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27 Organic Chemistry I: Formulas, Names, and Properties.
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Transcript of 27 Organic Chemistry I: Formulas, Names, and Properties.
27Organic Chemistry I: Formulas, Names,
and Properties
2
Chapter Goals
Saturated Hydrocarbons1. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
2. Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 3. Alkenes
4. Alkynes
Aromatic Hydrocarbons5. Benzene
6. Other Aromatic Hydrocarbons
7. Hydrocarbons: A Summary
3
Chapter Goals
Functional Groups8. Organic Halides
9. Alcohols and Phenols
10.Ethers
11.Aldehydes and Ketones
12.Amines
13.Carboxylic Acids
14.Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids
15.Summary of Functional Groups
4
Chapter Goals
Fundamental Classes of
Organic Reactions16.Substitution Reactions
17.Addition Reactions
18.Elimination Reactions
19.Polymerization Reactions
5
Saturated Hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons are chemical compounds that contain only C and H atoms.
• Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single or sigma () bonds.– There are no double or triple bonds in these
compounds.
• The primary source of hydrocarbons is petroleum and natural gas.
6
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• The simplest saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes.• Methane, CH4, is the simplest alkane.• The alkanes form a homologous series.
– Each member of the series differs by a specific number and kind of atoms.
C
H
HH
H or CH4
7
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• The alkanes differ from each other by a CH2 or methylene group.
• All alkanes have this general formula.CnH2n+2
• For example ethane, C2H6 , and propane, C3H8 , are the next two family members.
8
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• Isomers are chemical compounds that have the same molecular formulas but different structures.
• Two alkanes have the molecular formula C4H10.
– They are a specific type of isomer called structural isomers.
9
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• Three alkanes have the formula C5H12.
– There are three structural isomers of pentane.
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
n-pentane
10
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• Three alkanes have the formula C5H12.
– There are three structural isomers of pentane.
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3 CH3
CH C
H2
CH3
CH3
n-pentane 2-methylbutane
11
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• Three alkanes have the formula C5H12.
– There are three structural isomers of pentane.
12
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• There are five isomeric hexanes, C6H14.You draw them!
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
n-hexane
13
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• There are five isomeric hexanes, C6H14.
CH3
CH
2
CH2
CH
2
CH2
CH3CH3
CH C
H2
CH2
CH3
CH3
n-hexane 2-methylpentane
14
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• There are five isomeric hexanes, C6H14.
CH3
CH
2
CH2
CH
2
CH2
CH3CH3
CH C
H2
CH
2
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH
2
CH C
H2
CH3
CH3n-hexane 2-methylpentane 3-methylpentane
15
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• There are five isomeric hexanes, C6H14.
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3CH3
CH C
H2
CH2
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH2
CH C
H2
CH3
CH3
CH3
CCH2 CH3
CH3
CH3
n-hexane 2-methylpentane 3-methylpentane
2,2-dimethylbutane
16
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• There are five isomeric hexanes, C6H14.
CH3
CH
2
CH2
CH
2
CH2
CH3CH3
CH C
H2
CH
2
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH
2
CH C
H2
CH3
CH3
CH3
CCH
2 CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH C
H CH3
CH3
CH3
n-hexane 2-methylpentane 3-methylpentane
2,2-dimethylbutane 2,3-dimethylbutane
17
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• The number of structural isomers increases rapidly with increasing numbers of carbon atoms.
• The boiling points of the alkanes increase with molecular weight.
18
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• Cyclic saturated hydrocarbons are called cycloalkanes. – They have the general formula CnH2n.
• Some examples are:
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
cyclopentane
19
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• Cyclic saturated hydrocarbons are called cycloalkanes. – They have the general formula CnH2n.
• Some examples are:
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
cyclopentane cyclohexane
20
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• Cyclic saturated hydrocarbons are called cycloalkanes. – They have the general formula CnH2n.
• Some examples are:
21
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
• The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) names for the first 12 "straight-chain" or "normal" alkanes are given in this table.
Number of carbon atoms in chain Name
1 Methane
2 Ethane
3 Propane
4 Butane
5 Pentane
6 Hexane
22
Number of carbon atoms in chain Name
7 Heptane
8 Octane
9 Nonane
10 Decane
11 Unidecane
12 Dodecane
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
23
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
• Other organic compounds are named as derivatives of the alkanes.
• Branched-chain alkanes are named by the following rules.
1. Choose the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms which gives the basic name or stem.
24
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
2 Number each carbon atom in the basic chain, starting at the end that gives the lowest number to the first group attached to the main chain (substituent).
3 For each substituent on the chain, we indicate the position in the chain (by an Arabic numeric prefix) and the kind of substituent (by its name).
The position of a substituent on the chain is indicated by the lowest number possible.
The number precedes the name of the substituent.
25
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
4 When there are two or more substituents of a given kind, use prefixes to indicate the number of substituents.di = 2, tri = 3, tetra = 4, penta = 5, hexa = 6, hepta = 7, octa =
8, and so on.
5 The combined substituent numbers and names serve as a prefix for the basic hydrocarbon name.
6 Separate numbers from numbers by commas and numbers from words by hyphens. Words are "run together".
26
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
• Alkyl groups (represented by the symbol R) are common substituents.
– Alkyl groups are fragments of alkanes in which one H atom has been removed for the connection to the main chain.
– Alkyl groups have the general formula CnH2n+1.
• In alkyl groups the -ane suffix in the name of the parent alkane is replaced by -yl.
– A one carbon group is named methyl.
– A two carbon group is named ethyl.
– A three carbon group is named propyl.
27
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
• The three classes of unsaturated hydrocarbons are:
1. alkenes and cycloalkenes, CnH2n
2. alkynes and cycloalkynes, CnH2n-2
3. aromatic hydrocarbons
28
Alkenes
• The simplest alkenes contain one C=C bond per molecule. – The general formula for simple alkenes is CnH2n.
• The first two alkenes are:– ethene, C2H4
29
Alkenes
• The simplest alkenes contain one C=C bond per molecule. – The general formula for simple alkenes is CnH2n.
• The first two alkenes are:– and propene, C3H6
30
Alkenes
• Each doubly bonded C atom is sp2 hybridized.
• The sp2 hybrid consists of:– two bonds (single bonds) and– one and one bond (double bond)
31
Alkenes
• The systematic naming system for alkenes uses the same stems as alkanes.
• In the IUPAC system, the -ane suffix for alkanes is changed to -ene. – Common names for the alkenes have the same stem but use
the suffix -ylene is used.
• In chains of four or more C atoms, a numerical prefix shows the position of the lowest-numbered doubly bonded C atom. – Always choose the longest chain that contains the C=C bond.
32
Alkenes
• Polyenes contain two or more double bonds per molecule.
• Indicate the number of double bonds with suffixes: – -adiene for two double bonds.
– -atriene for three double bonds, etc.
• The positions of the substituents are indicated as for alkanes.
• The position of the C=C bond(s) is/are given the lowest number(s) possible.
33
Alkenes
CC
CC
CC
H
H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
1,3-hexadiene
34
Alkenes
CC
CC
CCH
H H
H
H
H
H
H
1,3,5-hexatriene
CC
CC
CCH
H H
C
C
H
H
H
H
H H
H
HH
2,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-hexatriene
CC
CC
CC
H
H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
1,3-hexadiene
35
Cycloalkenes
• Cycloalkenes have the general formula CnH2n-2.
• Examples are:• cyclopentene
C C
CC
C
HH
H
HH
H
H
H
36
Cycloalkenes
• cyclohexene
C
CC
C
CCH
HH H
H
H
H
HH H
37
Cycloalkenes
• cycloheptene
C C
C
CCC
CH
HH
H HH
HH
HHHH
38
Alkynes
• Alkynes contain CC bonds.
• The simplest alkyne is C2H2, ethyne, or acetylene.
– Alkynes with only one C C bond have the formula CnH2n-2.
• Each carbon atom in a C C bond is sp hybridized.
– Each sp hybrid contains two bonds and two bonds.
– The carbon atom will have one single bond and one triple bond.
39
Alkynes
• Alkynes are named like the alkenes except that the suffix -yne is used with the characteristic stem – The alkyne stem is derived from the name of the
alkane with the same number of carbon atoms.
40
Alkynes
• Acetylene is an important industrial chemical. – It is prepared by the reaction of calcium carbide
with water.
sg222s2 CaO HCO H CaC
41
Alkynes
• Acetylene burns in a highly exothermic reaction– The combustion produces temperatures of about 3000°C.– Acetylene is used in cutting torches for welding.
• Alkynes are very reactive – The two bonds are sights of special reactivity.
• Addition reactions, such as hydrogenation, are common.
g2g2g2g22 OH2CO45O H2C
g62g2g22 HC 2H HC
42
Hydrocarbons: A Summary
Carbon Atom Hybridization C uses C forms Example
sp3
tetrahedral4 sp3 hybrids
4 bonds
CH4
sp2
trigonal planar3 sp2 hybrids & 1p orbital
3 bonds
1 bond
C2H4
sp linear2 sp hybrids &
2 p orbitals
2 bonds
2 bonds
C2H2
43
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Historically, aromatic was used to describe pleasant smelling substances.
• Now it refers to benzene, C6H6, and derivatives of benzene.– Other compounds that have similar chemical
properties to benzene are also called aromatic.
44
Benzene
• The structure of benzene, C6H6, is:
45
Other Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Coal tar is the common source of benzene and many other aromatic compounds.
• Some aromatic hydrocarbons that contain fused rings are:
• napthalene
46
Other Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• phenanthrene
CC
CC
C
CC
C
CC
C
CC
C
H
H
H
HH
H
H
H
H
H
47
Other Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Many aromatic hydrocarbons contain alkyl groups attached to benzene rings (as well as to other aromatic rings).
• The positions of the substituents on benzene rings are indicated by the prefixes:– ortho- (o-) for substituents on adjacent C atoms– meta- (m-) for substituents on C atoms 1 and 3– para- (p-) for substituents on C atoms 1 and 4
48
Functional Groups
• Functional groups are groups of atoms that represent potential reaction sites.
• Compounds that contain a given functional group usually undergo similar reactions.
• Functional groups influence physical properties as well.
49
Organic Halides
• A halogen atom may replace almost any hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon.
• The functional group is the halide (-X) group. • Examples include:
– chloroform, CHCl3
CCl Cl
Cl
H
50
Organic Halides
• 1,2-dichloroethane, ClCH2CH2Cl
C CH
Cl
H
H
Cl
HH
C
HHH
51
Organic Halides
• para-dichlorobenzene
Cl
Cl
52
Alcohols and Phenols
• The functional group in alcohols and phenols is the hydroxyl (-OH) group.
• Alcohols and phenols can be considered derivatives of hydrocarbons in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by -OH groups.
• Phenols are derivatives of benzene in which one H has been replaced by replaced by -OH group.
53
Alcohols and Phenols
• Ethyl alcohol (ethanol), C2H5OH, is the most familiar alcohol.
54
Alcohols and Phenols
• Phenol, C6H5OH, is the most familiar phenol.
OH
55
Alcohols and Phenols
• Alcohols are considered neutral compounds because they are only very slightly acidic.– Alcohols can behave as acids but only in the presence
of very strong bases.
• Phenols are weakly acidic.
– Ka 1.0 x 10-10 for phenol
– Although phenols are very weakly acidic, they are also very corrosive.
56
Alcohols and Phenols
• Alcohols can be classified into three classes:
1. Primary (1°) alcohols like ethanol have the -OH group attached to a C atom that has one bond to another C atom.
CH3
CH2
OH
57
Alcohols and Phenols
2. Secondary(2°) alcohols have the –OH group attached to a C atom that has bonds to 2 other C atoms.
• For example,2-propanol:
CH3
CH
CH3
OH
58
Alcohols and Phenols
3. Tertiary (3°) alcohols have the –OH group attached to a C atom that is bonded to 3 other C atoms.
• For example, 2-methyl-2-propanol
CH3 C CH3
OH
CH3
59
Alcohols and Phenols
• The stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus an -ol suffix is the systematic name for an alcohol.
• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the -OH group in alcohols with three or more C atoms.
• Common names are the name of the appropriate alkyl group plus alcohol.
60
Alcohols and Phenols
• Alcohols are named using the stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus an -ol suffix in the systematic nomenclature.
• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the -OH group in alcohols with three or more C atoms. – Common alcohol names are the name of the appropriate alkyl group plus the word alcohol.
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
OHCH3
CH C
H2
CH2
CH3
OH
CH3
CH2
CH C
H2
CH3
OH
1-pentanol1-pentyl alcohol
2-pentanol2-pentyl alcohol
3-pentanol3-pentyl alcohol
61
Alcohols and Phenols
• There are several isomeric monohydric acyclic (contains no rings) alcohols that contain more than three C atoms.
• There are four isomeric four-carbon alcohols.
62
Alcohols and Phenols
• There are eight isomeric five-carbon alcohols.
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
OHCH3
CH C
H2
CH2
CH3
OH
CH3
CH2
CH C
H2
CH3
OH
1-pentanol 2-pentanol 3-pentanol
CH2
CH C
H2
CH3OH
CH3
CH3 C CH2
CH3
CH3
OHCH3
CH C
H CH3
OH
CH3
2-methyl-1-butanol 2-methyl-2-butanol 3-methyl-2-butanol
CH3
CH C
H2
CH
2CH3
OH
3-methyl-1-butanol
CH3 C CH2
CH3
CH3OH
2,2-dimethyl-1-propanol
63
Alcohols and Phenols
• Polyhydric alcohols contain more than one -OH group per molecule.
CH2
CH CH2
OH
OH
OH
CH2
CH C
H CH C
H CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
glycerin sorbitol
64
Alcohols and Phenols
• Phenols are usually called by their common (trivial) names.
OH
OH
resorcinol
65
Alcohols and Phenols
• Phenols are usually called by their common (trivial) names.
OH
OH
OH
CH3
resorcinol o-cresol
66
Alcohols and Phenols
• Phenols are usually called by their common (trivial) names.
OH
OH
OH
CH3
OH
CH3
resorcinol o-cresol m-cresol
67
Alcohols and Phenols
• Phenols are usually called by their common (trivial) names.
OH
OH
OH
CH3
OH
CH3
OH
CH3
resorcinol o-cresol m-cresol p-cresol
68
Alcohols and Phenols
• Because the -OH group is quite polar, the properties of alcohols depend upon the number of -OH groups per molecule and the size of the organic group.
• The boiling points of monohydric alcohols increase with increasing molecular weight.
• The solubility of monohydric alcohols in water decrease with increasing molecular weight.
• Polyhydric alcohols are more soluble in water because of the two or more polar groups (-OH).
69
Ethers
• Ethers may be thought of as derivatives of water in which both H atoms have been replaced by alkyl or aryl groups.
HO
H
water
70
Ethers
• Ethers may be thought of as derivatives of water in which both H atoms have been replaced by alkyl or aryl groups.
HO
H CH3
OH
water an alcohol
71
Ethers
• Ethers may be thought of as derivatives of water in which both H atoms have been replaced by alkyl or aryl groups.
HO
H CH3
OH CH3
OCH3
water an alcohol an ether
72
Ethers
• Ethers are not very polar and not very reactive.
• They are excellent solvents.
• Common names are used for most ethers.
73
Aldehydes and Ketones
• The functional group in aldehydes and ketones is the carbonyl group.
O
R2R1 or H
carbonyl group
74
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Except for formaldehyde, aldehydes have one H atom and one organic group bonded to a carbonyl group.
75
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Ketones have two organic groups bonded to a carbonyl group.
76
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Common names for aldehydes are derived from the name of the acid with the same number of C atoms.
• IUPAC names are derived from the parent hydrocarbon name by replacing -e with -al.
C
O
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3 H
pentanal orpentyl aldehyde
77
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Common names for aldehydes are derived from the name of the acid with the same number of C atoms.
• IUPAC names are derived from the parent hydrocarbon name by replacing -e with -al.
C
O
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3 HC
O
CCH3
CH3
CH3
H
pentanal orpentyl aldehyde
2,3-dimethylproponal or2,3-dimethylpropionaldehyde
78
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Common names for aldehydes are derived from the name of the acid with the same number of C atoms.
• IUPAC names are derived from the parent hydrocarbon name by replacing -e with -al.
C
O
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3 HC
O
CCH3
CH3
CH3
HC
O
H
pentanal orpentyl aldehyde
2,3-dimethylproponal or2,3-dimethylpropionaldehyde
benzanal orbenzyl aldehyde
79
Aldehydes and Ketones
• The IUPAC name for a ketone is the characteristic stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus the suffix -one.
• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the carbonyl group in a chain or on a ring.
C
O
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3 CH3
2-hexanone ormethyl pentyl ketone
80
Aldehydes and Ketones
• The IUPAC name for a ketone is the characteristic stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus the suffix -one.
• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the carbonyl group in a chain or on a ring.
C
O
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3 CH3
2-hexanone ormethyl pentyl ketone
CH3
CH
2
CH2
CCH2
CH3
O
3-hexanone orethyl propyl ketone
81
Aldehydes and Ketones
• The IUPAC name for a ketone is the characteristic stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus the suffix -one.
• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the carbonyl group in a chain or on a ring.
C
O
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3 CH3
2-hexanone ormethyl pentyl ketone
CH3
CH2
CH2
CCH2
CH3
O
3-hexanone orethyl propyl ketone
CCH3O
acetophenone ormethyl phenyl ketone
82
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Many aldehydes and ketones occur in nature.
CHCH
COH
cinnamaldehyde
O
CH3
CH3OH
testosterone
83
Amines
• Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by organic groups (aliphatic or aromatic or a mixture of both).
• There are three classes of amines.
HN
HH
ammonia
84
Amines
• Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by organic groups (aliphatic or aromatic or a mixture of both).
• There are three classes of amines.H
NH
HCH3
NH
H
ammonia primary amine
85
Amines
• Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by organic groups (aliphatic or aromatic or a mixture of both).
• There are three classes of amines.H
NH
HCH3
NH
H
CH3
NH
CH3
ammonia primary amine
secondary amine
86
Amines
• Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by organic groups (aliphatic or aromatic or a mixture of both).
• There are three classes of amines.
HN
HH
CH3
NH
H
CH3
NH
CH3
CH3
NCH3
CH3
ammonia primary amine
secondary amine
tertiary amine
87
Amines
• Aniline is the simplest aromatic amine. It is much less basic than NH3.
• Aniline is a very important industrial chemical.
88
Amines
• Heterocylic amines have one or more N atoms in a ring structure.
• Many are important in living systems.
N
pyridine
89
Amines
• Heterocylic amines have one or more N atoms in a ring structure.
• Many are important in living systems.
N
pyridine
N
N
pyrimidine
90
Amines
• Heterocylic amines have one or more N atoms in a ring structure.
• Many are important in living systems.
N
pyridine
N
N
pyrimidine
N
N
N
N
purine
91
Carboxylic Acids
• Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group.
• The general formula for carboxylic acids is:– R represents an alkyl or an aryl group
COH
O
R1
COH
O
92
Carboxylic Acids
• IUPAC names for a carboxylic acid are derived from the name of the parent hydrocarbon.
– The final -e is dropped from the name of the parent hydrocarbon
– The suffix -oic is added followed by the word acid.
• Many organic acids are called by their common (trivial) names which are derived from Greek or Latin.
93
Carboxylic Acids
• Positions of substituents on carboxylic acid chains are indicated by numeric prefixes as in other compounds – Begin the counting scheme from the carboxyl
group carbon atom. • They are also often indicated by lower case Greek
letters. = 1st C atom = 2nd C atom = 3rd C atom, etc.
94
Carboxylic Acids
CH C
OH
O
CH3
CH3
2-methylpropanoic acid or-methylpropanoic acid
95
Carboxylic Acids
CH C
OH
O
CH3
CH3
2-methylpropanoic acid or-methylpropanoic acid
CH3
CH C
H2
COH
OCH3
3-methylbutanoic acid or-methylbutanoic acid
96
Carboxylic Acids
CH C
OH
O
CH3
CH3
2-methylpropanoic acid or-methylpropanoic acid
CH3
CH C
H2
COH
OCH3
3-methylbutanoic acid or-methylbutanoic acid
CH3 CH C
H2
CH2
COH
O
CH3
4-methylpentanoic acid or-methylpentanoic acid
97
Carboxylic Acids
• Dicarboxylic acids contain two carboxyl groups per molecule.
OH
C C
OHO
O
oxalic acid
98
Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids• Dicarboxylic acids contain two carboxyl groups per
molecule.
OH
C C
OHO
OOH
CCH2
COH
O O
oxalic acid malonic acid
99
Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids• Dicarboxylic acids contain two carboxyl groups per
molecule.
OH
C C
OHO
OOH
CCH2
COH
O O
OHC
CH2
CH2
COH
O
O
oxalic acid malonic acid succinic acid
100
Carboxylic Acids• Aromatic acids are usually called by their
common names.
• Sometimes, they are named as derivatives of benzoic acid which is considered to be the "parent" aromatic acid.
101
Carboxylic Acids
OOHOOH
Cl
benzoic acid p-chlorobenzoic acid
102
Carboxylic Acids
OOHOOH
Cl
OOH
CH3
O
OH
O
OH
benzoic acid p-chlorobenzoic acid
p-toluic acid phthalic acid
103
Carboxylic Acids
• Acid strengths of simple carboxylic acids vary little with chain length.
• However, substituents on a carbon atom in the chain can cause large variations in acid strengths .
104
Carboxylic Acids
COH
O
H
CH3
COH
O
OHC
CH2
CH3
O
Compound Name Ka
formic acid
acetic acid
propionic acid
1.8 x 10-4
1.8 x 10-5
1.4 x 10-5
105
Carboxylic Acids
CH2
COH
O
Cl
Compound Name Ka
monochloroacetic acid 1.5 x 10-3
CH3
COH
O
acetic acid 1.8 x 10-5
CH C
OH
O
Cl
Cl dichloroacetic acid 5.0 x 10-2
CC
OH
O
ClCl
Cltrichloroacetic acid 2.0 x 10-1
106
Carboxylic Acids
• The -OH group in the carboxyl group of carboxylic acids, is displaced in many of their reactions.
• The non -OH portion of a carboxylic acid is called an acyl group.
R1C
OH
O
R1C
O
carboxyl group acyl group
107
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Four important classes of compounds contain
acyl groups – They are all considered to be derivatives of
carboxylic acids.
• In these structures R's may represent either alkyl or aryl groups.
108
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids
R1C
OC
R1
O O
R1C
Cl
O
acid anhydride acid chloride
109
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids
R1C
OC
R1
O O
R1C
Cl
O
R1C
OR2
O
R1C
NH2
O
acid anhydride acid chloride
ester amide
110
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Acid anhydrides are related to their parent acids as
follows:– The word anhydride means without water.
CH3
COH
O
2CH3 O CH3
O O
+ H2O
acetic acid acetic anhydride
111
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Acyl halides are much more reactive, and more
volatile, than their parent acids. • They react with water to form their parent acids and a
hydrohalic acid.
CH3
CCl
O
CH3 OH
O
+ HCl
acetyl chloride acetic acid
H2O+
112
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Acyl halides are prepared by reacting their parent
acids with PCl3, PCl5, or SOCl2.
• The more volatile acid halide is then distilled out of the reaction mixture.
OOH
+ PCl5
OCl
benzoic acid benzoyl chloride
113
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Esters are prepared by heating a carboxylic acid with
an alcohol in the presence of a small amount of an inorganic acid. – The reaction mixture will contain some ester and water, as
well as unreacted acid and alcohol.
CH3
COH
OCH2
OHCH3
+H2SO4
CH3
CO
CH2
CH3
O
+ H2O
ethanoic acid or acetic acid
ethanol orethyl alcohol
ethyl ethanoate orethyl acetate
114
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Esters are usually called by their common names. • Many simple esters occur naturally and have pleasant
odors. – Esters are frequently used in fragrances and as artificial
flavors.
CH2
CO
CH2
CH3
O
CH2
CH3
ethyl butanoate or ethyl butyrateodor of pineapples
CH3 OCH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
O
octyl ethanoate or octyl acetate odor of oranges
115
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Fats are solid esters of glycerol and (mostly) saturated
acids at room temperature.
• Oils are liquid esters of glycerol and primarily unsaturated acids at room temperature.
• The "acid" parts of fats and oils usually contain even numbers of C atoms in naturally occurring fats and oils.
– 16 and 18 carbon chains are the most commonly found chain sizes in nature.
116
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids
• Some acids that are found (as their esters) in fats and oils include:
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
COH
O
palmitic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH
117
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Stearic acid is often found in beef fat.
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
COH
O
stearic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH
118
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Triglycerides are the triesters of glycerol.• The common name for triglycerides is tri (acid
stem) plus an -in suffix.– For example, tripalmitin.
119
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Waxes are esters of long chain fatty acids and
alcohols other than glycerol.
– Commonly, waxes are derived from monohydric alcohols.
• Beeswax and carnauba wax are esters of myricyl alcohol, C30H61OH.
120
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids
• Carnauba wax is often used in car waxes.
carnauba wax
C
O
OC25H51
C30H61
121
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Dihydric alcohols (2 –OH’s per molecule) can react with
dicarboxylic acids (2 –COOH’s per molecule) to form polyesters.
• Ester linkages are formed at both ends of both molecules to give polymeric esters with very high molecular weights.
C
OH
C
OH
O
O+ C
H2CH2
OHOH
terephthalic aciddicarboxylic acid
ethylene glycoldihydric alcohol
122
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids
CO
CO
O
O
CH2
CH2
O
*
*n
dacron
123
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Amides are derivatives of organic acids and primary
or secondary amines. • The functional groups of amides are:
CN
O
R2
H
R1C
N
O
R2
R3
R1orCN
O
H
H
R1 or
124
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Amides are also named as derivatives of carboxylic
acids. • The suffix -amide is substituted for -ic acid or -oic
acid.
CN
O
H
H
CH3
CNH2O
ethanamide or acetamide
benzamide
125
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• When an aryl or alkyl substituent is present on the N
atom, the letter N and the name of the substituent are prefixed to the name of the unsubstituted amide.
CN
O
CH3
H
CH3
CNO
CH3
CH2
CH3
N-ethylethanamide or N-ethylacetamide
N-ethyl-N-methylbenzamide
126
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids• Acetaminophen – “Tylenol” - is an amide.
127
Summary of the Functional Groups
• A summary of the functional groups is:
128
129
Substitution Reactions
• In a substitution reaction an atom or group of atoms attached to a carbon atom is replaced (substituted for) by another atom or group of atoms. – There is no change in the degree of saturation at
the reactive carbon atom.• Halogenation reactions are an important class of
substitution reactions. – Chlorine reacts with alkanes in free radical
chain reactions (also substitution reactions).
130
Substitution Reactions
• Free radical chain reactions– The halogenation of methane is one example.
heat oruv light
Cl··
···· .2
free radicals
Cl Cl······
··
··
····
131
Substitution Reactions
Cl··
···· .+ H C
H
H··
····. + ··Cl
····
··HH C H
H
H··
······
heat oruv light
free radicals
Cl Cl······
··
··
···· 2 Cl
····
·· .
methyl radical
132
Substitution Reactions
H C
H
H··
····. + Cl Cl····
··
··
··
···· + Cl
····
·· .H C
H
H··
···· Cl···· ····
methyl radical
Cl··
···· .+ H C
H
H··
····. + ··Cl
····
··HH C H
H
H··
······
heat oruv light
free radicals
2 Cl··
···· .Cl Cl····
··
··
··
····
methyl chloride
133
Substitution Reactions
• Free radical chain reactions– Many substitution reactions of alkanes produce
more than one product.
C ClH
H
H
+ Cl Cl C
H
H
ClCl + HCl
134
Substitution Reactions
C ClH
H
H
+ Cl Cl C
H
H
ClCl + HCl
C
H
H
ClCl + Cl Cl C
H
Cl
ClCl + HCl
135
Substitution Reactions
HCl
C
H
Cl
ClCl + Cl Cl C
Cl
Cl
ClCl + HCl
C
H
H
ClCl + Cl Cl C
H
Cl
ClCl +
C ClH
H
H
+ Cl Cl C
H
H
ClCl + HCl
136
Substitution Reactions
• Nitration reaction of an aromatic hydrocarbon replaces an H atom attached to an aromatic ring with a nitro, -NO2, group.
+ 2H SO4HNO2
NO2
137
Addition Reactions
• An addition reaction involves an increase in the number of groups attached to carbon. – The degree of saturation of the molecule is increased.
C C
H
H H
H
+ Cl C CH
Cl
H
HH
Cl2
138
Addition Reactions
• Hydrogenation is a very important kind of addition reaction.– Hydrogenation is used to convert unsaturated fats and oils to
saturated fats or oils.
C C
H
H H
H
+ H C CH
H
H
HH
H2
139
Elimination Reactions
• An elimination reaction involves the removal of groups attached to carbon.– The degree of unsaturation increases.
C C
CH3CH3
HH
CH3
CH CH
BrBr
CH3
Zn in
acetic acidor ethanol
C C
CH3 H
CH3H
+ ZnBr2
mixture of cis & trans-2-butene
+
140
Elimination Reactions
• Dehydration is an important kind of elimination reaction.
concentrated
2H SO4
C C
H H
HH
H
CH CH
OHH
H+ H O2
141
Polymerization Reactions
• A polymer is a large molecule that consists of a high-molecular weight chain of small molecules.– The small molecules that have been joined to form
the polymer are called monomers.
• Synthetic polymers are a relatively new class of molecules.– The first one, bakelite, was discovered in 1909.– Nylon, which is still extensively used, was
discovered in 1930’s.
142
Polymerization Reactions
• Addition polymerization is a large commercial process in the United States.
• Polyethylene is the addition polymer made in the largest quantities in the United States.– Polyethylene is used to make Coke bottles, plastic
bags, etc.
143
Polymerization Reactions
• Addition polymerization– Polyethylene formation
CH2 CH2n
ethylene
catalyst* CH2 CH2 *n
polyethylene
144
Polymerization Reactions
• Addition polymerization– Teflon is the material used in nonstick frying pans and
other kitchen utensils.
C C
F
F F
F
ncatalyst
C C
F
F F
F
** n
polytetrafluoroethylene or Teflon
tetrafluoroethylene
heat
145
Polymerization Reactions
• Formation of rubber– Natural rubber is a polymer made of isoprene (2-
methyl-1,3-butadiene) units that form a unique stereoisomeric structure.
2n
natural rubberisoprene
CH2
C CH
CH2
CH3
CH2
CCH
CH2
CH2
CCH
CH2*
CH3 CH3
*n
146
Polymerization Reactions
• Vulcanization of rubber– Natural rubber is a sticky, soft compound when heated
which limited its commercial potential.
• Charles Goodyear discovered in 1839 that heating rubber with sulfur removed the stickiness and made the substance elastic.– This is the basis of modern tire production.
• Vulcanization provides disulfide cross-linking bonds between the isoprene units.
147
Polymerization Reactions
• Copolymers– If two different monomers are mixed and the
polymerized, copolymers are formed.
• Styrene butadiene rubber - SBR - is an important copolymer used in tire production.
148
Polymerization Reactions
• Copolymers
3
styrenebutadiene
C CC C
H
H
H
H H
H CCH
H
H
+
149
Polymerization Reactions
CH2
CC
CH2 CH2
CC
CH2
CH2
CCH2
CC
CH2
**
H
H
H
HH H
H
n
Styrene - butadiene rubber (SBR)
150
Polymerization Reactions
• Condensation Polymers– Condensation polymers occur when two molecules
react and eliminate a small molecule.– Molecules eliminated commonly are water and HCl.
• Important condensation polymers include nylon, dacron, and kevlar.– Dacron is used in clothing to make it wrinkle free. – Blood does not clot in contact with dacron thus it is
used in artificial arteries.
151
Polymerization Reactions
• Condensation Polymers– Dacron formation
terephthalic acidethylene glycol
CH2
CH2
OHOH
COOH
O OH
+
152
Polymerization Reactions
C
O
OCO
OCH2
CH2
CH2
O HCH2
OH n
Dacron is a polyester
+ H2O
153
Polymerization Reactions
• Condensation Polymers
• Nylon was first made by Wallace Carothers in the 1930’s.– Nylon is widely used in a variety of commercial
products including stockings, rope, guitar strings, fire-proof clothing.
154
Polymerization Reactions
• Condensation Polymers– Nylon 66 formation
OHC
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
COH
O
O
NH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
NH2+
adipic acid hexamethylene diamine
155
Polymerization Reactions
+ H2ONH2
CCH2
CH
2
CH2
CH
2
CNH
CH2
CH
2
CH2
CH
2
CH2
CH
2
NH
COH
O
O
O
n
Nylon is a polyamide
156
Synthesis Question
• TNT, the explosive ingredient in dynamite, has the correct name of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. Draw the structure of TNT.
157
Synthesis Question
CH3
NOO N
NO
2
2
2
TNT or 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene
27Organic Chemistry I: Formulas, Names,
and Properties