      Significantly, in’these instances, I is typicaUy used fもr meta-comments in terms of

task evaluatlon or propositional attltude. Thus, in speaker X’s utterance in[20,C】,エoccurs in

I_g璽that indicated her own attitude towards the evidence presented in the subsoquent part

of the utterance we have_.In other words, I appears as embedded in that part of the

utterance wbich is functionally private speech(1」巡). Silnilarly, in[22], the meta-com卑ent

portion of the utterance appears with 1. SimiIar instances of meta-comments with I can be

found in the NS。NS conversation, as wel王, as shown in[26] and[27].

         Thus, on the basis of the above data, it may be concluded that巡i showsΨaried

, fUnctions. In some cases, it appears as part of meta-comments about the task, and, in some

   cas¢s, it app¢ars as part of problem activity itsel£Similarly, I appears both in the conteXt of

   infbrmation exchange about speciflc micro・features of a task, as weIl as, in private speech

   and meta-comments in terms oftask evaluation.

      The factors accounting fbr this variability are grounded in the nature of specifIc

person/task interaction. Thus, it may be that in a dyadio conversation, the intcrlocutors may

be familiar with one another, fee1 rapport betWeen themselves, and perceive the task to be one

ofjoint-activity and, henoe, use 1皇fbr the prob玉em cooperatively・This seems to be the case

in tho NS-NS math conversation in which the interlocutors engage in muoh dialogio

exchange. 1n the fbllowing exoerpt[28], a sense of joint activity on the part of one

interl。cutor is shown in a sigriificant way:              .

      [28] A.  NS(Y):   it oould be anything/

                       it could be_a!! the way this way/

         』        it could be all the say this way/

                       it could be right in between

           B.  NS(X):   so how do you know

           C. Y: a11 reals[脚’h terin]/.../

                       [pause]

                       Idon,t understand

                       [looks a”he ca’nera]help!

            D.  X:  we got one right

            E.  Y:  oh_yeah

            F.  X:  greater than_or less than_or equal to two、。./

                       1 don’t know

                       [At!his」poillt Y l伊’’”es theプbllOi伊ing on the paper:

                       what are we trying to do?1

      1n(F), it is seen that Y wite the statement What are we t in to do?)on the paper

after the interlocutors are unable to understand the problem itself The statement may be

13

considered as a form of private speech expressed in writ韮ng. lt functions as a meta-c。mment

on the who旦e problem. The use of】匹量n th…s恥stance shows a sense ofjoint respons…bility

even in private speech, showing a strong inner sense ofsuch responsibility.

      Again, in a dyad an lnterlocutor may control the discussion anCi perceive herselfas the

problem solver fbr both Conversatlona韮partners, Hence, the use ofヱ堕may show her sense of

jo韮nt responsibility韮n re韮at韮on{o her se藍」昏defined status in the act…vit)t・. Such seems to be t}1e

case in the NS-NNS math dyad, ln whlch the NNS shows an ov釘riding tendency to solve the

preblems and control the d三scussion. On the ether hand, interlecutors may solve problems

independently a1ld}nay use】雌…to亡alk重o eaoh other about{leatures not re[ated圭o problem

§olΨlng, Such seems to be thc case ln癌e NNS-NNS math conversation{n which the speakers

show a tendency to solve problems individually and turn to each other to check their answers.

The{fbllowing excerpts show they have been solving problems independently:

{29} A.  NNS(Y):ooeh_a lot ofcalcu且ations                 {looks at x’s caiculations}

      B. NNS(X):what solution do you have?

{30] A.  NNS(X):1 m isunderstood the prob且em/

                 How did yoμ_how did you do that?

                 1_[pause]_/ah..ha[めo麓o’伽5]

     B.  NNS(Y):lt’s complicated  .

     C.  X:  yeah_it is/

                 Ican rcmemb¢r the fbrmu圭a...equat韮on/

                 1 gueSS this ene is eas)4

                 you remembe蘭is。ne?

{31j A.  NNS(X):How{匪id you(童o魚at?

      B.  NNS(Y):use a formula_星t’s muQh easi¢r

      C.  X:  you t}玉ink so?{laughs a iittle]

                 王used】Pythagoras theoties

     工).  Y:  yeah_三重’salso a wI竃y to do

      £.  X:  yeab..,lt,s a150 a way to do

      ’171ie lnter…oc聾重ors 室韮 重h…s pa詫icu藍ar dyad use遡…重o talk to each o重her about task

驚2纏一es丑e重dlrec重1ンrel磁εd重o魏a重卜proわlem soMng, already shown in excerpts{16]一{19].

Tke fiatare efa spee至轟o重ask its¢lfcould be an impor重ant factor ln the ocourrenc巳of p巳rsonal

嚢r㈱勲S.丁揺$1轟丁醜1(“find董ng a safe r。疑te”)th¢ins重ru。ti。ns and the加sk mat¢rialS

{圭emand重轟呂重主ke I籠terloc彗tors ta三1{士oεach Gt}zer and exoha蘇ge. On嚢le ether hand, math tasks

dg fiot put such preSSUfes{}n衝e ln重erloe戚ors,{.e.,重he董n蓄erlocutors may or may not choo3e霊o

talY. agd Si」lve重短卿bl鋤3重oge重ker.

5.CONCLUSION

      In short, the occurrence ofthe personal pronouns could be attributed to various factors

in person/talk interaction. However, the abovc analysis shows that personal pronouns serve

cognitive functions. These interpersonal coordinates of.dyadic communication are significant

are significant in reveal ing the cognitive states ofan individuaL

r

15

16

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