290New Literate and Literary and Their Institutions

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Written Communication

DOI: 10.1177/0741088304265475

2004; 21; 290Written CommunicationMaisha T. Fisher

"The Song Is Unfinished": The New Literate and Literary and Their Institutions

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WRITTEN COMMUNICATION / JULY 2004

The Song Is UnfinishedThe New Literate and Literary

and Their Institutions

MAISHA T. FISHEREmory University

In this article, theauthor builds on McHenry andHeathsstudyof theliterate andtheliterary and McHenrys research on forgotten readers by examining the oftenundocumented literacy traditions and practices of men and women of African descent.First,the authortraces thelegacy of blendedtraditions of both written andspoken wordsin African American writing and activism. Continuing with an examination of Blackliterary and socialmovements,the author asserts thatthe recent renaissanceof activitiesaround literacy, such as spoken word poetry events as well as writing collectives, con-tributes to a historical continuum. Ultimately, the author shows the importance of theinextricable link between history, literacy studies, and the teaching of language arts.

Keywords: literacy; African American literacy programs; spoken word poetry; com-munity literacy; Shirley Brice Heath; Elizabeth McHenry

Look at meI am we

we are oldwe are the beginning of lifewe survive the seasonswe are new buds upon the highest branches . . .

Ruth Forman (1993)1

Poet and activist Ruth Forman began to reimagine herself and otheryoung poetsof thelate 20th century as the young magicians. Unlike

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Authors Note: I would like to acknowledge my friends and colleagues, Dr. ValerieF. Kinloch and Dr. Andrea Lunsford, for their feedback on earlier drafts of this manu-script. Many thanks to Dr. James A. Fisher for emphasizing the importance of historyand to Dr. Robin D.G. Kelley for listening attentively to many of these ideas.

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION, Vol. 21 No. 3, July 2004 290-312DOI: 10.1177/0741088304265475 2004 Sage Publications

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the typical image of magicians with trickcanes, Formancontendedthat with a mere wave of the pen, these young magicians couldtransform grey concrete to yellow brick roads (p. 86). Emergingfrom a tradition of poet activism, Forman was a student in June Jor-dans Poetry for the People2 program, in which university studentswere prepared towork with student poets inpublicschools.Formansproclamation Look at me/I am we in a poem dedicated to AfricanAmerican survival conveys that she and her fellow young magiciansunderstand their place in a long line of literate and literary practicesand is best summarized in one line: we are new buds upon the high-est branches (p. 60). Who are these young magicians that Formanwrites so bravely about, and what are their institutions for reading,

writing, speaking and doing the word? And most important, whatare the literate and literary traditions from which these new budsemerge, and what do they add to the continuum? A decade ago,McHenry and Heath (1994) asserted that the literate and literarycontributions of African Americans, particularly the middle class,were often omitted in scholarly works. Arguing that efforts in multi-culturalism gave various ethnic groups hooks or cultural logos,McHenry and Heath examined the writing and reading efforts ofAfrican Americans, which they believed to be overshadowed by thefocus on African American orality. Providing a history of the oftenundocumented African American literary clubs and journals from1830 to 1940, McHenry and Heath concluded that research still hasmuch to tell about these writers and readers. In a study that fol-

lowed, McHenry (2002) further explored the history of forgottenreaders or literary societies in African American communities.McHenry argued that research on the literacy practices of people ofAfrican descent needs to decenter formal education and begin toexamine the institutions these men and women created for them-selves either when access to formal institutions was denied or whenthe opportunities in formal institutions was substandard. To achievethis, McHenry suggested that studies focus on the institutions inwhich literature has been enjoyed, discussed and debated by peo-ple of African descent. The challenges that McHenry and Heath putforth in their study of the literate and the literary and McHenrys callfor new directions on researchrelated to African American literacypracticesare still concerns that researchon reading,writing, andliter-

acy needs to explore and address.The aim of this article is to examine the legacy of literacy from

which the new literate and literary have evolved, in addition to

Maisha T. Fisher 291



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theircurrent literacy practices, which include participationin spokenword poetry open mics, writing groups, and anthologies of poetryand prose. Additionally, this article seeks to examine the institutionsinwhichthey exchange writing, reading,andorality as part of thehis-torical continuum that McHenry and Heaths (1994) work began tounfold and that McHenry (2002) extensively documented in herstudy of literary societies of the early 19th century through the early20th century. Like the writers and readers in McHenry and Heathswork, thenewliterateandliterary have created their own institutionsfor holding forums and exchanging ideas; cafs have been trans-formed into literary salons and bookstores into educational centers.In a study of spoken word poetry open mic venues and Black-owned

and -operated bookstores (Fisher 2003a, 2003b), I found that manymen and women of African descent were turning to these communi-ties to access both spoken and written words. In these spaces, speak-ing was a natural outgrowth of reading and writing, butmost impor-tant, all three were linked with a sense of purpose. In this article, Iintegrate the experiences and perspectives of Michael Datcher andGabrilla Ballard, two expressionists from the larger study whoembody this tradition and illuminate this link between history andthe present. First, this article addresses the place of orality besideliteracy in the vernacular tradition of African American writing.Next, the article begins to show the history of creating and maintain-ing grassroots literacy learning efforts by unpacking the legacy ofsecret literacy and self-help schools in history of Africans in the

Americas. Third, the article looks at Black literary movements thathave served as models for this recent renaissance of words and theemergenceof independent Blackinstitutions (IBIs). Whatmay appearat the onset as a departure from the discussion of the intersections oforality and literacy and more of a historical analysis of Black institu-tions is strategicand purposeful.Tounderstand orality andthe acts ofspeaking to be important aspects of literacy is to understand that thelegacy of literacy forpeopleof African descent has historically been aprecursor to action. Last, the article addresses the recent manifesta-tions of community-based literacy spaces and the anthologizing ofthis new generation and their commitment to the new era of Blackwords(Alexander, 1998). Insum, thenew literateand literary under-stand how each generation contributes to a historical continuum of

literate practices and values that spring from a tradition of writtenand spoken words. Transcending class, age, and ethnicity whilerefuting monolithic views of Blackness, these new writers and

292 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION / JULY 2004



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readers reclaim orality as part of their tradition and believe it to be anextension of the written word.

NAVIGATING THE WORD,THE TEXT, AND THE CALL

In a study that frames African American poetry as part of vernacu-lar culture, Brown (1999) asserted that African American poetry andwritings were generally written to be shared aloud. Arguing thatwriting extends from aspects of orality such as speaking and singing,Brown offered a framework for blurring boundaries between the

written and spoken words. Without the oral exchange, according toBrown, the written is dependent on the spoken:

The African American poet uses scriptings as a way to communicatevoicings. Writing is an extensionof speaking or singing. African worldcultures value word skills, poetry making,story telling,and theliteraryextensions of these more publicactivities; they rely on an audiencethatis hearing as well as reading. (p. 29)

In considering Browns analysis of how African American poetswork, one finds important educational implications for the teachingof literacy. At the very least, one finds it useless to continuouslydichotomize oral and literate practices. On a practical level, one

finds extended opportunities for students to use multiple forms ofexpression if they are helpful to their compositionprocesses. Further-more, Browns analyses shifted the focus to the importance of pur-pose in such writing; the emphasis of the audience possessing a keyrole in the production and performance of African American poetrypresupposes that the composer or performer has to have somethinghe or she believes is important enough to be shared aloud. Browndescribed African American oratory as having a double conscious-ness. According to Browns theory, it seems that people of Africandescent do notmerelystraddle orality andliteracy butthat orality is amajor force for literacy; it is the spoken word that gets heard by thecommunity. Early research on the African American oral traditionhad similar implications; Smitherman (1999) explained that part of

the African worldview is the belief that written documents are lim-ited in what they can teach about life and survival in the world (p.202). A strong example of Smithermans argument can be found in a




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study that examined African American female speakers and writ-ers intheNorthfrom1830 to 1880. Peterson(1995)assertedthat a fig-ure such as Sojourner Truth used Africanisms as well as standardliterary conventions to produce literary expression. By using theseconventions, Truth notonly created a space forBlack womens role inpolitical activism; she made her lectures accessible to a wider audi-ence bymixinggenres.3 Insum, itwas not just enoughtowrite;oralitywas a way to breathe life into words and mobilize people of Africandescent.

CONNECTING THE DOTS:

(RE)CREATING EDUCATIONAND LITERACY IN THE NEW WORLD

Tracing the Black struggle for literacy during the 19th century,Holt (1990)argued that thegoalofeducation for Black Americanswassocial as well as personal improvement to uplift the people, to makeconditions better (p. 93). Referencing accounts of enslaved Africans,Holt explained that the irony of beatings administered by slave mas-ters to their slaveswhodaredto becomeliterate reinforcedtheimpor-tance of education. Although there are accounts of slave owners whotaught their slaves some reading, writing, and math skills, Holt high-lighted the contributions of Black men and women who held secretschools in which they passedon whatever reading andwriting skills

they had to others. Often, these schools were without walls andassembled whereveran able teacher anda willing student were avail-able. Holt noted that White, northern missionaries are often docu-mented as the major contributors to African Americans education.Acknowledging their heroic efforts, Holt maintained that there is alack of scholarship that shows the determination of African Ameri-cans to get their own education. Holt referred to the educational sys-tem established by Blacks after slavery as a chain letter of instruc-tion (p. 94), whereby people shared the little information they hadwith one another and continued to pass it on. During the Civil Warand the Reconstruction period, Black teachers often conducted theirown classes in self-help schools with whatever material and spacethey had. According to Gutman (1987), sometimes, a cellar or an

old school-house was used as a literacy learning space. Even if ateacher wasanoldnegroin spectacles ora coloredwoman,who asa family servant had some privileges (p. 270), he or she shared




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whatever literacy skillshe orshehadwith otherBlack people. Formerslaves4 actively sought educational opportunities for their children(Morris, 1981). From these accounts, we can trace how a tradition ofreading, writing, and speaking became a part of doing as well. Inotherwords,afteronebecameliterate,it wasthentheresponsibility ofthat individual to make a contribution to his or her immediate and attimes at-large community.

LEARNING FROM BLACK LITERARY MOVEMENTS

Suggesting that readers, writers, and speakers who emerged dur-

ing the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s brought together oral andwritten traditions of African Americans, McHenry and Heath (1994)examined theways in which various forms of expression overlapped.Readers were being introduced to many writers through the publica-tions of literary clubs and societies, while writers were highly soughtafter for lectures. Characterized as a cultural flowering (Gates &McKay, 1997), theHarlemRenaissance affected notonly Black peoplein United States but those throughout the African diaspora, such asAfrican and West Indian students in Paris and throughout the Carib-

bean. This observation was of course made earlier in Alain Lockes(1925) The New Negro. Locke also asserted that Negro Life in Har-lem was taking advantage of the opportunity for group expressionand self determination (p. 7). As literary scholar, Arnold

Rampersad (1997, p. 936) noted that for a people hardly more than ahalf century removed from slavery and a people enmeshed in thechains of dehumanizing segregation, the Harlem Renaissance hadmany successes.

In the literary movements that followed between 1940 and 1960,there was even more of a push to create work that addressed socialissues that emerged from events such as World War II; the greatmigration of African Americans from the South to the North; labordisputes; desegregation; and the independence of African countriessuch as Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal, and Algeria (McDowell & Spillers,1997). Texts such as Richard Wrights (1940) Native Son (1940) andLorraine Hansberrys (1959) play A Raisin in the Sun confronted racerelations in the United States, depicting Black Americans frustration

with the American dream while attempting to demonstrate thehumanity of Black Americans during intense social and political tur-moil. Two poets who emerged during this period, Margaret Walker




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and Gwendolyn Brooks, would eventually be mentors in the BlackArts Movement that followed in the1960s. Brooks, known forwritingabout the conditions of working-class Black Americans in Chicago,led writing workshops for poets and worked tirelessly with Blackyouth affiliated with gangs. Setting a new precedent, Brooks wascommitted to getting her work out to the community: Brooksinvolvement in poetry workshops with the Blackstone Rangers, aChicago youth gang, and her expressed desire to get poetry, in herwords, into tavern atmosphere[s], on street corners, and in prisonsare examples of this outreach (McDowell & Spillers, 1997, p. 1327).

Brooks believed that words incited action. As a poet, Brooks usedher craft as a tool to access the humanity of Black youth. The tradition

of transforming physical spaces such as a street corner into teach-ing and learning settings exemplified Holts (1990) concept of thechain letter of instruction. Brooks created literacy learning spaceswherever there were people willing to participate. Brooks inspiredmany poets and writers in the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and1970s5; when herworkbecamenationallyrecognized,she chose Blackpresses for most of her writing. Following the same ideology of poetssuch as Brooks, the Black Arts Movement took place at a time whenmany Black artists unapologetically linked their writing, poetry,visual, and performing arts with the problems of Black America. Theactivism and connection between art and cultural nationalism wasviewed by the cofounders of the Black Arts Movement as the antithe-sis of the Harlem Renaissance. In a defining essay on the Black Arts

Movement, Larry Neal (1971) critiqued the Harlem Renaissance forupholding a particular kind of mythology or romanticized versionof Black life. The Black Arts Movement, according to Neal, used art toconfront and challenge Black peoples status in the United States.However, both movements contributed to the blended traditions ofspoken and written words through poetry, theater, public lectures,and publishing demonstrating the double consciousness of oralityand literacy. There was an expectation during the Black Arts Move-ment that literacy and literature would lead to changes that wouldenhance life for people of African descent. Linked to the Black PowerMovement, the Black Arts Movement occurred at a time when manyBlack artists believed that their work had to address the needs andpassions of Black America, or else it was irrelevant. In his essay

Toward a Definition: Black Poetryof theSixties (AfterLeRoi Jones),Don L. Lee (1971a) (now Haki Mahdubuti) compared and contrastedthese movements:




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Black poetry of the sixties is not too different from black poetry of theforties andfifties; therehas always existed intheverse a certain amountof blackness. . . . The new and powerful voices of the sixties came tolightmainly because of thetemper of thetimes; it accentedthehuman-rights struggle for black people in the world. (p. 238)

Madhubuti, a poet and teacher and the founder of Third WorldPress,6 aligned the Black Arts Movement with the work of poets suchas Brooks and other writers of the 1940s and 1950s. Additionally, theemphasis on the human-rights struggle for black people in theworldwasexemplifiedthroughthecommitmentto createand main-tain IBIs that cultivated literacy andlearning, such as printing presses

and schools. Third World Press was a part of the Institute for PositiveEducation,7 which included Black Books Bulletin (BBB), the New Con-cept School (both discussed in the following sections of this article),and other community-based programs.

Prior to the founding of Third World Press in Chicago, DudleyRandall founded Broadside Press in Detroit in 1960.8 There was anunderstanding that for Black people to share their ideas and dissemi-nate information among one another that they deemed relevant, theywould have to create those opportunities for themselves rather thandepend on someone else to do it for them. This ideology permeatedthis time period. For example, when Chicago-based Negro Digest(later Black World) emerged during the Black Arts Movement, it

became a vehicle for poets and writers to share their work, in addition

to being a bulletin board for information on newpublications and lit-erary contests. When I worked as a personal assistant to poet andactivist June Jordan during my 1st year in graduate school, I pre-sentedherwithacopyofoneofherpiecespublishedinacopyofBlackWorld that my father had preserved over the years. She explained tome that BlackWorld was a way that authors such as herself could haveconversations and debates with one another; these writers often metin the pages ofBlack World before they met in person. Although the

journal began as Negro Digest in1961, thename wasofficially changedto Black World in 1970. Negro Digest and Black World editor HoytFuller,9 in a 1971 interview with BBB, explained the reason for thischange. Fuller wanted Black people wherever black people happento beto understand that they were grapplingwith similar issues and

could use a literary journal as a way to address these issues. The pushto solve common problems was the strength of blending the oralandthewrittentogether;if words were both spokenand performedin




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a waythat would inspire othersthrough art, speeches,and lectures aswell as made accessible through print fordissemination to Black peo-ple in theUnitedSates and abroad, there wouldbe a global bulletinfor these readers, writers, speakers and, as Peterson (1995) character-ized, doers of the word. This metaphorical bulletin for Black writ-ers, readers, andpublishers waspart of themission fortheInstituteofPositive Educations BBB. BBB included a continuing bibliographyof books published by Black presses and about Black peopleglobally.Don Lee (1971b), the editor of BBB, explained that the aim of thepublication was to provide information to the many mentors in theBlack community:

In our small way, THE BLACK BOOKS BULLETIN will try to supplypositive information and images to black people who influence other

black people, such as teachers (elementary, high school, college, etc.),postal workers, policemen, librarians, students, doctors, lawyers, den-tists, nurses, writers,artists and others. It is premature to think that wecanreachthemassesofblackpeople...butwedofeelthatwecanreachsome ofthepeoplewho influence anddirectthe livesof others. (p.25)

BBB wasconcernedwith reachingnotonly formal educatorsbutalso men and women who were potential mentors to Black peoplethrough everyday interactions with service workers, health care pro-fessionals, and artists. At the core of this mission statement was the

belief that teaching and learning occurred daily and that part of liter-

acy learning for people of African descent included these spokentransactions. Also central tothis statementwas thebelief that learningcould take place whereverthereis a culture of respect between partic-ipants. During this time, there was a movement to create schools inwhich these values and beliefs would be infused into the curricula.The same poets, writers, and artists who fueled the Black Arts Move-ments and the creation of printing presses and journals were alsoadvocates for the education of children of African descent.

FROM SECRET SCHOOLS TOINDEPENDENT BLACK INSTITUTIONS

By the 1970s, the visionof self-determined education shown in thesecret schools during the enslavement of Africans in America as wellas self-help schools and literary salons during the Reconstruction




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once again became a priority to many Black Americans. However, inthis era, there was a shift in the focus from proving ones respectabil-ity, or citizenry as McHenry (2002) documented, to personalgrowth and community development in the same way artists andexpressionists in the Black Arts Movement asserted themselves in aliterary tradition. Following an era of writing and arts that specifi-cally addressed theneedsof peopleof African descent, Black commu-nity schools and African-centered schools, or IBIs (Lee, 1992), were

being organized throughout the Uni ted States. In an articlecontextualizing the emergence of IBIs in the 1970s and arguing fortheir relevance, Lee (1992) asserted that the organizers of these Afri-can-centered schools were proactive in creating learning

opportunities for Black children:

Rather than simply complain and react, the independent African cen-tered school movement has taken a proactive stance, defining within acommunity context the possibilities and gifts that Black children offerthe world, and creating institutions to manifest its ideals. Institutionsvalidate knowledge, help to shape vision, inculcate values, and pro-vide the foundation for community stability. (p. 161)

IBIs areimportant to thetraditionof literate andliterary communi-ties because they represent the intersections of literacy, education,and activism. For example, African-centered schools such as theBrooklyn-based Uhuru Sasa, founded in 1971, shared its space with

the East. In addition to housing the Uhuru Sasa school, the East alsoincluded a performance space, a store specializing in fresh produce,and an independentnewspaper (BlackNews). Located in the Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn, the East provided many IBIs with a

blueprint for a working infrastructure:

Walking into the East is like entering into a new Black world. You areengulfedby thearomaof fragrantincenseasyougaze upon entire wallsof colorfully painted murals of Black heroes and symbols . . .at theEasteveryoneworks.Someoneis always at thefrontsellingBlack books andperiodicals, while in the back there may be a film, a community meet-ing. . . . Upstairs during the weekdays there are classes in session, bothin the afternoonand evening for both adults andchildrenthe young,old, men and women. (The East, 1971, p. 28)

According to Lee (1992), African-centered schools have valuablelessons for American public schools; children are placed at the center



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of a value systemthat includes teachers,parents, theneighborhood orcommunity, and the community of professional peers. Anotherimportant link is how poets and writers saw themselves and theirwork as part of a larger frame that included education in their com-munities. These values echoed those of the literary societies docu-mented in McHenry and Heaths (1994) work as well as McHenrys(2002) comprehensive study of such communities. For example,McHenry describedthe importance of reading aloud along,with reci-tation in 19th century literary societies to sharpen oral and writtenskills while building confidence in their members. IBIs also valued

building confidence in youth of African descent:

Our goal was to develop an educational institution within ChicagosBlack community that would teach African American history and cul-ture as well as imbue the values of Black self-love and cooperationamong the children it served. Moreover, it was envisioned that thisinstitution would operate independent of resources and influencesfrom outside the Black community. (p. 162)

The goals of IBIs such as New Concept Development Center(NCDC) mirrored the vision of people of African descent throughoutthe United States. Poets, writers, and activists Amina and AmiriBaraka organized the African Free School in Newark, New Jersey,once again emphasizing the importance of literacy being guided by a

sense of purpose. The African Free School, like NCDC, offered tradi-tional courses found in most public schools, including history, read-ing, spelling,andmath, while also incorporating Swahili inrelation-ship to English, as well as hieroglyphics. An important aspect ofthese schools that should be emphasized was their commitments toteach all traditional subjects found in most American public schools;there was never any question that students should learn to read,write, and speak English. As stated in all capital letters in UhuruSasas handbook, STUDENTS MUST BE ABLE TO READ ANDWRITE FLUENTLY. However, in addition to these skills, Black com-munity schools were dedicated to cultivating leadership andorganizing qualities in people of African descent.

In thenext twosections, I introduce poets andwriters whoembodythe link between the history of literacy practices forpeopleof Africandescent in the context of the United States and their current institu-tions. For the new literate and the literary and their communities,



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there is a need to experience language communally, and not only forthe sake of the printed page, much like their predecessors.

BLOOD IS RUNNING BETWEENTHESE LINES: SUSTAINING CURRENT

LITERATE AND LITERARY COMMUNITIES

In a study of two spoken word poetry open mic events and twoBlack-owned and -operated bookstore poet and author events innorthern California, I examined the literacy practices of event orga-nizers, expressionists, and audience members (Fisher 2003a, 2003b).

In addition to being a participant in these spaces, keepingethnographic field notes, and videotaping events, I conducted inter-views with 70 participants ranging in age from 19 to 69 years. Onetheme that emerged fromthese interviews wastheparticipants senseof history and how they viewed themselves in a continuum of poets,writers, readers, musicians, and activists who participated in similarliteracy communities. Although most people I interviewed illumi-nated this theme, I have integrated the experiences and perspectivesof twoparticipants who fluidly discussed their writing and purposesas part of a largerstoryforpeople ofAfrican descent. Michael Datcher(2001)of LosAngeles,a poet andthe authorof thenationalbestsellingmemoir Raising Fences: A Black Mans Love Story,10 and GabrillaBallard, a poet, songwriter, and musician from New Orleans, partici-

patedin both spokenwordpoetry open micevents at theJahvaHouseCaf Speak Easy and the Jamaica House Mahogany in my study.Additionally, Datcher did readings ofRaising Fences in both MarcusBooks andCarols Books. Writers workshopsand collectives in addi-tion to open micevents forexpressionists such as Datcher andBallardhave become ways for many writers of African descent to share theirwork and get constructive feedback. These forums bring togetheroral, aural, and written traditions; the formats for the writing work-shops generally include time for interacting with texts in addition tosharing the works aloud. Open mic events welcome all forms ofexpression, such as poetry, singing, rapping, and sometimes dance;theprevailingthemeis that everyonehasa message worthconveying.Even though I met Datcher and Ballard at the venues in my study, Ilearned that their participation evolved from previousexperiences insimilar literacycommunities. Two collaborativereading,writing, andperforming groups were part of the foundation for Datcher and




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Ballard: the Anansi Writers Workshop in Los Angeles and theNOMMO11 Literary Society in New Orleans, respectively. BothDatcher and Ballard noted these two spaces as being critical to theirdevelopment as writers and expressionists through rituals of per-formance,practice,and feedbackthathelpedthembuild confidence.

In a section of South Central Los Angeles lies the village ofLeimert Park. This village is home to many Black businesses, includ-ing the World Stage. Serving as a performance space, the World Stagewas established in 1992 by jazz drummer Billy Higgins and commu-nity-based poet Kamau Daood. In Raising Fences, Datcher recountshis first encounter with Daood in a chapter simply titled WorldStage. Datcher had been conducting a writing workshop for perfor-

mancepoets inhishomeandlearnedoftheWorldStagewriters work-shop. Datcher wanted to revive the workshop and went to LeimertPark to introduce himself to Daood and discuss this possibility.Daood explained to Datcher in a scene from this chapter that theWorld Stage was a sacred space. Although Datcher did not go intodetails in the text, it is clear that Daood trusted Datcher to carry onthis important tradition. The writers workshop at the World Stage

began before the open mic. Datcher, who was in his early 30s at thetime of our interview, explained to me that he had to learn about thehistory of the World Stage and the musicians and poets who becamethe pillars of this creative community. Elders such as Daood andHiggins passed this history on to poets such as Datcher, who contin-ued to foster this spirit among their peers. Datcher told me,

Artists come ina very serious wayand[with] much respectandmuchlove I should say as welland provide very healthy feedback. Weencourage you to keep in mind that there blood is running betweenthese lines . . . this workshop is so dynamic, so alive, and people arethinking and readers are getting really incredible feedback. (interview,March 26, 2002)

Datchers inclusion of the World Stage in his memoir marked animportanttime in hispersonal development when he began to be crit-ical with his own writing. In Raising Fences, Datcher noted that thosewho workshopped their poemsoften becamethe most appreciatedpoets on the mic:

There is no sign-up list for the workshop segment. The first person tobound onstage in front of the mic gets to read and receive feedback.




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After two years of being involved, I realize that the poets who work-shop the most have become the best poets. As a result, the workshopsection has become extremely popular. Poets who planto receive feed-

back arrive early and cluster in the front-row seats. As soon as the per-sononstage finishes and steps onefoot off thestage, thewould-be-nextworkshoppers aggressively jump on.If its close thecrowddetermineswho was first. This good-natured ritual sends the message that whileothers flee from constructive criticism, the World Stage poets are hun-gry to get better. (p. 203)

The ritual of racing to the stage and the mic at the workshopshowed the passion and eagerness these writers expressed for theirdeveloping writing and speaking skills. Writers were dedicated to

both traditions and did not spent time assigning a hierarchy to either.The mic and stage were an extension of the journal and pen. Datcheremphasized that the workshop attracted a full range of the Blackcommunity across economic lines and across ideology. At the timeof our interview, the Anansi Writers Workshop proudly claimed sixpublished books by participants. Datcher often told readers at theopen mics and bookstore events that his memoir was a long poemthat he considered part of the blues tradition in African Americanmusic. Datcher described the blues tradition as growing out ofBlacks being captured as prisoners of war from Africa and broughtto America and enslaved. In addition to evolving from the blues tra-dition, Datcher considered his writing to also flow from jazz music.

Jazz trumpeter Miles Davis was as influential to Datchers writing as

the poets and writers with whom he shared the World Stage. Becausethe World Stage was both a jazz performance space and home to thewriters workshop, both musicians and poets saw each other as foun-dational to their creativity. During his composition process, Datchersaid that he listened to Miles Daviss famous album Kind of Blue,which Datcher considered a collage of Blackness, or stories thatcame from multiple experiences of being Black in the context of theUnited States. Raising Fences chronicles Datchers life growing up inSouth Central Los Angeles with a hardworking single mother and alife of yearning for picket fence dreams, which Datcher describedas a played-out metaphor in the white community but one stillsecretly riding the bench in black neighborhoods nationwide (p. 3).Through his participation in the writing workshop and confrontingissues in his own life, Datcher developed the courage to tell his story.Through the merging of music, poetry and prose Datcher carvedRaising Fences:




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Its just me trying to tell my hard luck life in a way that is artistic. Im apoet so I really believe in the power of language. . . . I can work it, twistit, turn it and kind of meld it into patterned tapestry. So I wanted to tellthe story with a certain level of linguistic delicacy . . . o you would rec-ognize thepeople in these stories, thevoices that were talking to youinthis book. You recognize the rhythm. (interview, March 26, 2002)

Datcher also saw his memoir as being a way to convey that men ofAfrican descent were both human and beautiful. Much like mem-

bers of the literary societieswho saw their engagement with literatureas demonstrating to their former enslaversthat they were notinferior,Datcher viewed writing as a way for people of African descent to berespected in the world. However, Datcher also believed that having a

facility with words both spoken and written was critical, and openmics and Black bookstores were an important part of fostering thisskill:

If you can use the language in a way that is interesting, different andpowerful,people will respect that. Fora business to deal in theproduc-tion of Black creation, of Black imagination is beautiful, and its a sym-

bol of hope. Because with educationcomes the opportunityto advancein life and to uplift the race if you would. (interview, March 26, 2002)

I also metGabrillaBallardat theJahvaHouse SpeakEasy openmic.She was 23 at the time of the study and new to the northern Californiapoetryscene.However, she wasfamiliar with similar networks in her

native New Orleans. After relocating to California to do work in edu-cation reform, Ballard sought the Jahva House Speak Easy open mic

because she wanted to establish herself in a community of Blackexpressionists who were also community activists. Ballard consid-ered many of her poem-songs to be messages to people of Africandescent. The first night I heard Ballard, she performed a poem-songtitled Are You Ready? while playing an acoustic guitar:

Are you readyto stop living the lie?Are you readyto open your eyes?Are you ready

to give up your life?Are you ready?




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By the endof the piece,Ballard hadstrategicallychangedyou to weand invited the open mic community to participate using the call-and-response format. Ballard later explained in an interview that shewrote this piece with people of African descent in mind:

When I say [in the song] we build up wallsthis aint us I mean thathistorically and even now in certain areas of the world we are con-nected. We are a community and we take care of each other. I thinksometimes we are so concerned about being hurt or failing in otherseyesthat wedonteven try . . . ifyoumess up, okayyoumessed upbutat least you tried! (interview, May 14, 2002)

Because she worked with elementary schoolaged students inurban settings, Ballards work was sometimes influenced by herefforts to help them see their own value and talents. Ballard believedthat herown self-confidenceemerged writing andreading inpartner-ship with public performance. During our interview, Ballardexplainedthat herexperience ina youth-centered church that encour-aged her to write, direct, and perform plays in addition to her partici-pation in an African-centered school and eventually hermembershipin a collective of writers, readers, and speakers called the NOMMOLiterary Society were her foundation for being engaged in literacypractices. In her church, Ballard and the youth in the congregationwere oftenasked to write playsaboutdifferentissues in theircommu-nities. Ballard fondly remembered writing and directing a play about

drugs in the community: My spirit was nurtured in speaking upagainst injustice . . . when properly nurtured children can do any-thing. Who knows what they grow up to be! Both the school and theliterary society were part of the work that Kalamu ya Salaam did inthe New Orleans area. Salaam fostered thetalents of young poets andwritersinNewOrleansinthesamewayDaooddidinLosAngeles:

[Ahiadiana] was a school that was based in African, African Americanculture. Its an independent school and the curriculum was structured

by the teachers but it was very holistic. It was hands on; it taught us tohavelove,respectandjust honor forwho weareas AfricansdiasporicAfricans. You know thats important because many of [the teachers]had Pan-Africanist views; we didnt feel separate from the continent,

you know what I mean? And some people argue that the school pre-pared usfora worldthatdoesnt exist.I dont agree with that. I feel thatthe school created-prepared us to create the world that we wanted to




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exist because what other reason are we teaching anyway? (interview,May 14, 2002)

Ahiadiana introduced Ballard to a world where she believed stu-dents were able to be active in their learning processes and madeaware of the history of Black people in the United States and abroad.Ballard said tha teachers consistently consulted students about pro-

jects and what they wanted to contribute to the learning community.Ballards love of reading, writing, and performing were only begin-ning to be cultivated at this time. Even after Ballard left the school,Salaam continued to be her mentor and eventually published one ofher poems in an anthology. Salaam heard Ballard perform her poemWhen Daddy Dies about the loss of her father whenBallard was 15;Salaam helped her edit the poem, and Ballard explained that fromthat point on, she continued to write and became a member of theNOMMO Literary Society. Salaam established the NOMMO LiterarySociety12 in New Orleans in 1995; at the time of the study, the societysmembers met weekly to do a reading, share their writing orally, andprovide feedback to one another. It was a multigenerational writerscollective, andSalaam hasprovidedopportunitiesformanymembersto publish their work in anthologies. On the second Friday of everymonth, the NOMMO Literary Society held a public reading at theCommunity Book Center, also located in New Orleans. The physicalspace of theNOMMOLiterary Society hadcountless shelves of bookswritten byandaboutpeopleof African descent throughout theworld.

In addition to books, Salaam provided the society with a comprehen-sive collection of music, including jazz, blues, and other forms ofBlack music. All of these materials were available to members of thesociety, and tables and chairs were available so that people couldmake themselves at home.

Both Datcher and Ballard understood their writing to be part of alarger continuum of literate and literary practices for people of Afri-can descent. For example, Ballard saw the NOMMO Literary Societyand the open mics as part of the same tradition as the church andBlack community school she attended. These spaces helped herdevelop a writing identity grounded notonly in poetryand prosebutmusic and performance as well. Similarly, Datcher saw his founda-tionas a poetbased inblues and jazz music traditions as a foundation

to writing hismemoir. Datcher andBallard believedthat havingcom-munity-based role modelssuch as Daoodand Salaam was critical totheir development as writers; these mentors were not only poets and




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writers butalso activists and historians in their communities. Institu-tions such as the World Stage and the NOMMO Literary Society aswell as the venues inwhich I observedboth Datcher and Ballard weresafe spaces where they could share this work with active audiencesand get critical feedback while building confidence in their writingand speaking skills.

DISCUSSION

During an interview I conducted as part of the larger study withscholar and educator Wade Nobles,13 I asked him if he believed that

thereaders,writers, speakers, anddoerswhoare visible in thespokenword poetry venues and bookstore events have come full circle. Wehad just attended a reading by Ilyasah Shabazz, the middle daughterof the late Dr. Betty Shabazz and Malcolm X, at Marcus Books in Oak-land, California. The reading attracted not only people from Dr.ShabazzsandMalcolm Xsgeneration such as Dr. Nobles butalso thepeers of Ilyasah Shabazz. Dr. Nobles explained, I dont know if thecircles coming back around . . . I think that the song is unfin-ished . . . its still unfolding (interview, June 16, 2002). Indeed, thesong is unfinished and unfolding in grassroots literacy commu-nities, anthologies (see the Appendix), self-published books, andrecordings. However, as the titleof Salaams (1998) anthology 360: ARevolutionof BlackPoets suggests, there is anacknowledgment that the

up-and-coming writers ofAfrican descent arewellawareof thepoets,writers, musicians, and performers of the word from past literarymovements. So what is new about the newliterate andliterary, andwhat has remained the same? Participants in this recent renaissanceof open mics, writing groups, and published work are determined,much like their predecessors, to maintain literacy communities inwhich they can access reading, writing, discussion, and debatesthrough poetry, prose, and other forms of expression.

Another similarity is that thevenues in which these eventsareheldoften serve multiple functions. For example, the Jahva House SpeakEasy openmic at which I first met and heard Datcher and Ballard wasa caf that was transformed into a cultural center in the evening. Theowners of these establishments share their spaces with the commu-

nity and organize events that meet the needs of people of Africandescent.As Datcher noted, thesebusinesses werenot solely interestedin generating income; they also invested in the production of Black




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creation. This outreach is an extension of the sense of responsibilitythat evolved from thechain letterof instruction,or passing on knowl-edge and information, in the same spirit as the IBIs of the 1960s and1970s. Part of passing on knowledge and information for the literateand literary of African descent was making the word accessible inprint through oral presentation. The Anansi Writers Workshop at theWorld Stage and the NOMMO Literary Society incorporated time forwriting, revising, and also sharing work orally; there was an under-standing that words were not solely for display but to incite action.

There has also been a shift in the makeup of the communitiesMcHenry andHeath (1994) examined andthecurrent practitioners ofthe word. I use the termshiftbecause I view these communitiesas part

of a continuum that does not lend itself to dichotomizing terms suchas contrast. Current practitioners of the word cut across socioeco-nomic lines. Ballard considered this to be one of the most importantaspects of the open mic communities:

Its just a mix of all kinds of us. Its like people who are educatedfor-mally educated or institutionally educated. Then there arepeople whoare self-educated . . . just from every classbackground youcan think of.We are there. . . . Come as you are. (interview, May 14, 2002)

Thereareother shifts in thecontinuum oftheliterateandliteraryofAfrican descent; one of the most compelling is that although newer

poets and writers in theory have access to the institutions that thereaders and writers of the 19th century did not, they are still organiz-ing spaces separate and distinct from formal institutions by choice.This was also evident during the Black Arts Movementand the rise ofBlack community schools. One reason for this may be that despiteaccess to these formal institutions, there is still a pervasive lack ofrecognition of new forms of poetry, writing, and thinking about lan-guage.This quest forsupplementalknowledge in addition to alterna-tive teaching and learning drew Black expressionists to these spaces.Part of these alternative methods is the inclusion of music; poets andwriters such as Datcher and Ballard understand Black music tradi-tions such as the blues, jazz, and hip hop to be inspiration for theirwriting processes. This is evident in the fact that Ballard can play her

guitar at an open mic, and her work is still considered poetry. Theinclusion of DJs at the open mic events is another example of theimportance of music. Leimert Parks World Stage is a home to both




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jazz musicians and poets, while the NOMMO Literary Society has asmany music recordings available to its members as it does books.Music is simply a part of the fabric of these spaces. And finally, tosome degree, there is still a belief that literacy is linked to freedom;however, thefreedom does notcome from acquiring skillsoften asso-ciated with literacy or even mastering literary texts. The freedomnow is in the ability to use words and literacy skills to challenge andcritique as well as to motivate and inspire newer generations of read-ers, writers, and speakers. With a sense of history, novice writers,readers, and speakers can create their own spaces in this historicalcontinuum. Teaching literature and literacy for young people shouldinvolve the teaching of history as well as integrate the current move-

ment ofexpressionists.There is still much work neededthat examinesthe literacy communities in which people of African descent aremembers by choice. Through this inquiry, we can begin to unpackwhat it is about these spacesthat continuously draw peopleto partici-pate while attempting to understand how these events provide animportant context for the way words are valued and shared.

AppendixSelected Bibliography of Spoken Word Poetry Anthologies

The following anthologies try to show the link between historical literarymovements and current practices in writing, spoken word poetry and hiphop; this is evident in the inclusion of newer and more established poets andwriters.

Anglesey, Z. (Ed.). (1999). Listen up! Spoken word poetry. New York: Ballantine.Gilbert, D. (Ed.). (1998). Catch the fire!!! A cross-generational anthology of contemporary

African-American poetry. New York: Riverhead.Medina, T., Bashir, S. A.,& Lansana,Q. A. (Eds.). (2002).Rolecall: Agenerational anthology

of social & political Black literature & art . Chicago: Third World.Medina, T., & Rivera, L. R. (Eds.). (2001). Bum rush the page: Adef poetry jam. New York:

Three Rivers.Nommogeneity. (2000). Pot liquor for writers block. Claremont, CA: Ubwenge.Powell,K. (Ed.). (2000).Step into a world:A globalanthology of thenewBlackliterature.New

York: John Wiley.Powell,K., & Baraka, R.(Eds.). (1992). Inthe tradition: Ananthology of youngBlackwriters.

New York: Harlem River Press.Reed, I. (Ed.). (2003). From totems to hip hop: A multicultural anthology of poetry across the

Americas, 1900-2002. New York: Thunders Mouth.




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NOTES

1. This is from Ruth Formans poem ASplit Tree Still Growsin We Are the YoungMagicians, which was part of the Barnard New Woman Poets Series.

2.See Mullerand theBlueprint Collectives(1995)June JordansPoetry for the People:A Revolutionary Blueprint for a more extensive description of the program.

3.It is importantto note that peopleof African descent have variedperspectivesonthe use of Black English. For a more current discussion of this, please see Rickford andRickfords (2000) Spoken Soul: The Story of Black English.

4. Robert C. Morris (1981) offered a comprehensive treatment of the FreedmensBureauand its role in theeducationof Blacksin Reading, Riting, and Reconstruction:TheEducation of Freedmen in the South 1861-1870.

5. The Caribbean Artists Movement in London coincided with the Black ArtsMovement; also influenced by the Black Power Movement in the United States and

abroad, the Caribbean Artists Movement also blended oral and written traditions. SeeAnne Walmsleys (1992) The Caribbean Artists Movement 1966-1972: A Literary and Cul-tural History.

6. Third World Press, located in Chicago, celebrated its 35th anniversary in 2002.7. The Institute for Positive Education was founded in 1970 by group of men and

women in Chicago in an effort to provide services to Chicagos Black community.8.See JuliusE. Thompsons (1998)DudleyRandall,Broadside Press,and theBlackArts

Movement in Detroit, 1960-1995.9. Hoyt Fuller was also the editor ofEbony and Jet magazines, which are still pub-

lished.Historian,poet,andauthor Kalamuya Salaam described Hoyt Fulleras aBlackintellectualwith near-encyclopedic knowledge of Black literature and seemingly inex-haustiblecontacts(1997).Negro Digest and BlackWorldwere often compared to CRISISand OPPORTUNITYof the 1920s. At the time of the aforementioned interview withFuller, the journal was monthly, with a circulation of approximately 180,000, reachingBlack people of all class backgrounds and interests.

10. At the time of the study, Datcher informed me that Raising Fences was beingstrongly considered for adaptation for a film that would feature actor Will Smith.

11. Nommo is a West African concept that refers to the sacred word. See JanheinzJahns (1961) Muntu: African Culture and the Western World.

12. Prior to meeting Gabrilla, I visited the NOMMO Literary Society and inter-viewed Salaam as part of my research on participatory literacy communities. He wasvery helpful in recommendingbooksas wellas venuesto experiencereadingsand per-formances.Salaamcontinues to teachwriting andvideo productionto studentsin NewOrleans publicschools. He coined theterm Neo-Griot to describe this newer generationof writers who tell their stories using video technology.

13. Dr. Nobles is a psychologist and the director of Black Studies at California StateUniversity, San Francisco.

REFERENCES

Alexander, K. (1998). Forward: Evolution of a new era in Black words. In K. Salaam(Ed.), 360?: Arevolution of Black poets.New Orleans, LA: Black Words.

Andrews, W.L., Foster, F.S., & Harris, T. (Eds.). (1997). The Oxford companion to Afri-can American literature. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.




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Blackand AlliedStudentsAssociationof New York University. (1971,August/Septem-ber). The East: A model of nationhood. Imani, 5, 28-39.

Brown, F. P. (1999). Performing the word: African American poetry as vernacular culture.New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Datcher, M. (2001). Raising fences: A Black mans love story. New York: Riverhead.Fisher, M. T. (2003a).Choosing literacy: African diaspora participatory literacy communities.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.Fisher, M. T. (2003b). Open mics andopen minds:Spokenword poetry in African dias-

poraparticipatoryliteracy communities.HarvardEducational Review, 73(3),362-389.Forman, R. (1993). We are the young magicians. Boston: Beacon.Gates, H. L., Jr., & McKay, N. Y. (Eds.). (1997). The Norton anthology of African American

literature. New York: Norton.Gutman, H. (1987).Schools for freedom: The post-emancipation origins of Afro-Ameri-

caneducation. In I. Berlin (Ed.),Power & culture: Essayson theAmerican workingclass(pp. 260-297). New York: Pantheon.

Hansberry, L. (1959).Araisin in the sun: Adrama in threeacts. NewYork:RandomHouse.Holt, T. (1990). Knowledge is power: The Black struggle for literacy. In A. A.

Lunsford, H. Moglen, & J. Slevin (Eds.), The right to literacy (pp. 91-102).New York:Modern Language Association of America.

Jahn, J. (1961).Muntu: African Culture and the Western World. New York: Grove.Interview with Hoyt Fuller. (1971). Black Books Bulletin, 1(Fall). Institute of Positive

Education.Lee, C. D. (1992). Profile of an independent Black institution: African-centered educa-

tion at work. Journal of Negro Education, 61(2), 160-177.Lee,D. L. (1971a).Toward a definition: Black poetry of thesixties (afterLeRoi Jones). In

A. Gayle (Ed.), The Black aesthetic (pp. 235-247). Garden City, NY: Doubleday.Lee, D. L. (1971b). What were about. Black Books Bulletin, 1(Fall). Institute of Positive

Education.Locke, A. (1925). The new Negro. In A. Locke (Ed.), The new Negro: Voices of the Harlem

Renaissance (pp. 3-16). New York: Albert & Charles Boni.

McDowell, D.,& Spillers, H. (1997). Realism, naturalismand modernism. InH. L.GatesJr.,& N. Y. McKay (Eds.),TheNortonanthology of African American literature(pp.1319-1328). New York: Norton.

McHenry, E. (2002). Forgotten readers: Recovering the lost history of African American liter-ary societies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

McHenry, E., & Heath, S. B. (1994). The literate and the literary: African Americans aswriters and readers1830-1940. Written Communication, 11, 419-443.

Morris, R. C. (1981). Reading, riting, and reconstruction: The education of freedman in theSouth 1861-1870. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Muller, L., & the Blueprint Collective. (Eds.). (1995).June Jordans poetry for the people: Arevolutionary blueprint. New York: Routledge.

Neal, L. (1971). The Black arts movement.In A. Gayle (Ed.),The Black aesthetic (pp.272-290). Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

Peterson, C. L. (1995). Doers of the word: African-American women speakers & writers inthe North (1830-1880). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Rampersad,A. (1997).Harlem Renaissance:1919-1940.In H. L. Gates, Jr., & N. Y. McKay(Eds.), The Norton anthology of African American literature (pp. 929-936). New York:Norton.




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Rickford,J. R.,& Rickford, R. J.(2000). Spoken soul: The story of Black English. New York:John Wiley.

Salaam, K. (Ed.) (with Alexander, K.). (1998). 360: A revolution of Black poets. NewOrleans, LA: Black Words.

Smitherman, G. (1999). How I got ovuh: African world view and Afro-American oraltradition. In G. Smitherman (Ed.), Talkin that talk: Language, culture and education in

African America (pp. 199-222). London: Routledge.Thompson, J. E. (1998). Dudley Randall, Broadside Press, and the Black arts movement in

Detroit, 1960-1995. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.Walmsley, A. (1992).The Caribbean artists movement 1966-1972: A literary and cultural his-

tory. London: New Beacon.Wright, R. (1940). Native son. New York: Harper & Brothers.

Maisha T. Fisher is an assistant professor in the Division of Educational Studies atEmoryUniversity.She recentlycompleteda postdoctoral research fellowshipat TeachersCollege, Columbia University, in the Department of International and TransculturalStudies. Her research interests include sociocultural approaches to literacy learning inschool andout-of-school contexts.She is theauthor of Open mics andopen minds:Spo-ken word poetry in African diaspora participatory literacy communities whichappeared in the Harvard Educational Reviews special issues on popular culture in2003.


290New Literate and Literary and Their Institutions

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