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Transcript of 25 lecture history_of_life
LECTURE PRESENTATIONSFor CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION
Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lectures byErin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
The History of Life on Earth
Chapter 25
Overview: Lost Worlds
• Past organisms were very different from those now alive
• The fossil record shows macroevolutionary changes over large time scales, for example:
– The emergence of terrestrial vertebrates
– The impact of mass extinctions– The origin of flight in birds
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.1
Figure 25.UN01
Cryolophosaurus skull
Concept 25.1: Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible
• Chemical and physical processes on early Earth may have produced very simple cells through a sequence of stages:
1. Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
2. Joining of these small molecules into macromolecules
3. Packaging of molecules into protocells
4. Origin of self-replicating molecules
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth
• Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago, along with the rest of the solar system
• Bombardment of Earth by rocks and ice likely vaporized water and prevented seas from forming before 4.2 to 3.9 billion years ago
• Earth’s early atmosphere likely contained water vapor and chemicals released by volcanic eruptions (nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide)
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• In the 1920s, A. I. Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane hypothesized that the early atmosphere was a reducing environment
• In 1953, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey conducted lab experiments that showed that the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules in a reducing atmosphere is possible
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• However, the evidence is not yet convincing that the early atmosphere was in fact reducing
• Instead of forming in the atmosphere, the first organic compounds may have been synthesized near volcanoes or deep-sea vents
• Miller-Urey type experiments demonstrate that organic molecules could have formed with various possible atmospheres
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Video: Hydrothermal Vent
Video: Tubeworms
Figure 25.2
Mas
s o
f am
ino
aci
ds
(mg
)
Nu
mb
er o
f am
ino
aci
ds
20
10
01953 2008
200
100
01953 2008
Figure 25.2a
Ma
ss o
f a
min
o a
cid
s (
mg
)
Nu
mb
er
of
amin
o a
cid
s
20
10
01953 2008
200
100
01953 2008
Figure 25.2b
• Amino acids have also been found in meteorites
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules
• RNA monomers have been produced spontaneously from simple molecules
• Small organic molecules polymerize when they are concentrated on hot sand, clay, or rock
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protocells
• Replication and metabolism are key properties of life and may have appeared together
• Protocells may have been fluid-filled vesicles with a membrane-like structure
• In water, lipids and other organic molecules can spontaneously form vesicles with a lipid bilayer
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Adding clay can increase the rate of vesicle formation
• Vesicles exhibit simple reproduction and metabolism and maintain an internal chemical environment
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.3
(a) Self-assembly
Time (minutes)
Precursor molecules plusmontmorillonite clay
Precursor molecules only
Rel
ativ
e tu
rbid
ity,
an
in
dex
of
vesi
cle
nu
mb
er
0
20 µm
(b) Reproduction (c) Absorption of RNA
Vesicle boundary
1 µm
0
0.2
0.4
4020 60
Figure 25.3a
Time (minutes)
Precursor molecules plusmontmorillonite clay
Precursor molecules only
Rel
ativ
e t
urb
idit
y,
an in
dex
of
ves
icle
nu
mb
er
0 20 40 600
0.2
0.4
(a) Self-assembly
Figure 25.3b
20 µm
(b) Reproduction
Figure 25.3c
(c) Absorption of RNA
Vesicle boundary
1 µm
Self-Replicating RNA and the Dawn of Natural Selection
• The first genetic material was probably RNA, not DNA
• RNA molecules called ribozymes have been found to catalyze many different reactions
– For example, ribozymes can make complementary copies of short stretches of RNA
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Natural selection has produced self-replicating RNA molecules
• RNA molecules that were more stable or replicated more quickly would have left the most descendent RNA molecules
• The early genetic material might have formed an “RNA world”
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Vesicles with RNA capable of replication would have been protocells
• RNA could have provided the template for DNA, a more stable genetic material
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 25.2: The fossil record documents the history of life
• The fossil record reveals changes in the history of life on Earth
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Fossil Record
• Sedimentary rocks are deposited into layers called strata and are the richest source of fossils
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Video: Grand Canyon
Dimetrodon
Stromatolites
Fossilizedstromatolite
Coccosteuscuspidatus
4.5 cm
0.5 m
2.5 cm
Present
Rhomaleosaurus victor
Tiktaalik
Hallucigenia
Dickinsonia costata
Tappania
1 cm
1 m
100 mya
175200
300
375400
500525
565600
1,500
3,500
270
Figure 25.4
Figure 25.4a
Fossilized stromatolite
Figure 25.4b
Stromatolites
Figure 25.4c
Tappania
Figure 25.4d
2.5 cm
Dickinsonia costata
Figure 25.4e
Hallucigenia
1 cm
Figure 25.4f
4.5 cm
Coccosteus cuspidatus
Figure 25.4g
Tiktaalik
Figure 25.4h
Dimetrodon
0.5 m
Figure 25.4i
Rhomaleosaurus victor
1 m
• Few individuals have fossilized, and even fewer have been discovered
• The fossil record is biased in favor of species that– Existed for a long time– Were abundant and widespread– Had hard parts
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: The Geologic Record
• Fossil discoveries can be a matter of chance or prediction
– For example, paleontologists found Tiktaalik, an early terrestrial vertebrate, by targeting sedimentary rock from a specific time and environment
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
How Rocks and Fossils Are Dated
• Sedimentary strata reveal the relative ages of fossils
• The absolute ages of fossils can be determined by radiometric dating
• A “parent” isotope decays to a “daughter” isotope at a constant rate
• Each isotope has a known half-life, the time required for half the parent isotope to decay
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Accumulating “daughter”
isotope
Fra
cti
on
of
pa
ren
t is
oto
pe
rem
ain
ing
Remaining “parent” isotope
Time (half-lives)1 2 3 4
12
14
18 1
16
Figure 25.5
• Radiocarbon dating can be used to date fossils up to 75,000 years old
• For older fossils, some isotopes can be used to date sedimentary rock layers above and below the fossil
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Origin of New Groups of Organisms
• Mammals belong to the group of animals called tetrapods
• The evolution of unique mammalian features can be traced through gradual changes over time
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
OTHERTETRA-PODS
Temporal fenestra
Hinge
†Dimetrodon
†Very late (non-mammalian) cynodonts
Mammals
Syn
apsid
s
Th
erapsi d
s
Cyn
od
on
ts
Reptiles (including dinosaurs and birds)
Key to skull bones
Articular
Quadrate Squamosal
Dentary
Temporal fenestra
HingeHinge
Hinge
Hinges
Temporal fenestra(partial view)
Early cynodont (260 mya)
Very late cynodont (195 mya)
Synapsid (300 mya)
Therapsid (280 mya)
Later cynodont (220 mya)
Figure 25.6
Figure 25.6a
OTHERTETRAPODS
†Dimetrodon
†Very late (non-mammalian) cynodonts
Mammals
Syn
aps id
s
Th
erapsid
s
Cyn
od
on
ts
Reptiles (including dinosaurs and birds)
Figure 25.6b
Temporal fenestra
Hinge
Temporal fenestra
Hinge
Synapsid (300 mya)
Therapsid (280 mya)
Key to skull bones
Articular
Quadrate
Squamosal
Dentary
Figure 25.6c
Hinge
Hinge
Hinges
Temporal fenestra(partial view)
Early cynodont (260 mya)
Very late cynodont (195 mya)
Later cynodont (220 mya)
Key to skull bones
Articular
Quadrate
Squamosal
Dentary
• The geologic record is divided into the Archaean, the Proterozoic, and the Phanerozoic eons
• The Phanerozoic encompasses multicellular eukaryotic life
• The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic
Concept 25.3: Key events in life’s history include the origins of single-celled and multicelled organisms and the colonization of land
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 25.1
Table 25.1a
Table 25.1b
• Major boundaries between geological divisions correspond to extinction events in the fossil record
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Origin of solar system and Earth
Prokaryotes
Atmospheric oxygen
Archaean
4
3
Billions of years
ago
Figure 25.7-1
Origin of solar system and Earth
Prokaryotes
Atmospheric oxygen
Archaean
4
3
Proterozoic
2
Animals
Multicellular eukaryotes
Single-celled eukaryotes
1
Billions of years
ago
Figure 25.7-2
Origin of solar system and Earth
Prokaryotes
Atmospheric oxygen
Archaean
4
3
Proterozoic
2
Animals
Multicellular eukaryotes
Single-celled eukaryotes
Colonization of land
Humans
CenozoicMeso-
zoic
Paleozoic
1
Billions of years
ago
Figure 25.7-3
Prokaryotes
1
2 3
4
i
y arag
o
i
o
ll o
s
B
e
sn
f
Figure 25.UN02
The First Single-Celled Organisms
• The oldest known fossils are stromatolites, rocks formed by the accumulation of sedimentary layers on bacterial mats
• Stromatolites date back 3.5 billion years ago• Prokaryotes were Earth’s sole inhabitants from 3.5
to about 2.1 billion years ago
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.UN03
Atmospheric oxygen
1
2 3
4
i
y ar
agoi
o
ll o
s
B
e
snf
Photosynthesis and the Oxygen Revolution
• Most atmospheric oxygen (O2) is of biological origin
• O2 produced by oxygenic photosynthesis reacted with dissolved iron and precipitated out to form banded iron formations
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• By about 2.7 billion years ago, O2 began accumulating in the atmosphere and rusting iron-rich terrestrial rocks
• This “oxygen revolution” from 2.7 to 2.3 billion years ago caused the extinction of many prokaryotic groups
• Some groups survived and adapted using cellular respiration to harvest energy
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.8
“Oxygen revolution”
Time (billions of years ago)
4 3 2 1 0
1,000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.0001
Atm
osp
he
ric
O2
(pe
rce
nt
of
pre
sen
t-d
ay le
vels
; lo
g s
cale
)
0.001
• The early rise in O2 was likely caused by ancient cyanobacteria
• A later increase in the rise of O2 might have been caused by the evolution of eukaryotic cells containing chloroplasts
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.UN04
Single-celledeukaryotes
1
2 3
4
i
y ar
agoi
o
ll o
sB
e
sn
f
The First Eukaryotes
• The oldest fossils of eukaryotic cells date back 2.1 billion years
• Eukaryotic cells have a nuclear envelope, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and a cytoskeleton
• The endosymbiont theory proposes that mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts and related organelles) were formerly small prokaryotes living within larger host cells
• An endosymbiont is a cell that lives within a host cell
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The prokaryotic ancestors of mitochondria and plastids probably gained entry to the host cell as undigested prey or internal parasites
• In the process of becoming more interdependent, the host and endosymbionts would have become a single organism
• Serial endosymbiosis supposes that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.9-1
Plasma membrane
DNA
Cytoplasm
Ancestralprokaryote
Nuclear envelope
Nucleus Endoplasmic reticulum
Figure 25.9-2
Plasma membrane
DNA
Cytoplasm
Ancestralprokaryote
Nuclear envelope
Nucleus Endoplasmic reticulum
Aerobic heterotrophicprokaryote
Mitochondrion
Ancestralheterotrophic eukaryote
Figure 25.9-3
Plasma membrane
DNA
Cytoplasm
Ancestralprokaryote
Nuclear envelope
Nucleus Endoplasmic reticulum
Aerobic heterotrophicprokaryote
Mitochondrion
Ancestralheterotrophic eukaryote
Photosyntheticprokaryote
Mitochondrion
Plastid
Ancestral photosyntheticeukaryote
• Key evidence supporting an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and plastids:
– Inner membranes are similar to plasma membranes of prokaryotes
– Division is similar in these organelles and some prokaryotes
– These organelles transcribe and translate their own DNA
– Their ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic than eukaryotic ribosomes
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Origin of Multicellularity
• The evolution of eukaryotic cells allowed for a greater range of unicellular forms
• A second wave of diversification occurred when multicellularity evolved and gave rise to algae, plants, fungi, and animals
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.UN05
Multicellulareukaryotes
1
2 3
4
i
y ar
agoi
o
ll o
sB
e
sn
f
The Earliest Multicellular Eukaryotes
• Comparisons of DNA sequences date the common ancestor of multicellular eukaryotes to 1.5 billion years ago
• The oldest known fossils of multicellular eukaryotes are of small algae that lived about 1.2 billion years ago
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The “snowball Earth” hypothesis suggests that periods of extreme glaciation confined life to the equatorial region or deep-sea vents from 750 to 580 million years ago
• The Ediacaran biota were an assemblage of larger and more diverse soft-bodied organisms that lived from 575 to 535 million years ago
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.UN06
Animals
1
2 3
4
i
y ar
agoi
o
ll o
sB
e
sn
f
The Cambrian Explosion
• The Cambrian explosion refers to the sudden appearance of fossils resembling modern animal phyla in the Cambrian period (535 to 525 million years ago)
• A few animal phyla appear even earlier: sponges, cnidarians, and molluscs
• The Cambrian explosion provides the first evidence of predator-prey interactions
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.10
Sponges
Cnidarians
Echinoderms
Chordates
Brachiopods
Annelids
Molluscs
Arthropods
Ediacaran Cambrian
PROTEROZOIC PALEOZOIC
Time (millions of years ago)
635 605 575 545 515 485 0
• DNA analyses suggest that many animal phyla diverged before the Cambrian explosion, perhaps as early as 700 million to 1 billion years ago
• Fossils in China provide evidence of modern animal phyla tens of millions of years before the Cambrian explosion
• The Chinese fossils suggest that “the Cambrian explosion had a long fuse”
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.11
150 µm (b) Later stage 200 µm(a) Two-cell stage
Figure 25.11a
150 µm(a) Two-cell stage
Figure 25.11b
(b) Later stage 200 µm
Figure 25.UN07Colonization of land
1
2 3
4
i
y ar
agoi
o
llo
sB
e
snf
The Colonization of Land
• Fungi, plants, and animals began to colonize land about 500 million years ago
• Vascular tissue in plants transports materials internally and appeared by about 420 million years ago
• Plants and fungi today form mutually beneficial associations and likely colonized land together
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Arthropods and tetrapods are the most widespread and diverse land animals
• Tetrapods evolved from lobe-finned fishes around 365 million years ago
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The history of life on Earth has seen the rise and fall of many groups of organisms
• The rise and fall of groups depends on speciation and extinction rates within the group
Concept 25.4: The rise and fall of groups of organisms reflect differences in speciation and extinction rates
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Video: Lava Flow
Video: Volcanic Eruption
Plate Tectonics
• At three points in time, the land masses of Earth have formed a supercontinent: 1.1 billion, 600 million, and 250 million years ago
• According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth’s crust is composed of plates floating on Earth’s mantle
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.12
Crust
Mantle
Outercore
Innercore
• Tectonic plates move slowly through the process of continental drift
• Oceanic and continental plates can collide, separate, or slide past each other
• Interactions between plates cause the formation of mountains and islands, and earthquakes
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.13
Juan de FucaPlate
NorthAmerican Plate
CaribbeanPlate
Cocos Plate
PacificPlate
NazcaPlate
SouthAmericanPlate
Eurasian Plate
Philippine Plate
Indian Plate
African Plate
Antarctic Plate
Australian Plate
Scotia Plate
Arabian Plate
Consequences of Continental Drift
• Formation of the supercontinent Pangaea about 250 million years ago had many effects
– A deepening of ocean basins
– A reduction in shallow water habitat
– A colder and drier climate inland
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.14
65.5
135
251
Pre
sen
t
Cen
ozo
ic
North Americ
a
Eurasia
Africa
SouthAmerica
India
Antarctica
Madagascar
Australia
Mes
ozo
icP
aleo
zoic
Mil
lio
ns
of
year
s a
go
Laurasia
Gondwana
Pangaea
Figure 25.14a
135
251
Mes
ozo
icP
aleo
zoic
Mil
lion
s o
f ye
ars
ago
Laurasia
Gondwana
Pangaea
Figure 25.14b
65.5
Pre
sen
t
Cen
ozo
ic
North Americ
a
Eurasia
Africa
SouthAmerica
India
Antarctica
Madagascar
Australia
Mil
lion
s o
f ye
ars
ago
• Continental drift has many effects on living organisms
– A continent’s climate can change as it moves north or south
– Separation of land masses can lead to allopatric speciation
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The distribution of fossils and living groups reflects the historic movement of continents
– For example, the similarity of fossils in parts of South America and Africa is consistent with the idea that these continents were formerly attached
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mass Extinctions
• The fossil record shows that most species that have ever lived are now extinct
• Extinction can be caused by changes to a species’ environment
• At times, the rate of extinction has increased dramatically and caused a mass extinction
• Mass extinction is the result of disruptive global environmental changes
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The “Big Five” Mass Extinction Events
• In each of the five mass extinction events, more than 50% of Earth’s species became extinct
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
25
20
15
10
5
0
542 488 444
Era
Period
416
E O S D
359 299
C
251
P Tr
200 65.5
J C
Mesozoic
P N
Cenozoic
0
0
Q
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
1,100T
ota
l e
xtin
cti
on
ra
te(f
am
ilie
s p
er
mil
lio
n y
ear
s):
Nu
mb
er o
f fa
mili
es:
Paleozoic
145
Figure 25.15
• The Permian extinction defines the boundary between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras 251 million years ago
• This mass extinction occurred in less than 5 million years and caused the extinction of about 96% of marine animal species
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• A number of factor might have contributed to these extinctions
– Intense volcanism in what is now Siberia
– Global warming resulting from the emission of large amounts of CO2 from the volcanoes
– Reduced temperature gradient from equator to poles
– Oceanic anoxia from reduced mixing of ocean waters
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• The Cretaceous mass extinction 65.5 million years ago separates the Mesozoic from the Cenozoic
• Organisms that went extinct include about half of all marine species and many terrestrial plants and animals, including most dinosaurs
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The presence of iridium in sedimentary rocks suggests a meteorite impact about 65 million years ago
• Dust clouds caused by the impact would have blocked sunlight and disturbed global climate
• The Chicxulub crater off the coast of Mexico is evidence of a meteorite that dates to the same time
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.16
NORTH AMERICA
YucatánPeninsula
Chicxulubcrater
Is a Sixth Mass Extinction Under Way?
• Scientists estimate that the current rate of extinction is 100 to 1,000 times the typical background rate
• Extinction rates tend to increase when global temperatures increase
• Data suggest that a sixth, human-caused mass extinction is likely to occur unless dramatic action is taken
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mass extinctions
Cooler Warmer
Rel
ati
ve e
xtin
cti
on
ra
te o
f m
ari
ne
an
ima
l ge
ne
ra 3
2
1
0
−1
−2−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Relative temperature
Figure 25.17
Consequences of Mass Extinctions
• Mass extinction can alter ecological communities and the niches available to organisms
• It can take from 5 to 100 million years for diversity to recover following a mass extinction
• The percentage of marine organisms that were predators increased after the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions
• Mass extinction can pave the way for adaptive radiations
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.18
Pre
dat
or
gen
era
(per
cen
tag
e o
f m
arin
e g
ener
a) 50
40
30
20
10
0EraPeriod
542 488 444 416
E O S D
359 299
C
251
P Tr
200 65.5
J C
Mesozoic
P N
Cenozoic
0
Paleozoic
145 Q
Cretaceous massextinction
Permian massextinction
Time (millions of years ago)
Adaptive Radiations
• Adaptive radiation is the evolution of diversely adapted species from a common ancestor
• Adaptive radiations may follow– Mass extinctions– The evolution of novel characteristics– The colonization of new regions
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Worldwide Adaptive Radiations
• Mammals underwent an adaptive radiation after the extinction of terrestrial dinosaurs
• The disappearance of dinosaurs (except birds) allowed for the expansion of mammals in diversity and size
• Other notable radiations include photosynthetic prokaryotes, large predators in the Cambrian, land plants, insects, and tetrapods
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.19
Ancestralmammal
ANCESTRALCYNODONT
250 200 150 100 50 0Time (millions of years ago)
Monotremes(5 species)
Marsupials(324 species)
Eutherians(5,010 species)
Regional Adaptive Radiations
• Adaptive radiations can occur when organisms colonize new environments with little competition
• The Hawaiian Islands are one of the world’s great showcases of adaptive radiation
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Close North American relative,the tarweed Carlquistia muirii
KAUAI5.1
million years OAHU
3.7million years
1.3millionyears
MOLOKAI
LANAI MAUI
HAWAII0.4
millionyears
N
Argyroxiphium sandwicense
Dubautia laxa
Dubautia scabraDubautia linearis
Dubautia waialealae
Figure 25.20
Figure 25.20a
KAUAI
OAHU1.3
millionyears
MOLOKAI
LANAI MAUI
HAWAII0.4
millionyears
N
5.1million years
3.7million years
Figure 25.20b
Close North American relative,the tarweed Carlquistia muirii
Figure 25.20c
Argyroxiphium sandwicense
Figure 25.20d
Dubautia linearis
Figure 25.20e
Dubautia scabra
Figure 25.20f
Dubautia waialealae
Figure 25.20g
Dubautia laxa
• Studying genetic mechanisms of change can provide insight into large-scale evolutionary change
Concept 25.5: Major changes in body form can result from changes in the sequences and regulation of developmental genes
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Effects of Development Genes
• Genes that program development control the rate, timing, and spatial pattern of changes in an organism’s form as it develops into an adult
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Changes in Rate and Timing
• Heterochrony is an evolutionary change in the rate or timing of developmental events
• It can have a significant impact on body shape• The contrasting shapes of human and chimpanzee
skulls are the result of small changes in relative growth rates
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: Allometric Growth
Figure 25.21
Chimpanzee infant Chimpanzee adult
Chimpanzee adult
Human adultHuman fetus
Chimpanzee fetus
Figure 25.21a
Chimpanzee infant Chimpanzee adult
Figure 25.21b
Chimpanzee adult
Human adultHuman fetus
Chimpanzee fetus
• Heterochrony can alter the timing of reproductive development relative to the development of nonreproductive organs
• In paedomorphosis, the rate of reproductive development accelerates compared with somatic development
• The sexually mature species may retain body features that were juvenile structures in an ancestral species
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.22
Gills
Changes in Spatial Pattern
• Substantial evolutionary change can also result from alterations in genes that control the placement and organization of body parts
• Homeotic genes determine such basic features as where wings and legs will develop on a bird or how a flower’s parts are arranged
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Hox genes are a class of homeotic genes that provide positional information during development
• If Hox genes are expressed in the wrong location, body parts can be produced in the wrong location
• For example, in crustaceans, a swimming appendage can be produced instead of a feeding appendage
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.23
Figure 25.23a
Figure 25.23b
The Evolution of Development
• The tremendous increase in diversity during the Cambrian explosion is a puzzle
• Developmental genes may play an especially important role
• Changes in developmental genes can result in new morphological forms
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Changes in Genes
• New morphological forms likely come from gene duplication events that produce new developmental genes
• A possible mechanism for the evolution of six-legged insects from a many-legged crustacean ancestor has been demonstrated in lab experiments
• Specific changes in the Ubx gene have been identified that can “turn off” leg development
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.24
Hox gene 6 Hox gene 7 Hox gene 8
Ubx
About 400 mya
Drosophila Artemia
Changes in Gene Regulation
• Changes in morphology likely result from changes in the regulation of developmental genes rather than changes in the sequence of developmental genes
– For example, threespine sticklebacks in lakes have fewer spines than their marine relatives
– The gene sequence remains the same, but the regulation of gene expression is different in the two groups of fish
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.25a
Threespine stickleback(Gasterosteus aculeatus)
Ventral spines
Figure 25.25b
Test of Hypothesis A:Differences in the codingsequence of the Pitx1 gene?
Marine stickleback embryo
Close-up of mouth
Close-up of ventral surface
Lake stickleback embryo
Test of Hypothesis B:Differences in the regulation of expression of Pitx1?
Result:No
Result:Yes
The 283 amino acids of the Pitx1 protein are identical.
Pitx1 is expressed in the ventral spine and mouth regions of developing marine sticklebacks but only in the mouth region of developing lake sticklebacks.
RESULTS
Figure 25.25c
Marine stickleback embryo
Close-up of mouth
Close-up of ventral surface
Figure 25.25d
Lake stickleback embryo
Concept 25.6: Evolution is not goal oriented
• Evolution is like tinkering—it is a process in which new forms arise by the slight modification of existing forms
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Evolutionary Novelties
• Most novel biological structures evolve in many stages from previously existing structures
• Complex eyes have evolved from simple photosensitive cells independently many times
• Exaptations are structures that evolve in one context but become co-opted for a different function
• Natural selection can only improve a structure in the context of its current utility
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.26
(a) Patch of pigmented cells (b) Eyecup
Pigmented cells(photoreceptors)
Pigmented cells
Nerve fibersNerve fibers
Epithelium
CorneaCornea
Lens
Retina
Optic nerveOptic nerveOptic
nerve
(c) Pinhole camera-type eye (d) Eye with primitive lens (e) Complex camera lens-type eye
EpitheliumFluid-filled cavity
Cellularmass(lens)
Pigmented layer (retina)
Figure 25.26a
(a) Patch of pigmented cells
Pigmented cells(photoreceptors)
Nerve fibers
Epithelium
Figure 25.26b
(b) Eyecup
Pigmented cells
Nerve fibers
Figure 25.26c
Optic nerve
(c) Pinhole camera-type eye
EpitheliumFluid-filled cavity
Pigmented layer (retina)
Figure 25.26d
Cornea
Optic nerve
(d) Eye with primitive lens
Cellularmass(lens)
Figure 25.26e
Cornea
Lens
RetinaOptic nerve
(e) Complex camera lens-type eye
Evolutionary Trends
• Extracting a single evolutionary progression from the fossil record can be misleading
• Apparent trends should be examined in a broader context
• The species selection model suggests that differential speciation success may determine evolutionary trends
• Evolutionary trends do not imply an intrinsic drive toward a particular phenotype
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 25.27
Holocene
Pleistocene
Pliocene
0
5
10
Anchitherium
Mio
cen
e
15
20
25
30 Olig
oce
ne
Mil
lion
s o
f ye
ars
ag
o
35
40
50
45
55
Eo
cen
e
Equus
Pliohippus
Merychippus
Sin
oh
ipp
us
Meg
ahip
pu
s
Hyp
oh
ipp
us
Arc
ha
eoh
ipp
us
Par
ahip
pu
s
Mio
hip
pu
s
Mesohippus
Pro
pal
aeo
ther
ium
Pa
chy
no
lop
hu
s
Pal
aeo
ther
ium
Hap
loh
ipp
us
Ep
ihip
pu
s
Oro
hip
pu
s
Hyracotherium relatives
Hyracotherium
Key
Grazers
Browsers
Hip
pa
rio
n
Neo
hip
par
ion
Nan
nip
pu
s
Cal
lip
pu
sHip
pid
ion
an
d
clo
se r
ela
tive
s
Figure 25.27a
25
30
Oli
go
ce
ne
Mil
lio
ns
of
yea
rs a
go 35
40
50
45
55
Eo
ce
ne
Mio
hip
pu
s
Mesohippus
Pro
pa
lae
oth
eri
um
Pa
ch
yn
olo
ph
us
Pa
lae
oth
eri
um
Ha
plo
hip
pu
s
Ep
ihip
pu
s
Oro
hip
pu
s
Hyracotherium
Key
GrazersBrowsers
Hyracotherium relatives
Figure 25.27b
Holocene
Pleistocene
Pliocene
0
5
10
Anchitherium
Mio
ce
ne15
15
20
Equus
Pliohippus
Merychippus
Sin
oh
ipp
us
Me
ga
hip
pu
s
Hy
po
hip
pu
s
Arc
ha
eo
hip
pu
s
Pa
rah
ipp
us
Hip
pa
rio
n
Ne
oh
ipp
ari
on
Na
nn
ipp
us
Ca
llip
pu
sHip
pid
ion
an
d
clo
se
re
lati
ves
Mio
hip
pu
s
KeyGrazersBrowsers
Figure 25.UN08
1.2 bya:First multicellulareukaryotes
4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500
Millions of years ago (mya)
3.5 billion yearsago (bya):First prokaryotes(single-celled)
2.1 bya:First eukaryotes(single-celled)
500 mya:Colonizationof land byfungi, plants,and animals
535−525 mya:Cambrian explosion
(great increase in diversityof animal forms)
Pre
sen
t
Figure 25.UN09
1
2 3
4
Proterozoic Archaean
Origin of solar systemand Earth
Paleozoic
Meso-
zoic
Ceno-zoic
i
y ar
agoi
o
ll os
B
esn
f
Figure 25.UN10
Flies and fleas
Caddisflies
Moths andbutterfliesHerbivory
Figure 25.UN11