25 BSWE-003 Volume-I

VOL. I

Social WorkIntervention with

Communitiesand

Institutions

EditorGracious Thomas

School of Social WorkIndira Gandhi National Open University

Maidan Garhi, New Delhi

October, 2010

© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2010

ISBN: 978-81-266-5044-6

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Preface

There are two volumes on ‘Social work intervention withCommunities and Institutions’. It has 32 chapters whichdeal with community organisation, social welfareadministration, social action for social change, basicsof social work research, health information for socialworkers and empowerment of women. The first volumedeals with three methods of social work namely,community organization, social welfare administrationand social action for social change.

There are five chapters dealing with the method ofcommunity organisation. Chapter one providesguidelines to understand community organization as amethod of social work practice through its meaning,definition, values and principles. This chapter will helpyou to understand the concepts of community work andcommunity organisation in social work. Chapter twodeals with the historical facts about the emergence ofcommunity organization in UK and India. It also providesyou information about the different approaches andmodels of community organization with specialreference to India. Chapter three explains to you therelevance of community organization for communitydevelopment. It will also explain social work interventionwith the different communities. The concept of powerand its relevance to community organization shall alsobe discussed along with the barriers to people’sempowerment. Chapter four discuss the issues affectingthe social life of the people in the community such asgender issues class, inequalities in society etc. andtheir impact on social institutions while chapter fiveexplains the diverse roles performed by the communityorganizer in different settings.

Chapters six to ten explains ‘Social welfareadministration’. The purpose of these chapters are toenable you to understand the what why and how’ ofsocial work administration as a method of social work.Chapter six will help you to understand the basicmeaning of social welfare administration, its natureand scope. Chapter seven will give informationpertaining to the different types of social serviceorganizations and their purposes. Chapter eight willexplain the basic functions of a manager in formalorganization and the way various functions areperformed in an organization. Chapter nine will explainto you, how a society can be formed. It also explainsthe need for registering an organization and the processinvolved. Further it deals with the organizational designand structure and its management. Chapter ten willhelp you to analyse the policies and processes involvedin social work administration and its importance insocial work practice. It will also enable you to draw outthe implications of social work administration in varioussettings.

Chapters eleven to fifteen describes ‘Social Action forSocial Change’ which is a very relevant and importantmethod of social work in the Indian context. Hierarchiesbased on caste/class, human rights violations, misuseof authority etc. characterize the society. Such acomplex situation can be tackled through various modelsof social action. The five chapters on social actionpresented in the first volume will introduce you to thebasics of social action as a method of social work.Chapter eleven deals with the concept, scope andprinciples of social action. It explains the skills requiredby a social worker to carry out social action. Chaptertwelve will give an understanding regarding the processof social action. It will explain the tactics applied and

the strategies used in social action. Chapter thirteendescribes various models of social action and theircharacteristic features. This chapter will help you tounderstand the models of social action and theirapplications in the field situation. Chapter fourteenwill draw your attention to certain features of socialaction in terms of its relation to social structure, socialconflict, social change, ideology and consciousness.Chapter fifteen will explain the relation of social actionwith other methods of social work. It will enable you tocomprehend how the knowledge and skills of othermethods of social work are required in the planningand implementation of social action. The first sixchapters of the second volume on ‘Social Workintervention with communities and institutions’ dealswith the basics of social work research which isdesigned to help you to understand the fundamentalsof the research process and to use the knowledge ofresearch method to conduct your own research withspecial reference to social work theory and practice atundergraduate level.

Chapter sixteen provides an understanding of the basicsof social work research. It examines the term socialwork research and also highlights the importance andscope of research in social work. Chapter seventeenwill explain the two prominent approaches of socialresearch namely, qualitative and quantitativeapproaches, the difference between the two and theirstrengths and weaknesses. Discussion on the variousstages of research project will enable you to prepare asmall research plan. Chapter eighteen is on sampling,which is a vital component of research. It describesvarious types of sampling that are useful whileconducting a research. Chapter nineteen deals withdifferent tools and methods of data collection in social

work research. It will also explain the types of researchdesign used in the research process. Chapter twentyhelps you to understand the methods of processing andanalyzing the data collected. Chapter twenty one dealswith some of the statistical techniques, which socialworkers needs to apply in the course of data analysis.It explains measures of central tendencies andmeasures of dispersion. These six chapters of the secondvolume are designed to help you to have basicunderstanding of research in social work. It will alsoenable you to make pilot studies on local social issues,which are less complicated.

Chapter twenty two to twenty six deals with ‘Healthinformation for social workers’. Apart from describingthe concept of health, these chapters will introduceyou to mental health aspects as well as the health careservices, which are important for a social worker toadd on to his/her knowledge bank for disseminatinginformation to the target group. Chapter twenty twoaims to provide an understanding of the concept of healthand hygiene and also the role of social worker in theprevention of diseases and making appropriateinterventions. Chapter twenty three describes theconcept of mental health and psychiatric disorders andsome of the legislations related to mental health. Italso deals with the role of a psychiatric social worker.Chapter twenty four aims at helping you inunderstanding the threat posed by non-communicablediseases. It will help you to know about the basic aspectsof the health problems and the various methods beingused to tackle the health problems at various levels.Effort is made to acquaint you with the health careservices ranging from the delivery system to the utilityof the care services in chapter twenty five. It also tracesthe drawback of the health care services to enable you

to assess the health care services of the country.Chapter twenty six aims to explain the variouspsychological, social and economic factors involved inhealth care services. It also enables you to examinethe role of a social worker in the community and inhealth care setting.

The last six chapters presented in the second volumewill give you a broad perspective on empowerment ofwomen. Chapter twenty seven deals with situationalanalysis of women in India. This chapter includes theconceptual framework for analyzing women’s situation.Strategies are also elaborated for dealing with women’ssituation. Chapter twenty eight focuses on developinga framework for gender aware social work intervention.This chapter elaborates on approaches, criteria, auditand evaluation. Chapter twentynine gives you an in-depth look at women’s development initiatives in health.This chapter describes the meaning of developmentinitiatives; rural and urban initiatives of GOs/VOs forwomen and girls; training of local women as healthfunctionaries; and creating gender sensitive healthprogrammes. It also discusses the role of social workersin health initiatives. In chapter thirty the focus is shiftedto education. Starting with an overview of educationalstatus of women in India, factors influencing girls’education are explored. Policies governing women’seducation are also detailed. The role of social workersis described to orient you to potential roles.

Chapter thirty one describes the important features ofsocial legislation for women’s empowerment. The useof laws, legal and judicial procedures and legal supportare discussed. The roles of the police, judiciary, socialworkers and family courts are also elaborated.Particular focus has been given to alternate systems of

redressal. Finally chapter thirty two describes women’sdevelopment initiatives in the political system. Thischapter deals with women’s struggle for political rightsand participation in the political process afterindependence. Issues related to representation ofwomen in local self-governance and the women’sreservation bill are also explored.

The preparation of these two volumes comprising thirtytwo chapters has involved the precious time and energyof several academics and experts from various areas ofspecialization. I am deeply grateful to Dr SureshPathare, Dr P.F. Abraham, Dr. C.M.J. Bosco, Prof.Gopalji Mishra, Dr A.J. Christopher, Prof. K.K. Jacob,Mr Joseph Varghese, Dr Ramesh Bhardwaj, Mr C.P.Mathew, Ms Uma, Dr Siva Kumar, Dr Beena Antony,Dr Archana Kaushik, Prof Anu Thomas, Dr D.K. LalDas, Dr Udaya Mahadevan, Ms. Shaik Parveen, Prof.A.S. Inam Shastri, Mr Ganapathy, Dr Ramesh Tiwari,Dr Bhavana Gulati, Dr Rama Baru, Ms Maju Kumar, DrHannah Anandraj, Prof. Ashok Kumar Sarkar, Ms TriptiBassi, Ms. Nimisha Gupta, and Mr. Chinmoy Biswal fortheir valuable contribution which was timely and muchneeded for the target group. The rich contents of eachof the chapters presented in these two volumes willcertainly provide basic knowledge about some of themethods of social work along with health informationfor social workers and a good reading on empowermentof women.

Prof. Gracious Thomas,Director, School of Social Work,

IGNOU, New Delhi

Contents

1 Community Organisation: Concept andPrinciples 1Suresh Pathare

2 History of Community Organisation 19P.F. Abraham

3 Community Organisation as a Method ofSocial Work 40C.M.J. Bosco

4 Current Issues in Community Organisation 55Gopal Ji Mishra

5 Role of Community Organiser in DifferentSettings 81A.J. Christopher

6 Social Welfare Administration: Concept,Nature and Scope 104Ramesh Bharadwaj

7 Types and Purpose of Social ServiceOrganisations 128C.P. Mathew

8 POSDCORBEF 152Joseph Varghese

9 Procedure for Establishing and RunningSocial Service Organisation 175Uma

10 Social Welfare Administration as aMethod of Social Work 197Siva Kumar

11 Social Action: Concept and Principles 214Beena Antony, Archana Kaushik

12 Strategies and Tactics Employed inSocial Action 232Beena Antony, Archana Kaushik

13 Models of Social Action 250Beena Antony, Archana Kaushik,

14 Social Action in Relation to CommunityWork and Social Movement 268Beena Antony, Archana Kaushik

15 Social Action as a Method of Social Work 286Beena Antony, Archana Kaushik

Community Organisation: Concept and Principles 1

1

Community Organisation:Concepts and Principles

* Suresh Pathare

Introduction

In social work profession there are three basic methodsof working with people (individuals, groups andcommunities). We have already studied the twomethods namely, social casework and social groupwork. The third basic method is communityorganisation. As we are aware, social casework isaimed at helping individuals on one-to-one basisand social group work seeks to facilitate thedevelopment of individuals through group activities.The aim of community organisation is ‘developingcapacity’ in the community ‘by making it moreorganised’ to handle its own needs or problems.Community organisation is a well-established methodin social work. It has value orientation and thepractice is guided by a set of general principles.

Meaning and Definition of CommunityOrganisation

Meaning

Before we get to know more about communityorganisation as a method of social work, let us firstunderstand the meaning of the term we use. Theterm community organisation has several meanings.It is being often used synonymous to community

* Dr. Suresh Pathare, TISS, Tuljapur

2 Social Work Intervention with Communities and Institutions

work, community development and communitymobilization. In general, community organisationmeans helping the community to solve its problems.In the context of social work profession in India,the term is used to denote a method of social workto intervene in the life of a community.

In sociology we learn that society and social institutionsare more than just a collection of individuals. Itincludes how those individuals are linked to eachother. These are sets of systems such as economy,political organisation, value, ideas, belief systems,technology, and patterns of expected behaviours (socialinteraction). It means that just a collection ofindividuals living at a common place are not necessarilyorganised. To call them organised they need to havea set of common ideas and expectations. This givesthem a social structure and some social processesthat make the organisation something (social). Itgoes beyond the individuals that compose thecommunity.

Further it is important to note that just formingvarious groups in community having some structureor form (e.g. having a president, treasurer, secretary,etc.) does not make the community organised. It isnot the multiplicity of institutions, interest groupsor set of activities, which make an organisedcommunity. Actually it may create more conflictsand disrupt normal life. Thus the importantdetermining factors of community organisation areinteraction, integration and co-ordination of theexisting institutions, interest groups and activities,and evolving new groups and institutions if necessary,to meet the changing conditions and needs of thecommunity.


Definition

To study and to be able to engage in communityorganisation practice it is necessary to have a cleardefinition. There are several definitions availablein literature, which have been put forth at differenttimes and in differing context. The common elementin most of them is matching resources to needs.We will discuss here two most widely accepteddefinitions of community organisation.

Murray G. Ross (1967) defines community organisationas a “process by which a community identifies itsneeds or objectives, gives priority to them, developsconfidence and will to work at them, finds resources(internal and external) to deal with them, and indoing so, extends and develops cooperative andcollaborative attitudes and practices in the community”.

In this definition by “process” he meant a movementfrom identification of a problem or objective to solutionof the problem or attainment of the objective in thecommunity. There are other processes for dealingwith community problems, but here he called thecommunity organisation process as one by whichthe capacity of the community to function as anintegrated unit grows as it deals with one or morecommunity problems. The task of the professionalworker in community organisation is to help, initiate,nourish, and develop this process. His task is alsoto make this process conscious, deliberative, andunderstood.

“Community,” in the sense in which it is used here,refers to two major groupings of people. Firstly itmay be all the people in a specific geographic area,i.e., a village, a town, a city, a neighbourhood, ora district in a city. In the same manner it could


refer also to all the people in a province or a state,a nation, or in the world. Secondly, it is used toinclude groups of people who share some commoninterest or function, such as welfare, agriculture,education, or religion. In this context communityorganisation may be involved in bringing these personstogether to develop some awareness of, and feelingfor their “community” and to work at common problemsarising out of the interest or function they havein common.

The second definition we will discuss here is byKramer and Specht (1975), which is in more technicalterms. They defined that “Community organisationrefers to various methods of intervention wherebya professional change agent helps a community actionsystem composed of individuals, groups or organisationsto engage in planned collective action in order todeal with special problems within the democraticsystem of values.”

According to their explanations, it involves two majorinterrelated concerns: (a) the interaction processof working with an action system which includesidentifying, recruiting and working with the membersand developing organisational and interpersonalrelationships among them which facilitates theirefforts; and (b) the technical tasks involved inidentifying problem areas, analyzing causes,formulating plans, developing strategies and mobilizingthe resources necessary to have effective action.

The analysis of both these definitions reveals thatthey cover the “Need-Resources Adjustment” approach,“the Social Relationships” approach and a combinationof the two ideas of meeting needs and developmentof co-operative attitudes.


The distinguishing features of community organisationpractice are derived largely from the three dimensions.(1) The nature of its setting and focus– the communityand its problems, 2) from the nature of its goals– enhanced functional capacity of the communityand its ability to influence the social welfare policy,and 3) from the techniques it employs towards effectingthe inter-personal and inter-group relationships ofthe members of the community. The statementsdefining community organisation method, stressindividually or in combination the above three factorsand also refer to clientele and the total processand the way in which the method is applied.

Community Work and CommunityOrganisation in Social Work

Having discussed the meaning and definition ofCommunity organisation let us now try to compareit in the context of community work and social workprofession. In social work the term “community work”is often used with different meanings. In socialwork literature we find that the term “communitywork”, “community development”, “communityorganisation” and “community empowerment” areat times interchangeably used for the work withcommunities. Some authors have used these termsfor the same types of work whereas others usethem to refer to different types of work withcommunities.

Community work has a long history as an aspectof social work. It has passed through various phases.All over the world it has been recognized as anintegral part of social work practice. History showsthat community work even preceded social workeducation. In UK and USA community work in social


work began in the 1800 with the charity organisationmovement and the settlement house movement. Duringthe initial phase in UK, community work was primarilyseen as a method of social work, trying to helpindividuals to enhance their social adjustment. Themain thrust was to act as a means to coordinatethe work of voluntary agencies.

In India the experience of working with slumcommunity in the city of Mumbai lead to theestablishment of the first institution of social workeducation in 1936. Community work as a methodof social work in India is largely seen as a processof developing local initiatives, particularly in theareas of education, health and agriculturaldevelopment. The focus of the work is, to encouragepeople to express their needs, and enable them toavail the existing resources, in order to meet theseneeds.

There are several ways in which social workpractitioners and others work in the community. Insocial work we find three main approaches namely,Community Development, Community Organisationand Community Relations/Services. While theseapproaches represent different situations or areasof community work, there are fundamental similaritiesin what is being attempted. Their components areoften interlinked and at times overlapping.

What is important for us here is to understand thatthe community work is one of the basic social workprocesses. It is being used to attain the same basicobjectives, as casework and groupwork. As you maybe aware all the social work methods are concernedwith removal of the blocks to growth of individual,group, or community, release of their potentials,


full use of internal resources, development of capacityto manage one’s own affairs and their ability tofunction as an integrated unit. In communityorganisation, social work is concerned with theinitiation of that process which enables a communityto overcome those blocks (apathy, vested interests,discrimination) which prevent the community fromworking together; and facilitate release ofpotentials, use of indigenous resources and growthof cooperative attitude and skills which make possibleachievement of even increasingly difficultobjectives.

Thus, community organisation started more as aproduct of the maturation process than as thebeginnings of a profession. The increasingly complexand interdependent nature of modern society makescommunity organisation almost a pre-requisite forsmooth functioning of any society.

Value Orientation of CommunityOrganisation

From the discussion above we understand thatcommunity organisation is an integral part of socialwork practice. In the practice of community organisationsome questions do arise as to, how it should bedone? Are there value orientations and generalprinciples that may guide us in deciding as to whatis sound or socially desirable in communityorganisation process? How to improve the chancesof success in achieving the objectives of communityorganisation? We will deal with such questions inthis section.

Community organisation derives from a unique frameof reference, the nature of which is based on a


particular value orientation. In social work, the focusof community organisation practice is influenced bya system of personal and professional values. Thesevalues affect worker’s style of intervention and theskills they use in working with community members.Values are beliefs that delineate preferences abouthow one ought or ought not to behave. Suchformulations of values obviously have some subjectiveelement. Values differ between groups and betweenindividuals within the same group. Moreover, therehas been no explicit, comprehensive, or generallyaccepted formulation of basic ethical and social valuesby any representative group of community organisationpractitioners.

The value orientation of community organisation asof all social work methods, derives from acceptanceof certain basic concepts and principles as a foundationfor work with people. Among these are the essentialdignity and worth of the individual, the possessionby each individual of potentials and resources formanaging ones own life. The importance of freedomto express one’s individuality, the capacity for growthwithin all social beings, the right of the individualto these basic physical necessities (food, shelterand clothing) without which fulfillment of life isoften blocked, the need for the individual to struggleand strive to improve own life and environment, theright of the individual for help in time of need andcrisis, the importance of a social organisation forwhich the individual feels responsible are very basic.The need for social climate which encouragesindividual growth and development, the right andresponsibility of the individual to participate in theaffairs of own community, the practicability ofdiscussion, conference, and consultation as methodsfor the solution of individual and social problems,


and “self help” as the essential base for communityorganisation are some of the value orientations whichconstitute the basis of community organisation process.

Principles of Community Organisation

Principles of community organisation, in the sensein which the term is used here, are generalizedguiding rules for sound practice. Principles areexpressions of value judgments. The principles ofcommunity organisation, which are being discussedhere, are within the frame of reference, and inharmony with the spirit and purpose of social workin a democratic society. We are concerned with thedignity and worth, the freedom, the security, theparticipation, and the wholesome and abundant lifeof every individual. This implies practice of followingprinciples of democracy, such as betterment of themarginalized, transparency, honesty, sustainability,self-reliance, partnerships, cooperation, etc.

In the literature of community organisation we findvarious sets of principles. Dunham (1958) has presenteda statement of 28 suggested principles of communityorganisation. He grouped them under seven headings.

i) Democracy and social welfare,

ii ) Community roots for community programmes,

iii) Citizen understanding, support, and participationand professional service,

iv) Cooperation,

v) Social Welfare Programmes,

vi) Adequacy, distribution, and organisation of socialwelfare services, and

vii) Prevention.


Ross (1967) outlined specific principles – theelementary or fundamental ideas regarding initiationand continuation of community organisation processes.These principles have been discussed in terms ofthe nature of the organisation or association andthe role of the professional worker. The twelveprinciples identified by Ross are:

1) Discontent with existing conditions in thecommunity must initiate and/or nourishdevelopment of the association.

2) Discontent must be focussed and channeledinto organisation, planning, and action in respectto specific problems.

3) Discontent which initiates or sustains communityorganisation must be widely shared in thecommunity.

4) The association must involve leaders (both formaland informal) identified with, and accepted by,major sub-groups in the community.

5) The association must have goals and methodsand procedures of high acceptability.

6) The programmes of the association should includesome activities with an emotional content.

7) The association should seek to utilize themanifest and latent goodwill which exists inthe community.

8) The association must develop active and effectivelines of communication both within theassociation and between the association andthe community.


9) The association should seek to support andstrengthen groups which it brings together incooperative work.

10) The association should develop a pace of workin line with existing conditions in the community.

11) The association should seek to develop effectiveleaders.

12) The association must develop strength, stabilityand prestige in the community.

Keeping in mind the actual practice situations inIndia Siddiqui (1997) has worked out a set of 8principles.

1) The Principle of Specific Objectives

2) The Principle of Planning

3) The Principle of People’s Participation

4) The Principle of Inter-group Approach

5) The Principle of Democratic Functioning

6) The Principle of Flexible Organisation

7) The Principle of Optimum Utilisation of IndigenousResources

8) The Principle of Cultural orientation

We are trying to interpret some of the principlesfrom the available sets of principles for guiding ourpractice community organisation in Indian context.

1) Community Organisation is means and not anend: As discussed earlier the communityorganisation is a process by which the capacity


of the community to function as an integratedunit is being enhanced. In this sense it is amethod or a means to enable people to live ahappy and fully developed life. It refers to amethod of intervention whereby a communityconsisting of individuals, groups or organisationsare helped to engage in planned collective actionin order to deal with their needs and problems.

2) Community Organisation is to promotecommunity solidarity and the practice ofdemocracy: It should seek to overcome disruptiveinfluences, which threaten the well being of thecommunity and the vitality of democraticinstitutions. In community organisationdiscrimination and segregation or exclusion shouldbe avoided and integration and mutual acceptanceshould be promoted.

3) The clear identification of the Community: Sincethe community is the client of the communityorganisation worker, it must be clearly identified.It is likely that there are several communitieswith which he/she deals at the same time. Furtherit is important that once the community isidentified the entire community must be theconcern of the practitioner. No programme canbe isolated from the social welfare needs andresources of the community as a whole. Thewelfare of the whole community is always moreimportant than the interest or the well beingof any one agency/group in the community.

4) Fact-finding and needs assessment: Communityorganisation programmes should have its rootsin the community. Proper fact-finding andassessment of the community needs is the pre-requisite for starting any programme in the


community. It is generally desirable for localcommunity services to be indigenous, grass-rootsdevelopments rather than imported from outside.Whenever possible, then, community organisationshould have its origin in a need felt by thecommunity or by substantial number of personsin the community. There should be vital communityparticipation, and essential community control,of its development.

While facilitating the process of communityorganisation, the programmes should be initiated,developed, modified, and terminated on the basisof the needs of the community and on the basisof the availability of other comparable services.When the particular need for a service is met,the programme should be modified or terminated.

5) Identification, mobilization and utilization ofthe available resources: The fullest possibleuse should be made of existing social welfareresources, before creating new resources orservices. In the absence of resources/servicesthe worker has to mobilize the resources fromvarious sources such as community, government,non-government agencies, etc. While utilizingthe indigenous resources it must be recognisedthat these resources may sometimes need extensiveoverhauling before they will meet certain needs.Apart from mobilizing physical resources, indigenoushuman resources should be put to optimum use.

6) Participatory planning: The communityorganisation worker must accept the need forparticipatory planning throughout the process ofcommunity organisation. It is important that thepractitioner prepares a blue print in the beginning


of what he/she intends to do with the community.This is done with the community taking intoconsideration the needs of the community, availableresources, agency objectives, etc. Planning incommunity organisation is a continuous processas it follows the cycle of implementation andevaluation. The planning should be on the basisof ascertained facts, rather than an expressionof guesswork, “hunches,” or mere trial and errormethods.

In order to foster greater participation it isnecessary to analyse the impeding factors andtake timely steps to remove them. Instead offorcing people to participate in all the issues,they should be encouraged to participate at alevel, and about issues, in accordance withtheir capacities. It must be noted that the peoplewill participate if they are convinced of the benefitsof the programme.

7) Active and vital participation: The concept ofself-help is the core of community organisation.The community members’ participation throughoutthe process of community organisation shouldbe encouraged from the standpoint both ofdemocratic principle and of feasibility— that is,the direct involvement in the programme of thosewho have the primary stake in it’s results. “Self-help” by citizen or clientele groups should beencouraged and fostered.

8) Community right of self determination shouldbe respected: The Role of the communityorganisation worker is to provide professionalskill, assistance, and creative leadership in


enabling people’s groups and organisations toachieve social welfare objectives. The communitymembers should make basic decisions regardingprogramme and policy. While the communityorganisation worker plays a variety of roles indifferent situations, he is basically concernedwith enabling people’s expression and leadershipto achieve community organisation goals, andnot try to have control, domination, ormanipulation.

9) Voluntary cooperation: Community organisationmust be based upon mutual understanding,voluntary acceptance, and mutual agreement.Community organisation, if it is to be in harmonywith democratic principles, cannot be throughregimentation. It should not be imposed fromabove or outside, but must be derived from theinner freedom and will to unite all those whopractice it.

10) The spirit of cooperation rather than competition,and the practice of coordination of effort:Community organisation practice should be basedon the spirit of cooperation rather than competition.The community organisation practice has provedthat the most effective advances are made throughcooperative effort. It is by the coordinated andsustained programmes attacking major problemsrather than through sporadic efforts by differentgroups.

The emphasis on collaborative and cooperativeattitudes and practices does not imply eliminationof differences, of tension, or of conflict. In factwe have to recognize that these latter forces


give life and vitality to a movement. It must beunderstood that such conflict can be disruptiveand destructive, or it can be positive and creative.What is important for the community organisationworker is that he/she identifies such forces andappropriately modifies them to what is beneficialto community as a whole.

11) Recognition and involvement of indigenousleadership: Community organisation as it hasbeen described requires the participation of thepeople belonging to the community. Howevereveryone in the community cannot be involvedin face-to-face contact with all others in thecommunity; therefore it is important to identifyand recognize the leaders (both formal andinformal) accepted by various groups and subgroupsin the community. Inclusion of the respectedand accepted leaders with whom the majorsubgroups identify provides a major step inintegrating the community. This further makespossible initiation of a process of communicationwhich, if it becomes effective, will nourish andsustain the process of community organisation.

12) Limited use of authority or compulsion: Invokingthe application of authority or compulsion maysometimes be necessary in community organisation.But it should be used as little as possible, foras short a time as possible, and only as a lastresort. When compulsion must be applied, it shouldbe followed as soon as possible, by resumptionof the cooperative process.

13) The dynamic and flexible nature of programmesand services: This principle is basic to sound


community organisation. Social welfare agenciesand programmes must be responsive to thechanging conditions, problems, and needs ofcommunity life. Community is a dynamicphenomenon, which constantly changes and thusthe needs and problems also keep changing.Therefore it is necessary that the programmesand services are flexible enough.

14) Continuing participatory evaluation: Asprogrammes are developed to meet communityneeds, some time must be set aside for evaluationof the process. Regular feedback from thecommunity is important. Criteria must be set upfor evaluation of the programmes, to see howeffective the action has been and what has beenaccomplished.

Conclusion

The aim of this chapter was to provide you guidelinesto understand the basic concept of communityorganisation as a method of social work practice.We have discussed in detail the meaning of communityorganisation and also provided the definitions withexplanations. Now you will be able to explain themeaning and definition of community organisation.Being aware that community work and communityorganisation are integral part of social work, youwill be able to situate them in the context of socialwork. We have discussed the value orientation andsome of the important principles guiding the communityorganisation practice. You are now in a position torecognize the importance of the values and principlesand will be able to follow them while practicingcommunity organisation in the field.


References

Gangrade, K.D. (1971) “Community Organisation in India,Popular Prakashan, Bombay.

Harper E.B. and Dunham Arthur (1959), “CommunityOrganisation in Action” Association Press, New York.

Ross, M.G. (1967), “Community Organisation”, Harperand Row, New York.

Siddiqui H.Y. (1997), “Working with Communities”, HiraPublications, New Delhi.

Journal of Community Practice: Organising, Planning,Development and Change, The Haworth Social WorkPractice Press.

History of Community Organisation 19

2

History of CommunityOrganisation

* P.F. Abraham

Introduction

The previous chapter have given you a bird’s eyeview of the concept of community organisation andits various principles. It has been practiced as amethod of social work in the western countries;especially in England and USA. However, little hasbeen written about the history of communityorganisation. Community organisation is a processand is all about solving the present day problemsof common interests by means of adopting democraticprinciples and people’s participation. People haveused this method in the past and have attaineddesired results. Thus, it is important for the studentsof community organisation to understand the past,draw lessons from it and develop and experimentwith new models and methods required to workwith community.

In this chapter, we will be dealing with the Historyof community organisation in England, USA and provideyou with a brief idea about the community organisationpractice in India. In the later part of the chapter,we will also discuss some of the models and approachesof community organisation.

* P.F. Abraham, B.R. Ambedkar College, Delhi


Why Should We Study History

We can learn a lot from history, that variety ofsocial change groups faced with many odds and withpoor beginnings have won in the end. History makesus clear that slow progress need not mean the deathof hope. But lends us patience while teaching uspersistence. The strategies adopted in the past provideus concrete lessons on tactics and approaches allowingeach generation to build on the knowledge of itspredecessors. It is all about the problems the peopleexperienced and the success they achieved.

In short, history sensitizes us to the problems andpossibilities of change, provides concrete advice forpresent-day action, and sustain our action with thehope and pride that comes from learning of pastexperience. Therefore, the study of the History ofcommunity organisation becomes essential for a socialworker.

Community Organisation

The term “community organisation covers a seriesof activities at the community level aimed at bringingabout desired improvement in the social well beingof individuals, groups and neighbourhoods”. Communityorganisation is about creating a democratic instrumentto bring about sustained social change. Accordingto Murray G. Ross, “ Community organisation is aprocess by which a community identifies needs andtakes action, and in doing so... develops co-operativeattitudes and practices.”

Philosophy of Community Organisation

The early attempts in community organisation werean outcome of the serious problems i.e. problemsof unemployment, poverty etc. faced by the


communities. Thus grew up many organisations andsocial agencies to provide support to the community.Soon, it was realized that all these efforts need tobe co-ordinated and streamlined so as to avoidduplication of work and to reduce the gap in thedelivery of services to the community. At one pointof time we might ask, what has been the drivingforce behind all these efforts that prompted thepeople of goodwill to render services to the community?Let us look at the Philosophy of CommunityOrganisation, which may throw some light on thistheme.

� The fundamental aspect of the communityorganisations is the principle of “Co-operativespirit” which promotes the people to unite togetherto address a common issue.

� Community organisation recognizes the spirit ofdemocratic values and principles with the focuson creating democratic involvement.

� Organising is about empowering. When peopleunite together, and get involved in communityorganisation, they develop confidence. Thisempowerment comes when people learn skillsto help themselves and others. The collectiveaction helps in community building.

� The community organisation recognizes the powerof individual. It believes, that through the collectivestrength of the people, better teamwork andadoption of scientific methods, can providecomprehensive solutions to social problems.

� Another Philosophy is that of coordination. It isconcerned with adjustments and inter-relationsof the forces in the community life for commonwelfare.


� Community organisation is therefore, a continuousprocess in which adjustments are made and remadeto keep pace with the changing conditions ofcommunity life.

History of Community Organisation

In a broad sense we can say wherever people havelived together, some form of organisation has emerged.These informal associations of people always triedto do good to the people in need and protect therights of the society. On the contrary the historytalks about the formal organisations which wereset up for the welfare of the community. The firstefforts at community organisation for social welfarewere initiated in England to overcome the acuteproblem of poverty, which led to beggary.

The first effort of its kind was the Elizabethan PoorLaw (1601) in England, which was set up to provideservices to the needy. Another important landmarkin the history of community organisation is theformation of London Society of organising charitablerelief and repressing mendicancy and the Origin ofthe Settlement House Movement in England during1880.

In fact, these movements had a major impact inthe United States of America. In 1880 the Charitiesorganisation was set up to put rational order in thearea of charity and relief. The major communityorganisation activities in the United States couldbe classified into three periods:

1) The Charity Organisation Period, 1870-1917

This era is the beginnings in social welfare in USA.The first citywide Charity Organisation Society (COS)


was established in the Buffalo in 1877 in USA. Thismovement was started with the influence of LondonCharity Organisation established in 1869. In USA,Rev. S. H. Gurteen, an English priest who had someassociation with London Charity association and hadmoved to Buffalo in 1873 gave the leadership tothis movement. Within a short span of six years theCOS had reached to more than 25 American cities.

Charity organisation was concerned about two things:

� Providing adequate personal services to familiesand individuals in need.

� Take steps to address the issues/problems insocial welfare.

Apart from this service, the COS also took initiativesin promoting co-operation among the various welfareagencies. From this movement of charity organisationemerged many such service oriented organisationsi.e. Social service exchange, Community welfarecouncils, Councils of social agencies.

2) The Rise of Federation 1917 to 1935

It is a period where we can see the growth anddevelopment of chests and councils. It started withthe rise of war chests in 1917 and ended with theenactment of social security act, which set the stagefor development of the public welfare programmesin 1935. A large number of chests and councilscame up after first world war. The AmericanAssociation for Community Organisation was organisedin 1918 as the national agency for chests and councilsand it later became known as community chestsand councils of (CCC) America. The Cincinnati PublicHealth Federation, established in 1917 was the firstindependent health council in American City. It is


in this period that the American Association of socialworkers organised in 1921, the first generalprofessional organisations, set up its training forthe social workers and others who specialized incommunity organisation.

A community chest is a voluntary welfare agency,co-operative organisation of citizens and welfareagencies, which is the powerful local force forcommunity welfare that handles large funds. It hastwo functions. It raises funds through a community-wide appeal and distributes them according to asystematic budget procedure. Secondly it promotesco-operative planning, co-ordination and administrationof the communities social welfare.

3) Period of Expansion and ProfessionalDevelopment 1935 to Present Time

It is in this period that we see the greater use ofthe community organisation process in the field ofpublic welfare. A marked significance of this erais the establishment of Federal Security Agencywhere we see maximum involvement of the Govt.in welfare programmes. In 1946 the agency wasstrengthened and re-organised following which in1953 Department of Health, Education and Welfarewas established.

Another important development during the periodis the professional development that took place. Someof the important professional developments were:

The National Conference of Social Work in 1938-39 undertook a study on community organisation,which was later published under the title “GenericCommunity Welfare Organisation”. Based on this,another study took place in 1940, but due to American


involvement in World War II an active programmecould not take off.

In 1946, at the National conference of social workin Buffalo, the Association for the Study of CommunityOrganisation (ASCO) was organised. The main objectivewas to improve the professional practice of organisationfor social welfare. In 1955, ASCO merged with sixother professional organisations to form the NationalAssociation of Social Workers. Community organisationhas been recognized as integral and important aspectof social work education in the American Associationof Schools of social work education. At present thereis an active committee of Council on Social WorkEducation involved in the production of teachingmaterials in community organisation. The firstcontemporary textbook on community organisationtitled “Community Organisation for Social Welfare”published in 1945 has been written by Wayne McMillan.

Another development in the history of communitydevelopment is seen in the wake of World War II.Wartime needs were very special and crucial. Duringthis time many councils and community war servicescame to the forefront. Among them (USO) UnitedService Organisation is of prime importance as itwas the union of many forces that served the needsof the military personnel and defense communities.The other striking characteristics of the period isthe immense increase in the volunteer service i.e.defense council, American Red Cross and USO whichco-ordinated and recruited the volunteers.

Another development that took place at the wartimeis the growth of closer relationship between labourand social work, which is considered a great significantto community organisation.


The other developments that took place after theWorld War II that are very specific to communityorganisation area are as follows.

� The rehabilitation of the physically and mentallychallenged

� Mental health planning, problems of the aging

� Prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency.

In order to address these issues separate bodieswere set up and we see the entry of internationalagencies in the field of community organisation.The present situation in community organisation isthe emergence of the new community developmentprogrammes, which aim at providing, services tothe less developed areas in international social welfare.Therefore the present agenda is on working withthe whole community and greater emphasis is onself-help.

Community Organisation in UK

Baldock (1974) has summed up the historicaldevelopment in UK by dividing it into four phases.

The first phase: 1880-1920: During this period thecommunity work was mainly seen as a method ofsocial work. It was considered as a process of helpingthe individuals to enhance their social adjustments.It acted as major player to co-ordinate the work ofvoluntary agencies.

The second phase: 1920-1950: This period saw theemergence of new ways of dealing with social issuesand problems. The community organisation was closelyassociated with central and state Govt.’s programmefor urban development. The important development


in this period was its association with communityassociation movement.

The third phase 1950 onwards: It emerged as areaction to the neighbourhood idea, which providedan ideological base for the second phase. It was aperiod of professional development of social work.Most of the educators and planners tried to analyzethe shortcomings in the existing system. It wasalso a period where the social workers sought fora professional identity.

The fourth phase: It is a recent period that hasseen a marked involvement of community action.It questioned the very relationship of communitywork and social work. It was thus seen as periodof radical social movement and we could see theconflicts of community with authority. The associationof social workers and the community were de-professionalised during this period. Thus it was duringthis period that conflictual strategies were introducedin the community work, although even now thereis no consensus on this issue (Baldock 1974).

History of Community Organisationin India

A historical account of community organisation isnot available in India, as there has been only limiteddocumentation on social work literature in generaland on community organisation in particular.

Community organisation has its roots in the Charityorganisations in the United States. They realizedthe need of the people and tried to organise thepeople to co-ordinate their work. The main activitieswere social welfare, raising funds, seeking enactmentfor social legislation and co-ordination of welfare


activities. The spirit behind all these activities wascharity. In India, the very concept of charity is deep-rooted in the religious philosophy. Even before thecommencement of the social work education in Indiain 1936, the community work was in place, alreadyin existence. But in the first phase from 1936 to1952 the community work was in a dormant stage.During this period social work was in its infancyand not many were employed in the communitysettings because there were hardly any jobs thatprovided an opening for community organisation.Professionals preferred to work in casework settings.

It was in 1952 that the community developmentproject was launched by the government of Indiaand with this we find the emergence of a new eraof community work. The basic objective of communitydevelopment in India was to awaken the rural peopleof their needs, instilling in them a sense of ambitionfor better life and making them aware of their rightand power to find a solution for their problems.According to Mukerji (1961) “Community developmentis a movement designed to promote better living forthe whole community with the active participation,and if possible, with the initiative of community”.According to him community development can bedivided into two process. 1) Extension education, 2)Community organisation. Extension education wasexpected to improve the quality of human beings byimproving his/her knowledge and skills. By communityorganisation Mukerji had in mind the setting up ofthree institutions in the village.

� Village Panchayat

� The village co-operative

� The village school


During this period the thrust of the community workremained in rural areas whereas social work remainedmostly urban in character.

From 1970 onwards we could see a new trend inthe community work practice. The social workersexpanded their scope and operational area from theirtraditional approach of casework to other developmentfields. For example, people working with schoolchildren started working with the community. TheNGOs and voluntary organisations adopted communityapproach. This shift has in-fact led to the use ofprocess of community work. By and large thecommunity work has remained welfare-oriented.

The current phase of community work in India isexperiencing a growing dissatisfaction with its ownpractice or rather the outcome of its practice. Soefforts are on to create alternate ways of workingwith communities. In-spite of these, the professionalsare involved in a variety of projects in both ruraland urban areas, to promote better living for thecommunity.

Another trend in the community work is theinvolvement of the Business houses in promotingwelfare in their neighbourhood. This is commonlyknown as CSR. (Corporate Social Responsibilities)The business houses i.e. Tata’s, Escorts, and someof the multinational companies too have joined inthis venture. This trend has attracted manyprofessionals in this field.

The main objective of community development is todevelop village communities by methods, which willstimulate, encourage and aid villagers themselvesto do much of the work necessary to accomplishthe desired goals. The changes conceived and promotedshould have the involvement of the people and shouldbe acceptable to them and put into practice by them.


There is a common philosophical link betweencommunity organisation and community development.Both aim to enable people to live happily and a fullydeveloped life. Both have basic faith in the commonman and his right to self-determination within theframework of the society. Both give emphasis toself-help and help the people to help themselvesto solve their own problems. However, communityorganisation and community development should notbe considered as synonymous.

� CD is concerned with the promotion of all aspectsof life including social, economical and cultural;both in rural and urban areas. While CO isconcerned with adjustment of social welfare needsand resources in cities, states, nations as wellas in villages.

� CO is practiced in the USA on a voluntary basis,while in almost all the developing countries CDis a government-sponsored programme.

� CO is a product of urbanization andindustrialization. Here the main concern isproblems of the population mobility, problems ofthe family, problems of the aged, problems ofjuvenile delinquency, of unemployment andprovision of social security. But CD is concernedwith how to induce people to meet their basichuman needs.

� CO tends to be more process oriented while CDas practiced in India tends to be target oriented.

Gandhian Approach to Community Work

Gandhi has not given a clear-cut definition of theterm community. For him the village is the basiccommunity with it geographical limitation where a


number of families come together and co-operateto build a common life. According to Gandhi thebasic element of a community is mutual co-operationand common sharing.

The emphasis of Gandhian concept of communitywork is the reconstruction of the community ratherthan on organising an unorganised or disorganisedcommunity or on the development of an entirelynew community. Therefore the Gandhian objectiveof community work is to reconstruct the villagecommunities spread all over the country. Thisconstruction is based on the constructive programmesdesigned to meet the social welfare needs of thecommunity. It is through the construction of thevillage community Gandhi aims to realize the goalof reconstructing the “sarvodaya social order”. Gandhihas not given any specific or fixed pattern for thereconstruction programme but left it to the capacityof those community organisers working to suit differentconditions and social situations.

The role of the worker in this approach is verydistinct. Here, the worker not only deals with thosegroups of people or communities who seek his guidancebut he would also approach those communities, whichdo not ask for help because his prime work is towardsthe reconstruction of the society anywhere. In thisapproach the worker takes initiatives and graduallystimulates the community. It demands regularityand sincerity of the worker in the reconstructionprogramme in his area of work.

Models of Community Organisation

What is a Model ?

Before we proceed to understand the different methods


and models of community organisation it is good tounderstand the terminology. What is a model?

Model

It is a medium through which a person looks at thecomplex realities. Model is a simplistic version ofa complex situation. Models serve as a referencefor the work and give us a clear understanding ofwhat would happen. They describe strategies foraccomplishing a vision, and the appropriate stepsto be taken to get there. Some models grow out ofthe specific ideologies of change and some in responseto concrete situations.

Jack Rothman has introduced three basic modelsof community organisation. They are:

� Locality development

� Social planning

� Social action

1) Model A – Locality Development

Locality development model is a method of workingwith community groups. It was earlier used by thesettlement houses. Here the important focus is aboutthe process of community building. Leadershipdevelopment and the education of the participantsare the essential elements in the process.

According to Murray Ross the “process of self-helpand communal action is valuable in its own right”.The model of locality development is based on thisparticular thought process. It originated from thetraditional community organisation practice. The main


focus of this model is whole community or a partof it. The basic belief is that communities havesome common needs and interests and once thepeople realize this need and work togetherdemocratically, they can take appropriate steps toimprove the quality of life.

Here the role of the community organiser is to enhancethe involvement of the people in the communityand help the community members to plan and finda solution to the problem. It is similar to the workof community development, which is done in theunderdeveloped world.

It refers to the community organisation practicewhen a worker or an agency attempts to developvarious schemes and programmes to meet the needsof the target population in a defined area. It alsoincludes coordination of the work of various agenciesproviding a variety of services in the area.

2) Model B – Social Planning

It refers to the type of community work where aworker or agency undertakes an exercise of evaluatingwelfare needs and existing services in the areaand suggests a possible blue print for a more efficientdelivery of services, it is termed as social planning.It is concerned with social problems, for example,housing, education, health, childcare and so on. Itsaim is to affect a large population. The communityplanner works in that capacity with the governmentand is often identified with power structure of thecommunity. But basically he is interested in theneeds and attitudes of the community and helpthem plan their future.


3) Model C – Social Action

According to Friedlander, W.A. (1963) “Social Actionis an individual, group or community effort withinthe framework of the social work philosophy andpractice that aims to achieve social progress, tomodify social policies and to improve social legislationand health and welfare services”. Another modelof community organisation suggested by Rothmanis that of social action. According to him social actionis a strategy used by groups or sub communitiesor even national organisations that feel that theyhave inadequate power and resources to meet theirneeds. So they confront with the power structureusing conflict as a method to solve their issuesrelated to inequalities and deprivation.

In this type of community organisation the communityorganiser uses all means to apply pressure on thepower structure to give in to demands. The role oforganisers may differ depending on the issues theyget involved in. The role may be that of advocate,activist, agitator, broker or negotiator. It is a process.This organising process goes through different stage.So the role of the organiser will also change as perthe roles at the organiser is expected to play, dependingupon differing social situations.

This model was commonly used during the 1960’s.This has been used as a means to redress thesocial problems of the nation, redistribute the resourcesand power to the poor and powerless. Social actionas model has an important role in communityorganisation.


SocialPlanning

Problemsolving of substantivecommunityproblems

Substantiatesocial problemthat exits likeilliteracy, andunemployment

Factgathering, rationaldecisiomaking,enabling aneffectivecourse ofaction

Buildconsensus or induceconflict

Welfarecouncils, planningbodies

SocialAction

Shiftingpower andresources

Disadvantagedpopulation/society.Injustice andandinequality.

Organisepeople totake actionagainsttargets.

Induceconflictthrough directactionnegotiationconfrontation

Socialmovements

LocalityDevelopment

Self-help andcommonintegration

Society lacksviablerelationships andproblem solvingcapacity

Involvement ofbroad sections ofcommunity indetermining andsolving problems

Improvecommunityrelations amongdifferent groups inbringingconsensus

confrontation

Settlement house,consumerassociation,

DimensionofComparisonsGoal

Assumptions

Democratic

Strategy

Methods

Agencytypes

Agencies

Source: Rothman (1979)

A Comparative Statement of the Models Outlined byRothman (1979)


Approaches to Community Organisation

The History has witnessed diversity of efforts incommunity organisation and the emergence of newinitiatives in the field. Most often these communityorganising efforts are centered on identity communitiesand issue-specific communities. History gives us alist of different kinds of community organising methods.One such community organising method which thetwentieth century has witnessed is the growth ofneighbourhood organising.

Neighbourhood Organising

Neighbourhood organising is one form of communityorganising. This is nothing but an effort by thecommunity to solve the day to day problems andhelp those in need.

There are three kinds of approaches to neighbourhoodorganising.

� The social work approach

� Political activists approach

� Neighbourhood maintenance/Communitydevelopment approach

1) The Social Work Approach

In this approach, the society is viewed as a socialorganism and therefore the efforts are oriented towardsbuilding a sense of community. The communityorganiser whose role is of an “enabler or an advocate”helps the community to identify a problem in theneighbourhood and strives to obtain the needed socialresources by gathering the existing social servicesand by lobbying with those in power to meet the


needs of the neighbourhood. This method is moreconsensual and the neighbourhood is seen as acollective client. One example of this approach isthe social settlement movement in USA and waron poverty programme of the Johnson administrationin the 1960s.

2) The Political Activists Approach

Saul Alinsky, the Godfather of community organizationis the founder of this approach. He emerged as acommunity organiser in the 1930s. The basicphilosophy of this approach is based on his thinkingthat “the more the representatives of the organisation,the stronger the organisation.”

In this approach the community is seen as a politicalentity and not as a social organism. Here, theneighbourhood is viewed as a potential power basecapable of getting power. The role of the communityorganiser is to help the community understand theproblem in terms of power and necessary steps aretaken to mobilize the community. The problem ofthe neighbourhood is always identified as absenceof power and in the interest of gaining power forthe neighbourhood, the organisers are faced withconflicts with groups, interests and elitis. Sincemost of the community organisers come fromoutside the community, it has faced the problemsof equality of power relations and leadership in thecommunity.

Unlike the social work approach to communityorganisation this approach has the potential to createstable, democratic and effective organisations ofneighbourhood residents by seeing its role as “meetingpower with power”


3) Neighbourhood Maintenance/CommunityDevelopment Approach

This approach has emerged out of both the previousapproaches namely social work approach and politicalactivist within the same neighbourhood movements.It is seen in the form of civic associations. Thisassociation uses peer group pressure to provide servicesin the community. They use this strategy to pressurizethe officials to deliver services to the communitybut sometimes this approach takes the form of politicalactivists approach as they realize that their goalscan be only achieved through confrontations.

In this approach we see the characteristics of de-emphasis on dissent and confrontation and theseorganisations view themselves more as proactive anddevelopment minded.

Conclusion

In this chapter we have discussed the history ofcommunity organisation as the method of social work.We have seen how the early efforts of the socialreformers and activists to improve the living conditionsof deprived communities in the West graduallytransformed into a formal method of social work.The Indian experience is also discussed in detailwith emphasis on Mahatma Gandhi’s contributions.We have also seen that there are different approacheswithin community organisation that can be chosento deal with social problems. Rothman’s three modelsof community organisation namely locality development,social planning, and social action have been discussedin detail and their differences have been highlighted.


References

Arthur, Dunham (1958), Community Welfare Organisation,Principles and Practice, Thomas Y. Crowell Co., NewYork.

Dayal, Parameshwari (1986), Gandhian Approach toSocial Work, Gujrat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad.

Murray, Ross (1955), Community Organisation—Theoryand Principles, Harper Bros., New York.

Ronald, Lippitt, J Watson and B. Westly (1958), TheDynamics of Planned Change, A Comparative Study ofPrinciples and Technique, Harcourt, Brace and Co.,New York.

Steiner, Frederick Jesse (1958), Community Organisation,The New century Co. New York.

Siddiqui, H.Y (1997), Working with communities anintroduction to community work, Hira Publications, NewDelhi.

Walter A. Friendlander and Robert Z. (1982), Apte:Introduction to Social Welfare, Prentice-Hall India PrivateLimited.


3

Community Organisation as aMethod of Social Work

* C.M.J. Bosco

Introduction

Community Organisation is one of the primary methodsof social work. It deals with intervention in thecommunities to solve the community problems. Asa method of social work community organisationcan solve the problems of many people in thecommunity through their collective involvement.Community organisation and community developmentare inter-related as two sides of same coin. Thecommunity organisation includes other methods ofsocial work, that is, group work, and casework. Thepower structure plays a role in communityorganisation. The social workers need to know thecommunity power structure to practice communityorganisation method, which is used for empoweringpeople for their development. The details are providedfor social work students to understand and practicecommunity organisation effectively.

Community Organisation as MacroMethod

Community organisation is considered as a Macromethod of practice in social work. (Arthur E. Fink)It is used for solving community problems. The termMacro is used because of its ability to involve alarge number of people in solving the social problems.Community organisation is a macro method becausethis method can be successfully implemented at

Dr. C.M.J. Bosco, Sacred Heart College, Tirupattur

Community Organisation as a Method of Social Work 41

local level of community, or at state level and atregional levels of the community or even at theinternational level. For example, communityorganisation can help in pollution control at local,state, regional, national and international levels.It is a macro method because unlike casework whichdeals with only one person at a time or group workwhich deals with limited number of participants,community organisation deals with large number ofpeople at any given time. For example, Poverty cannotbe solved by using individual approach like caseworkas there are many people affected by poverty. Individualapproach is not practical where the magnitude ofthe problem is alarming. In such cases we have touse a method, which can help a large number ofpeople. While comparing other methods of socialwork community organisation as macro method isuseful for solving widespread economic and socialproblems like poverty.

Community Organisation as aProblem Solving Method

In community organisation method the communityis the client. Community organisation solves thecommunity problems and fulfills the needs of thecommunity. Many of the community problems likesocial injustice, poverty, inadequate housing, poornutrition, lack of health, lack of medical services,unemployment, pollution, exploitation, bonded laboursystem, illicit arrack, dowry, female infanticide, womenand children trafficking, drug trafficking etc. canbe solved by using community organisation method.In problem solving generally there are three basicaspects. These are study, diagnosis, and treatment.First the problem has to be studied. For this, wehave to collect information regarding the problem.From the information collected we have to identifythe main causes. This is called diagnosis. Based


on the findings, or diagnosis, a solution is evolvedthat is called treatment. We consider this modelas medical model because doctors study the patientto find out the causes for illness and based onfindings, treatment or medicines are prescribed.Such a model can be used in community organisationmethod. Problems can be solved only with involvementof people due to which resources are mobilized tosolve the problems. This method is specially applicablein Indian situations, because in India a large numberof people are affected by poverty or other povertyrelated problems which need speedy solutions. Forthis community organisation as a problem solvingmethod is most effective to solve community problems.For example people in certain area suffer due tolack of water for their cultivation. With the helpof the community organiser and people’s participation,watersheds can be made and ground water levelis increased. Water stored during rainy season canhelp the people to continue cultivation. Here thewhole village problem is related with water for irrigationand drinking purpose, which can be solved by usingcommunity organisation method.

Community Organisation method is used for thefollowing:

a) To meet the needs and bring about and maintainadjustment between needs and resources in acommunity.

b) Helping people effectively to work with theirproblems and plan to realize their objectives byhelping them to develop, strengthen, and maintainqualities of participation, self-direction andcooperation.

c) Bringing about changes in community and grouprelationships and in the distribution of decision-making power.


d) The resources of the community are identifiedand tapped for solving the community problems.

Relevance of Community Organisationfor Community Development

Community organisation and community developmentare interrelated. To achieve the goals of communitydevelopment the community organisation method isused. According to United Nations, communitydevelopment deals with total development of adeveloping country, that is their economic, physical,and social aspects. For achieving total developmentcommunity organisation is used. In communitydevelopment the following aspects are consideredas important. The same aspects are also consideredimportant by community organisation. They are,

a) Democratic procedures

b) Voluntary cooperation

c) Self-help

d) Development of leadership

e ) Educational aspects.

All the above aspects are related with communityorganisation. (a) Democratic procedures deal withallowing all the community members to participatein decision-making. It is possible to achieve this bycommunity organisation. The selected or electedmembers or representatives are helped to takedecisions. Democratic procedures help people to takepart in achieving community development goals.Community organisation method permits democraticprocedures for people’s participation. (b) Voluntarycooperation means that the people volunteer for theirparticipation. For this they are convinced. They shouldfeel that they should involve themselves in the processof development without hesitation. This attitude is


supported by community organisation method. People’semotional involvement is necessary to make successof the community organisation method. Ifdiscontentment about their conditions is created,then people will volunteer for participation. Communityorganisation emphasizes the discontentment aspectonly to make them initiate people’s participation.(c) Self-help is the basis for community development.Self-help deals with the capacity of mobilizing internalresources. Self-help is the basis for self-sufficiencyand sustainable development. In communityorganisation self-help is emphasized. Communityorganisation is relevant to community developmentbecause both emphasizes the self-help concepts. (f)Development of leadership is an important aspectin community development. Leadership deals withinfluencing and enabling people to achieve the goals.Community organisation also emphasizes leadership.With the help of leaders the people are motivatedto participate in action. Community organisation isa relevant method to develop and use leadership.This is applicable for community development also.(g) Educational aspects in community developmentmeans helping people to know, learn, and acceptconcepts of democracy, cooperation, unity, skilldevelopment, effective functioning etc. In communityorganisation also the above mentioned aspects areconsidered very important. The process of communityorganisation emphasizes education of the community.Thus both are emphasizing the educational aspectsfor the progress of the community. Thus communityorganisation and community development areinterrelated and mutually supportive. There are noopposing aspects in between community organisationand community development as both emphasizedemocractic method and self-help principles. Thusthey are relevant. So in all community developmentprogrammes community organisation method is usedas implementing method.


Distinction between CommunityOrganisation and CommunityDevelopment

There are many similarities between communityorganisation and community development. But fortheoretical purpose it is possible to differentiatecommunity organisation and community development.

a) Community organisation is a method of socialwork but community development is a programmefor a planned change.

b) Community organisation emphasizes the processes,but community development emphasizes the endor goals.

c) Community organisers are mostly social workersand social change agents, But communitydevelopment personnel can be from otherprofessions including agricultural experts,veterinary experts, and other technical experts.

d) Community organisation is not time bound. It isachieved step by step according to the pace ofthe people. But community development is timebound and time is specified for achieving thedevelopment objectives.

e ) In community organisation people’s participationis important. But in community developmentpeople’s development is important.

f) In community organisation governments andexternal agencies assistances are not importantor needed. But in community development externalassistance from the government or other agenciesis considered important.

g) Community organisation is a method of socialwork and this method is used in many fields.


But unlike community organisation communitydevelopment is considered as process, method,programme, and movement for planned change.

h) Community organisation is used in all the fieldsbut community development is used mostly ineconomic development and for the developmentof living standards of the people.

i) In community organisation planning is initiatedby the people through their participation. But incommunity development planning is carried outby an external agency mostly by the government.

j) In community organisation people are organisedto solve their problem. But in communitydevelopment goals have to be achieved and forthat people are organised.

k) Community organisation is universal to allcommunities. But community developmentprogrammes differ from people to people dependingupon whether the area is rural, urban or tribal,and other characteristics of the area.

Even though there are differences, both areinterrelated. The relationship is so close, so thatcommunity organisation process and principles areaccepted fully. Both are like two sides of the samecoin. The ideal community development takes placeswhere community organisation method and its varioussteps and principles are effectively put into practice.

Working with Individuals, Families,and Groups within The Community

Individuals join together and form groups and families.Families and groups join together and formcommunities. While working with communities we


have to work with individuals, families, and groups.In the practice of social work, distinction betweendifferent at social work methods do not have clearboundaries. All are carried out based on the situation.In community organisation the organiser has to workwith individuals. Individual contact strategy is usedto create awareness. Individually people are motivatedto accept community goals through education andawareness generation. Working with individuals takesmuch time but it is very effective and successful.Working with families and groups is important incommunity organisation. Working with many groupstakes place in community organisation, since in thecommunity there are many groups. For achievingthe common goals we have to work with differentgroups. There are many groups in the communityinvolved in different activities. They are dependenton each other for their functioning. The communityorganiser works with the different groups in orderto achieve the goals of the community. Thus thecommunity organiser takes deliberate efforts toincrease the unity among individuals, families, andgroups. When they unite together, they collaborateto achieve the common goals. Groups are consideredsuperior in problem solving and action. The groupsare better than the average individual but they neednot be better than the best individual. While workingwith groups there is a possibility of getting varietyof opinions and information for community organisation.The group members can eliminate the unwantedopinions by group decisions. The individuals canwork fast in a group but to involve others in worktakes some time. Consensus is considered an idealway to select from among alternatives while workingwith groups when most of the group members committhemselves for the cause it is bound to succeed.When there are controversial issues among the groupmembers, it is possible to reach a decision by modifyingthe original decision. Then it may become acceptable


to all the group members. Thus, a community organiserhas to work with individuals and groups to achievethe community goals. The organiser should havecasework and group work skills apart from communityorganisation skills to work with individuals and groupsin the community.

Concept and Dimensions of Power

Power means the ability to influence others throughcommunity organisation. That is influencingcommunity members to act as suggested by the leadersto achieve the community goals. The communitypower aspects can be studied. This is called powerstructure of the community. The power structureof the community varies from community to community.

According to social workers, power is the ability toinfluence the beliefs and behaviour of others. Inother words, power is the ability to make thingshappen. Floyd hunter explained the nature of powerand power structure. Power appears in numerousforms and in a variety of combinations. Power flowsfrom many sources. The money, votes, laws,information, expertise, prestige, group support,contacts, charisma, communication channels, media,social role, access to rewards, position, titles, ideas,verbal skill, ability to gratify important needs, monopolyof essential resources, alliances, energy, conviction,courage, interpersonal skills, moral convictions, etc.are some of the sources of power. The accumulationof power in a specific area is called as a powercentre. Power is also distributed. It is not confinedwithin the power centre. It is present at every levelof the society. The powerless people also have poweronly, they have to discover their power. Power maybe ascribed by formal delegation or by title. Powermay be achieved by many ways. For example, throughcompetence, ability, or by personality etc. powercan be achieved. Generally some groups of people


are at the top of the community. They are calledpower centers at the top of the power pyramid. Theyinfluence the community through formal and informalconnections. They influence through subordinateleaders who do not participate in community decision-making process. The rich people are mostly powerful.In some communities multiplicity of power structureis noticed. Power structure is also flexible in nature.The community organiser has to study the following‘How do some people influence the action of others?Who wields the power? How? What are the issues?What are the results? These aspects are to be analyzedby the organiser for effective practice of communityorganisation. This is called community power structureanalysis. It is called power because some peopleare capable of action in spite of the resistance ofothers. Some people are powerful because theyknew each other personally and they interact frequentlymaking it possible for them to join in the joint effortsin community affairs. People with power, make majorcommunity decision whereas others are active mainlyin implementing such decisions. An organiser whois able to study the power structure well can practicecommunity organisation effectively. For example, thevillage traditional leader is a powerful person. Theleader can influence other people to act. Many timesthis leader is motivated in achieving the goals ofthe community. The leader is capable of influencingpeople effectively. When there is opposition from afew men, it can be tackled by the leader becausethe leader has power.

In the community power is distributed. Each powercentre tries to expand its influence over the distributionof resources and rewards. The various power centersenter into an alliance. They share power, enterinto a contract and discharge obligations. Powerdoes not come to the passive, timid, defeated persons.Energetic, courageous persons wield it. The peoplewith power tend to join together based on issues.


The basis for alliance are ideological, personalitysimilarities, needs, or to achieve the goals. Powerpossessed is always used. It can be used for achievingthe goals. The power can be intellectual, political,social, or psychological. To retain power there isneed for self-awareness and self control. The decision-making is the source and out come of the power.Some times there is a possibility of many powercentres. Each power centre may be autonomous.The organiser needs knowledge, and ability to mobilizethe power in the community for achieving the goalsof the community.

There are techniques for mobilization of power.

a) Appealing to the persons with power, who arerelated, with, requested help for achieving thegoal.

b) Relating the power centres directly to the goal.

c) Developing interdependence among power centresfor fulfilling the goals.

d) Formation of new groups by including membersof power centres to achieve the goals.

e ) Encouraging members of power centres to joinwith other members of power centres to achievethe goal.

f) By using group work methods, new larger powercentres can be strengthened to achieve the goals.

Saul Alinsky and Richard Cloward used the changingof power centres. (1960). The power centre changeis achieved by institutional changes. Saul Alinskygave importance for grass-root approach. In grass-root approach lower level people should get decidingpower. Power and authority are connected. Authorityis the legitimatization of power. These details areused in community organisation to achieve people’sparticipation and successful achievement of the goal.


The Relevance of Power in CommunityOrganisation

Development is influenced by power structures ofthe community. People who are influential can mobilizea major segment of the community. For example;in fund raising drive some people can move behindother people and institutions. There are two modelsof community power structure. The stratificationmodel and the pluralist mode are the two modelsof power structures. Stratification model suggeststhat social class principally determines the distributionof community power. According to this model thepower structure in community is composed of stableupper class elite whose interest and outlook oncommunity affairs are relatively homogeneous.According to pluralist model, it rejects the idea thata small homogeneous group dominates communitydecision-making. But there are numerous small specialinterest groups that cut across class lines, whichare represented in the community decision-making.These are interest groups with overlappingmemberships, widely differing power bases, haveinfluences on decisions. Community decisions arethe result of the interactions of these different interestgroups. This theoretical orientation can help thecommunity organiser in his action. The organiserhas to identify the members of the power structurefor community organisation. Floyd Hunter an executivedirector of a community welfare council wrote classicvolumes on community power structure. His methodof locating community elites is known as the reputationapproach. The basic procedure is to ask a groupof informants who are knowledgeable about thecommunity to list the people they believe to be mostinfluential in the community affairs. There maybe variations in this procedure with regard to howinformants are selected, and how questions are putin. By tallying those people most frequently named


as influential leaders we can identify the core ofthe community power structure. Position approachis another method of locating the members of thepower structure based on the assumption ofstratification model. This approach assumes thatpeople holding the highest office in the communityare at the top of the power structure. By scanningthe executive lists of the important social politicaland economic organisations in the community, onecan quickly compile a list of members of the powerstructure. This approach requires fewer efforts thanthe reputation approach. Community power is directlyrelated with Community Organisation. Participationof people is related with power. In CommunityOrganisation community power holders are involvedto induce people’s participation in order to achievethe organisations objectives. Some times if the existingpower centers are not for Community Organisationalobjectives, then a new center of power is createdto get people’s commitment and mass participation.The organiser needs to study power structure andCommunity Organisation process is carried outsuccessfully through leaders. For example, peopleare organised to implement family planning. Forthis the leader is motivated for people’s participation.In some villages the leader opposes family planning.In this situation the community organiser has toidentify a new powerful leader to implement familyplanning. Otherwise it is not possible to implementfamily planning in the village.

Barriers to Empowerment

Generally poor people have the feeling of powerlessness.These people can be helped to feel powerful to decidetheir own affairs using community organisation. Whenthey learn to solve their problems they feel powerful.They can develop confidence and capacity buildingtakes place so that they feel that they can solve


their problems by themselves. In communityorganisation, the people carry out decision-making.This provides them with a sense of empowerment.Empowerment deals with providing disadvantagedgroups with a powerful instrument for articulatingtheir demands and preferences by developingawareness and decision-making capacity so as toachieve their goal with freedom. CommunityOrganisation results in empowerment of the people.But there are some hindrances like fatalism, illiteracy,superstitions, and caste divisions etc. Sometimesvested interest groups may be a hindrance or barriersfor empowerment. The Community dependence, longtime effect of poverty, and wrong beliefs etc., actas barriers to empowerment. When people areorganised, they get the power. There are leadersin the community and if they are united, they canwork together, and they can coordinate with eachother. This makes them feel powerful. Thus communityorganisation results in empowerment of people. Theempowerment helps the community to stand againstexploitation, gain ability to solve problems, and toachieve the desired goals. Many of the economicproblems can be easily solved by communityorganisation and empowerment of community.

Conclusion

In this chapter we have discussed about communityorganisation as a macro method of social work andthe relevance of community organisation forcommunity development. The differences betweencommunity organisation and community developmentare listed. The importance of working with individuals’families and groups has been discussed. Towardthe end of the chapter, the power structure, andits relevance to community organisation are discussed.All these information will be useful for successfulcommunity organisation.


References

Chekki A. Dan (1979), Community Development, VikasPublishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Cox. M. Fred and Erlich L. John (1987), Strategiesof Community Organisation, F.E. Peacock Publishers,Inc. Illinois.

Fink E. Arthur (1978), The Fields of Social Work, HoltRinehart and Winston, New York.

Murray G. Ross (1955), Community Organisation, Harperand Row Publishers, New York.

Ralph Jersey M. Kramer (1975), Readings in CommunityOrganisation, Practice Prentice Hall Inc. New Jersey.

Rex A. Skidmore (1976), Introduction to Social Work,Prentice Hall Inc. New Jersey.

Current Issues in Community Organisation 55

4

Current Issues in CommunityOrganisation

* Gopal Ji Mishra

Introduction

The communities of today are facing lots of challenges.The ancient social relations, emotional bonds andsentimental ties are no more significant and visible.The community consciousness is rapidly loweringdown. Dirty politics has entered into the peacefullife of the community people and they are dividedinto different political groups and sub-groups. Thejoint family system is fast disintegrating and strainson human mind are increasing. Communaldisharmony, gender inequality, factionalism, protectionof rights of marginalized groups, feelings of deprivationsamong different classes like cultivators, industrialworkers, daily wage earners, alteration of propertyrelations in favour of the less privileged and impactof macro policies at micro levels are some currentissues which require immediate intervention whileworking with communities, institutions andorganisations. This chapter gives you a broadunderstanding of issues, which are affecting thedynamics of the healthy life-styles and functioningof the communities and organisations. Let us nowunderstand the meaning of gender, difference betweengender and sex, gender system and its elementsand impact of gender system on women inequalities.

Prof. Gopal Ji Mishra, Assam University, Silchar


Gender Sensitive CommunityOrganisation Practice

According to the Oxford dictionary, gender has beendefined as sexual classification i.e. male and female.But gender is not a biological attribute. It is createdby the society. There is need of a equality between‘Men’ and ‘Women’. Unfortunately, our present systemis involved in developing its own set of rules, whichis basically responsible for discrimination and injusticeof women and girl child in our society.

Difference Between Gender and Sex

Gender Sex

Socially defined Biologically defined

Socio-cultural difference Natural difference

Made by the society Naturally made

Variable Constant

Gender gives different values to Men and Women.The biological sex differences are accepted as correctindicator for differential male-female access andtheir participation in the society.

Gender System

Our society is organised around some given parametersand aims, the functionality of which is ensured bya set of systems and institutions. For instance,marriage and family life are ingrained aspects ofthe Indian society. Girls and boys get married andstart their own families living within the prescribednorms that determine choice of marriage partner,their roles, code of conduct (fidelity, chastity, girl’ssubservience to her husband and in-laws), life-styleand practices (such as purda, male inheritance,dowry etc.). One of the most pervasive and widespread


codes of organisation that affects all aspects of socialfunctioning is the gender system. It is patriarchythat provides the life force to the unfavourableconditions that woman face. Let us try and list outsome of the more common features of gender system.

Male-Female Differentiation

The practices of male-female differentiation formthe core of a gender-based system. Biological sexdifferences, which are real, are extended to be thecriteria for social placement.

Allocation of Roles

In any organisation or society roles are attributedfor specific function. In a patriarchy, roles are allocatednot only in accordance with the biological functions(procreation), but are misappropriated according tovalues prescribed to male and females. Withinpatriarchy ‘dominating and controlling social functionsare prescribed for males whereas ‘supportive functionsare the purview of the females. Thus, by birth, themales are ‘inheritors of resources’, performing thefunctions of earners and by birth the females are‘family caretakers’ performing the functions of ‘childnurturing and running the households’.

Gender-based Hierarchical Placement

Alongwith role allocation certain norms and values,as well as practices and beliefs, further promotethe ‘male-female superior-inferior or hierarchy’,whereby males have access to land holdingsinheritance, skills, productive employment and theassociated high status. Women, on the other hand,are denied even life (female infanticide / foeticide),receive poor nutrition and medical care, inferioreducation and suffer atrocities such as eve-teasing,rape, wife beating etc.


Elements of the Gender System

Role Stereotyping

The female biological functions of reproduction areextended to rearing of children and catering tohousehold work. On the other hand the role of themale is to earn for the family. Accordingly, bothsexes are socialized to these predetermined butseparate roles. Even in society where both menand women are called upon to earn, the primaryroles associated with social values have remainedunchanged. Thus even if women earn an income,their responsibility towards household chores remainsundiminished.

Child Preference on the Basis of Sex

The corresponding social status availed by the maledue to his being the inheritor, the protector of thefamily and its interest, the “doer”, a male child isvalued. Moreover, it is the sons who are an old ageinsurance for the parents, since the daughters getmarried and leave the family. Besides, daughterimplies expenses such as dowry. Thus a male childis preferred by society. In fact, male child preferenceis so strong that in certain areas a wife who doesnot produce a male child is called ‘Kulachhani’,destroyer of the family since name will not be carriedforward.

Impact of the Gender System on Women

The practice of male-female differentiation resultsin structural deprivation of the female (of life-femalefoeticide/infanticide – of access to health and medicalservices, inheritance, education etc.). Femalediscrimination at the behavioural level (un-employment, low productivity skills, health care, publiclife etc.) and infliction of atrocities (dowry harassment,eve-teasing, wife beating, rape etc.). The structural


conditions affect society as a whole where asbehavioural manifestations affect the individual inspecific situation.

Caste and Class as Axis of Inequality

Caste and class both are status groups. A statusgroup is an association of individuals who enjoy adistinctive style of life and a certain consciousnessof kind. However, castes are perceived as hereditarygroups with a fixed ritual status while classes aredefined in terms of the relations of production. Themembers of a class have a similar socio-economicstatus in relation to other classes in the society,while the members of a caste have either a highor a low ritual status in relation to other castes.

Caste as a Unit and as a System

Caste is considered both as a unit and as a system.It is also understood as a structural phenomenonas well as a cultural phenomenon. As a unit, castecan be defined as a ‘closed rank status group’, thatis a group in which the status of the members,their occupation, the field of mate selection andinteraction with others are all fixed. As a system,it refers to interrelated status and patternedinteraction among castes are all terms of collectivityof restrictions, namely, restriction on change ofmembership, occupation, marriage and communalrelations. In viewing caste as a system, there ispre-supposition that no caste can exist in isolationand that each caste is closely linked with othercastes in the network of economic, political, andritual relationships. The ‘closed-rank group’ featureof caste also explains its structure. As a culturalphenomenon, caste may be viewed as a “set of values,beliefs and practices.”


Class

A social class is “one of two or more broad groupsof individuals who are ranked by the members ofthe community in socially superior and inferiorpositions.” (Ginsberg, Morris: 1961) Thus, in a socialclass there is –

� a feeling of equality in relation to members ofone’s own class.

� a consciousness that one’s mode of behaviourwill be in harmony with the behaviour of similarstandards of life.

� individuals belonging to the same social classare expected to maintain similar standards oflife.

� to choose their occupations within a limitedrange.

� there is realization of similarity of attitudeand behaviour with the members of one class.

� there is a feeling of inferiority in relation tothose who stand above in the social scale.

� there is a feeling of superiority in relation tothose below in social hierarchy.

Axis of Inequality of Caste and Class

If we look at our society, we find that people aredivided in categories (in castes and classes) on thebasis on birth, religion, race, language and speech,education, occupation and wealth etc. and societyis heterogeneous in nature. Individuals are placedhigher or lower in a status scale based on thesecharacteristics. Thus social barriers are erected inthe way of lower category (caste and class) people’soverall development. This has given birth to severalinequalities:


Caste

� restricts mobility of working class especially ofmarginalized.

� Leads to untouchability, slavery and is responsiblefor many other social evils and vices like childmarriage, dowry system, purdah system andcasteism.

� responsible for low status of women.

� is bed-rock of religious discrimination andfundamentalism.

Class

� The dream to alter property-relations in favourof less privileged has yet to come.

Further the persisting inter and intra-caste, classand community inequalities as well as wide spreadunrest are also result of prevailing contradictionsin our social system. Such as:

� We continue to follow the traditional valueswhereas our roles have become modern.

� We profess that India is committed to bring equalitybut in reality, it is in an age-old system of casteand class.

� We claim ourselves as rationalist but we bearwith injustice and unfairness with fatalisticresignation.

� We speak in favour of individualism but we reinforcecollectivism.

� Inspite of formulation of so many laws andmodification of old laws, the common people havenot been benefitted from these because theyare either not being implemented or are full of


loopholes which have benefitted only the legalprofession.

Factionalism

Factionalism is a situation/condition in which ‘sub-castes’ (within the caste) function as ‘factions’ (conflictgroups) than as ‘caste groups’ to achieve their purpose.Prof. K. N. Sharma has termed them ‘resource groups’with a view to lay stress on their collaborative function.Occasionally, the ‘alliance’ between the groups isrestricted only for the duration of achievement ofthe purpose. Mostly families are engaged in suchalliances. Nevertheless, in some cases even brothersof same families have joined various factions andhave disassociated themselves from each other atthe cost of their kinship relationships.

The faction (within the sub-caste) is an associationof a few core families to face challenges from otherfamilies, or to secure help in court cases, and soon. Such factions/alliances can be seen in the eveningwhen people come back from their fields or officesand cluster in small groups to spend together theirleisure time. In this way the closeness with thegroup is strengthened daily by intimate and informalrelations and its strength is activated time to timefor status defense or exaggeration. A faction maycontinue for decades or for few years or few monthsor it may change unexpectedly as no hard and fastrules ties the members together. However, withinthe faction, caste/ sub-caste are of notable significancein towns and cities.

The strength of the factions depends on wealth,manpower and ability to mobilize resources andinfluence from outside the village. Now a days,factionalism has become a serious problem and isposing a serious threat to the traditional unity andsolidarity of our village and tribal communities.


The legal sanction accorded to various types ofleadership positions in the Panchayati Raj system,under 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, is notso much beneficial. Rather, it has widely, very stronglyand seriously hampered all efforts to promotedevelopment of villages in the country. As they(factions) oppose one another, not because of anygenuine reason or rhyme but simply for the sakeof showing the opposition and demonstrating theirstrength. As a consequence, any effort made by anychange agent— external or internal, to promote co-operative and collaborative attitudes and practicesin the community, gets badly thwarted.

Protecting the Rights of Marginalised Groups

Marginalized People

The people of marginalized groups do not form anycompact territorial community. They are forced tolive wretchedly, enduring exploitation, oppression,violence and numerous indignities. Those groups insociety who, due to poverty, culture, language, religion,migrant status or other disadvantages have not beenmuch benefitted from health, education, employmentand other developmental opportunities. Most of themare landless labourers, rural poor with small piecesof land, artisans, workers in unorganised sectors,women, SCs and STs etc.

Existing Provisions for Protection of Rights ofMarginalized

Although government has made various constitutional,legal and non-legal socio-economic provisions tosafeguard the interests of marginalized people andto ensure their overall development, even then, theircondition has not significantly changed. The conceptof social justice is also stirring the government andpeople into new and more vital fields of state actionto make available the benefits of ‘Welfare State’ to


various sections of the society, specially to marginalizedpeople. Various laws relating to payment of wages,social security, regulatory legislations and socialjustice etc. have been enacted fixing the workinghours, minimum wages of labourer and to improvetheir working conditions. Further numerous lawsmeant for land reforms— ceiling, consolidation, landalienation, credit facility and debt relief have beenpassed. Besides these different social security, incomegenerating and village infra-structure developmentschemes and programmes have been implemented.Mention may be made of –

1) Constitutional Provisions

� Fundamental Rights and Duties

� Directive Principles of State Policy

2) Legal and Non-legal Socio-economic Provisions

� Payment of Wages Act 1936 & 1971

� Minimum Wages Act – 1948

� Equal Remuneration Act – 1978

� Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition)Act 1971 & 1986

� Bonded Labour Act 1976

� Inter-state Migration Act 1979

� Civil Rights Protection Act 1955

� SCs and STs (Atrocities Protection) Act 1989

3) Commissions Programmes and Schemes

� National Commission for SCs and STs

� 20 points economic programmes


� National Schemes for liberation andrehabilitation of scavengers andtheir dependents 1992

� Special Area Development Programmes (likeDPAP, DDP, IWDP, HADP, CADP and ITADP)

� Minimum Needs Programmes

� National Social Assistance Programmes (suchas NOPS, NFBS, NMBS and Annapurna etc.)

4) Lapses in Existing Provisions and Programmes

� The existing communication channels forcreating awareness and sensitization arenot adequate and effective and do not reachthe marginalize people.

� Lack of integrated approach in macro-policiesin tackling the issues related tomarginalized people.

� Lack of strong and effective organisationalsupport to voice their concerns and lobbyingfor them.

Steps to be taken to Protect the Rights ofMarginalized

Inspite of all these initiatives taken by the government,we find that the needs and problems of marginalizedpeople in India are not resolved satisfactorily. Theirneeds and problems are multifarious and multi-dimensional in nature. These can be tackled bychanging the attitudes of the society as well asnation towards marginalized people. Therefore, forprotecting the rights of marginalized people followingsuggestions/measures can be effective and useful.

1) They should be sensitized about their conditions/situations and other factors responsible for theirdeplorable conditions.


2) They should be made aware of their constitutionaland legal rights both in their work and in socialsphere.

3) Training for skills development and incomegeneration is another crucial aspect. Trainingmust be provided on occupations which pre-supposetraining. The duration of training may vary from1 to 6 months with the nature of the chosenoccupations to equip them with new methods,techniques and skills for increasing their earnings.Further since they are daily wage earners, theyshould be paid for their wages loss during trainingperiod either in cash or in kind to create interestin training programmes.

4) There should be provision of counselling servicesfor all family, community and other socio-economicgroups.

5) There is need to build, strengthen and utilizethe fullest capabilities of Village CommunityOrganisations (VCOs) in rural development speciallyfor the upliftment of marginalized groups.

6) Pleading for setting up of (free or nominal feepaid) Legal Aid Counselling Centres at district/Taluka and block level by the government and/or NGOs with effective monitoring system.

7) To develop right from grass-root level to nationallevel organisations of these people for protectionand promotion of their rightful claims and toprovide them guidance required for this organisedstruggle.

Impact of Macro Policies

Everyone agrees that the process of globalizationhas increased the gap between rich and poor greatly,both within and between the countries. The ideology


associated with globalization is that of ‘market forces’economics. Government action and control is nowseen as the cause of inflation, debt and economicrecession while the private sector is promoted asthe creator of efficiency and growth. Global andnational thinking and policy is therefore orientedtowards privatization, liberalization and subsidization,regulation and promotion of national enterprises arefrowned upon. Declining international assistanceand increasing debt forced many governments toaccept conditions imposed by the World Bank andWorld Trade Organisation. Some of these conditionsthat have specific reference to India include:

� Removal of subsidy on agriculture.

� Embargo on import restriction.

� Abolition of Public distribution system.

� Allowing entry of foreign MNCs into India.

� Acceptance of intellectual properties rights.

� Cancellation of the Indian patents Acts.

Keeping in view the above facts, we can say thatthe international institutions like InternationalMonetary Fund, World Bank and World TradeOrganisation have deeply influenced the policiesand programmes of our nation in their interests aswell as in the interest of developed countries whichhave badly affected the people in general and themarginalized in particular, namely:

1) The ‘growth centered model’ for development aimedonly at economic growth and increased GrossDomestic Product (GDP) of the country. But itcould achieve these at great social andenvironmental costs. Within three decades, itbecame obvious that the dominant model hadbypassed large sections of society, leading togreater disparity, further marginalizing the deprived


sections. The special programmes initiated forthe vulnerable sections failed to make an impactbecause the people were treated as mere‘beneficiaries’ and ‘objects’ of development.

2) Thus the ‘trickle down theory’ adopted by the‘dominating power structure’ did not entail thedesired development and the number of peoplebelow the poverty line increased. In the nameof development, nature has been exploited tothe fullest, irreparably damaging the environment.Concentration and control of resources now liesin the hands of a few individuals, while themajority of the population are silent ‘recipients’of the programmes.

3) The ‘Green Revolution’ has further marginalizedthe small and marginal farmers who becamelandless in the process. These farmers, unableto utilize the new technology, sold their landto large land owners. The latter in turn becamericher by drawing the benefits of subsidies offeredby the Government.

4) Due to the Indian economy’s added emphasis onindustrialization, there has been a strong urbanbias. The rural agricultural economy suffered somuch that migrants flocked to cities in searchof employment. As cities did not have the capacityto accommodate a large population, problemsrelating to health, sanitation, education,consumerism and unemployment increased theinequality, already existing in the cities.

5) Rapid advancement in technology, which playsa vital role in profit maximization, has furthermarginalized weaker and vulnerable sections ofIndian society.

6) Moreover, the development of many high yieldingand refined varieties of food grains developed by


rich countries which can be used only forconsumption purposes and not as seeds to besown in the field, have further worsened thesituation through monopolization of the seed marketin developing countries like India in which farmersare compelled to purchase seeds at very highprices and are compelled by exigencies of thesituation to sell their produce at throwaway prices.

7) Even essential life saving drugs have beenmonopolized by developed nations and they arebeing sold for beyond the affording capacity ofcommon man to purchase them.

8) The pressure of the World Bank to withdraw allkinds of subsidies, thus far enjoyed by peoplein India in diverse fields like fertilizers, electricity,petrol, diesel, etc. has added to the economicburden to be shouldered by the common peoplein the country particularly marginal and smallfarmers and small scale entrepreneurs. This hasadversely affected the production and distributionof various types of goods and services.

Unionization Strategies

Unionization is the process of organising theunorganised people for their specific goal and interest.In unionization the oppressed, exploited, weaker,vulnerable and marginalized people (this includesindividual(s), group(s) and/ or community(ies)voluntarily organise themselves in union(s) on thebasis of equality to identify and rank their needs/problems/issues; to secure their essential demands;to protect and promote their interests by collectiveaction; accepting the principle of majority rule andmaximum participation of community people in eachand every step of community organisation anddevelopment process.


Whereas an overall approach to bring about changein the general situation may be termed as ‘strategy’,it includes roles for worker and client, tasks to beperformed by each and every one and methods andtechniques to be used.

In order to unionize target group i.e. communitypeople, the following strategies of unionization, canbe practiced. Let us now discuss some of thesestrategies:

� Information collection and community meetings.

� Conscientisation

� Formulation of plans and programmes (throughP.R.A).

� Capacity building

� Collaboration and co-ordination

� Networking

Information Collection and Community Meetings

This deals with organising formal and informalmeetings of community people. Needs visiting andobserving the community for gathering the differentinformation. Besides these it includes:

a) Identification and prioritization/ranking of needs/problems/issues and stakeholders.

b) Creation of awareness about these felt needs/priorities of problems and consciousness amongcommunity people.

c) Identification of nucleus/resource persons/opinionleaders and formal and informal leaders of varioussocio-cultural/vocational groups and sub-groups.


Conscientisation

The strategy is based on Paulo Friere’s approachof generating awareness and sensitization amongmasses through education. In his opinion, if peoplewere motivated to analyse their own reality, theycould be active participants in transforming it. Theconsciousness gained through the critical processof reasoning and reflection leads to action that inturn can reduce the exploitative tendencies in thepresent economic structure.

Planning and Formulation of Plans and Programmes(through PRA)

Planning involves the entire process right from thestarting of consciousness regarding a problem tothe steps taken to resolve that problem. This atleast can be achieved by having rapport with thepeople and involving them in designing the developmentof project. To meet this specific need of the peopleapplication of Participatory Rural Appraisal Technique(PRA) is required.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

PRA is seen as a family of methods and approachesto enable local people to analyze, plan and act basedon their own life situation and knowledge. Thisincludes:

i) Village census mapping

ii) Resource mapping and institutional mapping

iii) Village transect walk

iv) Time line

v) Trend diagram

vi) Matrix and wealth mapping


Capacity Building

As the capacity of poor people is strengthened (byutilizing and improving their skills, changing theirperceptions and attitudes and ensuring their activeparticipation as responsible participator) and theirvoice begin to be heard, they become “claimants”who are capable of demanding and paying for goodsand services from government and private sectoragencies. Under these changed circumstances, themechanisms to satisfy their needs will change aswell.

Collaboration and Coordination

When two or more persons (i.e. helpers) workingjointly on the basis of a common plan of action,then it is called collaboration. In collaboration eachone of the helpers are accountable for certain aspectsof work/service to a client. They may belong to oneagency or many agencies; they may be social workersand/or may be from several other professionaldisciplines. Thus we can say that it is a mediumof integration of various services being provided,description of role and services to be delivered byeach of the participant, and making sure thatconflicting and confusing messages are not givento clients.

Whereas in co-ordination, two or more service providerswork together. This does not involve a common actionplan; in fact, there may be two or more action plans.For effective coordination, spirit of working togethertowards a desirable end is must. Further, the mutualsatisfaction of all concerned persons and agenciesinvolved in it is an important aspect.

Networking

Networking is also the social work strategy practicedto bring diverse social structures together to


accomplish a common purpose or shared goal.Networking involves establishing coordinated andcollaborative relationships in order to have accessto the resources of other persons and social systems.Social workers network with human serviceorganisations, other social structures like businessand industry and influential community leaders.Networking promotes collaboration in identifyingservice gaps and barriers and encourages inter-agencyplanning to address unmet service delivery needs.

The problem of unionizing/organising the poor iscomplicated. But there are examples where the poorhave organised themselves on the basis of commoneconomic interests and thereby developing a counterweight that offsets their lingering importance inlocal government or by formation of restrictiveorganisations based on interest groups, small farmers,co-operatives, landless workers, unions, associationof womens organisation, rural youth brigrades orthrough organisation of the politically disadvantagedfor direct political action as in case of Tanjore inTamil Nadu. Similar kinds of experiment may befound in anand dairy, gujarat, sri lanka, commillaproject of bangladesh, and others in mauritius andburma in addition to china.

Dealing With AuthoritiesAuthorities are those persons, who have power togive order and make others to obey. They are varioussegments of the government and non-governmentofficials, responsible for policy and plan formulation,implementation, maintenance of law and order (withpeace and harmony) and provide social justice toits people.

In other words, authorities have to ensure conduciveenvironment for holistic and sustainable developmentof people, right from the small village level to the


nation as a whole. But it could not happen, dueto ‘ego-centric’ style of functioning of the authorities,instead of ‘people-centric’ style. As a result of it,the majority of people are in a pitiable situation.For improving their conditions and providing whatis dues to them, the following strategies can bepracticed to deal with authorities as and whenrequired;

i) Submission of petition

ii) Persuation

iii) Bargaining

iv) Negotiation

v) Lobbying and advocacy

vi) Conflictual/confrontational strategies

Submission of Petition: Submission of petition isa formal written application (which contains in verybrief the issues and problems, their nature andextent of people’s suffering) signed by affected and/or interested persons and appealing to the concernedauthority to solve the problem on sustainable ground.This petition is submitted to related officials.

Persuation: After submission of petition to concernedauthority when no response is received from him/her then persuation strategy is used. In persuationefforts are made to influence the individuals to changetheir outlook by providing them needed information.This also involves the adoption of series of actions/procedures to bring about change by arguing, givingreasoning, urging and inducing others to accept aparticular viewpoint and resolve the issues/problems.

Bargaining: Bargaining is a process of discussionand negotiation between two parties, one or bothof which is a group of persons acting in concert.The resulting bargain is an undertaking as to terms


and conditions under a continuing service is to beperformed (Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences).

Negotiation: In negotiation communication linkageis established between two or more than two groupshaving disagreement on a particular issue/ problem.The communication linkages are established so thatthe concerned groups are able to iron-out theirdifficulties, understand each other’s point of view,and come out with mutually acceptable decision.The community organiser may act as negotiator ifit is acceptable to all the concerned parties. Besides,he facilitates such an approach due to which therival groups can come on the same platform underto workout their differences.

Lobbying and Advocacy: Lobbying is a techniqueof influencing the legislation and creating legislativeopinion favourable to the group or interest on behalfof which the lobby operates. Instead of attemptingto influence legislation directly, the lobbyist mayuse the technique of pressure group lobbing, whereinthe pressure group seek to create an appearanceof broad public support for its aims. This appearancemay be genuine or artificial. Anyhow the aim is toinfluence the legislative policy.

Advocacy involves ‘pleading and fighting for the serviceof the clients, whom the service system otherwiserejects. It requires seeking different interpretationsor exceptions to rules and regulations, to clients’rights to services and undertaking to create awarenessabout the blockages to clients in receiving or usingan agency’s services. In advocacy, the worker speakson behalf of client. Before engaging in advocacy aworker must first be sure that the client(s) desire(s)the worker to intervene in this manner. The clientshould clearly understand the risks involved andbe motivated to use the service(s) if it is obtained.Secondly, the worker must carefully assess the risksinvolved for the client if advocacy is used.


Conflictual/Confrontational Strategies: The basichypothesis, on which the conflictual andconfrontational strategy is practised, is that thosewho are in favour of status quo and those who arein favour of change, fight with each other. Hence,the dynamics of conflict is inevitable in the processof community organisation and action initiative. Thismay invite agitational techniques like protest,demonstration and civil disobedience or direct actionetc.

However, it must be remembered that it is easierto mobilize people through protests and demonstrationthan civil disobedience or direct action etc.

Protests and Demonstrations

When people are dissatisfied with social institutionsthat frustrate them and their needs, they have desireto change that social institutions because theseare not able to solve their social problem. This situationcreates social tension, unrest and instability amongthem and leads to social movement. Thus socialmovements could be looked upon as collective effortsto change the society. Generally these are startedby those, who are shocked by social injustices. Socialmovement can take the shape of protests,demonstrations, marches, rioting and rebellion etc.

Protest

Protest is verbal, written and/or legal expressionof dissent, disagreement or disapproval of anyimposition of official policy/curtailment of facility/increasement of tax or any other unwarranted conditionimposed by the government/organisation /associationor group of people or by the existing system.

It is an effort to block a proposed change or touproot a change already initiated. It is observedthat in protest, victimization is the general causeand victims usually are the potential protesters.


The following are some common features of protest:

1) Protest is primarily an expression of feelings.

2) This expression may be verbal in writing or throughlegal procedures.

3) The main purpose of protest is to oppose or todisapprove of the action initiated by the government,institution or existing social system.

4) The reason for protest is victimization of peoplein general or some section of the people inparticular.

5) Victims actively participate in the protest as‘potential protesters’.

6) Protest remains sectional rather than general.

7) Community as a whole is not mobilized aroundsocial cause(s).

Demonstrations

Demonstration is a method of expression of people’ssentiments/emotions and feelings readily in favour/support of or against the government/publicorganisations/institutions or associations. Indemonstration the individuals gather together togive expression or to manifest their demands orsentiments. The members of demonstration groupare interested more in voicing their grievance, thanin destruction, by organising meetings, rally or publicmarches.

The demonstrative crowd may turn into an aggressive/protestive crowd if any effort is made to disperseit by violent means. It enables the group to understandbetter the cause of a problem and also results ofany action taken so far.


A good demonstration:

� should be based on problem(s)/situation(s) whichis important and true to the real life of theaudience.

� is one in which it should be decided first, whatis to be exactly conveyed to the audience.

� makes the message easy to understand and accept.

� facilitates clarifications and discussion amongpeople.

� generates sympathetic and favourable environment.

� includes the preparation of exhibits (like Posters,Charts, Placards and Banners etc.) that arerequired for the same.

� is one in which locally available cheap and bestmaterials are effectively and impressively usedto reduce the unnecessary expenses and generatedpeoples appreciation.

Conclusion

In this chapter, you have learned the meaning ofgender, castes and classes, difference between genderand sex, concept of gender system and its elementsand prevailing inequalities in the communities dueto gender, castes and classes.

You saw how different factions promote factionalism.Now a days, it has threatened the traditional unityand solidarity of our rural and urban communities.We have also discussed the meaning of marginalizedpeople, existing constitutional, legal and non-legalsocio-economic provisions to safeguard the interestsof marginalized people, lacunas in these and stepsto be taken to protect their rights. We have attemptedto acquaint you with the impact of macro-policieson general masses especially on marginalized people.


For your understanding, we have explained differentstrategies like unionization, dealing with authorities,protests and demonstration etc. Unionization includesmainly conscientisation. Formulation of plans andprogrammes is preferably through PRA, capacitybuilding, collaboration, co-ordination and networking.Dealing with authorities incorporates submission ofpetition, persuasion, bargaining, negotiation, lobbyingand advocacy and conflictual/confrontational strategies.The basic features of protests and demonstrationand their effective use have been described. Usuallyprotests and demonstration generate sympatheticand favourable environment.

References

Cox, F.M. et al (Ed). (1987), Strategies of CommunityOrganisation: A book of Readings, 4th ed. Itasca, 12,FE Peacock.

Dubey, Muchkund (ed). (1995), Indian Society Today:Challenges of Equality, Integration and Empowerment,Har Anand Publication, New Delhi.

Gangrade, K.D. (1971), Community Organisation in India,Popular Prakashan, Bombay.

Ghurya, G.S. (1961), Class, Caste and Occupation, OxfordUniversity Press, Bombay.

Pascual, Gisbert S.J. (1999), Fundamentals of Sociology,Hyderabad, Orient Logman Ltd., IIIrd Edition.

Pathania, Sunita (1999), “Globalization, Culture andGender: Some Issues: Globalizaion, Culture and WomenDevelopment, Rawat Publications, Jaipur.

Paulo, Freire (1992), Pedagogy of the Oppressed, PenguinBook.


Siddique, H.Y. (1997), Working with the Communities:An Introduction to Community Work, Hira Publications,New Delhi.

Role of Community Organiser in Different Settings 81

5

ROLE OF COMMUNITYORGANISER IN DIFFERENT

SETTINGS

* A.J. Christopher

Introduction

Community organisation can be practiced in differentcommunities or settings. The community can beclassified as rural, urban and tribal on the basisof geographical location. The other classification ofthe community can be based on the caste, religion,occupation etc. These communities are under differentsettings where community organisation can be putinto practice.

Community organisation is applied when thecommunity takes initiative in solving their problemsand meetings their needs. In such a situation thecommunity plays different roles in dealing with thevarious needs and problems. Usually within thecommunity either the interested people or the peoplewho are affected by an issue take up the lead inaddressing the problem. In other words they formthe community and undertake different roles in solvingthe problems and consequently needs get fulfilled.But such a process does not take place easily andhence someone has to take the lead.

When the initiative is not forthcoming from thecommunity an external agent or an outsider or acommunity organiser steps in and works with the

Dr. A.J. Christopher, Sacred Heart College, Tirupattur


community. The community organiser depending onthe setting, situation and the problems appliesappropriate roles. The roles are likely to vary accordingto the settings, problems and needs.

Community organisation can be used by the communityorganiser in different areas or settings like, rural,urban, tribal, institutional, non institutional settings.Whatever may be the settings, depending upon themodel of community organisation like localitydevelopment, social planning and social action, thecommunity organiser has to apply different rolesrespectively. Therefore a community organiser hasto be familiar with all the roles of communityorganisation.

Settings of Community Organisation

There are different areas where communityorganisation has scope. The community organisercan practice community organisation in differentsettings. The settings can be identified based oncertain characteristics like location and the natureof administration.

Geographical LocationRural, Urban, Tribal

Sector Institutional, Non-institutional

Or

Organised, un-organised

Model Locality development

Social planning

Social action

The target group with whom the community organiseris going to work with has to be identified andunderstood. The needs and problems of the community


in different settings will not be the same, and moreover,the characteristics of the people in different settingsare likely to vary. Accordingly the methods andtechniques of community organisation and the rolesof community organiser will have to be used in sucha way as to suit the differing settings andcharacteristics of people.

The organiser can use different methods to identify,assess the need, analyse and understand the situation.There are two levels of understanding, the firstlevel is the understanding of the community by theorganiser and the second level is making thecommunity to understand their own situation. Differentmethods and techniques can be used to understandand make the community to understand. ParticipatoryRural Appraisal (PRA) and Appreciative Inquiry canbe more useful in this regard. Since these are notwithin the scope of this unit, it is not discussedhere.

Whatever may be the settings there is a communityor a group of people with needs and problems. Inother words there is a general discontentment whichhas to be focused and channelised in such a waythat the people come together, think together, plantogether, implement and evaluate their actions. Inall the stages the community has to be fully involvedand their capacity increases as a result of accessand control over resources and decision making.Therefore in community organisation the communityorganiser has to play different roles in making thepeople to be on their own, without any dependencysyndrome.

The types of settings may be have limited. But itcan be said that wherever there are people livingtogether or where like minded people or the affectedindividuals come together, they form a communitydemand their due share from the society.


In different settings depending on the needs andproblems and the social situation of the communitythe roles and strategies have to be changed. Moreover,all the roles need not be applied in all the settings.In order to adopt different roles the communityorganiser has to be very clear about the processor the steps involved in the practice of communityorganisation methods and skills and accordingly theroles can be selected and applied.

Rural area is differentiated from the urban, basedon the population size, density of population andoccupation of the people. If any area the populationis more than 5000, the density is more than 300per square kilometer and more than 75 per centof the people are engaged in agricultural activities,such areas are called rural area. Along with thesecharacteristics if the geographical location in generalis in the hills occupied by tribals it is called thetribal area. In the case of urban area the populationis more than 5000, density is more than 300 persquare kilometer and more than 75 per cent areinvolved in non-agricultural activities.

Among the people inter-personal relationship andreceptiveness is high and positive in rural and tribalareas, whereas in urban area the primary relationshipwithin the community is rather low. Organising ruraland tribal people is less difficult compared to urbanpeople.

In the institutional and non-institutional settingsthe people are organised and not organised respectively.In an institution due to the organisational structurethere is possibility to bring the people together forany common purpose, whereas in the case of non-institutional there is not structured pattern andhence it may be difficult to bring them together.


The three models of community organisation expectdifferent sets of roles. In locality development modelthe people come together to discuss and decide aboutthe improvement of an area, or locality, emphasizingthe broader participation at the local level in goaldetermination and action.

In the social planning model the people come togetherand gather pertinent facts about the problems, thendecide on a rational and feasible course of action.It is a technical process of solving social problems.Arranging and delivering goods and services to peoplewho need them. External help is more. Interestedgroup members participate. Broader participation isless.

Social action model brings the people to destroy theoppressors. Basic changes in social situations arebrought about by organising the affected segmentof the population so that they make demands onthe larger community for increased resources orbetter treatment in accordance with social justiceand democracy and redistribution of power, resourcesand decision-making.

The community organiser has to see, observe andunderstand all the settings and the models beforeresponding or making the people to respond to thesituation.

Steps of Community Organisation

Community organisation has a series of steps. Byfollowing these steps one would be able to apply thedifferent principles, methods and models of communityorganisation. The steps of community organisationare discussed in the following pages.


People/Community

1) Are they in a difficult situation?

Yes No get out and go to other locality

2) Did they express it?

Yes No make the people to realize it

3) Did they analyse the problem for itsmagnitude, symptoms and causes?

Yes No enable them toanalyse it

4) What is their level of consciousness –magic, naïve and critical?

Critical level Magic or increase the levelNaïve level of consciousness

The above first four stages or steps are the basicsteps to make the community to attain the requiredcapacity to identify, analyse and understand theneeds and problems of the community. This couldbe otherwise called as Assessment of Needsand Problems of the community. Communityorganiser has to know about the needs andproblems. At the same time he has to enablethe people to make an assessment of the needsand problems. In order to do this the communitymembers have to come forward and express theirviews for further action individually or collectively.In this process the people get empowered by


way of acquiring the skills of analysis and raisingthe levels of consciousness.

5) List the problems – All the identified needsand problems of the community are listed by thecommunity with the help of the communityorganiser. This is a process which makes thepeople to understand their own situation.Realization of the needs and problems will bringawareness about their own situation. Theinvolvement of the community in identifying thevarious needs and problems will increase theparticipation of the people. The problems in differentsettings are likely to differ and hence accordinglythe identified problems are listed.

6) Give priorities – All the needs and problemscannot be considered together for further action.Therefore all the needs and problems are analysedfor its severity, magnitude, symptoms and causesbased on which they are ordered and priorityis given to the needs and problems. The communityafter having identified the needs and problems,analyze them and give priority and the order inwhich they have to be taken up for further actions.

7) Select a problem – From the priority list mosturgent problem which needs to be taken upimmediately is selected. All the problems cannotbe approached simultaneously therefore thereis need for selecting any one problem to initiatefurther action. Based on the order of prioritythe first in the list is taken up for working outsolutions.

8) Redefine the problem – The selected problemis redefined for better understanding by thecommunity. For better planning the problem hasto be analysed and defined before taking anyfurther step in addressing the problem. Manytimes one may look at a phenomenon as a problem


by its appearance or at the peripheral level, insteadit has to be further analysed as to what is thereal problem. Does it affect the normal functioningof the community? How many people are beingaffected? How are they affected? If nothing isdone towards this how it will disturb the community?These are some of the questions by which wecan easily analyse and redefine the problem.

9) Formulate achievable objective – The redefinedproblem is converted into achievable objectiveswhich will be considered for further action. Attimes the objectives have to be split into manyparts so that they could be converted intoprogrammes and activities towards fulfilling theneeds and solving problems. Let us assume thatilliteracy is a problem in a community. It is furtheranalysed that majority of the people of the localityhave not gone to school in their childhood. Oneof the reasons for that was that there was noschool in their locality. At present a school hasbeen constructed and teachers are appointed.Now non availability of the school is not thereason for illiteracy. It is further analysed andfound that the children are not sent to the school.Though there were many children in the school-going age, the parents do not send them to theschool because the teachers are not regular onthe one hand, and on the other, when the teachersare present they do not teach the children. Inthis situation the general problem externallyappears to be illiteracy but its root cause is thedefective functioning of the school.

10) Work out the alternatives – Based on theobjectives the different ways and means are tobe found out by the community throughbrainstorming. One should not be content witha problem with one solution because it will limitthe practice of community organisation. In order


to solve the selected problem the communityhas to generate maximum number of alternativesto address the problem. Let us take the problemof illiteracy as stated in the previous stage. Howdo we solve the problem? The problem is directlyrelated to the defective functioning of the school.What are the different ways to solve this? Theconcerned teachers can be met and advised. Thedefective functioning can be brought to the noticeof the higher authorities in different ways. Thehigher authorities can be met by therepresentatives with a written representationor various alternatives may be tried. Motivatemore children to join the school, withdraw allthe children from the school, close the school,organise a protest march, organise a hunger strike,etc. There could be many such alternatives topin-point attention on the problem and initiatedirect action to solve the problems on a long-term basis.

11) Select an appropriate alternative – Among theproposed alternatives one of the best alternativesis selected for tackling the selected problem. Tosolve a problem there could be many ways butthere may be one best and suitable way or methodby which the problem could be easily solved.Such options should be selected. While selectingan alternative one has to start with softer approachand in a sequence. If the lower level approachfails apply the next one and even that one failsthen select the next one and nothing works outfinally we may resort to social action methodsand may be at times we may have to resort tostrong measures.

12) Work out a plan of action – In order to realizethe selected alternative an action plan is proposedin which the responsibilities are assigned anda tentative organisational structure is prepared.


The time frame, resources needed and personnelinvolved are decided at this stage. Supposingthe illiteracy problem of a community is to betaken up first, it may be decided to meet theauthorities and present a petition. This has tobe discussed at length in order to decide aboutthe date, time, who, how many, where etc willbe the meeting. Also at the time of meeting theauthorities who is to speak? What to speak? Howto speak etc will have to be decided early androle play and sufficient practice is done in aperfect manner in order to get the desired results.

13) Mobilization of resources – To implement theplan of action the required resources are to beassessed, identified and mobilized. The resourcesmay be in terms of time, money, manpower andmaterial. An estimate is made and the sourcesare identified for mobilization. Many times manpower resources alone may help to arrive at asolution. Therefore the community has to havea thorough understanding of the uses of manpowerdue to which people by themselves may comeforward to offer themselves for further action.Apart from this any other resources have to bemobilized internally and if it is not possible, onlythen think about getting them from externalsources.

14) Implement the plan of action – After havingmade a plan of action along with the resources,the plan is implemented. The implementationtakes care of the time and resources towardsfulfilling the fixed goals. While implementing theplan of action the involvement of the people andtheir active participation by accepting theresponsibilities has to be ensured. The peoplehave to be prepared and guided to become apartner in the problem solving process.


15) Evaluate the action – The implemented plan isevaluated to find out the success and deviationof the action against the objectives. Any shortfallor any undesired results are identified and thereasons for the deviancy are discussed. The positiveand desirable results are to be appreciated. Theevaluation can be made as an ongoing componentof working with the community. It could beorganised either at periodical level or at theend of the activity either within the organisation,by the organisational personnel or by an outsideror an expert. The task is not complete unlessthe evaluation is completed.

16) Modification – Based on the evaluation, necessarymodifications are decided and introduced. In orderto bring about a permanent solution to the selectedproblem, it is to be tackled affectively with themodifications suggested. These modifications areproposed in order to find a permanently solutionto the given problem.

17) Continuation – The modified action plan isimplemented and continued.

18) Select the next problem – Once the selectedneed is fulfilled the next problem is selectedfrom the priority list.

Characteristics of A CommunityOrganiser

Characteristics of a Good Organiser

1) Curiosity – The function of an organiser is toraise questions that agitate, and challenge theaccepted pattern. He goes forth with the questionsand suspects that there are no answers but onlyfurther questions.


2) Irreverence – Curiosity and irreverence gotogether. He is challenging, stimulating, agitating,discrediting. He stirs unrest. In other words heis creating discontentment among the people byhighlighting the given situation or making thepeople to understand the dimensions and possiblesolution of their social situation.

3) Imagination – To the organiser, imagination isnot only a mental faculty but something deeper.It ignites and feeds the force that drives himto organise for change. To realistically appraiseand anticipate the probable reactions of the resistingforces, he must be able to identify with themtoo, in his imagination, and foresee their reactionsto his action.

4) A Sense of humour – Humour is essential tosuccessful tactician, for the most potent weaponsknown to mankind are satire and ridicule. Itenables him to maintain his perspective and seehimself for what he really is and helps to havefriendly relationship with one and all.

5) An organised personality – He should be ableto accept and work with irrationalities for thepurpose of change. He should recognize that eachperson or community has a hierarchy of values.He must become sensitive to every thing thatis happening around him. He is always learningand every incident teaches him something. Hemust also accept without fear or worry that theodds are always against him and be preparedto accept both positive and negative reactions.

6) Free and open mind – He must have a flexiblepersonality, not a rigid structure that breaksdown when something unexpected happens. Theorganiser while working with the community doesnot have any hidden agenda or preconceived ideas.


7) Discerning and critical eye – The organiser shouldbe able to look at the situation and differentiateit critically. Any situation has to be viewed throughthe eyes of the people carefully and find out itsmagnitude, symptoms and causes.

8) Receptive ear – The organiser has to be a goodand an attentive listener, listening to the peopleand to their problem. The organiser while workingwith the community has to be person havingcapacity patient listening, and does not give ordersto the people.

The difference between a leader and an organiseris – the leader goes on to build power to fulfillhis desires to hold and wield the power for purposesboth social and personal. He wants power tohimself. The organiser finds his goal in creationof power for others to use.

Skills of an Effective Community Organiser

Problem Analysis – One of the major tasks of thecommunity organiser is to assist the people in arrivingat a solution to the problem. The organiser is capableof identifying the problem and making the peoplealso to identify, analyse, give priorities, select anappropriate priority, mobilize resources, make a planof action, implement, monitor, evaluate, modify andcontinue.

Resource Mobilization – Any problem of the communitywhile working out the solution requires resources.The resources may be in terms of manpower, moneymaterial and time. On the one hand the organiseris aware of the availability of the resources withinthe community or outside the community and onthe other makes the people to identify the sourcesof resources and the way to tap such resources.

Conflict Resolution – Problems of the communityinvolves the people affected by the problem and the


others who are the causes for the problem. Thereforethere could be a conflict between these two groupsor between the people and the system. The organiseris equipped with the skill for identifying the conflictingsituation and making the people to understand theconflict and then work out the ways and means tofind solutions to the conflict.

Organising Meeting – Communication within thecommunity and between the community and theorganiser is most important. There needs to betransparency in the dealings for which formal andinformal meetings have to be organised andinformation shared. The sharing of information enablessharing of responsibility and decision making.

Writing Reports – Documentation of the events forfuture reference and follow up is absolutely essential.Any communication or any written representationand the report of the dealings have to be recorded.This task is either done by the community organiseror delegated the task to some one else.

Networking – In a community while working withthe people the participation of the people strengthensor increases the power of the people. At times supportfrom like minded people or organisation has to elicitedso that a pressure is built against the oppressiveforce. This helps to create pressure and increasethe bargaining power for which networking with otherpeople and organisations is done by the communityorganiser.

Training – Capacity building of the people and thepersonnel of an organisation is important while workingwith the community. In the process of capacity buildingthe community organiser has to be a good trainer.The community organiser has to use his trainingability and skills in this regard.


Roles of Community Organiser

Community organiser having the requiredcharacteristics and skills and the knowledge aboutthe process and steps of community organisation,will be able to apply the same in different settingsby playing appropriate roles. The different roles ofa community organiser are discussed here. Theseroles are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive.

1) Communicator – The community organisertransfers or transmits information, thought,knowledge etc. to the members of the community.Sharing of information enables the communityto be better prepared and empowered withinformation. The communication between theorganiser and the community and within thecommunity is essential. The people have to beprepared and informed about the various effectsor consequences of the community organisationprocess. The communication takes place byindividual contact, group meetings, groupdiscussions, public meetings etc.

At times the community organiser takes an upperhand and considers that the people are illiterateand ignorant and hence the dealings with thepeople become a master slave relationship. Inorder to avoid any such undesired relationshipthe community organiser has transparency andcommunicates with the people. The communicationenables better interaction which leads to a healthyrelationship and cooperation for further actionand response.

The community organiser in order to disseminatethe information to the people can use differenttechniques like skit, role plays, street plays andaudio and vides shows. The organiser can trainthe people in all these communicative techniques.It will be more effective if he is able to organise


the small children and train them in this regard.The children are an effective communicativechannel and a fast growing channel.

The local groups like women’s group, youth groupsare other channels for communication. By givingthe responsibility to such groups to communicateto all other members in the community, willalso be helpful in reaching out the whole community.There should not be any secrecy or suppressionof information which would only create undesiredresults.

2) Enabler – The community organiser facilitatesthe process in the community for a change. Hedoes not carry out any work by himself but heenables the community to do the work. Theorganiser gives importance to the process thanthe product. Therefore the people learn the processrather than get worried about the results orconsequences of the process. By the role of enablerthe organiser would create independence amongthe people by which they avoid the dependencysyndrome.

The community organiser is present with thepeople and encourages and gives differentsuggestions so that the people are able to decidewhat they would like to do and how they wouldlike to do. The community organiser only initiatesthe process and people have to follow and at thetime of difficulties they refer back to the communityorganiser. Therefore the role of the communityorganiser is to make the people to understandthe process and fully participate so that theyare ready to stand on their own.

3) Animator – In any process of communityorganisation the organiser encourages, providesdirection and guidelines to proceed in carryingout different activities. Many people because of


their culture, tend to depend on others and donot want to decide anything on their own. Insuch situation the organiser as an animator helpsthe people to come forward and have activeparticipation. Any further corrections ormodifications in the works of the community arebeing done by the animator. The animator playsa vital role in eliciting the active participationof the people from planning till evaluation, especiallyensuring involvement of people in all the dealingsof the issues and problems.

The people in general do not want to take anyrisk and at times they do not even want to doanything for common good. One of the reasonscould be that the people have the attitude ofculture of poverty or culture of silence. Thiscould be changed by the community organiserby pricking or tickling the conscience of the peoplethrough raising questions. This would furtherenable them increase their level of consciousness.

4) Guide – The community organiser instead of doinganything on his own guides the members of thecommunity in the process of communityorganisation. The community organiser is not aperson to shoulder the responsibility or solveproblems of the people. Instead he has to makethe people to respond for which the organiserprovides the various avenues and shows differentroutes while dealing with the community problems.As a guide, the organiser provides the neededinformation. He has to be a person with lots ofinformation and ideas. For example in a communitythere are many educated unemployed youth andtheir presence in the community is consideredmore of nuisance than as a human resource.In such a situation the community organisershould be able to provide information about thevarious employment opportunities, and different


ways to become self-employed, the terms andconditions for availing credit from the creditinstitutions etc. have to be told to the youth.Once the community organiser is able to provideinformation which is useful to the people, theyouth from the neighbouring areas may alsoapproach in getting some guidance from thecommunity organiser. This would surely fetchcredit to the community organiser as well ashelps gain the goodwill of the people.

5) Counsellor – The community organiser understandsthe community and enables the community tounderstand itself. At the time of difficulty theindividuals or the groups are given the requiredcounselling to help them proceed in the correctdirection. One of the very basic dimensions ofcounselling is to be a patient listener. Usuallyevery one likes others to listen to them andhesitate to listen to others. Moreover as a counsellorhe has to step into the shoes of others, understandand respond. People when they are in trouble,what they need most is that there should besome one to listen to them. When people approachwith a problem there should be someone to attendto. In all such situations the community organisercan easily step in as a counsellor for helpingthe people.

6) Collaborator – The community organiser joinshands in performing his task with his colleagueswith other like minded people and organisations.The organiser has to have interpersonalsrelationships and public relations skills. Nowadaysorganisations approach a problem not with theirpersonal capacity as they also depend uponneighbouring organisation. Similarly otherorganisations may also look for cooperation andcollaboration with different organisations. Thereare also organisation working towards a similar


problem, wherein a collaborative effort willstrengthen both the organisations. Therefore therole of collaborator is very much needed fornetworking with similar and like mindedorganisations working for a common cause.

7) Consultant – The community organiser enjoysthe confidence of the people and advises themin matters of vital interest. The communityorganiser becomes a person with knowledge andinformation which is being shared with the people.As a consultant the community organiser makeshimself available to the people who are in need,because the community organiser has informationand expertise which could be availed of by thosewho are in need of it. The community organiserinstead of working in the field in one area, willbe able to contribute his expertise through manyindividuals and groups by performing the role ofa consultant.

8) Innovator – The community organiser innovates,performs, and improves upon the techniques,through in the process of community organisation.This gives a lead to the people of the communityand enables them to try out new ways and meansto find solutions to their needs and problems.The community organisation should not be merelyfor solving problem. On the other hand it hasto function in the areas of capacity building ofthe individuals and community where the organisercan be an innovator by introducing new waysto improve the capacity of the people. Communityorganiser is not a person to maintain the systemthat exists, but he should be a person to introducenew ways and means to climb up the developmentladder.

9) Model – The community organiser commandsperfection as a community organiser and servesas a source of inspiration. The role of the organiser


is to become an example while working with thepeople. This should further become a model whichcould be applied in other areas with similarproblems. By proper planning in approaching aproblem and executing the plan and documentingthe whole process will be of great help to others.The problem solving process becomes a modelto others.

10) Motivator – The community organiser stimulatesand sustains active interest among the peoplefor reaching a solution to the needs and problems.The community organiser encourages thecommunity to take up a minor task and completeit successfully which would enable the peopleto take up more difficult tasks. In such a processthe people at times may not take any initiativeor content to live with the existing situation.Therefore the organiser motivates the people bymaking them observe, analyse, understand andrespond to the situation. When people arediscouraged because they were not able to achievewhat they wanted or there is resistance andopposition in such situations the organiser playsthe role of a motivator to help them continueefforts in spite of difficulties.

11) Catalyst – In the process of community organisationthe community organiser retains his identity,at the same time enables the people to beempowered. The people gain accessibility andcontrol over resources and acquire skills in decisionmaking. The community organiser acceleratesthe actions and reactions so that people areable to achieve the desired results. As a catalystthe organiser is able to increase the responselevel of the people. The catalyst role furtherenables the people to become independent andbecome expert in responding to their own needs.


12) Advocate – The role of the advocate is to arepresent or persuade the members of thecommunity and prepare them to be arepresentatives so as to represent the issues tothe concerned authorities to bring about solutionto the unmet needs. The advocacy role is animportant one in the present context. The needsand problems of the people have to be representedand the required support and networking obtainedin order to increase the pressure on the oppressiveforces. In the role of advocate the communityorganiser champions the rights of others. Thecommunity organiser speaks on behalf of thecommunity when community is unable to do so,or when community speaks but no one listens.The advocate represents the interests of thecommunity to gain access or services or to improvethe quality of services which may be hamperedby other forces. An advocate argues, debates,bargains, negotiates, and confronts the evil doerson behalf of the community.

13) Facilitator – The community organiser helps thecommunity to articulate their needs, clarify andidentify their problems, explore appropriatestrategies, select and apply intervention strategies,and develop the people’s capacities to deal withtheir own problems more effectively. A facilitatorprovides support, encouragement, and suggestionsto the community so that they may proceed moreeasily and skillfully in completing tasks or solvingproblem. A facilitator assists the community tofind coping strategies, strengths and resourcesto produce changes necessary for realizing goalsand objectives. A facilitator helps client systemsto alter their environment.

14) Mediator – The community organiser intervenesin disputes between parties to help them findcompromises, reconcile differences, or reach


mutually satisfying agreements. The mediatortakes a neutral stance between the involved parties.A mediator is involved in resolving disputes betweenmembers or between the community and otherpersons in the broader environment.

15) Educator – The community organiser as educatorconveys information to the community and thosein the broader environment. Organiser providesinformation necessary for coping with problemsituations, assists the community in practicingnew behaviour patterns or skills, and teachesthrough presentation of role models. Thecommunity organiser provides informationnecessary for decision making.

Community organisation is a macro method insocial work. The community organiser with therequired qualities and skills will be able to workwith the people. While working with the peopleof different background or from differentgeographical set up the different roles can beapplied. All the roles need not be, or cannot be,applied in all the settings or in dealing with allthe problems. Moreover there is no one role whichis superior or inferior and while dealing withany problem the organiser has to play more thanone role. Therefore depending upon the situationand the needs and problems of the communityappropriate role has to be applied.

Conclusion

This chapter has described the settings in whichcommunity organisation can be applied and the skillsand characteristics of a community organiser. Thecommunity organisation process involves thecommunity in taking the initiative in identifying,analyzing, selecting the different needs and problemsof the community. The community also identifies


the needed resources and works out the plan ofaction, implements, evaluates and continues withthe next priority areas. In the process of communityorganisation the organiser plays different roles likecommunicator, counsellor, consultant, motivator,innovator, guide, advocate etc. in different settingsdepending on the situation and needs and problemsin the area.

References

Cox, F.M., et.al. (1987), (Fourth Editions) Strategiesof Community Organisation, Illinois : Peacock Publishers.

Gangrade, K.D. (1971), Community Organisation in India,Bombay, Prakashan.

Kramer, Ralph M & Harry Specht (1975), Readingsin Community Organisation Practice, New Jersey: PrinticeHall Inc.

Ross, M.G. (1955), Community Organisation, Harperand Row Publishers, New York.


6

Social Welfare Administration:Concept, Nature and Scope

* Ramesh Bharadwaj

Introduction

In early times, social welfare functions were performedby a few individuals or groups of individuals motivatedby compassion and concern for the poor, the needyand the destitute. These people were laymen, embodiedwith the qualities of humanism and selfless serviceto the community. But in modern times, most ofthe countries have adopted the concept of a welfarestate instead of a police state. The Encyclopaediaof Social Sciences describes a welfare state as astate which takes up the responsibility to providea minimum standard of subsistence to its citizens.Prof. Kent remarked that by a welfare state wemean a state which provides extensive services tothe people. Thus, in a welfare state, the administrationenters into economic, political, social and educationallife of individuals. And it provides services toindividuals, right from an individual’s birth to death.The state is to serve the old, sick, orphans, widows,helpless, oppressed and the disabled people wheneverthey are in need of services.

In the context of the present day social problems,the size of welfare services provided by an increasinglylarge number of organisations make administrationvery important. Social welfare services, schemes,projects and programmes, are becoming increasinglycomplex. Since it is no longer accepted that anynormally intelligent person with good intentions can

* Dr. Ramesh Bharadwaj, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra

Social Welfare Administration: Concept, Nature and Scope 105

administer the welfare work, a sound administrationis vital. It is increasingly realised that social welfareprogrammes require qualified and trained social welfarepersonnel to perform social welfare functions efficiently.So it is argued that for serving the people effectivelyit is necessary to professionalise, as professionalisationcan increase the ability of social welfare personnelto solve the pressing social problems confrontingour society.

Administration

Before discussing the meaning of social welfareadministration, it is necessary to know the meaningof the term administration. Administration is a co-operative human effort towards achieving some commongoals. Thus every group activity involves administration,whether in a family, factory, hospital, university,or a government department. Whenever two or morepeople cooperate in view of doing a thing that cannotbe taken up alone, the concept of administrationappear.

The word administration has been derived from theLatin words ‘ad’ and ‘ministrate’ which means toserve. In simple language, it means the ‘managementof affairs’ or ‘looking after the people’. To administeris to manage, direct and serve.

L.D. White (1948) views that “the art of administrationis the direction, coordination and control of manypersons to achieve some purpose or objective.”

E.A. Nigro (1951) defines “administration as theorganisation and use of men and materials toaccomplish a purpose.”

According to Herbert A. Simon (1960) “In its broadestsense, administration can be defined as the activitiesof groups co-operative to accomplish common goals.”


Pfiffner defines “administration as the organisationand direction of human and material resources toachieve desired ends.”

Thus, it is clear from above definitions thatadministration is concerned with proper organisationof men and material to achieve desired ends. Itconsists of doing the work or getting the work doneby others.

Social Administration

To achieve the aims and objectives of social welfare,the government formulates social policies andprogrammes and in pursuance thereof enacts sociallegislation, allocates financial assistance and providesorganisational and administrative linkages in theform of ministries and departments. It also seeksthe partnership of non-governmental organisationsfor the effective implementation of various socialwelfare programmes. Administration of all theseactivities being undertaken in the sphere of socialservices and social welfare is considered as fallingin the realm of social welfare administration.

According to Richard M. Titmus, 1948, “Socialadministration may broadly be defined as the studyof social services whose object is the improvementof conditions of life of the individual in the settingof family and group relations.”

D.V. Donnison, 1961 defines social administration“as the study of development, structure and practicesof social services.”

According to Forder (1974) “Social administration isconcerned with study of the welfare system, andparticularly the government sponsored social services”.

Thus, social administration is concerned with thestudy of welfare system of government’s sponsoredsocial services.


Definitional Issues: Social Welfareand Its Related Concepts

A number of terms are used in social welfare withsubtle differences in their meanings. Some of theimportant terms are explained as follows.

Social Service: ‘Helping the helpless’ is social service.It is service rendered to any person on the basisof desire to serve which is inspired by the feelingof helping others. Thus the term ‘social service’ isused to denote help given by a volunteer to anindividual or group at the time of need or to enhancethe welfare of individual or the community throughpersonal efforts or by collective action. Social servicedoes not require training in social work or skill inprofessional techniques.

In the Indian context social services are those services,which are provided on an extensive scale to theneedy population; they serve to meet the basic needsof the people and include such services as health,education, housing etc. Providing drinking water duringsummer, helping the blind to cross a road, rescuingpeople from a house under fire, donate blood etc.are some of the examples of social service.

Social Welfare Services: Thus social services arethe services, meant for the normal population.Whereas, social welfare services are designed forthe weaker sections of society or services for particulargroups of people. The aim of social services on theother hand is to enhance human quality of resourcesin general. Social welfare services are also enablingservices provided to the weaker sections of thecommunity so as to help them to reach the mainstream of society. Thus both these services aresupplementary and complementary to each other.

Social Security: Social security is the security thatsociety furnishes through provision of appropriate


services against violation of certain rights to whichits members are exposed. These risks are essentiallycontingencies of life which the individuals of smallmeans cannot effectively provide for by their ownability or foresight alone or even with the helps oftheir fellow human beings.

Thus, social security is an effort on the part of thestate or the employer or any other related agency,to provide an individual all possible helpduring periods of physical distress or illness or injuryand also at the time of economic distress causeddue to reduction or loss of earning on account ofsickness, disablement, maternity, unemployment,old age or death of the employee.

The work of social security is done through socialassistance, social insurance, health and social welfareservices etc. Thus social security is a wider conceptof social welfare.

Social Work: ‘Help the helpless to help themselves’.Social work is a method or process based on scientificknowledge and skill to assist the individuals, groupand communities, with the view to enhance theirsocial functioning to grow in accordance with theirknowledge, capacities and capabilities. Therefore,social welfare has been used as an end and socialwork, as a means for the provision of social welfare.

Social Welfare: Social welfare is an organised systemof social services and institutions, designed to aidindividuals and groups, to attain satisfying standardsof life and health. Social welfare therefore, aimsat providing services to weaker sections of thepopulation who because of various handicaps suchas physical, mental, economic and social, are unableto make use of social services provided by societyor have been traditionally deprived of these services.


According to Wayne Vasey (1958) social welfareincluded two main characteristics:

� The utilisation of welfare measures to supportor strengthen the family as a basic social institutionthrough which needs are met; and

� The intent to strengthen the individuals’ capacityto cope with their life situation.

The provision of social welfare includes services forchildren, youth, women, aged, scheduled castes,scheduled tribes, other backward classes, minorities,disabled, drug addicts, and economically under-privileged such as destitute and unemployed. Socialwelfare programmes are, therefore, directed toameliorate their conditions. Therefore, it requiresproper administration.

Social Welfare Administration

Social welfare administration is a process throughwhich social policy is transformed into social services.It involves the administration of public and privateagencies. The following definitions are given toelaborate the meaning of social welfare administration.

John C. Kidneigh (1950) defines social welfareadministration as the “process of transforming socialpolicy into social services… a two way process: (i)…transforming policy into concrete social services and(ii) the use of experience in recommending modificationof policy. This definition, of course, encompassesthe idea that administration is the process oftransforming policies into action programmes.

According to Walter A. Friedlander (1958)‘administration of social agencies translates theprovisions of social legislation of social agenciesand the aims of private philanthropy and religiouscharities into the dynamics of services and benefitsfor humanity.


According to Arthur Dunham (1962), “administrationis the process of supporting or facilitating activitieswhich are necessary and incidental to services bya social agency. Administrative activities range fromthe determination of function and policies, andexecutive leadership to routine operations such askeeping records and accounts and carrying onmaintenance of services.

Harleigh Tracker (1971) interprets social welfareadministration as a “process of working with peoplein ways that release and relate their energies sothat they use all available resources to accomplishthe purpose of providing needed community servicesand programmes.”

The American Council of Social Work Education inits curriculum study, has given a comprehensivedefinition of social welfare administration. It contains,“Administration is the process of transformingcommunity resources into a programme of communityservice, in accordance with goals, policies andstandards which has been agreed by those involvedin the enterprise. It is creative in that it structuresroles and relationships in such a way as to alterand enhance the total product. It involves the problemsolving process of study, diagnosis and treatment”.

Therefore, on the basis of above definitions, we findthat it is a process which includes definite knowledge,understanding, principles and ways of interaction.Its main focus is on the suitability and accessibilityof social services to the needy. Social work enablesthe process of administration through guidance,planning, stimulation, organisation, creating structure,coordinating and research. To fulfil the well definedmain objectives of administration, policies are suitablyamended; programmes are formulated and budget,finance, personnel and selection procedures are made:


Rosemary Sarri (1971) has outlined the activitiesof social welfare administration as follows:

i) Translation of social mandates into operationalpolicies and goals to guide organisational behaviour;

ii ) Design of organisational structures and processesthrough which the goals can be achieved;

iii) Securing of resources in the form of materials,staff, clients and societal legitimation necessaryfor goal attainment and organisational survival;

iv) Selection and engineering of the necessarytechnology;

v) Optimizing organisational behaviour directedtowards increased effectiveness and efficiency;and

vi) Evaluation of organisational performance tofacilitate systematic and continuous solution ofproblems.

Features of Social WelfareAdministration

Although the concept of administration is applicablein a broader sense to areas including social welfare,business and government, there are certain distinctivefeatures of social welfare administration. A summaryof features highlighting distinctiveness of social welfareadministration is given below:

� It is concerned with social agencies and helpsthem to achieve their objectives within targetcommunity. It is specifically concerned withidentification of social objectives and formulation/implementation of programmes.

� From functional point of view, it encompassesthree facets of social problems: (i) Restoration


of impaired social functioning; (ii) Provision ofresources, social and individual, for more effectivesocial functioning; (iii) Prevention of socialdysfunction.

� Despite variations in size, scope, structure andtype of programmes, every agency has a governingboard as an apex body for final decision making.The board is generally represented by thecommunity it intends to serve.

� Social welfare administration requires optimumutilization of its available resources together withactive community participation, so that the ultimategoal of programmes can be achieved properly.

� Social welfare agencies have to earmark certainportion of their resources for survival. But thisshould not limit their capacity to achieve inquantitative and qualitative terms.

� Social welfare agencies generally function in aco-operative manner and ensure participation ofall the members in administration of theiractivities.

� There is a growing trend in these agencies torecruit professionally qualified manpower. It hashelped in introducing professional approach intheir functioning.

History of Social WelfareAdministration In India

Mutual aid has been part of every society. The desireto help one’s fellowmen has been in existence fromtime immemorial but the forms and methods of helphave been varying from society to society, dependingupon the social, economic and political factors.

Indian traditional view of social welfare is basedon daya, dana, dakshina, bhiksha, samya-bhava,


swadharma and tyaga, the essence of which are self-discipline, self-sacrifice and consideration for others.Well-being of all depend on these values upheld bypeople individually and through community action.All the religions enjoined upon their devotees toput aside a portion of their income to be utilisedfor charitable purposes as that would grant themhappiness in this world and salvation in the nextworld. The rulers of those days extended help tothe afflicted part of the population during emergencieslike floods, earthquakes, fires, droughts and othernatural calamities etc.

From the administrative angle, in India, the reignsof king Ashoka, Harsha, Chandra Gupta Maurya,Akbar, Sher Shah Suri and Feroze Tuglak, are thelandmarks of administration who took care of thesocial needs of the people. The British Governmentalso established an administrative set-up intendedmainly for maintaining law and order. Some socialreform measures were taken up by banning Satiand permitting widow remarriage by Acts passed in1829 and 1856 respectively.

After independence, the old administrative patternwas more or less continued with necessary changesto suit the social, political and economic set-up evolved.In the field of social welfare, during the First FiveYear Plan, government of India created a uniqueadministrative machinery consisting of an autonomousboard named CSWB (Central Social Welfare Board)in August 1953. Similarly, Social Welfare AdvisoryBoards were established at state level. The mainpurpose of the Board (CSWB) has been to providefinancial and technical assistance to voluntaryorganisations working in the field of social welfare.

If we look at the history of administrative organisation,we find that before 1964 social welfare programmeswere being managed by different ministries such


as education, home, industries, health, labour etc.The Renuka Ray Committee in its report submittedin 1960, recommended the establishment of theDepartment of Social Security. Under the PrimeMinistership of Lal Bahadur Shastri, a Social SecurityDepartment was established and located in the Ministryof Law on 14th June 1964. Subjects, namely, socialsecurity, social welfare, backward classes and khadiand handicrafts were allocated to the Departmentof Social Security. In 1966, it was renamed as SocialWelfare Department. It was located in the Ministryof Education and Social Welfare created in 1971.Its status was raised to a ministry in the year 1979.Its name was further changed to the Ministry ofSocial and Women Welfare in 1984. With the creationof a separate Department of Women and ChildDevelopment in the Ministry of Human ResourceDevelopment, it was reorganised and its nomenclaturewas changed to the Ministry of Welfare in 1985 andsubsequently it was renamed as the Ministry ofSocial Justice and Empowerment.

Thus, the Central government has set up a full-fledged ministry and organisations subordinate toit, like National Commission for Scheduled Castes/Tribes, Minorities Commission, National Institute ofSocial Defence, National Institute for the Handicapped,Department of Women and Child Development, CentralSocial Welfare Board, National Institute of PublicCo-operation and Child Development etc. under itsadministrative control.

Besides the execution of social welfare projects,schemes and programmes sponsored and financedwholly or partly by the Central government; thestate governments and union territory administrationsformulate and implement welfare service programmeson their own in their respective jurisdictions. Thestate government/union territories administrationscarry out their welfare obligations and programmes


mainly through their Department of Social Welfareand voluntary organisations. In most of the statesthere is now either a full-time Secretary for socialwelfare or it is one of the main portfolios of a secretary.Thus social welfare schemes are still spread overmore than one department/directorate. The patternof implementation of some of the schemes, like oldage pension, widow pension, and supplementarynutrition programmes also varies from state to state.Though most of the states now have district socialwelfare officers, there is no social welfare functionaryat block level.

Nature of Social Welfare Administration

The question whether social welfare administrationis science or art, has assumed much importancewith passage of time. There are conflicting viewsand opinions on this issue and each appears to bejustified in its own way. Social welfare lends itselfto two usages. It stands for the process of administeringthe social welfare programmes. It is also an areaof intellectual enquiry. The first is practice, thesecond is study. As a practice social welfareadministration is decidedly an art.

Social Welfare Administration as an Art

The following arguments have been given to supportthat social welfare administration is an art.

i) It can be acquired: No doubt art is a naturalgift. Music, dance, drama or painting are theexamples of this category of art. But naturalgifts can find their best expression by propertraining, without which even the best artistswill die unknown. On the other hand a carpentermaking furniture out of wood and a goldsmithshaping gold ornaments are also the examplesof art. It is so because they possess the followingelements:


a) personal skills;

b) practical know-how;

c) result orientation;

d) creativity; and

e ) constant practice aimed at perfection.

Similarly, the art of social welfare administrationcan be acquired. Talented persons become thebest administrators under proper training. Thusso far acquisition is concerned social welfareadministration is also like other arts.

ii ) It is subjective in nature: A painter contributesto art by mixing colours. A sculptor performs hisjob with the aid chisel and hammer. A socialwelfare administrator with the application ofknowledge and skill can make wonders bycombining and bringing together available humanand material resources to change the very fateof the nation. Today success of every welfareprogramme depends on how a social welfareadministrator performs the job.

iii) Practical application of knowledge: Art is thepractical application of systematic knowledge. Itis not merely theory but putting that into practice.Similarly, social welfare administration is notmerely theory but it is application also. And thebest knowledge can be gained by practice alone.

Social Welfare Administration as a Science

Science is a systematic study of knowledge. Thosewho believe that social welfare administration is ascience point out that there are certain specificand clear principles on which day to day administrationof social welfare programmes is being run andmanaged. They also argue that these


principles are based on sound and rational principles,which are also considered universal.

The following arguments have been put forward tojustify that social welfare administration is a science:

� Application of Scientific Method: The claim ofa discipline to be called a science depends onwhether the scientific method of study is applicableto it. Social welfare administration can be calleda science, because the scientific method of studyequally is applicable to it, as in the case ofother social sciences.

� Critical Examination: Critical examination andstudy of evidence is the prime requisite of anyscientific study. This is possible in social welfareadministration also.

� Universal Guidelines: Universal principles of socialwelfare administration also provide the colouringof science. Even if we can not use all theguidelines in a similar manner, these guidelinescertainly helps the administrator in properimplementation of social welfare programmes.

However, the nature of social welfareadministration as a science has been criticizedon the basis of lack of experimentation, andobjectivity. Thus it is not an exact science, butis a science in its own way. It is also an art,because it is connected not only with formulationof general principles of social welfare programmesbut also with the actual running of theadministration of social welfare programmes.

Scope of Social Welfare Administration

There are broadly two views about the scope of socialwelfare administration. These are:


i) The POSDCoRB view

ii) The Integral view.

The POSDCoRB View of Social Welfare Administration

This is a narrow view of social welfare administrationand takes into account mostly the execution of thegovernment’s sponsored programmes. In other wordsthis view corresponds with the managerial view.Henri Fayol, L. Urwick, Fercey M. Ovean and LutherGulick are advocates of this view.

According to Henry Fayol the main categories ofadministration are: (i) Organisation (ii) Command,(iii) Coordination, and (iv) Control. L. Urwick alsoagrees with Fayol’s views.

P.M. Queen says that the study of administrationdeals with ‘men, material and methods’. L. Gulickhas given a magic formula in a word ‘POSDCoRB’with each letter describing one technique. Gulick’sapproach is ‘technique-oriented’ rather than ‘subject-oriented’. These letters stand for:

P Planning

O Organising

S Staffing

D Directing

Co Coordinating

R Reporting

B Budgeting

Planning: Planning means working out broad outlineof the things that need to be done and the methodto be adopted to accomplish the purpose set for theenterprise.


Organisation: It is the establishment of the formalstructure of authority through which the work issub-divided, arranged, defined and coordinated forthe defined objective.

Staffing: Staffing is the process of filling all positionsin the organisation with adequate and qualifiedpersonnel. Thus it means whole personnel, bringingin and training the staff and maintenance of favourablecondition of work.

Directing: It is the continuous task of making decisionsand embodying them in specific and general ordersand instructions and thus guiding the enterprise.

Coordinating: It means integration of several partsinto an orderly whole to achieve the purpose of theundertaking. In other words, coordinating meansthe all important duty of inter-relating the work ofvarious divisions, sections and other parts of theundertaking.

Reporting: It is keeping those people informed towhom the executive is responsible about what isgoing on. In other words reporting means keepingboth the supervisors and subordinates informed ofwhat is going on and arranging for collection ofsuch information through inspection, research andrecords.

Budgeting: It is all that goes with budgeting in theform of fiscal planning, accounting and control.

POSDCoRB activities are common to all large scaleorganisations. They are the common problems ofmanagement found in the different agencies,regardless of the peculiar nature of the work theydo. Like public administration, social welfareadministration is also an instrument with two bladesof a scissor. One blade is knowledge of the subjectmatter and the other is the techniques that are


applied. Both blades must be good to make it aneffective tool. Thus, the proper scope of social welfareadministration should include both the views i.e.POSDCoRB and subject matter.

The Integral View of Social Welfare Administration

Another view of the scope of social welfareadministration has come into vogue during the lastfew years. Due to emergence of new social problems,the subject matter of Social Welfare Administrationis expanding day by day. The already overburdenedadministrative machinery of the government itself,not being able to successfully tackle these problems,involves various non-governmental organisations forthis purpose. Therefore, this view incorporates notonly the subject matter of social welfare administrationbut the implementation aspect as well, which isprimarily the focus of POSDCoRB view.

The scope of social welfare administration is quitediverse in nature. With the emergence of new socialproblems of entirely different nature, a new strategyneeds to be evolved for their solution. It may requireoptimum utilisation of available resources e.g. human,institutional, financial, technological etc. in a changingcontext. The social welfare administration incorporatesa number of factors that are significant in the entireprocess of successful solution of social problems.

A brief description of these factors (D.R. Sachdeva1992) is given below:

Contents of social welfare administration: Socialwelfare is concerned with –

* Social Problems : Assessment of its causes,prevention and treatmentthrough public participationand effectiveimplementation of sociallegislation.


* Social Services : Social services are meantfor general public throughprovision of health,education, housing etc.and make them moreeffective for the upliftmentof disadvantaged andvulnerable sections ofsociety.

* Social Security : To make and implementeffective social assistanceand social insuranceprovisions. It aims tocompensate for the loss ofincome due tounemployment, disability ordeath caused by accidentand old age through socialinsurance and socialassistance.

* Social Policy : To make effective socialpolicy for the welfare ofunderprivileged sections ofthe society, to achievethe goals of welfare statethrough social action.

Interdisciplinary Nature

Social welfare administration requires theinterdisciplinary knowledge and constant interactionwith other social sciences to know the human beingin totality, such as philosophy, psychology, sociology,political science and economics to solve their problemsin appropriate manner.

Administrative Structure

Social welfare administrator needs to understandthe organisational and administrative structure of


social welfare programme at each and every levelof implementing organisation. Similarly, it is alsoimportant to know the role and set up of non-governmental organisations for effectively carryingout their functions.

Financial Administration

Since the scope of social welfare and social securityis increasing day by day and more and more peopleare coming under the coverage of these programmes,the need for additional financial support increases.In order to make out proper and effective budgetingof such programme, the knowledge of financialadministration is highly essential. Therefore,professionals engaged in social welfare administrationmust be trained in the techniques and principlesof financial administration.

Human Resource Management

In order to provide effective social welfare servicesto the needy and suffering, it is essential to havecommitted, trained and motivated social welfarefunctionaries at different levels. Therefore socialwelfare administration requires proper knowledgeof human resource management which includesknowledge about recruitment policies, job classification,training and development, staff evaluation,advancement and transfer etc. for effectiveimplementation of social services.

Public Relations and Participation

The social welfare administrators needs to be cognizantof the importance of public relations with regardto both their own agency and its services, and thecommunity as a whole. The welfare administratorsmust be conversant to utilise mass media, such asTV, radio, newspaper, brochures, books and personal


contacts, to interpret their agencies’ programmesto the public and reaching community members. Itis also required to get associated with the governmentand non-governmental agencies working in the field,the people or the beneficiaries, whose co-operationand support will add to the effective planning,formulation and implementation of policies andprogrammes intended for their welfare.

To Conduct Research and Evaluation Studies

Effective research and evaluation studies provideuseful feedback on the impact of on-going projectsand about the different dimensions of existing socialproblems. Research also facilitates effective planning,policy formulation and implementation of programmes.

Social Welfare Administration As AProfession

Before answering the question whether social welfareadministration is a profession or not, one must knowthe essential features of a profession and determinehow far these features are found in social welfareadministration. In general, people do not raise objectionwhen a doctor is called as medical professional,teaching as a profession or for that matter law asprofession. The simple dictionary meaning of professionindicates one who has acquired specialised knowledgewhich is used for instructing, guiding or advisingothers. An operational definition of profession maybe given as follows:

Profession is an occupation for which specialisedknowledge, skills and training are required and theuse of these skills is not meant for self-satisfactionbut are used for larger interests of the society and thesuccess of these skills is measured not in terms of moneyalone.


Thus all professions are occupations in the sensethat they provide means of livelihood. However, alloccupations are not professions because some ofthem lack certain characteristics of a profession.The various characteristics of a profession can bementioned as:

� Existence of an organised and systematised bodyof knowledge;

� Formal method of acquisition of knowledge;

� Existence of an association with professionalisationas its goals;

� Formulation of ethical goals; and

� Service motto.

Let us discuss the extent to which all thesecharacteristics are found in social welfareadministration to determine whether it is a professionor not.

Existence of Knowledge

Social welfare administration has developed a distinctbody of knowledge, in response to the need for managingthe emergence of complex social problems in a betterway. In India, almost all courses of social workoffer a course on social welfare administration tothe students. Thus, it satisfies the requirement ofa profession in the form of existence of knowledge.However, the social welfare administration is stillevolving and new guidelines are being developedthough this does not affect its status as being aprofession.


Acquisition of Knowledge

An individual can enter a profession only afteracquiring knowledge and require skills through formaltraining. For example, only the formally trainedpersons can enter the professions of law, engineeringor medicine. Thus social welfare administration maybe called a profession because schools of social workand schools of public administration provide trainingin this discipline.

Professional Association

An occupation which claims to be a profession shouldhave an association. Such a representative body ofprofessionals regulate and develop the profession’sactivities. The professional associations may alsoprescribe the standards for individuals who wantto enter the profession. But we are still strugglingfor an apex body which would regulate the termsand conditions for Social Welfare Administration likeBar Council of India etc.

Ethical Code

Every profession have a code of ethics. Codes provideproper guidance when the situation at hand is achoice between a good and a bad decision. Thuscode of ethics serves several functions for a profession,including guiding, decision making, assessingcompetence, regulating behaviour and evaluating theprofession. In social welfare administration, the codeof ethics provides a guide for professional roles andrelationships at various levels of responsibility inrelation to clients, colleagues, employers, employingorganisations and the society. Therefore, the socialwelfare administration is a profession and its codeof ethics is based on the fundamental values of thesocial work profession that includes the worth, dignityand uniqueness of all persons as well as their rightsand opportunities.


Service Motto

In modern times, all human activities are concernedwith money. But in a profession, an effort is madeto see that service motto should prevail over monetaryconsiderations. Professionals should keep socialinterest in their mind while charging fees for theirprofessional services. For example, a doctor helpsthe patient, not only to charge fee, but also to servehumanity in the process. A lawyer helps the client,not to charge the fee only but to provide justiceto the client. Similarly, a social welfare administratoradministers the social welfare programmes, not onlyfor money and personal satisfaction but use his/her knowledge and skills to serve the larger interestof the society.

Thus, on the basis of the above discussion, it canbe said summarized that social welfare administrationis yet to achieve the status of a profession. To becomean independent profession, it requires to attain socialsanction, professional commitment, governmentalapproval, a professional association to regulate theprofession and involvement of trained personnel inthe field of welfare administration, instead ofbureaucrats.

Conclusion

This chapter has been designed to provide a basicunderstanding of social welfare administration:concept, nature and scope. We have presented anumber of definitions of administration, socialadministration, social welfare and its related conceptsfor basic understanding. We have analysed the meaningand features of social welfare administration. Wehave discussed nature and scope of social welfareadministration in a comprehensive manner andexamined whether social welfare administration isa profession or not? We have also examined the


need of professionals/trained administrators in theimplementation of social welfare programmes.

References

Devi, Rameshwari and Parkash Ravi (1998), “SocialWork and Social Welfare Administration, Methods andPractices”, Vol. I, Mangal Deep Publications, Jaipur.

Skidmore, Rex A. (1983), “Social Welfare Administration:Dynamic Management and Human Relations”, PrenticeHall Inc. London.

Schatz, Harry A. ed. (1970), “Social Work Administration:A Resource Book.” Council on Social Work Education,New York.

Slavin, Simon ed. (1978), “Social Administration: TheManagement of the Social Services”, The Heworth Pressand Council on Social Work Education.


7

Types and Purpose of SocialService Organisations

* C.P. Mathew

IntroductionA ‘Service’ is termed as ‘Social’ if its aim is theenhancement of the welfare of the individual orthe community either through personal effort or bycollective action. Social Services are, therefore,conceived as organised philanthropic actions to promotehuman welfare. However, social services areinterpreted differently in different countries. It isrestricted to relief services only among the Europeancountries, whereas in Great Britain and CommonwealthCountries it has a wider meaning and includes health,education, housing welfare etc. In India, Social Servicesare generally understood as those activities whichare meant for furthering the people’s welfare andthese include education, public health activities, socialsecurity measures, social insurance, social assistance,child welfare, corrections, mental hygiene, recreation,labour protection, housing etc.

We have had social welfare programmes, social serviceorganisations, social reformers and workers in thecause of social welfare in India from the earliesttimes. Right through the centuries, commencingwith the reign of King Ashoka or going back evento the days of Buddha, there have been many rulersand many among the common people of India whotrod the path of Service to their fellow beings andadopted it as a life mission. Mahatma Gandhi’s workin this sphere constitutes a continuance in thepresent century of the National tradition. The idealof social welfare is thus not new to us; it is an

* Mr. C.P. Mathew, BSSS, Bhopal

Types and Purpose of Social Service Organisations 129

integral part of our national character and history.

Social welfare organisations play a vital role inrendering Social Services in every country, especiallyin developing and underdeveloped countries. In thisunit we are discussing about various types of SocialService Organisation and purposes.

Formal and Informal OrganisationsFormal Organisations refer to a structure of well-defined jobs, each bearing a definite measure ofauthority, responsibility and accountability. FormalOrganisation lays down the pattern of relationshipbetween individuals and the rules and regulations,which guide the behaviour of individuals.

Informal Organisation is an outcome of socialinteraction between individuals in a formalorganisation. Whenever people work together, theyevolve informal groups bound together by common,social, technological interests. Such groups constituteinformal organisation. Informal organisation representsrelationships between individuals in the organisationbased on interest, personal attitudes, emotions,prejudices, likes, dislikes, physical location, similarityof work etc. These relations are not developed accordingto the procedures, rules and regulations laid downin the formal organisational structure.

Informal Organisation comes into existence becauseof the limitations of the Formal Organisation. Itrepresents “natural grouping of people at work”. Thebirth of small groups in an organisation is a naturalphenomenon. These groups may also overlap becausean individual may be a member of more than oneinformal groups. In many cases, informal groupscome in to being to support and supplement theformal organisation.

Now we can see the differences of formal and informalorganisation with the help of a table given below:


Sl.No. Formal InformalOrganisation Organisation

1. It is created to achieve It has no predeterminedpredetermined objectives. objectives.

2. There is an official Its structure is basedhierarchy relationship. on human emotionsIt refers to the and sentiments. Itstructure of well-defined to the refersauthority and responsibility personalrelationships,relationships. which develop

automatically whenpeople work together.

3. Formal relations are well Informal relations areplanned and are created unplanned and theydeliberately. originate

automatically.

4. Formal Organisations follow Informal Organisationthe official chain of does not have a fixedcommand, which can’t be chain of command. Itchanged. Communication is based on thehas to flow through formal sentiments of thechannel. members. There is no

fixed pattern ofcommunication.

5. Formal Organisation is Informal Organisationusually stable. does not last long.

We may add some more important elements of formaland informal organisation.

Functions of Formal Organisation

Planning

� Working out in broad outline that need to bedone and the methods for doing them to accomplishthe purpose.

Organising

� Establishment of the formal structure of authoritythrough which work subdivisions are arranged,defined, and co-ordinated for the defined objective.


Staffing

� The whole personnel function of bringing in andtraining the staff.

Directing

� The task of making decisions and embodying themin specific and general orders and instructionsand serving as the leader of the organisation.

Co-ordinating

� Major function of inter-relating the various partsof work.

Reporting

� Keeping those in responsible positions informedas to what is going on.

Budgeting

� All that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscalplanning, accounting and control.

The Informal Organisation is:

� Customary and not enacted.

� Not written regulations.

� Not portrayed in organisational charts.

It must be noted that informal organisation is basedon formal structure and cannot exist without it.The informal organisation allows an organisation ameasure of flexibility, which is a functional necessity.However, greatest weakness of the informalorganisation is its instability; its changeability andits unpredictability.


Structured and UnstructuredOrganisationsWe are aware that “an organisation is a group ofpeople who are co-operating under the direction ofa leader for the accomplishment of a common end(Ralph. C. Davis). The need for an organisation ariseswhen two or more persons unite together to achievesome common objectives.

Organisation is one of the basic functions ofmanagement. Its importance lies in the systematicallyevolved pattern of relationships designed to set inmotion the process of managerial functions. Structuredorganisations are those organisations, which areformed, and functioning with a clear structure orframework of relationship. As structure, organisationis a network of internal authority, responsibility,and relationships. It is the framework of relationshipsof persons, operating at various levels, to accomplishcommon objectives. Thus, a Structured Organisationhas got three major elements:� Formal Structure� Definite Authority� Clear ResponsibilityWhen we think about structured and unstructuredorganisation in a social work context, there are alot of organisations falling under this category. Allthese organisations have a clear structural framework,be it a formal or informal organisation. For example—registered social service organisations, social welfaredepartments, co-operative societies etc.

On the other hand, unstructured organisation donot have a clear structure or framework and maynot be long-lasting. Committee Organisation,Community Organisation, Social Action are some ofthe examples of unstructured organisations. Theymay be formed as per the requirement or purposein order to achieve certain limited goals and objectives.These organisations are not formed for a shortduration.


Governmental and Non-governmentalOrganisationsLocal, State and Central Level Organisations

The structure of welfare organisations differs inagencies which are established under public sectorfrom those which are of voluntary or private sector.Public or Government agencies are based upon alaw or order, administered within the frameworkof local, state and central governments and financedby the Government. Private Agencies or Non-Governmental Organisations are established byindividuals or philanthropic, religious, fraternal orhumanitarian groups; their management is vestedwith a board of directors. These organisations aresupported mainly by contributions, donations,endowments or trust funds.

Public Social Service Agencies (GovernmentOrganisations)

Our country has a long tradition of Social Service.Our sovereign and democratic republic standscommitted to ensure justice social, economic andpolitical to the people and usher in a welfare state.After independence, the concept of social justicebecame part and parcel of our constitution and isreflected not only in the preamble, but also in thedirective principles of the state policy.

Social Welfare is defined as those services whichare designed for those weaker and vulnerable sectionsof community who due to some hardship — social,economic, political, mental — are unable to makeuse of or are traditionally denied the use of theseservices. The scope of social welfare encompassesservices relating to women, children, youth, aged,the handicapped, scheduled castes and scheduledtribes, community welfare service, social defense,social welfare measures and social welfare servicesfor other weaker sections of society.


Before discussing about the administrative structuresfor social welfare and the three tiers of our federalpolity, let us have a look at the Non-GovernmentalOrganisation.

Non-Government Organisations (VoluntaryOrganisations)

State is not the only association working in thesociety; there are a large number of voluntaryassociations (NGOs) which perform varied functionsfor the welfare, integration and solidarity of thesociety.

The term “Voluntarism” is derived from the Latinword “Voluntas” which means “will” of “freedom”.Political scientists defined “freedom of association”as a recognized legal right on the part of all personsto come together for the promotion of a purpose inwhich they are interested. Article 19(1) C of theConstitution of India confers on the Indian Citizensthe right “to form associations”. In the U.N.Terminology voluntary organisations are called non-government organisations (NGOs).

Definitions of Voluntary Organisations

Accordingly to Lord Beveridge, “A Voluntaryorganisation, properly speaking, is an organisationwhich whether its workers are paid or unpaid, isinitiated and governed by its own members withoutexternal control.”

Main Characteristics of Non-Government/VoluntaryOrganisations

i) It is registered under the societies RegistrationsAct, 1860, the Indian Trusts Act, 1882, TheCooperative Societies Act, 1904 or Sec. 25 ofthe Companies Act, 1956, depending upon thenature and scope of its activities to give it alegal status.


i i ) It has definite aims and objectives, andprogrammes for their fulfillment.

iii) It has an administrative structure and dulyconstituted management and executivecommittees.

iv) It is an organisation initiated and governed byits own members on democratic principles withoutany external control.

v) It raises funds for its activities partly from theexchequer in the form of grants-in-id and partlyin the form of contributions or subscriptions frommembers of the local community and/or thebeneficiaries of the programme.

Structure of Non-Government Organisations

General Body

(General Membership)

Executive Counsel/Managing Committee/Governing Body

Office Bearers

(President, Vice President, General Secretary,Joint Secretary,

Assistant Secretary, Treasurer)

Paid Staff/Volunteers

Social Workers


Functions of Voluntary Organisations

In a democratic, socialistic and welfare society,voluntary/Non-Governmental Organisations play avery important role. They perform a number offunctions for the development of the country. Wecan discuss some of these functions.

i) Human beings by nature are gregarious. Theurge to act in groups is fundamental in them.People therefore form groups and associationsvoluntarily for their benefit as also of otherswith a view to lead a full and richer life. Thisphenomenon is reflected in voluntary associationswhich are formed for promotion of recreationaland cultural activities, social services, professionalinterest etc.

ii ) A pluralistic society with a democratic systemrequires a multitude of independent, non-government organisations to serve as a bufferbetween the individual and the state and thuspreventing the government from developingmonopoly in various fields.

iii) Organised voluntary action helps groups andindividuals with diverse political and otherinterests, contributes to strengthening the feelingof national solidarity and promotes participativedemocracy.

iv) The state does not have the requisite financialresources and manpower to meet all the needsof its citizens. The non-government organisationsby raising additional resources locally can meetuncovered needs and enrich local life.

In sum, “Non-Governmental Organisations” giveconcrete expression to the fundamental rights suchas freedom of association and expression and byidentifying the needs of individuals, groups and


communities, initiate projects and programmes tomeet their needs. The NGOs also aim at sharingthe responsibility of the state in providing minimumneeds of the citizen, covering the areas of uncoveredand unmet needs, preventing the monopolistictendencies of the governments, and educating citizenabout their rights and obligations. They further aimat raising resources through contributions anddonations and organise activities of non-partisanand non-political nature for the well being of thesociety.

Local State and Central Level OrganisationsLocal Level: Social Welfare by Rural andUrban Local Authorities

Rural local authorities comprise the Panchayati RajInstitutions, which were introduced for localgovernance in the rural areas of the country. Thethree tier system of Panchayati Raj consisting ofGram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zilla Panchayatare responsible to undertake the welfare activitiesfor their respective areas. Infact, Panchayat Rajbodies are very much involved in implementing andadministering the welfare programme assigned tothem.

The urban local authorities consisting of municipalcorporations, municipal committees, and notified areacommittees created by the Acts of the concernedState legislature are assigned obligatory anddiscretionary functions in the field of social welfare.For instance Section 43 of Delhi Municipal CorporationAct, 1957 makes it incumbent on the Corporationto make adequate provisions for construction andmaintenance of drainage works, public latrines andurinals, water supply, pollution control, checking ofdangerous diseases, provision of transport facilities,provision of medical relief and establishment of


maternity and child welfare centers, lighting, namingand numbering of life and property in case of fireand the like and so on.

The concept of democratic decentralization has gotmuch importance in the field of development. Theaspect of welfare has come to be understood as theprimary responsibility of the individuals. Therefore,through people’s participations and decentralizationof power, the government is trying to achieve thegoal of total development. Besides Government efforts,there are a number of NGOs working with the locallevel with more flexibility and proximity.

State Level Organisation

The State Governments and Union TerritoryAdministrations formulate and implement variouskinds of welfare services programmes on their ownin their respective jurisdictions for the benefit ofthe socially and economically weaker sections ofthe society.

The State Government/Union Territories Administra-tions carry out their welfare obligations andprogrammes mainly through their departments ofsocial welfare and voluntary organisations. At thestate level, the incharge of the Department of SocialWelfare is the Welfare Minister and secretary togovernment is the administrative head of thedepartment.

The secretariat helps, guides and advises the Ministerin the formulation of policies of the department, ingetting the legislation passed by the state legislature,and supervises the execution of the policies, schemes,projects and programmers undertaken by theDirectorate.

The Directorate is headed by a Director who isassisted by Additional Director, Joint Director, Deputy


Directors, Administrative officer and supporting staff.In the field, the Divisional and District Social WelfareOfficers function at the district level and executethe various welfare programmes in their respectivejurisdictions.

The administrative and staffing pattern at all thestages is more or less the same and so are thekinds of welfare services provided in each stateexcept for some minor variations.

The functions of the State Social Welfare Boardsare as follows:

i) To promote the growth of voluntary social welfareagencies, with special reference to developmentof welfare service in areas uncovered at present.

ii ) To administer the grant-in-aid programme.

a) on behalf of the Central Social Welfare Boardfor development and

capital grants and

b) on behalf of the State Governments formaintenance grants.

iii) To assist the Central Social Welfare Board inthe provision of a field counselling service foraided agencies.

iv) To administer the programmes of rural welfareprojects.

v) To simulate effective co-ordination among voluntarywelfare agencies at the States and local levelsand

vi) To assist the Central Social Welfare Board andState Government in the further developmentof welfare services.


Central Level Organisation (Union Level)

At the central level, although the responsibility offormulating overall policy and planning of social welfareprogrammes rests with the new department of socialwelfare, the initiation and execution of certain welfareservice and stimulating the effective co-ordinationamong voluntary welfare agencies (especially at theNational Level) will rest with the Central SocialWelfare Board.

Central Social Welfare Board

The important landmark in the history of voluntarysocial welfare was created in 1953, with the provisionof Rs. 4 crore for the social welfare sector in thefirst five year plan.

The question before the planners then was whetherthis amount should be utilized through governmentmachinery or by voluntary agencies, as at that timethere was no independent department of social welfareeither at the center or in the state. Under theleadership of Pandit Jawaharlal Lal Nehru, it wasdecided that social welfare needed a special kindof machinery, that had elements of flexibility,dedications and nearness to people. It was thenfelt that it should be handled not by the governmentmachinery but by the voluntary workers who haddedicated their service to the needy. Accordinglyan autonomous Board was created which was chargedwith the responsibility of preparing plans and schemesto be funded from out of the provision made in thefirst five year plan. An outstanding social workerwas to be made the Chairperson of the CentralSocial Welfare Board. Dr. (Mrs.) Durgabai Desmukhwas its first Chairperson.

The main function of the Board was to give grants-in-aid, technical guidance to voluntary organisationsengaged in different types of social welfare activities.


One of the functions of the board was also to createorganisations in the areas where these did not exist.It was found that in slums and in the rural areas,there were no services for women and pre-schoolchildren. The Board accordingly launched a schemenamed the family and child welfare projects. Thepresent integrated child development services (ICDS)programme is really the outcome of these efforts.

Central Social Welfare Board was setup on therecommendations of the Planning Commission as asemi-autonomous body, but the power of theadministration was vested in the ministry of education.It was registered as a company from 1st April 1969under section 25 of the Indian companies Act, 1956in order to have greater autonomy and flexibility.

Objectives of the Board

� Foster the health growth of voluntary social serviceagencies.

� To assist voluntary welfare programmes for thespecific groups of persons, women, children andthe handicapped.

� To co-ordinate the welfare schemes of variouscentral and state Government.

� To develop new programmes of welfare and organisepilot projects.

Structure of Central Administration

The ministry of welfare is headed by a Cabinet orState Minister who is assisted by the Minister ofState/Deputy Minister. The Department has two broaddivisions; one headed by the Secretary - Welfareand the other headed by the Secretary, Dept. ofWomen and Child Welfare. The Secretary-welfareis assisted by an additional secretary. The Secretary,Department of Women and Child Welfare is assisted


by two joint Secretaries. In each wing there areDirectors, Deputy Secretaries, Under Secretaries,Joint Directors and other officers to handle thetasks. The ministry is assisted in its functions bya number of subordinate organisations, nationalcommissions and national institutes over which theministry exercises its administrative control.

� Central Social Welfare Board

� National Commission for Scheduled Castes andScheduled Tribes

� Minorities Commission

� National Institute of Social Defence

� National Institute for the Visually Handicapped

� National Institute for the OrthopadicallyHandicapped

� National Institute of Rehabilitation

Activities of the Ministry

The Ministry has been taking up large number ofsubjects and accordingly undertakes multi-dimensionalfunction relating to the welfare of various sectionsin the society like:

� Policy, planning and co-ordination of programmes

� Operations of central and centrally sponsoredschemes

� Guidance and direction to the state

� Association with Planning Commission

� Convening of conferences of state minister/secretaries of social welfare.

� Constitution of commission, committees/studyteams


� Assistance to voluntary organisations

� Informal and mass education activities

� Publications

� Research, education and documentation

� Participation in international conferences, seminarsand workshops etc.

Bilateral And International Agencies

Bilateral Agencies

The word bilateral means, “Agreement made betweentwo countries”. In this, agreement two countriesmake agreement to have duty free entry of donatedsupplies for relief and rehabilitation of the poor andthe needy without discrimination of caste, creed orrace. Under these agreements, commodities likefood grains, milk powder, cheese, processed foodstuff, drugs, medicines, multi vitamin tablets, hospitalequipment, and supplies like ambulances, mobiledispensaries, agricultural implements etc. are receivedby approved organisations, from approved organisations,located in respective countries. Government of Indiaencourages such assistance. The Ministry of SocialJustice and Empowerment operates the bilateralagreements on gift deliveries entered into by theGovernment of India with the Governments of FederalRepublic of Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, UnitedKingdom and United States of America.

The Food Corporation of India is entrusted with theresponsibility of handling the port operations workin respect of gift consignments, coming under theagreements on payment for the services at approvedrates. The expenditure on handling clearance andinland transportation of gift deliveries to the approvedconsignees’ destination is borne by the Ministry asper terms of the Agreement.


International Agencies

Though the well being of the people is the concernof the state, it can not be fulfilled due to the lackof financial resources, manpower, and other resources.Therefore the State depends upon the help and supportof other nations and countries to ameliorate thelot of its poor and needy. It is upon this recognitionthat the International co-operation in social welfareis needed in order to secure social and economicwelfare of human beings everywhere. Internationalsocial welfare organisations can be classified intofive groups:

i) Government Agencies of International character,e.g. United Nations, World Health Organisation,International Labour Organisation etc.

ii ) Private International Organisation, e.g. TheInternational Conference of Social Work, WorldFederation of Mental Health, The InternationalUnion for the Child Welfare.

iii) Private International Organisations havingautonomous organisations in each country, e.g.International Red Cross, the YMCA and YWCA.

iv) National Government Agencies extending theirhelp to other countries, e.g. The United StatesTechnical Co-operation programme popularly knownas point 4 Programme.

v) National Private Agencies extending their socialservice to other countries, e.g. The Ford Foundationand the Rockefeller Foundations in India.

International Agencies in India

Among the International agencies which first organisedtheir activities in India may be included the RedCross, the YMCA and the YWCA. These organisationsare now working in India through their national


organisations, which are autonomous in all respects.After World War I, the League of Nations initiatedcertain International organisations, which in duecourse began to work in India. Among these, themost important was the International LabourOrganisation. Then came, after the end of the WorldWar II, the United Nations Economic and SocialCouncil, the UNICEF, The WHO, and the FAO. Amongother agencies, which have recently established theirregional offices in India, are the InternationalConference of Social Work and the InternationalUnion for Child Welfare.

In addition to the agencies mentioned above, thenames of some more International Organisationsmay be added:

� Action for Food Production (AFPRO)

� Co-operative for American Relief Everywhere (CARE)

� Catholic Relief Services (CRS)

� Indo-German Social Service Society (IGSSS)

� International Association of Lion’s Club

� Rotary International

� Salvation Army etc.

Donor Agencies

One of the major activities of any Non GovernmentalOrganisation is mobilizing financial support for itsactivities. A number of National and Internationalorganisations are providing funds to the social serviceorganisations. Such agencies are known as Donoragencies. They give support to the social serviceactivities on the basis of the project proposals,submitted by the Organisation. Generally donoragencies are providing funds and other services to


the registered organisations for their various socialwelfare activities for the needy and marginalized.The amount of their support varies from project toproject according to the requirements or the gravityof the problems. The donor agencies mainly raisefunds from its Citizen and the Government. Someof the Donor agencies are:

� Cordaid, Germany

� Church Auxiliary for Social Action (CASA)

� Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)

� Christian Children’s Fund

� World Vision

� Co-operative for American Relief Everywhere (CARE)

� Catholic Relief Services (CRS)

� Indo-German Social Service Society (IGSSS)

� Caritas India etc.

UN Bodies

The United Nations has set up various organisations forgroups needing special help. Their contributions tointernational welfare may be discussed as follows:

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) wasestablished by the General Assembly on 11th December1946. Its purpose is to help developing countries toimprove the condition of their children and youth.Unicef provides assistance in such fields as health,nutrition, social welfare, education, and vocationaltraining. It also helps Governments to assess theimportant needs of their children and plancomprehensive programme to meet them. A largepart of Unicef aid is in the form of providing equipment,


drugs, well-drilling rigs, school garden supplies,prototype equipment for day care centers and equipmentfor the production of the textbooks. Unicef was awardedthe Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 and the Indira PeacePrize in 1989.

Office of the United Nations High Commissionerfor Refugees

The office of the United Nations High Commissionerfor Refugees (UNHCR) was established on 1st January1951. It provides legal protection, and at the requestof a Government, material assistance for the refugees.UNHCR’s head quarters is in Geneva. There are 40Field Offices. UNHCR was awarded the Nobel Prizein 1954.

There are a number of other U.N bodies workingfor the social welfare. Some of these organisationsare:

� United Nations Center for Regional Development.

� United Nations Development Programme.

� United National Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganisation.

� United Nations Environment Programme.

� United Nations Institute for Training and Research.

� United Nations Research Institute for SocialDevelopment etc.

Charitable Organisations

Charitable Organisations are those organisationsestablished for helping the poor or needy people.These organisations are mainly formed to serve theneedy through a charitable approach. The Missionariesof Charity (MC) is one example of such charitableorganisations. Most of its workers are fully dedicated


to service and they serve without expecting anythingback. These institutions provide institutional careto the poor and neglected. They also provide food,clothing, medical treatment etc. for needy people.

The Charitable Organisations are registered underthe Charitable Endowment Act -1890. Section 2 ofthe Charitable Endowment Act defines ‘charitablepurpose’ as including general relief to the poor,education, medical relief and the advancement ofany other object of general public utility.

Societies and Trusts

The Voluntary Organisation can be registered underthe Societies Registration Act – 1860, Indian TrustsAct – 1882 or under Section 25 of the Indian CompaniesAct – 1956. Most of the Non-GovernmentalOrganisations are registered under SocietiesRegistration Act.

Societies are formed with some deliberateintention following some system in their day-to-dayaffairs as well as rules for their governing andproceedings. The following activities should be handledproperly, since it is vital for better function of anyorganisation.

� Primary study on the attainability of the objectivesstated by the organisation.

� Recruitment of manpower, right people for theright job, to attain the organisational goals.

� Drafting of a constitution, which consists ofmemorandum of association and rules andregulations.

� Making sure of the registration of the societyby appropriate legal authority.


Memorandum of Association and rules and regulationsare two important parts of a society’s constitution.While memorandum of association defines the objectof the Organisation recognised and approved by theRegistrar, rules and regulations define the internalmanagement principles, which is binding on themembers. Societies are more democratic in theirsetup. Usually elections are conducted to elect themanaging committee. In some cases, founder membersmay be permitted to remain life members of themanaging committee.

Trust

Welfare programmes are also run by charitable trusts.The Indian Trusts Act –1882 provides room forregistering and running Public, Private, Religiousand Charitable Trusts. A Trust is an obligation annexedto the ownership of property and arising out of aconfidence reposed in and accepted by the trustee(s),for the benefit of another and the owner. The followingare the objects of a charitable trust:

� Trusts for the relief of Poverty

� Trusts for the advancement of Education

� Trusts for the advancement of religion and

� Trusts for other purposes beneficial to thecommunity. (Not falling under any other threeheads, e.g. renovation of roads, supply of water,repairing of bridges etc.)

Conclusion

Social welfare organisations play a vital role inrendering social services in every country, especiallyin developing and underdeveloped countries. In thischapter we discussed about various types of SocialService Organisations and their purposes.


We are aware that “an organisation is a group ofpeople who are co-operating under the direction ofleadership for the accomplishment of a common end”.The need for an organisation arises when two ormore persons unite together to achieve some commonobjectives.

Organisation is one of the basic functions ofmanagement. Its importance lies in the systematicallyevolved pattern of relationships designed to set inmotion the process of managerial functions.

The Central Social Welfare Board in India wasregistered as a company on 1st April 1969 undersection 25 of the Indian Companies Act, 1956 inorder to have greater autonomy and flexibility.

There are few Bilateral Organisations working inthe field of social welfare. The word bilateral means,“Agreement made between two countries”. Countriesmake agreement with another country to have dutyfree entry of donated supplies for relief andrehabilitation of the poor and the needy withoutdiscrimination of caste, creed or race. Under theseagreements, commodities like food grains, milk powder,cheese, processed food stuff, drugs, medicines, multivitamin tablets, hospital equipment, and supplieslike ambulances, mobile dispensaries, agriculturalimplements etc. are received by approved organisations,from approved organisations, located in the countries.

International co-operation in social welfare is neededin order to secure social and economic security ofhuman beings everywhere which are indispensablefor securing world peace and stability.

One of the major activities of any social serviceorganisation is mobilizing financial support for itsactivities. A number of National and Internationalorganisations are providing funds to the social serviceorganisations. Such agencies are known as Donor


agencies. They give support to the social serviceactivities on the basis of the project proposals,submitted by the organisation. Generally donoragencies provide funds and other services to theregistered organisations for their various social welfareactivities taken up for the needy and marginalized.

The United Nations has also set up variousorganisations for groups needing special help.

References

Avasti & Maheswari, Public Administration, LakshmiNarayan Agrawal, Agra.

S.L. Goel and R.K. Jain, Social Welfare Administration,Vol. II, Deep and Deep Publication, New Delhi.


8

POSDCoRBEF* Joseph Varghese

Introduction

It is not difficult to see why social workers needto know the role and functions of managers in formalorganisations. Social work profession seeks to improvethe well-being of the clients by providing a varietyof services. In most cases these services are providedthrough governmental or non-governmentalorganisations. A social worker, therefore, is oftenpart a large organisation and has to perform hisor her functions within such organisations.

Also, as the social workers grow professionally theyattain higher positions in the organisation. Theirrole in the direct provision of services diminish andtheir role as a manager gain significance. Howeversince the ultimate goal is the provision of welfareservices, social work administrator cannot be abureaucrat or a manager with concern only forefficiency. Social work values will form the base forthe administrative decisions taken in the contextof service delivery.

POSDCoRBEF

POSDCoRB is an acronym which social welfareadministration has borrowed from management theory.The classical management thinker, Luther Gullickgave this acronym to describe the functions of amanager in an organisation.

POSDCoRB stands

* Joseph Varghese, Visva Bharati, Sriniketan

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P – Planning

O – Organising

S – Staffing

D – Directing

Co – Coordinating

R – Reporting

B – Budgeting

This easy-to-remember acronym has become popularwith management theorists. Social workers havealso been using it to describe functions of socialwelfare administrators. It was later felt that animportant component namely Evaluation (E) andFeedback (F) were left out and so they were addedto the acronym and it became POSCoRBEF.

Let us now examine each of these functions indetail.

Planning

According to Terry and Franklin ‘Planning is selectinginformation and making assumptions regarding thefuture to formulate activities necessary to achieveorganisational objectives’.

Every organisation does some form of planning, asthey have to prepare for the future. In largeorganisations, planning is done by a separate divisionor department which generally reports to the Chiefexecutive. Planning, here, is a highly specializedarea, as a number of factors have to be taken intoconsideration. The department includes experts fromdiverse fields such as economics, statistics,management, etc. When any organisation operatesin more than one region or country, the complexityof the planning process increases. In smaller


organisations, the task is entrusted to staff members,who handle other work but have the competenceand knowledge to do the planning function; doplanning. Either way planning is an important activityof the administrator.

Major Steps in Planning

1) Define the problem.

Understanding the problem and its variousdimensions is the first step in the planning process.Many experts say that if the problem is adequatelydefined half the problem is solved.

2) Collect all relevant data and information aboutthe activities involved.

The sources of information can be from withinthe organisation and outside it. The organisationcan use outside sources of information likegovernment reports, policies, legislations, Planningcommission documents etc. Sources from withinthe organisation include policy statements, agencyreports, evaluation reports, minutes of meetings,documents etc.

3) Analyze the information.

An enormous amount of data may be collectedfrom various sources. But if they are not seenfrom the organisational perspective then theycannot be of much use. Every component hasto be seen as part of the larger whole. Causeand effect relationships have to be established.

4) Establish planning criteria and standards.

Planning criteria are assumptions on which theplan is to be formulated. The criteria will bedrawn from the organisation’s ideology, socio-economic factors, information gathered and thepriorities of the decision-makers. These criteria

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will form the basis on which different actionplans will be judged.

5) Preparation of different action plans for achievingthe goal.

Most organisations formulate a number of tentativeplans. This enables the decision-makers to chooseamong the alternatives available based on itsadvantages and disadvantages.

6) Decide on one plan from the different alternativeplans.

The Plan should be workable and cost effective.It should be realistic enough to be implemented.Often it is said that the plan was good but itsimproper implementation ruined it. A good planner,therefore, will take into account these factorsthat impede implementation. A planner shouldalso take into account strengths and weaknessesof the implementing agency.

7) Arrange detailed sequence and timing for theplan.

Decide what activities have to be carried outand when. Time is an important but scarce resourceand maintaining the time schedule is thereforeimportant.

8) Provide channels for feedback.

Constant feedback and monitoring are necessary.It will help identify shortcomings in the planand its implementation. Some part of the planmay have to be modified if unforeseen factorsinfluence the implementation process.

9) Implement the Plan.

The success of any plan sets on its effectiveimplementation.


10) Evaluate the plan performance.

The last step of planning profess in the evaluationof its performance. At his stage only the successor failure of a plan is judged.

Advantages of Planning

1) Planning brings direction and order into thefunctioning of the organisation. When objectivesare set and various steps needed to achieve thesegoals are clear, employees can make decisionseasily. All efforts will be focused towards thedesired results and unproductive work will beminimized.

2) The planning process gives an idea about thefuture. Any exercise in planning has to studyhow different political, social, economic andorganisational factors will affect the functioningof the organisation. Further, threats andopportunities have to be studied and ways todeal with them should be identified.

3) ‘What if’ questions are consequences of decisionsthat the organisation will have to take in futurewhile dealing with specific situations which maycome up. Complex sets of variables have to bestudied and their relationship with the situationunderstood if these questions have to be answered.For example, the additional financial costs haveto be calculated, if the organisation has to functionin new areas.

4) Planning gives a basis for enforcing accountabilityand control.

Accountability and control are important elementsin the organisation. Control of the organisationalfunctioning through planning can be internal aswell as external. When an organisation formulatesa plan and makes it public, it is making itself

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accountable to the society. The organisation’sactual performance will be judged on the basisof the plan objectives.

Within the organisation also, the plan fixes targetsand deadlines. The employees have to achievethese targets or else, give reasons for theirfailures. This condition imposes a sense ofresponsibility on the organisation’s functionaries.Further, the manager can check from time totime whether the organisation is able to meetits interim targets and is moving towards itsobjectives.

5) Encourage Achievement

Well-established and achievable targets and timeschedules encourage employees to take effortsto attain them. That improves the morale andmotivation of the employees.

6) Compels a view of the whole

Managers often become so involved in the affairsof their own department that they lose sight ofthe overall objectives of the organisation. Managersalso, have the tendency to give their attentionto the immediate, but routine tasks, which keepcoming up in any organisation. Long-term needsof the organisation are sidelined and effectivenessof the organisation is adversely affected. A plangives a vision to the employees helping themfocus on the broader and long-term view.

7) Increases the balanced utilization of resources

Resources are always limited and their prudentuse is important. Plans help effective use ofresources.

Disadvantages of Planning

The planning process has some disadvantages also.Planning consumes too much of already scarce


resources of the organisation. A lot of money, timeand human resources are spent when a plan hasto be formulated. At times there seems to be nocorresponding benefit. Secondly, planning oftendemands changes in organisation’s functioning andthe roles of the employers. This threatens peoplewho are afraid of new work situations and loss oftheir status. Thirdly, planning affects initiative oflower level managers adversely. As emphasized earlier,planning should only give broad direction to themanagers. But if the plan is too rigid and does notgive enough flexibility to the managers, planningmay restrict their initiative. Planning, in general,tends to increase centralization of authority in thehands of the top executive in the headquarters atthe cost of the lower level mangers operating inthe field. Fourthly, planning as managerial activityis seen as having limited value. Sometimes planningis too theoretical and cannot be related to real lifesituations. Many factors that are found in real lifecannot be taken account of when the plan is beingformulated. Further the planner assumes that therewill be no change that is so big that the relationshipbetween the variables could change drastically. Forexample, an NGO which makes its plan on the basisthat the donor agency will provide funds for a specificperiod will face difficulty if the donor agency stopsits funding.

Types of Plans

Strategic Planning

Strategic planning (also called long-term planning)has two important elements. It covers a long periodof time which may extend from five to twenty ormore years and secondly it covers mostly all theactivities within the organisation. In other words,it is long-term and comprehensive planning.

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Operationalised Planning

Operationalised Planning is also called tactical planningand it indicates the specific activities to be takenso that specific goals are to be achieved. Comparedto strategic planning, operationalised planning isshort-term and deals with specific areas. These twotypes of planning are not inclusive. Strategic planningdepends on the operationlised planning for achievingits goals.

Organising

Organising means establishing effective behaviouralrelationship among persons so that they may worktogether efficiently and gain personal satisfactionin doing selected tasks under given environmentalcondition for the purpose of achieving some goal orobjective.

The need for an organisation emerges when oneindividual cannot perform all the necessary tasks.As number of individuals increase, they are furtherdivided into groups each of which are given a specificset of tasks to perform. How and on what basisthese tasks are divided among individuals and groupis the role of ‘organising’ in management.

Need for Organising

1) Clear-cut lines of authority and responsibilityin an organisation are created which help incontrolling and leading the organisation.

2) There are lesser opportunities for organisationconflicts if organisational responsibilities are clearlydefined.

3) Organised groups and organisations are morelikely to give satisfaction to the employees andthereby positive results for the organisation.


Elements of Organising

There are four important elements in organising –division of labour, degree of centralization anddecentralization, departmentalization and span ofcontrol. Division of labour means that the total workof the organisation is divided into smaller unitsand distributed among the employees. Work is allottedto person most suited to do it. It allows the employersto attain proficiency in their work and thereby increasethe efficiency of the organisation.

Centralization and decentralization refers to thedegree to which authority is distributed among thevarious levels of the organisation. If authority isdistributed in such a way that majority of the decisionsare taken by the top managers then the organisationis called centralized. On the other hand, if thelower levels of the organisations have authority tomake decision—without seeking approval from thetop level managers than the organisation is calleddecentralized. Important decisions include thoserelated to financial matters, programme schedules,administrative matters, staff problems, etc. The degreeof centralization and decentralization depends ona number of factors like organisational history, levelof trust in the organisation, subordinate’s staffcompetence, technology available etc. Excessivecentralization is likely to reduce employee’s motivationand discourage initiative. It is also time consumingwhen every decision has to be referred to the topand approval obtained for the same. The quality ofdecisions making may also suffer, as often it is thelower level staff that know the local conditions better.On the other hand, too much decentralization isalso harmful. Decentralization may result in decliningcontrol of the top management. Consequently employeesat the lower levels may engage in empire buildingat the cost of neglecting organisational objectives.Coordination in the organisation may suffer as each

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part may chart its own course. Chaos and indisciplinewill be the result.

Departmentalization refers to the formal structureof the organisation composed of various departmentaland managerial positions and their relationship toeach other. Departments are formed on the followingbasis – function, product, territory, clients and process.Some examples are provided here of departmentsbased on these factors.

� Function based departments – Marketingdepartment, Personnel department. Planningdepartment, etc.

� Product based departments – Micro-creditdepartment, water and sanitation departmentetc.

� Territory based departments – Northern Railways,Southern Railways, Eastern Railways.

� Client-based departments – Women and childdepartment, Welfare of SC/ST.

� Process-based departments – Marketing, Planning,administration etc.

There are at least three departments which willalmost inevitably be present in every organisation.They are namely administration, accounts and services.Most of the large organisations have departmentsbased on more than one factors.

Span of control refers to the number of subordinatesan individual can supervise and control. Control isnot to be seen as something narrow and negative.It refers to the superior’s guidance, encouragementand appreciation provided to the subordinates.Management experts recommend that no superiorcan control more than five or six subordinates withoutdecline in the quality of supervision.


Staffing

Staffing is the management function that deals withthe recruitment, placement, training and developmentof organisation members. Any organisation is as goodas it’s employees’ performance shows. Staff of theorganisation should be selected, retained and promotedbased on the needs of the organisation and theirperformance.

Staffing Process

Human Resource Planning should take intoconsideration the following internal and externalfactors. The internal factors that need to be takeninto consideration are the present and future skillneeds, vacancies, areas of priorities of the organisationand its financial condition. External factors includethe policies of government, donor agencies, collaboratingorganisations, the labour market etc.

Recruitment: Recruitment is concerned withdeveloping a large pool of job for candidates in linein view of the needs of the organisation. This canbe achieved by giving wide publicity to the positionavailable and attracting many as eligible candidatesas possible for the positions.

Selection: Selection involves evaluating and choosingamong the job candidates. A number of means likeinterviews, group discussion, and skill tests are usedto select the candidates.

Induction and Orientation: After selection, thenewcomer has to be helped to fit into the organisation.They are introduced to their colleagues, acquaintedwith responsibilities and informed about organisationpolicies and goals.

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Training and Development: The process of trainingand development aims at increasing the knowledgeand skills of the employees along with attitudinalchanges. The overall aim is to increase organisation’sproductivity and employee’s level of job satisfaction.

Performance Appraisal: Performance appraisal aimsat judging the performance of the employee’s andhis/her contribution to the organisation. Performanceappraisal has to be done on the basis of objectivestandards and not on the whims and fancies of thesuperior officer. Further the employee should havea clear job profile and should know on what basishe or she is being judged. If performance is satisfactory,the employee may be rewarded and if it is not,corrective action is to be taken.

People join organisations not merely for monetarygains. They also look for satisfaction of their socialneeds, self-esteem needs and emotional needs. Inany case, after a person has achieved financial security,he or she will most probably seek other kinds offulfillments namely pride in the job, a sense ofachievement, satisfactory associations at work place,autonomy to function independently, etc. It is upto the organisation to provide employees with theseopportunities.

Directing

Directing is the managerial function of guiding,supervising and leading people. According to Chandan‘it is concerned with directing the human effortstowards organisational goal achievement’. Sometimesdirecting and leading are seen as one function.Often it is the success or failure of this functionthat will determine whether the organisation willachieve its objectives. Leading also determines thelevels of satisfaction the employees of the organisationexperience.


Some of the requirements for successful leadershipin an organisation are: clear-cut objectives whichshould be known to all the managers and employees,meaningful supervision by the superiors of thesubordinates, participatory managerial style, unityof direction, and purposive and effective follow-up.

Leadership

Leadership is defined as the relationship in whichthe one person influences others to work togetherwillingly on related tasks to attain goals devisedby the leader and the group. Leaders can be formalor informal. Formal leaders are found in formalinstitutions like bureaucratic organisations, politicalparties, and military. Here the organisationalfunctioning is governed by written and formal rules.They determine how the leader is selected/electedand what his/her powers are and how they are tobe exercised. On the other hand, informal leadershipdepends on the personal qualities of the leader suchas the charm, intelligence, skills etc. French andRawen mention five sources of power that a leaderdraws from (1) coercive, (2) reward, (3) legitimate,(4) expert, and (5) referent. The first three sources– coercive, reward and legitimate are primarily foundin formal organisations while the latter are foundin informal settings.

Leadership Theories

A brief overview of the various theories of leadershipis presented below.

Trait theories: Trait theories advocate that thereare a set of traits that help an individual to becomea leader. Some of the traits are listed as self-confidence, courage and integrity, will power,emotional stability, intelligence, enthusiasm, energy,charisma etc. Trait theory has been criticized onsome counts. It focuses too much on the leader and

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not on the leadership process, the nature of followersand the situation in which the leadership is provided.It oversimplifies the leadership process and reducesit to traits of the leader. Whereas it is a knownfact that different situations require different typesof leadership qualities. Also it does not explain howleaders who were successful in the past fail andvice-versa.

Behavioural theories: This perspective explainsleadership by looking at leaders in terms of whatthey do. Many theories within the category seeleadership as comprising of two important factors:

Employees-centred dimension and production-centreddimension. Employee-centred dimension stresses oncreating a work environment in which employeescan have satisfying work experience. Their mainconcerns are employees’ welfare and happiness ratherthan attaining organisational objectives. Productioncentred dimension gives importance to attainingorganisational objectives rather be concerned aboutemployee welfare. In different situations thesedimensions have to balanced and a good leader isone who can balance these two requirementssuccessfully.

Situational theories: These theories emerged whenmanagement thinkers realized that the context inwhich leadership is exercised influences theleadership process. Earlier theories had failed totake into account this important aspect. Mostsituational theories support the view that there isa relationship between organisational situation andthe leadership style. Some of the factors that influencethe process is the nature of work of the organisation,the organisation’s past experience, the value systemof the leader and the followers, resources availableand the overall political–economic situation.


Leadership Styles

Autocratic Leaders

Autocratic leaders are those who assume all authorityto themselves. Subordinates are discouraged to offersuggestions or participate in decision making process.Autocratic leadership has some advantages and areuseful in certain situations. In this style, firstlydecision making is quick and in emergencies it canbe advantageous. Secondly, decisions will reflectthe leader’s priorities and will not be diluted. Thirdly,if subordinates are inexperienced or are not qualified,then autocratic leadership is better. Autocraticleadership has many disadvantages also. As autocraticleaders do not take into account opinions of others,it may result in bad decisions. Secondly, the lackof consultation may adversely affect subordinate’smotivation and alienate them. It will increaseresentment towards the leader and the organisationas a whole.

Participative or Democratic Decision-making

In the democratic or participative decision makingprocess the subordinates are consulted. Their opinionsare actively sought and a consensus arrived at beforedecisions are taken. The decisions thus taken mayor may not reflect the opinion of the leader.

The major advantages of this type of decisions makingare that maximum possible information is collectedand different view points are to be considered.Participation of many individuals mean that decisionstaken will have a better chance of being acceptedby others. As a result, confidence and loyalty amongthe workers will increase.

However, success of democrats decision makingdepends on certain conditions. A pre-condition fordemocratic decision making is that individuals aremotivated to contribute to the decision making process.

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Absence of this motivation will lower the quality ofdecisions made. There should also be trust betweenthe leaders and the members. If there are vestedinterests or if the organisation has something tohide from the employees then the decision makingprocess will be flawed. Further, there should alsobe a spirit of give and take as no one can get totallysatisfactory decisions.

Laissez-faire or Free-rein Leadership

The leader gives the organisation maximum freedomto make decisions. The leader is in most cases afigure head and at other times a coordinator betweenthe various members. It gives maximum autonomyto the members leading to creativity and freedomof expression. The major disadvantages are that inunder-motivated organisations this type of leadershipwill result in chaos.

Autocratic leadership style, democratic leadershipstyle and laissez-faire leadership style are modelsof leadership which may not be found in the realworld. Leadership characteristics of all these modelsare found in different leaders in difference situationsand at different times.

Another point to be noted is that in differentorganisations the nature of work and tradition makesthe leader adopt one or other leadership styles.The leaders adopt the laissez-faire method in situationwhere encouraging creativity is the aim – for example,in universities or laboratories. On the other hand,in family run business houses where control isconsidered as important, leadership styles adoptedare closer to the autocratic leadership style.

Coordinating

Coordination is the process of integrating the objectivesand activities of two or more units (departments or


functional areas) of an organisation in order to achieveorganisational goals efficiently. In the organisingfunction, we have seen the need for division of workamong the various units of the organisation. Efficiencyincreases with specialization of activity and groupingof related work. But the division of work bringsabout its own problems. Departments become soinvolved in their work that they forget theorganisational objectives. Departmental interests areplaced above organisational interests.

Ways to Achieve Coordination

Hierarchy is an important method to achievecoordination. People who are high in the hierarchyhave more authority and responsibility. Hierarchyin fact channels and regulates the exercise ofauthority, work allocation and flow of communication.Problems between departments if and when theyarise can be sorted out by the superior officer.

Another important method of coordination is rulesand regulations. Rules and regulations makeorganisational work predictable. Rules and regulationsstandardize routine work which saves the time ofthe managers. Everyone in the organisation willknow what behaviour is expected from him/her andfrom others. Tasks will be performed accordingly.

The identification of objectives and formulation ofplans also improve coordination. This gives theorganisation a unity of purpose and a unity of direction.They help the various units with differentresponsibilities to direct their efforts toward achievingtheir targets.

Larger organisations often use committees to improvecoordination. These committees consist of membersof different departments of the organisations.Committee meetings help them exchange information,understand each others viewpoints and problemsand resolve conflicts.

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Vertical and horizontal communication system areused in all organisations to share information. Intraorganisational official communications in the formof departmental notes, memos, official letters etc.,help improve coordination between the various sections.Nowadays, with the rise of information technology,IT enabled Management Information Systems areused to transmit data up and down the levels ofthe organisation. This system enables quick reporting,processing, storing and retrieval of information asand when required.

Till now we have discussed the formal means ofimproving coordination. But it is now realized thatinformal relationships between employees are asimportant as the formal means of coordination. Personalrelationships between the various members improveoverall coordination within the organisation. Inorganisations where proper understanding and trustbetween employees exists, the need for formal meansof coordination, which are time consuming andcumbersome, will be less. This will contribute toa better work environment and improve efficiencyof the organisation.

Reporting

Reporting means keeping the superiors informedabout the various aspects of work including progressof the various programmes, problems in implementationand problems related in staff. Reporting is done atevery level.

The Annual Report of the organisation is its statementof achievement and shortcomings to the generalbody of the organisation and to the society at large.Within the organisation, the Chief Executive Officerreports to the Board of Management or the governingbody. Subordinates of the executive officer will reportto him/her and so on down to the lowest level ofthe organisation.


Need for Effective Reporting

1) Reporting keeps the management informed aboutthe organisation’s performance.

2) Reporting allows the management to takecorrective actions when things go wrong.

3) Reporting inculcates a sense of responsibilityamong employees as they have to report theprogramme activities to the higher authorities.

Reporting Process

1) Establish means by which reporting is done.

2) Keep a time period within which the report isdone.

3) It should be decided as to whom the report shouldgo and in what form.

4) Reporting also includes action to be taken onthe report.

Budgeting

The word ‘budget’ originally meant a bag, pouch orpocket attached to a person. But in the modernsense, a budget is a complete statement regardingthe organisation’s income and expenditure of thepast financial year and provides an estimate of thesame for the coming financial year. The organisation’sbudget is usually approved by the highest controllingbody, the Board of Management or the GoverningCouncil.

Once the budget is approved, the allocation of fundsto various sections/departments of the organisationtakes place. The concerned heads of departmentshave to function within the funds allocated to them.Sometimes due to changes in environment or insidethe organisation, a revised budget is formulated

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after a period of time which may increase or decreasethe funds allocated to a particular department.

Budgeting is a specialized activity and persons involvedshould possess considerable knowledge in accounts,economics, costing etc. to prepare a proper budget.

Any organisation which is developing a budget forthe first time does a lot of guess estimates as availableinformation may not be enough to prepare a budget.Subsequent budgets can be made on the informationcollected from the previous experiences. A budgetis very much like a plan in the sense that it isforward looking and aims at making things happen.

A budget contains the expenditure, income andoutcome planned for a specific period of time. Usuallybudgets are made for a year, that is, annually. Throughthe budget, the manager controls the activities ofthe organisation. Therefore budgeting refers to thecontrolling of the organisation based on a budget.

Need for Budgeting

1) Finance is the fuel on which the organisationruns. One of the most effective ways of directingand controlling the organisation is by controllingthe financial part of the organisation.

2) Budgeting helps to control the excessiveexpenditure. Sometimes managers tend to overspend with justifications and sometimes withoutjustifications. Well prepared budget with clearallocations to various heads prevents this costlypractice.

3) Budgeting also helps in preventing administrativeand financial malpractices. At times, unscrupulousemployees try a variety of means to earn moneyat the cost of the organisation. But budgetaryallocation prevents this practice to a great extent.


At the end of the year audit is done in whichbudgetary allocations are compared with actualexpenditure incurred. Discrepancies if any haveto be explained. This ensures that there is acheck and balance.

4) Budgeting improves the coordination in theorganisation. Proper appropriation to differentoverheads within the organisation helps preventconflict and overlapping.

5) Budgeting also helps in measuring the performanceof the organisation. The actual performance ofthe organisation can be seen in relation toobjectives set forth in the budget.

6) Budgets are also a source of information. Budgetaryallocations to various activities of the organisationreveal the priorities of the organisation. This isuseful to people outside the organisation as wellas its employees and supporters.

7) Lastly, the very process of budget preparationis an educative exercise. Managers review theexisting situation, discuss the needs of theorganisation in the coming year, and keeping inview the priorities of the organisation, preparethe budget. Thus the budgeting process makesthe managers aware of the objectives of theorganisation, its resource base and anticipate/forecast trends and changes in the externalenvironment.

Evaluation and Feedback

Evaluation means ‘to assess the value of everyorganisation’s rationale for its existence and thecontribution it makes for the welfare of the society.It is for this reason that government and donoragencies provide funds and the people support theseorganisations. Naturally it has to be seen whether

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the organisation has been fulfilling its mission ornot. Thus evaluation of the organisation’s functioningand its programmes is a logical necessity.

Socially relevant programmes of NGOs have multipledimensions. Therefore, evaluation of the programmehas to include the following dimensions— the relevanceand the need of the programme for the client/s;the extent of participation of clients/community inthe various stages of the programme; accessibility,availability and quality of the services rendered;sustainability and financial viability of the programme.Lately it has also been felt that the gender dimensionof the programme should be part of the programevaluation process. Therefore, the extent of femaleparticipation and the benefits obtained for womenhas become an important part of the evaluation process.Due to the decline in donor funds and governmentsupport, most organisations are hard pressed forfunds. Therefore the financial aspect of the programmeis of crucial importance. Thus evaluation takes intoconsideration cost effectiveness and timeliness ofthe programme implemented.

The American Public Health Association defines“evaluation as the process of determining the valueor amount of success achieved in terms of itspredetermined objectives”. It includes at least thefollowing steps; formulation of the objectives,identification of proper criteria to be used in measuringsuccess and determination and explanation of thedegree of success, recommendation for furtherprogramme activity.

According to the ‘Encyclopedia of Social Work inIndia’, 1) evaluation should have an objective approachto the study of problem, 2) it should focus on positiveas well as a negative aspects of the problem, 3)evaluation should contribute to the improvement inthe functioning of the organisation. In other words,evaluation has educative aspects also.


Evaluation can be of two types— (i) internal, whichis done by the organisation’s functionaries themselvesto assess their progress, and (ii) external, whichis done by outside agencies like government, donoragencies etc.

Conclusion

We have seen the seven functions of a manager.We also had an overview about the role of thesefunctions in the organisations. You were also givenan introduction on how some of these functionsespecially planning, directing, coordination andbudgeting are done. In your own field work agenciesyou can collect further information on how specificagencies perform these functions.

References

Chandan, J.S. (1987), Management : Theory and Practice,Vani Educational Books, Delhi.

Stoner, Jaes A.F. and Charles Wankel (1987),Management (Third Edition), Prentice Hall of India Pvt.Limited, New Delhi.

Terry, George R. and Stephen G. Franklin (1994),Principles of Management, All India Traveller Book Seller,Delhi.

Procedure for Establishing and Running Social Service Organisation 175

9

Procedure for Establishing andRunning Social Service

Organisation

* Uma

Introduction

Voluntarism and social service has a long historyin India. It was the main source of welfare anddevelopment since Vedic times except for the Mauryaand Gupta periods, which had substantial publicwelfare systems. The colonial period witnessed thesignificant influence of Mahatma Gandhi on the growthof voluntarism. He was convinced that voluntaryaction was the only instrument for development ofthe country. Besides the political independence, theobjective of Gandhian voluntary organisation wasrural reconstruction.

After independence, Gandhian voluntary organisationsdominated the national scene. They aimed atagriculture and livestock programmes, khadi andvillage industries, cooperatives and education. However,this consensus on development strategy starteddisintegrating in 1960s and 1970s, and it influencedthe growth of voluntary activism. The later half of1980s and early 1990s witnessed a large expansionof voluntary organisations both because people werelosing faith in government and because there wasa very rapid rise in the availability of funds fromdomestic and foreign sources. A major highlight ofthis period was the establishment of voluntary

* Uma, Rajiv Gandhi Foundation, New Delhi


organisations that provided training, evaluation anddocumentation to other grassroots voluntaryorganisations.

Also, the rapid growth of population in the countrywithout corresponding growth of resources distortedthe population-resource balance resulting in poverty,hunger, malnutrition and other forms of socio-economicevils. In this backdrop, Voluntary Organisations (VOs)or Non Government Organisations (NGOs), as theyare called in the terminology of the United Nations,emerged as an alternative strategy of development.The sector has always had an important part toplay in leading and implementing innovative ideasin the field of social development. The voluntarysector achieved significant success at the grassrootslevel due to its people-centered approach. But it isa matter of concern that appropriate awareness aboutadministration and functioning of such organisationsis still not widely available to both the studentsand practitioners in the field. Also, they are facinga number of difficulties such as scarcity of fundslack of trained workers, weakening of communitysupport, duplication of work etc. So, before we dealwith the processes of establishing and managementof the social service organisation, we shall brieflyexamine the underlying meaning of the concept.

Meaning of the Voluntary Organisation

Voluntary action is the focused action coupled withdetermined intention of like-minded people to transformthe socio-economic paradigm of society particularlyfor weaker sections, based on social justice and notmerely on philanthropy and charity.

Let us make a distinction between the voluntaryeffort and voluntary action at the outset, even thoughthese two are often used synonymously. The


prerequisite of the latter includes planning andconscious action of a group to deal with certainissue; the former often does not entail this. Thus,voluntary action is necessarily problem oriented –which is not only geared towards dealing with aproblem but also towards prevention of its occurrence.When a group initiates such focused action to actformally, it assumes the character of voluntaryorganisation.

The definition of a voluntary organisation used inthis section is that of a ‘general charity’ as providedby the National Council for Voluntary Organisations.

General charities:

� are independent of government and business;

� are non-profit making;

� provide a wider public benefit that goes beyondany membership.

There are wider definitions of charities, which includeorganisations such as trade unions, colleges anduniversities. However this assumption is not coveredhere.

According to Brown and Korten (1991) “…..voluntaryorganisations represent a distinct class of organisationsthat depend on energy and resources given freely bytheir members and supporters because they believe inorganisational missions, not merely because of politicalimperatives or economic incentives”.

What does the voluntary sector include?

There are voluntary organisations dealing with everyconceivable area of development sector. The categories


include: international aid; health; culture andrecreation; environment; volunteer promotion; socialservices; education and research; animal welfare;and other single-issue organisations. It would alsoinclude within its sphere organised social actionfor advocating social justice and fight against allkinds of exploitation— social, economic and political.The voluntary sector may also be known as the not-for-profit sector, the third sector and charity sector.Internationally voluntary sector organisations maybe known as non-governmental organisations (NGOs).

Scope

The main characteristic of the voluntary organisationsis that they are cause led, established to do somethingspecific rather than make a profit. India’s SeventhPlan assigned an important role to the voluntarysector in the three fields of primary health — familyplanning, the environment and women’s development.The Eighth Plan continued the same emphasis. Therehas been a major expansion in funds provided tovoluntary organisations by the government and foreigndonors. The new economic reforms, initiated in1991,visualized a considerable reduction and rationalizationin the role of government and a correspondingexpansion in private sector, including the voluntarysector.

Size of the Sector

It is difficult to estimate the total number of voluntaryorganisations functioning in the country. It may varyfrom 50,000 to several hundred thousands, dependingon the definition of the voluntary organisations, makingthis voluntary sector, a big sector. A great majorityof the organisations are registered with the SocietiesRegistration Act, 1860. These organisations rangefrom international charities such as Oxfam to smallorganisations, which are run almost entirely by unpaidvolunteers


Registration and Management ofVoluntary Organisation

1) Establishing and Managing

Any group of like-minded individuals can come togetherto form a society and start running it. However,registration under the appropriate law of the landmust be done to gain legal identity and standing.Also, voluntary organisations operating in socialsystems establish and maintain contact with severalindividuals. In general, the community also interactswith the organisation as a whole and not to eachmembers individually. Thus, through registration theorganisation assumes the statute of a legal entity.

2) Finances

One of the main factors of efficient functioning ofvoluntary organisation and implementation of itsprograms is the availability of financial resources.In the present welfare oriented system, several otherpartners in the development process have emergedbesides government grants, like assistance from variouscorporate bodies, national and foreign donor agenciesetc. from where funds are available to the voluntaryorganisations to fulfill social objectives anddevelopmental roles. While seeking grants from thegovernment and other financial sources, anorganisation must keep in mind that one of theessential prerequisite for the same is registration.An organisation must be registered under appropriateAct, or show evidence that it is regularly constitutedbranch of that organisation. It should also maintainregular accounts and proper audit statement. Theother donor agencies, most importantly foreign agenciesalso disburse funds to registered organisations.

Thus, registered organisations can seek funds from threemain sources. Government sources, corporate and otherbodies and foreign donors. The Seventh Five Year


Plan has included a whole chapter on voluntaryorganisations and now several ministries have abudget for NGOs. Each Ministry has its own set ofguidelines and you can make enquiries with therespective departments.

Foreign funding agencies are categorized under thefollowing:

Bilateral funding agencies: Countries that have comeinto bilateral agreements with India have funds forNGOs. Earlier, foreign funds used to be channelisedthrough Indian Government. But after 1972, foreignfunding agencies negotiated with governments togive a part of the assistance directly to the NGOsin the Third World. OXFAM, Action Aid, Save theChildren Fund etc. are source of the funding NGOdonors, NGO groups and charity organisations.

3) Tax Deduction

The section 80(G) of Income Tax Act enables anindividual or a company to claim exemption on 50percent of their donation to voluntary organisationfrom their taxable income, provided the donationexceeds Rs. 250 and is less than 10 percent oftheir total income in that year. This has opened thefloodgates for many NGOs as the donor group is exemptedfrom being taxed for that sum. It has also enabled theorganisations to bring in more local contributions.

4) The Foreign Contributions Regulation Act, 1976

A voluntary organisation needs to be registered andshould be operational for three years before it canget FCRA (Foreign Contribution Regulation Act, 1976)number and thereby receive funds from foreignagencies. Also, the voluntary organisation shouldbe non political so that the funds are not used byany political party. The Home Ministry issues andadministers these certificates after determining theeligibility on the basis of the reports from government


field agencies who seek information directly fromthe organisation or enquire at the community level.From the viewpoint of the organisations, an FCRAcertificate assumes importance as it does not requirethe approval of sectoral ministries at state or thecenter, for programs that do not adhere to thegovernment guidelines. Thus NGOs can initiateinnovative projects and seek funds for them.

5) To Address Problems at Functioning

Any group or body of persons can come together toform a society. However, registration assumessignificance in this collective endeavour to do awaywith problems that might arise in future. Theseissues may range from internal dynamics amongstthe members to the external functioning in thecommunity. Besides laying down aims and objectivesin the Memorandum, the registration also spellsout the processes of internal management viz.membership; subscription; rights and privileges ofmembership; general body — its powers, duties andfunctions; executive body; sub committee; sourcesof income and utilization of funds; audit of income;operation of bank accounts etc. Any modification inthe constitution can be made only subject to theapproval of the Registrar.

Purpose

The main purpose of a voluntary organisation is towork for the betterment of a particular target groupwith a committed focus and efficient delivery. Theinitiatives cover a range of issues on various socialpurposes like education; human rights, health;environment, cultural and other social activities;economic purposes like trade union activities,developments of co-operatives; self help groups etc.

Financial resources and infrastructural support,available for functioning largely determine the broad


purposes of the organisation. Besides, orientationand experience of the organisation in the specificfield also play a crucial role in framing its purposes.For instance, in the present development sector,one can witness the mushrooming of voluntary agenciesand initiatives on health issues particularly on HIV/AIDS. The purposes of these organisations vary fromcreating awareness to providing emotional, healthand occupational support to the target group. Thegovernment and other foreign donor’s commitmentto combat the problem will also determine the intensityof non-governmental and voluntary participation inthese fields.

Organisational Accountability

The voluntary organisations have to be accountablefor their activities and report to the authoritiesabout the proper use of funds. They should registerwith the income tax authorities to seek income taxexemptions on the grants they receive. They shouldalso obtain separate registration for the foreign fundsthey receive.

The distinguishing features of voluntary organisationare:

1) It is registered under an appropriate act to givelegal entity to the group of individuals— also totransform the individual liability to group liability.Some of the acts under which these organisationscan be registered are: the Societies RegistrationAct, 1860; the Indian Trust Act, 1882; theCooperative Societies Act, 1904; the section25 of Companies Act, 1956 or any similar act;but most of the welfare agencies are registeredunder Societies Registration Act (XXI of 1860).

{The following associations may be registeredunder Societies Registration Act (XXI of 1860):‘Charitable societies, the military orphan funds,… societies established for the promotion of science,


literature or the fine arts, for instruction, thediffusion of useful knowledge. The diffusion ofpolitical education, the foundation or maintenanceof libraries or reading rooms for general useamong the members or open to the public orpublic museums and galleries of paintings andother works of art, collections of natural history,mechanical and philosophical inventions,instruments, or designs.’}

2) It has an administrative and executive managementcommittee.

3) The organisation must have a set of objectives,including quantitative ones. It should be basedon keen appreciation of ground realities and shouldbe the end result of genuine consultation amongall the members involved.

4) It should be based on democratic principles, rulesand procedures that govern the internal functioningof the body and should not have an externalcontrol.

The significance of registration of an organisationis due to the fact that the community perceives itas a legal entity and considers dealing with onebody more rewarding than interacting with differentindividuals. Besides, this aggregate of individualswill be more sustainable and ensure effective deliveryof service. An organisation in the longer run wouldbe better equipped to deal with various complexitiesrising out of daily functioning and management.

“The philanthropic or humanitarian organisation withits board of directors, its paid staff, and its constituencycan ensure the benefits of group thinking and collectiveaction. It can work out division of responsibility amongthese groups collectively and individually, so thateach interested individual may serve according tohis ability. It can develop specialized functions,


establish permanent and steadily improving standardsof service and follow a continuous progressive policyindependent of the life or death of any individual.It can secure public support and funds impossiblefor the individual to obtain and can conserve themthrough the years.” (Social Agency Administrationby Elwood Street, Harper and Bros.)

In brief, some of the advantages are mentioned belowas following:

� Registration gives permanency and continuity tothe organisation.

� Group liability instead of individual liability.

� Group thinking and concerted action instead ofindividual action.

� Collective action with shared responsibility.

� It provides the reflection of an independent andresponsible entity to the community.

� It ensures the benefit to members of being relievedfrom unlimited financial liability. It can sue orbe sued as an organisation.

The Constitution of the Society

The constitution of a society consists of two partsrelated to each other namely, memorandum ofassociation, and rules and regulations.

The objectives of the organisation are broadly definedin the constitution which also contains the duties,powers and functions of the various functionariesof the organisation. The memorandum of associationdeals with the objectives of the organisation. Whereasthe byelaws contain the detailed rules and regulationsgoverning the day-to-day functioning of the


organisation. They are the guidelines for the internalmanagement. Thus, a constitution can be understoodas a brief statement spelling out the broad goalsand objectives of the organisation, often includingthe quantitative goals too. It often does not includethe detailed procedures to be followed for theattainment of these objectives; which are incorporatedin the byelaws.

The rules and procedures are as important as theconstitution of the organisation. This is becausethe constitution reflects the ultimate objectives;byelaws and rules define the routes to be followedfor the attainment of the same. It also defines crucialfactors such as the membership; management; finance;responsibilities of organisational functionaries;dissolution etc. Briefly, byelaws are needed for thefollowing reasons:

� Smooth functioning of the organisation

� Division of the roles and responsibilities

� Stability of the organisation

Thus, we have attempted to understand that rulesand procedures of the organisation is as importantas constitution, for the development, functioning,stability as well as sustainability of the organisationand group.

Registration Process

To start, a Non Governmental Organisation or voluntaryagency does not begin and end at one stage. Theregistration under the Society Registration Act, 1860entails following points:

The Form

The form is available from the Office of Registrarin State capitals. (Guidelines and instructions forcompleting the form is included.)


Filling up the form

Any group of seven or more members desirous ofworking for any charitable propose or cause may,by subscribing their names to a memorandum ofassociation and by filing the same with the Registrarof Societies or any other officer appointed underthat Act by the state Government, can form a society.

The Memorandum of Association should contain thefollowing particulars:

a) Name and address of the association: Whileselecting the name of the organisation, care shouldbe taken that it is simple, short, andcomprehensible; and also reflects the objects ofthe organisation. The name of the society shouldbe such that it does not attract the provisionsof Names and Emblems (P.I.U.) Act of 1950. Also,the proposed name should not be identical tothat of any other organisation that has alreadybeen registered. The complete postal address ofthe organisation should be included to be approvedas registered office.

The signatures of the applicant office bearerson Memorandum of Association have to be attestedby witnesses. The Memorandum of Associationprepared in the manner indicated above and signedby seven or more persons sponsoring theorganisation should be submitted along with theprescribed fees, to the Registrar who will recordthe name of the society.

In most of the States today, a District magistrateis authorized to do so. It normally takes a monthand the official cost is Rs. 50/-

b) Purpose: The broad aims and objectives for whichthe organisation has been set up should be clearlystated.


c) Membership requirements: The document willalso indicate the qualifications for becomingmembers of the organisation; that may be basedupon financial provisions; minimum age; specialinterest and contribution of a member in theprogramme.

d) Other particulars: It should also contain aspectssuch as Board of Directors; Office Bearers;Elections ; Sub Committees; Meetings; Financialyear; Amendments to the constitution; Finances:Maintenance and operation of bank accounts;Assets and Dissolution.

Legal Assistance

The filing and subsequent registration at the Officeof Registrar involves drafting of the Memorandumand Rules and Regulations in a way that protectsboth members and organisation from legal issuesand difficulties that may arise in future. Also, allsuits by or against the society will be commencedor defended in the name of the society. Thus, itis advisable to take legal assistance in the processof formulation of the document and filing it to theRegistrar. Copy of the Form in the appendix (Refer tothe Annexure for detailed guidelines).

Final Stage

The organisation would file with the Registrar ofthe Societies, a memorandum showing the nameof the society, its objects, names and address andoccupations of the members of the governing bodyaccompanied by the rules and regulations, and acopy of proceedings of the general meeting at whichit was resolved to get the society registered.

The Memorandum prepared in this format and signedby seven or more members sponsoring the organisationwould be submitted to the Registrar with the prescribedfee. The Registrar would record the name of the


society under the Act and issue the certificate ofregistration. The registered body would have to submitthe annual list of managing body members and otherinformation as required by the Act to the Registrarfrom time to time. Upon registration, all properties:moveable and non immovable will become the propertyof the society, and all suits by or against the societywill be commenced or defended in the registeredname of the society.

Other issues to be noted include types of registrationand membership:

Types of Registration

a) Local/State level: Desirous persons subscribingthe names to the memorandum of the organisationshould not be (in any case) less than seven.

b) National level: If the society proposes to givenational character to the organisation, there mustbe a minimum of eight different persons fromdifferent states of Indian union subscribing tothe Memorandum.

Membership

� The names, addresses, occupations and thedesignations of the present members of theGoverning Council and subscribers to theMemorandum is needed with their signatures.

� Local and National membership depends also onthe scale of operations of the organisation.

� Membership fees: There can be different typesof members depending upon the amount theycontribute to the organisation, such as lifemembers, special members, annual members,active members, contributing members, etc.


Organisational Design and Structure

Many voluntary and social service organisations tendto ignore efforts that are aimed at strengtheningtheir own organisational capacity. Instead, they focusat field work directed toward helping their targetgroups. This is quite understandable from theperspective of the organisations which are strugglingto sustain themselves. Their project funding is oftenquite specific and restricts them to manoeuvre inother directions. Though voluntary organisations haveresources for organisational development, they oftenpay less attention to these processes. However, itis important that voluntary organisations should alsopay attention to their organisational development.

Thus, it is equally important that organisationstogether with their focus on efficient delivery donot also neglect issues of internal organisationalfunctioning. For often, this neglect leads to a situationwhere the organisation deteriorates and other pointsof organisational sickness might set in. Therefore,proper balance between field work and organisationalwork is a prerequisite for maintaining organisationalsustainability and efficiency.

There are many different kinds of organisations dealingwith myriad issues ranging from education, health,women empowerment, social activism etc. There is,however, a general philosophy which can be adaptedto a variety of situations and organisations. Someof the important principles in the context of thesevoluntary organisations are:

� To ensure sustainability of the organisation, aclear sense of purpose and sense of directionmust be developed together with objectives. Thisshould be the end result of genuine consultationamong all parties involved.


� These organisational objectives should be translatedinto specific work plans for various departmentsand individual staff. Such an exercise can leadto minimization of role conflict.

� General budget and staff allocations should bebased on these objectives. Often in presentscenario, the entire budgeting exercise is quitedirected by the funding agencies and thus fororganisations it becomes too fragmented to bereally useful.

� Besides periodic review, which should be both‘top-down’ and ‘down-up’; and involve all layersof the management and executive staff; effortsto identify gaps should also be madesimultaneously.

� Efforts also should be made to adequatelycommensurate the staff, both materially and bygiving proper incentives.

With the rapid growth in the number and scope ofvoluntary organisations, there has been a trend towardsinvolving experienced and professional personnel forthe execution of the projects/organisations andprogrammes. Often, a multi-layered matrix structurehas evolved in the NGOs comprising three streamsof staff: (i) retired and senior bureaucrats andtechnocrats committed to the voluntary sector withtheir considerable administrative and technicalexperience regarding governmental policies andprograms; (ii) professional managers from institutesof social work, rural management and other socialsciences; and (iii) local and grass root field workerswith in-depth understanding of people.

Organisational design and culture are two differentthings. What differentiates the organisational structureof voluntary agencies from its culture is often theexistence of an atmosphere of friendly, informal


but committed work culture. There is generally nodistancing between the staff and managers. Theseorganisations operate in a fairly participatory style.The organisational structure and design is oftendetermined by the stage of organisational developmentof the agency. These stages can be depicted as:Stage of Struggle for Survival (wherein organisationstry to establish their credibility with the community,government and donors and its own workers); Stageof Growth and Consolidation (wherein the main taskis to expand operations and build organisational routinefor efficient functioning), and Stage of Innovation andRecognition (wherein the organisation exhibits apreference for quality as against quantitative growth—which has significant bearing on the organisationalculture, structure and leadership), Stage of Drive toInstitutional Maturity (characterized by an effort oforganisation to safeguard its autonomy by reducingdependence on a single donor and mobilizing resourcesthemselves— issue of smooth leadership successionis also crucial) and the final stage of AutonomousSelf Sustained Organisations (marked by high leadership,self-confidence, financial independence, participativefunctioning, accountability etc.). Each of these stageshave a significant bearing upon how the organisationmanages it own resources — both men and material.

Organisational Work Culture

Work oriented atmosphere and organisational culture

Many factors, internal and external, impact uponthe voluntary organisations and determine their lifespan. These factors are crucial for understandingthe organisational dynamics. Earlier, we dealt inbrief about the work culture in the previous section.Let us attempt to understand the various issuesrelated to it – for instance authority, understanding,relationship and working with boards, committeesand professional teams. While discussing


organisational culture – we would focus on fourrelevant aspects.

The first is aspect the degree of commitment of theentire organisation. This basically entails the level ofmorale, sense of direction and job satisfaction, besidesmonetary compensation. A committed staff is veryessential to create positive work atmosphere involuntary organisation.

The second aspect of informal work culture involveslittle emphasis on hierarchy, and rules and givespreference to flexibility and free flow of communicationwithin the organisation. The voluntary organisationin the first stage of organisational development tendsto be informal, simply organised and strongly bonded.As organisations grow in scale, it often becomesdifficult to maintain these characteristics. Somewho do succeed – makes the capacity of leadershipcrucial to renewing the motivation of the workers.It is therefore important that organisations at thisstage, introduce more structure, procedures andsystems to facilitate the efficient internal workingof the organisation.

The third is the participative decision-making. Itimplies a system of consultation up and down ofthe hierarchy. Similarly, all staff should have anequal opportunity to contribute to the decision-making– which would lead to an enhanced feeling ofcommitment and a joint sense of responsibility. Italso creates a congenial atmosphere for creativity.

The fourth crucial function is coordination withinthe organisation. Thus, the work atmosphere of anorganisation can be gauged from the relationshipand coordination that exists between the:

i) Various departments of the agency

ii) Various staff members of the agency


iii) Between various sub committees on boards

iv) Between the staff and the management.

Participatory style and smooth intra-organisationalcommunication is very significant for harboring positivework culture. Most often, the effective and efficientdelivery of services is determined to a large extentby the high motivation, and commitment of the staffand their identification with the organisational goals.

Authority

Leadership in the voluntary organisations is verycrucial. It rests upon leaders and managers to getthe organisation realize its objectives. However, theprimary task of the leadership also varies accordingto the stage of the organisational development. Itvaries from the early leadership which is primarilyfocussed on demonstrating the usefulness of thenew organisation to the donors and the community– to the leadership which is more mature and whichprimarily involves expanding the scale of operations,mobilization of funds, organisational procedures andnetworking etc.

On a closer look at the leadership at the top levelof voluntary organisation, one witnesses that witha few exceptions, it is often concentrated in thehands of a few elderly persons. Their style offunctioning is often a combination of authoritarianand democratic style. The younger cadre of leadersare often more democratic than their older colleagues.

However, though both these sets of leaders are capableof strong commitment, they often are weak onmanagerial competence, such as capacity to mobilizeresources, handle crises, coordinate different sectionsof the organisation, create administrative systemsand plan for succession. Various professional instituteshave recognized this crucial fact and have introduced


components in their syllabi that aim at strengtheningthese abilities among NGO leaders. It is thereforeimportant that leaders of the voluntary organisationspend more time in nurturing their staff and buildingthe institution than being preoccupied with issuesexternal to organisation.

Working with professional teams, boards, committeeand other functionaries.

There are several reasons why voluntary organisationswant to collaborate and work with various otherbodies, committees, functionaries and professionalteams. One reason is that the target group orcommunity they serve need multifaceted developmentwhile any organisation would have limited capacityto deliver. Specialisation among voluntary organisationsalong sectoral lines imply a corresponding divisionof tasks. More frequently, organisations collaborateto overcome isolation and share their experiencesand also to pool up their resources for effective andefficient delivery. Thus, organisations are increasinglycollaborating with various bodies and committees;often providing their specialized knowledge in theprocess of policy formulation. They are also guidedby recommendations of these expert groups in definingtheir own objectives.

These relations and collaborations among variousgroups and voluntary organisation can take placeat various levels: (i) simple exchange of information;(ii) pilot testing by voluntary organisation of theinnovations introduced by government and nongovernmental organisations; (iii) replication by thesebodies on a much broader scale of innovations madeby voluntary organisations and (iv) joint deliveryof services with each playing their significant roles.Often, participation of voluntary organisation in variouscommittees is an attempt to effect a change in theperception of government, other societies and


community at large through persuasion, advocacyand demonstration.

Thus, voluntary organisations work at four levelswith various boards, committees and professionalteams:

i) Information sharing,

ii ) Consultation,

iii) Decision making, and

iv) Initiating action.

Conclusion

India has always had a strong NGO movement,enriched time and again by early missionaries,philanthropists, Gandhian social workers, volunteersand professionals. Without digressing into theirideological and motivational framework andcategorization, (they are called voluntary developmentalorganisations, grassroot organisation, social actiongroups, charitable trusts, support organisations,awareness building groups and so on), one can saythat they all have contributed to the developmentof the country. In almost all kinds of short-termand long-term development activities, we find thatNGOs have worked closely with the people espousingtheir causes.

However, for increasing efficiency and effectivenessof the delivery of services by these organisations,it is important that various academicians, practitionersand professionals attempt to comprehend functioningand management of these voluntary agencies. Alsoit is important that potential social entrepreneurs befamiliar with routes of registration of organisationand various other related issues.


References

Chowdhary, P. Paul (1979), ‘Social Welfare Administration’,Atma Ram & Sons, Delhi.

Diwakar, V.D. (Ed.)(1991), Social Reform Movementsin India: A Historical Perspective, Popular Prakashan,Bombay.

Gulati Ravi & Gulati Kaval (1996), ‘StrengtheningVoluntary Action in India’, Konark Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

Gangarade, K.D. (1990), ‘Development of Voluntary Actionin India’, Social Welfare Administration in India; Issuesand Challenges, Tata Institute of Social Sciences,Mumbai.

Sarin Ritu (1995), ‘The Big Business of NGOs’, ThePioneer (July, 30).

Pathak, S.H (1981), Social Welfare: An Evolutionaryand Development Perspectives, McMillan, Delhi.

Roy, Bunker (1990), ‘Voluntary Agencies and Government’, Social Welfare Administration in India; Issues andChallenges, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.

Social Welfare Administration as a Method of Social Work 197

10

Social Welfare Administrationas a Method of Social Work

* Siva Kumar

Introduction

Our country is aiming at sustainable socialdevelopment and social welfare. You will be interestedto know why the need for the practice of socialwelfare administration as a method of social workis gaining importance. It is because we have a largenumber of social welfare and social developmentsettings. They include government departments,Welfare Boards, Corporations, Social Welfare Agencies,Non Governmental Organisation (NGOs), InterGovernmental Organisations (IGOs), Community BasedOrganisations (CBOs) etc. We also have a large numberof National, state and local level welfare anddevelopment programmes. In addition, Panchayat Rajinstitutions oriented to development work have alsobeen emerging as important institutional contextsfor the practice of Social Welfare Administration.As our country faces the challenges of poverty,unemployment, disability, destitution, ill health,illiteracy, crime, suicide, violence, accidents etc.our social welfare administration should also becomean effective social work method.

Meaning of Social WelfareAdministration as a Method ofSocial Work

Social welfare administration is both scientific andprofessional activity. It promotes social work practice

* Dr. Siva Kumar, Kerala University, Thiruvanthapuram


in administration. Therefore it is also called as socialwork. It administers or implements special programmesintended for vulnerable, disadvantaged and weakersections of the population such as women, disabledchildren, chronically ill, the aged, scheduled caste/scheduled tribes etc. through social work processes.It also organises programmes for sustainable socialdevelopment. It also aims at the effectiveimplementation of the regular and special programmesof social welfare agencies.

Social Welfare Administration translates social welfarepolices and social legislation into social work practice.It administers the resources and personnel availablefor social work practice. It ventilates the many choicesopen to clients to adjust themselves as well as torecover themselves from problem situations.

Social welfare administration also enhances thepsycho-social and economic functioning of the clientsand beneficiaries. Application of social workadministration in the fields of information technologyand e-governance is also very essential. This isnew area for the effective administration of socialand social welfare services, social security and socialwork programmes at various levels. It can be usedby local self governments, governments, Nongovernmental organisations, Intergovernmentalorganisation, co-operatives and private and corporateorganisations. The target groups of this social workmethod can be individuals, groups, families,communities, agencies, organisations, committeesor departments.

Extent of the Use of Primary Methodsof Social Work

In a study on social welfare administration as amethod of social work you will be interested to knowhow the primary methods of social work are used


in administration. The basic methods of social worksuch as social casework, social group work, communityorganisation, social action, etc., play a very importantrole.

Social casework is used with individual beneficiariesin the administration of social services. Social groupwork is used with families, and groups, which areat the heart of every society. Social group work isalso used in working with neighbourhood groupsand self help groups. It is also used to improve theeffectiveness of working of various committees, whichare part of social welfare administration. Communityorganisation is used in resource mobilization andequitable distribution of services at the communitylevel. It is also used to make effective the functionsof grama sabha/ward meeting under Panchayat RajInstitutions. Linkages and coordination is also usedunder social welfare administration. Social actionis used in bringing social welfare strategies andcollective action for analyzing, modifying andformulating social welfare policies. It translates theabove into the administration.

Social work research plays a very important rolein social welfare administration. It provides scopefor action research, evaluate current programmesand provides social work indicators and statisticalindices for developing strategies and programmes.It also provides necessary data bases for e-governancein Social Work Administration. Social welfare planningis an important component of social welfareadministration.

Types of Services and their Delivery

Important types of social services are:

1) Education

2) Income transfer


3) Health and nutrition

4) Public housing

5) Employment and training

6) Personal social services

7) Services resulting out of social policy

There are seven types of social services and themain function of social welfare administration is toeffect the administration of these social services.

The first social service namely education can beconceptualized as pre-school/elementary/primary,secondary, vocational, higher education, adult,continuing and non formal education. It is deliveredeither publicly or through cooperatives, corporatebodies, non governmental organisation and privateorganisations. It includes schools, colleges,universities, training institutes, professional bodies,internet facilities and e-learning facilities.

The second social service namely income transferis called social security in a general sense. Theservice can be provided in the event of illness,disability, destitution, unemployment, naturalcalamities, violence, war etc. It is provided throughsocial insurance, social assistance, pension schemeor labour welfare fund benefits. It is often collectivelyadministered. It is also delivered by Panchayat Rajinstitutions or through local agencies. As social securityprogrammes have to reach a large population inIndia, professional social workers have a responsibilityto administer internet facilities, electronicconferencing, e-governance at various levels in socialwork practice and service provisions.

The third kind of social service namely “Health andNutrition” may be private operated, public operated,or operated under health insurance system or through


people’s co-operatives. It can be non-profit or forprofit. In India, there are a large array of healthservices for health care delivery. They includespecialised hospital/sanatoria, Medical CollegeHospitals, District Hospitals, Taluk Hospitals,Community Health Centres, Primary Health Centres,Dispensaries, Nutrition bureaus and so on. In addition,there are Maternal/Reproductive and Child HealthCentres, Family welfare sub centers, anganvadiesand so on at the local level.

The fourth social service is called “Public Housing”.There are non profit housing corporations/boards,and housing co-operatives. There is also housingsystems in plantations, slums and industrial townships.There are also privately operated housing systemsin rural and urban areas. In India social welfareinstitutions, Government departments, and local bodiesalso deliver housing services. Indira Awas Yojanais an important housing scheme of government ofIndia.

The fifth social service is “Employment and Training”.Under social welfare administration, social workmethods are used to upgrade services for employment.It is organised in the public sector as well as privatesector. It is also organised by special agencies,professional bodies and trusts. Here imparting ofskills through training is an important function ofsocial welfare administration.

The following list includes items which would generallybe called “Personal Social Services”. They are care,development, and welfare of the child, probationand correctional services for the juvenile delinquents,crime prevention programmes, welfare programmesfor prisoners, victims and their families, institutionalcare for women and children, care and adoption byspecial parents, family services and counselling, familysocial work, continuance of community services and


protective services for the aged or geriatric socialwork. Day care and pre-school programmes for thechildren, referral programmes, holiday/vacation campsfor children, youth, parents, handicapped and theelderly, income-assistance and care programmes foraverage families, self-help and mutual aid programmesamong disadvantaged and handicapped groups,counselling programmes for adolescents, maritalcounselling, planned parenthood counselling, disabilitycounselling, aged counselling, specialized institutionalservices for destitute, infirm, beggars, poor, personsin moral danger etc. It also included De Addictioncentres and programmes for the care of alcoholicsand drug addicts, programmes for victims of HIV/AIDS etc. It also includes human developmentprogrammes and other social welfare services.

The seventh social service is other services resultingfrom social policy. Transforming policy into socialand social welfare services and use of experienceand expertise in recommending modifications topolicies comes under this broad area. We have toidentify social inequities and social injustice andhave to solve social problems. In this regard dynamicsof leadership, job satisfaction and public relationsare essential. Upliftment of disadvantaged,underprivileged and vulnerable section of societysuch as women, children, old and infirm, disabledand handicapped needs top priority. It also includesspecial services for scheduled caste, scheduled tribeand backward communities, and people of backwardareas and slums. In the context of large population,relief and rehabilitation to migrants, social workpractice among migrant families and rehabilitationof victims of natural disasters like floods, draughts,earthquake, landslides, tsunami and so on aresituations in which social service in required.

The nature of social services requires social welfareadministration to act as an essential method of


social work practice. Administrative position of personswho are associated with the provision of these socialservices in India, are designated as secretaries/administrator/directors, welfare officers, medical socialworkers, psychiatric social workers, geriatric socialworkers, family social workers, school social workers,rehabilitation social workers, child development projectofficers, block development officers, research officers,local authority, social workers, project directors/officers, inspectors of welfare funds etc.

In addition, the various fields of social work suchas medical social work, local authority social work,social work in industry, social work in agriculture,family social work, psychiatric social work, geriatricsocial work, rural, urban, tribal and coastaldevelopment, contain large scope for services whichneed social work administration.

Creative literature in social work is another methodof social work used in administration. Creativeliterature and creative media are used to bring outliterature on social work application in administration.It can be in the form of fiction, serial, drama, dialogueetc. which personalize social welfare administration.So it can be seen that the extent of use of primarymethods in social work have wider coverage.

Social welfare administration has to play an importantrole in the administration of creative, preventive,promotive, developmental and statutory social welfareservices. Social welfare administration is not onlyneeded in the Government sector but it is also largelyused in the non governmental organisations, intergovernmental organisations, community basedorganisations and in the cooperative sector.

Organisational Climate and ManagementProcess

Here we are concerned with organisations and primarilystructures for delivering social services, social welfare


services, and social work programmes. It can bedepartments, social welfare agencies or nongovernmental organisations. It can also be statutoryagencies for implementing welfare provisions.

We can discuss organisational climate asorganisational culture, environment, milieu and soon. It is experienced by the members of anorganisation. It influences their behaviour. It is alsoconceived as the value of a particular sets ofcharacteristics of an organisation. It distinguishesone organisation from the other. Some of thedimensions of the organisation climate are individualautonomy, direct supervision, better performance,rewards, team spirit, honest and open on individualdifferences, fostering of development, application ofnew ideas and methods, taking risks and freedomfor individual to regulate their behaviour. Managerialvalues include autonomy, equity, security andopportunity.

When we consider organisational climate andmanagement process we have several types of climateand processes. In a democratic organisational climatecommon standards based on policies, rules andregulations govern activities and welfare ofbeneficiaries. The leaders and superiors must developgroup feeling and co-operation among staff of theorganisation. Best way to maintain agency disciplineis the democratic way of trying to develop the workgroups, increase its cohesion and enable it to developstandards of behaviour. The climate requires overallprogress of the organisation, sustainable humanrelations and staff development programmes. It shouldalso bring out job satisfaction, beneficiary satisfactionand productivity. In addition, effective supervisionis also essential.

Employees get an opportunity while in work to acceptchallenges, serve others, earn money, enjoy prestige


and status and can be creative and independent.Initiative taking behaviour leads to high level ofactivity and experimentations.

Happy and peaceful employer-employee relations,employee-employee relations, care provider beneficiaryrelations are the core of successful organisationalclimate. Good management practices are essentialto improve organisational climate.

Some of the important management practices includethe following.

Fulfillment of defined social needs

Finding out growth opportunities and solutions toproblems

Handling of conflict

Equitable allocation of resources

Determining priorities

Assigning duties and functions

Social diagnosis

Making estimates and projections for future

Provision and selection of alternatives

Organisation of division of work

Scientific approach based on facts

Innovation and modification of services

Evaluation of results and making improvements

Ensuring economical and wise utilization of publicfunds

Improving the quality of life of beneficiaries andcare providers


Application of methods, techniques and skills of socialwork at every stage of management practice to improveorganisational effectiveness.

Programme Development

Social work education has opened new vistas ofsocial development. Programme development alsorelates to transfer and utilization of technology.Social work administration has effective applicationsin this regard. It includes handing over of newtechnology and use, modification and renovation ofexisting technology for sustained social welfarethrough a process of social work. It improves thelevels of living and quality of life of the target groups.

Programmes are developed by task forces – or taskgroups, within the agency setting based on relatedpolicies and legislations. It relates to controlling ofsocial, physical and mental ill health and morbidity.It should increase the availability of major articlesand services for community consumption. Programmeshave to be developed for increasing social security.Then there are vertical and horizontal process toapprove the programmes. Vertical processes includeapproval by Local Self Government, District PlanningUnit, State Planning Board, Planning Commissionetc. and horizontal process include considerationby various departments, institutes etc. at the samelevel. Programmes are also to be developed forredistribution of population, improved housing andhuman settlements, attainment of skills, enrichmentof values, and knowledge and improvement in growthopportunities. Programmes are also developed foraddressing the seven basic social services namelyeducation, Income Transfer, Health and Nutrition,Public Housing, Employment and Training, PersonalSocial Services and other services resulting fromsocial policy elaborated in this chapter.


Programme development covers two major fields. Oneis for Developmental social work practice and theother for Panchayati Raj systems.

The goal of developmental social work is to developprogrammes for social development. It covers socio-cultural, political, administrative, and social workprocesses. All available resources of a state, communityor agency are pooled together. It harnesses thecapabilities of human service personnel of differentsectors. It also involves beneficiaries, families,communities and care providers. In addition to thetraditional functions of social welfare, the processesof developmental social work have to be administeredfor sustainable social development.

We have to develop special programmes for e-governance, e-conferencing, Internet, use ofmultimedia, information technology and onlineprogrammes like interactive internet counselling tocover social welfare needs of large populations within a limited time. Social workers have to apply theabove programmes and software along with socialwork practice to reach every client, beneficiary andcare provider to become efficient social workadministrators. E-governance also speed upimplementation of income transfer and social securityprogrammes, programmes of inmates of institutionalservices and so on.

Another major area of programme development isunder Panchayat Raj based local self-governments.There are a number of social services and socialwelfare services under local self-governments. Inthis regard programme development is a challengefor the social work administration. It is in this contextthat social welfare administration becomes a prioritybased social work. Formulation of programmes requiresmodifications and reformulations before the efficientsocial work programmes are developed. In this respect


we have to make use of legislations, special rulesand subordinate service rules to prepare and toguide programme development.

Public Relations

With the increasing role of social welfareadministration as a method of social work, one ofits components like public relations becomes animportant programme of social welfare agencies. Publicrelations is a major process of social welfarecommunication and development supportcommunication. Public relations interpret ideas andinformation from an agency to its publics. It alsoenlist information, ideas and opinions from the public,from the beneficiaries and from the care providers.Such processes lead to harmonious adjustment ofan agency with its environment. Such an activityalso helps to enlist public support to the social welfareagencies and its programmes.

The important objectives of public relations in socialwelfare are:

1) Psycho social informational preparedness for thebeneficiary.

2) Building confidence in staff and care providersby creating awareness regarding the agency amongits public.

3) Informing tax payers and donors about the problemsfaced by the agency and how it functions tomeet the needs of social welfare. It also explainshow the money allotted to the agency is utilized.

4) It explains the benefits from the agency to theclients and the community.

5) It is also a method of resource mobilisation aswell as increasing membership of the agency.


There are a series of activities, which can be takenup under public relations. They can be:

1) The observance of important days, weeks, year,decades etc. of local, national, internationalimportance. The local days of importance arefoundation day of the agency and its anniversariesand celebrations. The national days of importanceinclude observance of Independence Day, RepublicDay, Gandhi Jayanthi etc. International days ofimportance include World Human Rights Day,World Mental Health Day, Women’s Day, WorldDisability Day, World AIDS Day, InternationalLiteracy Day etc. It increases the image andgoodwill of the agency among its public.

2) Conferences, seminars, workshops etc. areorganised relating to the important functions ofthe agency from time to time. It improves thestatus of the agency. Here techniques of e-governance can also be utilized.

3) Significant contacts: The office bearer, BoardMember etc. contact important officials, leaders,donors etc. and maintain cordial relationshipwith them and inform them on the policies andwork of the agencies. The important personalitiesand media men are either invited to the agencyor the representatives of the agency personallymeet them.

4) Public relation handouts, serials, newsletters,journals, advertisements, etc. can be issuedexplaining the services and products of theagency.

5) Traditional cultural media like drama, dance,song, puppet show etc. can be organised tocommunicate the message of the agency to thepublic. Personal contacts, visual media, printedor written words and spoken words are also


important. Radio, Television, other electronic andsatellite media can also be used in public relationwork.

The principles include focusing of groups/audience,organisation of thematic publicity materials, providingattention to needs of various clients, regular timetable in public relations work, formation andfunctioning of public relations committees, enlistingcommunity participation etc.

The machinery for public relations includes official/volunteer’s on public relations, task forces, groupsor committees. In sum, public relations work hasto be a sustained effort under social welfareadministration.

Understanding Conflict Resolution

There is need for the social work administrator tounderstand conflict resolution. There can be a seriousdisagreement and argument regarding some thingimportant. It can be in the form of a serious differencebetween two or more beliefs, ideas, interest,programmes which cannot be reconciled. There canbe conflict between principles and privileges. Conflictcan also be between departments, agencies,organisations, groups and individuals or vice versa.Sometimes there will be conflict when one partymakes some conscious effort to frustrate pursuingthe goals or interests of the other party. This iscalled intergroup conflict. There will be conflict likeintra-individual, Interpersonal, Intergroup, and betweenorganisations. Sometimes conflicts are inevitable andin some cases desirable. The social work administratorshould understand the conflict from its very preliminarystage and should take measures to resolve it. Conflictresolution denotes final solving of the conflict. Thereare a number of ways to resolve a problem, argumentor difficulty by applying social work methods,techniques and skills.


Management of conflict is very essential. Conflictcan be managed as individuals work out differences.The satisfaction of needs, cooperation and successunderlie each negotiation. The usual method of conflictresolution is mutual negotiation by individuals, families,groups or through consensus. Conciliation is anothermethod of conflict resolution in which the settlementis reached in the presence of third party usuallya conciliation officer. Arbitration is yet another methodof conflict resolution in which the decision of thearbitrator is binding on the parties. In most of thesocial work contexts the negotiations should continueuntil it is reconciled, as failure is usually notacceptable.

For example, if there can be a conflict between thedoctor and the parent regarding a particular treatmentfor a disabled child, the social worker has to bringin an agreement. The parties and the conciliatormust remain calm and considerate and clear aboutthe requirements to attain an agreement.

Positive Climate

Social workers have a role in, and a responsibilityfor the creation of positive professional relationshipwith their colleagues. Workers must exercise consciouscontrol over their behaviour and in doing so theycome closer to the realization of good workingrelationships.

When staff members and volunteers work in harmonythere seems to be greater likelihood that the agencywill attain its goals and that beneficiaries and careproviders will have a good experience together. Workingtogether in harmony, devotion and conviction willlead to meaningful endeavours. Social worker usesconscious self-control over himself/herself all thetime. The professional integrity of social worker isbased on the understanding that public interest isabove self-interest. The Professional constantly strives


to develop a sound professional philosophy based onnurturing of values, attitudes, feelings and responsesfor creating a positive climate. Positive professionalrelationship is a feeling of mutual respect, trustand confidence with one another. It can be experiencedrather than measured. It can be felt in most favourablesituations. For example: When people are warm,friendly, relaxed, open, free with one another, itcreates an atmosphere of respect for human beingand for human values. Pride in the quality of workdone also creates a positive climate. It contributesto success of total enterprise. Persons who are wellrelated to one another seek for an even higherstandard of performance. We have to consider thatevery human being has dignity and worth, strengthand weaknesses and capacity for growth and change.Trustworthiness, responsibility, articulating soundphilosophy for personal growth, good channels ofcommunication etc. ensures positive climate. A positiveclimate is created when agency procedures and policiesare clear. Positive climate is also the result of sharingof work together.

Social work studies social needs to understand them.If we have to understand our groups, we meet tounderstand the community situation in which thegroup members live, their needs, influence of familylife and other social political forces affecting them.

Conclusion

In this chapter we studied the essentials of socialwelfare administration as a method of social work.It is both a specialized professional activity toadminister care provisions for the vulnerable anddisadvantaged section of the society as well as anactivity to achieve social development anddevelopmental social work practice. It uses scientificmethods of social work as well as skills incommunication, administration and management.


It organises and implements social welfareprogrammes. It makes the social welfare agenciesefficient to administer its programmes and services.We also observed that its major thrust is transferringsocial welfare policies and social legislations intoprogrammes of social services, social welfare services,personal social services and social work programmes.The application of social work administration in e-governance sector is also essential.

References

Martin, Davies (2000), The Blackwell Encyclopedia ofSocial Work, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, U.K.

Gangrade K.D. (1978), Social legislation in India, ConceptPublishers, New Delhi.

T. Krishnan, Nair (1983), Social Welfare Manpower,A study in Tamilnadu, Concept Publishing company,New Delhi

Dr. D. Paul, Chowdhry (1979), Social WelfareAdministration, Atma Ram & Sons, Delhi.

Dr. D. Paul, Chowdhry (1981), A Handbook of socialwelfare, Atma Ram & Sons Delhi.

Publication division, Govt. of India (1987), Encylepediaof Social work in India (4 Volumes), New Delhi.

Sivakumar. D (1992), Progress and Problems of Socialdevelopment, With special Reference to Kerala,Aiswarya Sarala mandiram, Mythanam, Varkala, KeralaState (unpublished Ph.D Thesis in Social work).

Sivakumar. D (2004), Women participation in e-governance – Need for extensive filed work, (Publishedonline http://www.witindia.org).


11

Social Action: Concept andPrinciples

* Beena Antony, Archana Kaushik

Introduction

In professional social work, six methods of workingwith people have been identified. Among them threeare basic or primary methods. They are: casework,group work and community organisation. In day-to-day practice, social workers use these three methodsof working with people – casework with individualclients, group work with small groups and communityorganisation with sociologically definable communities.In addition, there are three secondary or alliedmethods of social work. They are: social action,social work research and social welfare administration.Social action seeks the betterment of masses throughsocial legislation, propaganda and appropriate actionprogrammes. When there is a need to bring aboutsome change in the social structure or to preventthe negative change from happening, which mayinfluence the general population or a large numberof people, social action comes into play. NarmadaBachao Andolan is one of the finest examples of socialaction carried out for the betterment of the masses.Let us look into the concept of social action in somedetail.

Concept of Social ActionSocial action is considered an auxiliary method ofprofessional social work. As one of the methods ofworking with people, it has remained a debatableissue among the social work professionals. Social

* Dr. Beena Antony and Dr. Archana Kaushik,University of Delhi, Delhi

Social Action: Concept and Principles 215

action is a method of social work used for mobilizingmasses in order to bring about structural changesin the social system or to prevent adverse changes.It is an organised effort to change or improve socialand economic institutions. Some of the social problemslike dowry system, destruction of natural resources,alcoholism, poor housing, health, etc. can be tackledthrough social action.

As a method of professional social work, social actionhas remained an issue with wide ranging of opinionsregarding its scope, strategies and tactics to beused, its status as a method and its relevance tosocial work practice. Mary Richmond was the firstsocial worker to use the word ‘social action’ in 1922.She defines social action as “mass betterment throughpropaganda and social legislation”. However, SydneyMaslin (1947) limits the scope of social action byconsidering it as a process of social work mainlyconcerned with securing legislation to meet massproblems. Baldwin broadens the scope of social actionby emphasizing on bringing about structural changesin the social system through social action. Baldwin(1966) defines social action as “an organised effortto change social and economic institutions asdistinguished from social work or social service,the fields which do not characteristically coveressential changes in established institutions. Socialaction covers movements of political reforms, industrialdemocracy, social legislation, racial and social justice,religious freedom and civic liberty and its techniquesinclude propoganda, research and lobbying”. In thesame line Friedlander (1977) defines social actionas an individual, group or community effort withinthe framework of social work philosophy and practicethat aims to achieve social progress, to modify socialpolicies and to improve social legislation and healthand welfare services. Similar views are expressedby Lee (1937) who says “social action seems to suggest


efforts directed towards changes in law or socialstructure or towards the initiation of new movementsfor the modification of the current social practices”.

According to Coyle (1937) social action is the attemptto change the social environment in ways, whichwill make life more satisfactory. It aims to affectnot individuals but social institutions, laws, customs,communities. Fitch (1940) considers social actionas legally permissible action by a group (or by anindividual trying to promote group action) for thepurpose of furthering objectives that are both legaland socially desirable. A broad outlook has also beengiven by Hill (1951) who describes social action as“organised group effort to solve mass social problemsor to further socially desirable objectives by attemptingto influence basic social and economic conditionsor practices”.

Further, social action is a term applied to that aspectof organised social welfare actively directed towardsshaping, modifying or maintaining the socialinstitutions and policies that collectively constitutethe social environment (Wickendon, 1956). Solender(1957) states that social action in the field of socialwork is a process of individual, group or inter-groupendeavour, within the context of social work philosophy,knowledge and skill. Its objective is to enhance thewelfare of society through modifying social policyand the functioning of social structure, working toobtain greater progress and better services. It is,therefore, evident that social action has been viewedas a method of bringing about structural changesalong with social legislation.

Let us see some of the viewpoints of Indian socialwork authors about the definition and scope of socialaction. Moorthy (1966) states that the scope of socialaction includes work during catastrophic situationssuch as fires, floods, epidemics, famines, etc., besides


securing social legislation. Nanawati (1965) viewssocial action as “a process of bringing about thedesired changes by deliberate group and communityefforts. Social action does not end with the enactmentof social legislation, but the execution of the policieswas the real test of success or failure of socialaction”. The institute of Gandhian studies definessocial action as the term commonly applied to socialwelfare activity which is directed towards shapingor modifying the social institutions and policies thatconstitute the social environment in which we live.

Similarly, Singh (1986) maintains that social actionis a process in which conscious, systematic andorganised efforts are made by some elites and/orpeople themselves to bring about change in the systemwhich is instrumental in solving problems andimproving conditions which limit the social functioningof weaker and vulnerable sections. It is, on thepractical plane, nearer to social reform than to socialrevolution, which aims at smashing the entire existingsocial structure and to build up a new social set-up. It is conflictual in nature but at the same timenon-violent.

The objective of social action is the proper shapingand development of socio-cultural environment inwhich a richer and fuller life may be possible forall the citizens. Mishra (1992) has identified followinggoals of social action:

1) Prevention of needs;

2) Solution of mass problems;

3) Improvement in mass conditions;

4) Influencing institutions, policies and practices;

5) Introduction of new mechanisms or programmes;

6) Redistribution of power and resources (human,


material and moral);

7) Decision-making;

8) Effect on thought and action structure; and

9) Improvement in health, education and welfare.

Thus, we see that social action is seen as a methodof professional social work to be used to bring aboutor prevent changes in the social system throughthe process of making people aware of the socio-political and economic realities that influence orcondition their lives. This is done by mobilising themto organise themselves for bringing about the desiredresults through the use of appropriately worked outstrategies, with the exception of violence. Someexamples of social action are socio-religious movementsin the medieval period targeted against superstition,orthodox religious practices and various other socialevils. The underlying philosophy of these social actionswas humanitarian in nature based on the principlesof justice, equality and fraternity.

Principles of Social Action

Considering Gandhian principle of mobilisation asa typical example of the direct mobilisation modelof social action Britto (1984) brings out the followingprinciples of social action:

The principle of Credibility Building: It is the taskof creating public image of leadership, the organisationand the participants of the movement as championsof justice, rectitude and truth. It helps in securingdue recognition from the opponent, the reference-public and the peripheral participants of the movement.

Credibility can be built through one or many of thefollowing ways:

1) Gestures of goodwill towards the opponent: Toexemplify, when Gandhiji was in England, World


War I broke out. He recruited students for servicein a British Ambulance Corps on the WesternFront. These gestures of goodwill towards theopponents projected the image of Gandhiji as atrue humanitarian personality. His philosophyof non-violence facilitated the credibility-buildingprocess among his opponents, the British.

2) Example setting: Dr. Rajendra Singh, the Magsaysayaward winner of 2001, had set examples of waterconservation in many villages of Rajasthan, bymaking check-dams, through mobilisation of villageresources (manpower, cash and kind) beforestarting water-conservation movement at a muchlarger scale.

3) Selection of typical, urgently felt problems for struggles:The leaders gain credibility if they stress onthe felt-needs of the people. Scarcity of waterhas remained one of the pressing problems ofthe people of Rajasthan. When Dr. R. Singhinitiated his intervention on this issue, hiscredibility was automatically established.

4) Success: Successful efforts help in setting upcredibility of the leader and the philosophy he/she is preaching. Seeing the successful work ofSingh in certain villages of Rajasthan, Stategovernment also came forward to extend its support.Local leaders from various other villages andNGO professionals also approached him for help.

Principle of Legitimisation: Legitimisation is theprocess of convincing the target group and the generalpublic that the movement-objectives are morally right.The ideal would be making a case for the movementas a moral imperative. Leaders of the movementmight use theological, philosophical, legal-technical,public opinion paths to establish the tenability ofthe movement’s objectives. Legitimisation is acontinuous process. Before launching the programme,


the leaders justify their action. Subsequently, asthe conflict exhilarates to higher stages and as theleader adds new dimension to their programme,further justification is added and fresh argumentsare put forth. Such justification is not done by leadersalone. In the course of their participation, followerstoo, contribute to the legitimisation process. Followingare the three approaches to legitimisation:

1) Theological and religious approach to legitimisation:Gandhiji, used this approach during freedommovement. He appealed to serve dharma by revoltingagainst injustice of Britishers.

2) Moral approach to legitimisation: People associatedin the Campaign Against Child Labour, throughpeaceful rallies, persuasive speeches, use of media,organising, drawing competition among schoolchildren, have helped to create an environmentagainst child abuse in the country. As a resultemploying children in any occupation is consideredmorally wrong and it becomes moral obligationto all conscious citizens to make sure that allchildren below the age of 14 years go to schoolinstead of earning a livelihood.

3) Legal-technical approach to legitimization: Peopleengaged with the ‘Campaign for People’s Rightto Health’ have based their argument on thehuman rights issues, fundamental rights andgovernment’s commitment to ‘Health for All’. Itgives credibility to the movement.

Principle of Dramatisation: Dramatisation is theprinciple of mass mobilisation by which the leadersof a movement galvanize the population into actionby emotional appeals to heroism, sensational news-management, novel procedures, pungent slogans andsuch other techniques. Almost every leader mobilisingthe masses, uses this principle of dramatisation.


Tilak, Marx, Guevara, Periyar and the Assam agitationleaders, resorted to this principle. Some of themechanisms of dramatisation could be:

1) Use of songs: Catchy songs, which put forth thecause of a movement, create a dramatic effect.During freedom struggle, at Bardoli, local talentwas tapped to compose songs to stimulate theenthusiasm of the people. Several choirs weretrained and they travelled from village to villagein a bullock cart to sing satyagrahic hymns atnumerous meetings.

2) Powerful speeches: This is also a crucial way ofmotivating the masses and creating drama-effect.Gandhiji’s appeal to sacrifice and martyrdom wasthrilling and it had a special appeal for the youthto work for this cause.

3) Role of women: Making prominent women leadmarchers was a technique which gave a dramaticeffect to the movement. At Rajkot, Kasturba Gandhiherself inaugurated the civil disobediencemovement by courting arrest first.

4) Boycott: Boycott is also an effective way ofinfluencing public opinion both when the effortis successful and when it is crushed. Picketingand ‘hartals’– voluntary closure of shops and otherorganisations, were used by Gandhiji to dramatisethe issue.

5) Slogans: Bharat chodo, Jal hi Jeevan, Say no toDrugs, HIV/AIDS– knowledge is prevention, etc.are some of the slogans used to give dramaticeffect to various social movements.

Principle of Multiple Strategies: There are two basicapproaches to development: conflictual and non-conflictual. Taking the main thrust of a programme,one can classify it as political, economic or social.The basket principle indicates the adoption of a


multiple strategy, using combined approaches andalso a combination of different types of programmes.Zeltman and Duncan have identified four developmentstrategies from their experience of communitydevelopment. These have been framed for use insocial action. They are:

1) Educational strategy: In this strategy, the prospectiveparticipants are educated at the individual, groupand mass level. This is one of the basicrequirements of social action. People or targetgroups are given necessary information aboutthe issue. By creating awareness people aremotivated and persuaded to participate in themovement. During campaign against child labour,a network of NGOs working with children wasdeveloped and these NGOs in tune createdawareness in their respective areas througheducational strategy. Education by demonstrationis an important aspect of this principle.Demonstration has deep impact on the knowledgeretention of the target population.

2) Persuasive strategy: Persuasive strategy is theadoption of a set of actions/procedures to bringabout changes by reasoning, urging and inducingothers to accept a particular viewpoint. Gandhijiused this strategy by constantly seekingopportunities for dialogue with his opponents. Atevery rally, stress was laid on winning newconverts by oratory and gentle presentation ofarguments.

3) Facilitative strategy: This refers to a set of proceduresand activities to facilitate the participation ofall sections of society in the mass movement.The programme Gandhians devised was often sosimple and devoid of any risk that even illiteratechildren could imitate them and participate inthe National Liberation Movement. In salt-


satyagraha, Gandhiji did not go into thetechnicalities of salt making. He simply askedthe followers to make consumable salt by boilingthe sea-water. Its simplicity did facilitate greaterparticipation.

4) Power strategy: It involves the use of coercion toobtain the desired objectives. The forms of coercionmay vary. Gandhiji used social ostracism as oneof the techniques of power strategy.

Principle of Dual Approach: Any activist has to buildcounter-systems or revive some unused system, whichis thought to be beneficial to the mobilised publicon a self-help basis without involving the opponent.This is a natural requirement consequent upon theattempt to destroy the system established/maintainedby the opponents. Gandhian constructive workprogramme performed such a function, in a smallmeasure, together with conflictual programmes ofsatyagrahis. This cooperative effort indicates thatGandhians adopted or attempted to a dual approachin their mobilization.

Principle of Manifold Programmes: It means developinga variety of programmes with the ultimate objectiveof mass mobilization. These can be broadly categorizedinto three parts: Social, Economic and Politicalprogramme. Dr. Rajendra Singh has taken up theissue of water conservation as a composite of manifoldprogrammes. His water conservation helped thevillagers, particularly women, who had to go milesto fetch water. It helped in better development ofcrops, better animal husbandry, implying moreeconomic benefits. During the movement, there weredirect and indirect conflict resolutions with the localleaders, panchayat bodies and state government.

Skills Involved in Social Action

After understanding the concept and principles ofsocial action, let us take a look at the skills needed


by social workers for social action. These skills areno different from the general skills; professionalsocial worker uses these skills by combining theethics and principles of professional social work.However, a social worker using social action, as amethod of social work, requires certain skills; themore important among these are briefly describedbelow.

Relational Skills: The social worker should haveskills for building rapport with individuals and groupsand skills for maintaining these relations. He/sheshould be able to develop and maintain professionalrelationship with the clients. The social worker shouldhave the ability to identify the leadership qualitiesamong the clientele and should be skillful to harnessthese qualities for social action. Along with thisworking harmoniously with the established localleaders is also needed. He/she should be able todeal with intra-group and inter-group conflictseffectively. The ability to diagnose problematicbehaviour among the clients and providing counsellingis needed to develop and maintain integration withinthe community. The social worker should identifytension-producing situations and diffuse them beforethey become serious. Developing and maintainingcordial relations with other agencies and NGOs workingin the same geographical area and those workingfor similar causes is also required.

Analytical and Research Skills: The social workershould have the ability to objectively study the socio-cultural and economic characteristics of thecommunity. He/she should be able to find out thepressing problems and needs of the clientele. He/she should be able to analyze the social problems,the factors contributing to the social problems andits ramifications on the social, economic, political,ideological, cultural, ecological aspects of life. He/she should be able to conduct research and/or


understand the likely impact of research studiesin a functional sense. Added to this, the socialworker should be able to facilitate the communitypeople to speak out their own felt needs and prioritizethem. The social worker should never try to imposehis/her own understanding of the social situationand problems on the community.

Intervention Skills: After need identification, thesocial worker should have the ability to help theclientele chalk out practical intervention strategiesto deal with the problem. The social worker shouldprovide various options to the clientele and helpthem in analyzing pros and cons of each option fortaking up proper steps. Social action may require‘confrontation’ with authorities. The social workermust inform the community about the consequencesof taking up hard steps like sit-ins, boycotts, strikes,etc. The social worker should be able to maintainthe desired level of feeling of discontent and emotionalsurcharge to bring about the necessary change,enthusiasm and courage among the community peoplefor a fairly long time so as to minimize the possibilityof failure of mass mobilization before the set objectivesare achieved. The social worker should be able tomaintain patience and composed behaviour as he/she has to deal with emotional balance of the clientelein a rational way.

Added to this, the social worker should have theability to create the environment wherein individualsand groups can actively participate. The interventionsshould be developed keeping in mind the pressingneed, resources (human and material) and socio-cultural milieu of the community. He/she shouldbe able to improvise situations for targetedinterventions.

Managerial Skills: The social worker also needsthe knowledge and ability to handle organisation,


which may be the outcome of the institutionalizationof people’s participation. He/she should be able tocoordinate and collaborate with various groups andlocal leaders so as to unite the clientele for therequired intervention. He/she should be skillfulenough to make policies and programmes, programmeplanning, coordinating, recording, budgeting andelementary accounting and maintenance of variousrecords. He/she should be able to mobilize internal/external resources in terms of money, men, materials,equipment, etc. The social worker also requires theskills of supervising human and material resourcesand its effective utilization for the welfare anddevelopment of the targeted community.

Communication Skills: These skills are highly crucialfor social action. The social worker should have theability to develop effective public relations with localorganisations and leaders. He/she should be ableto effectively communicate verbally (including publicspeaking) and in writing as well. The social workershould be able to deliver or identify people who candeliver powerful speeches. He/she should be ableto devise indoor/outdoor media for effectivelycommunicating with the target audiences. The socialworker should be able to evaluate and use folk andmass media suited to diverse groups. These skillsare used for developing slogans and motivationalsongs, speeches and IEC materials for massmobilization. The social worker should have skillsto educate, facilitate, negotiate and persuade fornecessary actions at needed places.

Training Skills: The social worker should be ableto train local leaders and identified leaders for takingup the charge of mass mobilization and confrontationwith the authorities. He/she should be able to trainselected people at the local level aimed at impartingknowledge about the social issue taken up for actionand the modalities of carrying out the intervention


including the ‘confrontation process’. These peopleshould be trained for creating public opinion for oragainst the social issue taken up and identify andinvolve people in social action. They should also betrained to utilize social action strategies and tactics(confrontation, persuasion, negotiation, boycott, etc.)without the use of violence.

Critical Issues

Let us now take a look at some of the critical issues,which influence the success of mass mobilizationand in turn, the achievement of set goals throughsocial action. As mentioned earlier social actionuses a number of strategies and tactics (details ofthese would be given in subsequent units) andenvisages the active role of many of stakeholders.This multiplicity of strategies and involvement ofdifferent stakeholders demand meticulous planningand careful implementation. If not addressedbeforehand, these issues may lead to disruption ofthe process and sometimes failure of plannedinterventions. The issues that a professional socialworker needs to keep in mind are:

Empowerment of the Clientele: The central themebehind any social issue for which social action isbeing carried out is the ‘empowerment of the clientgroup or the community’. In the process of socialaction, the group whose cause is being advocatedmust get empowered and develop the skills andstrengths to gain access to common resources forthe development of the community. The end resultof the social action should be equitable partnershipsbetween the interested stakeholders, allowingdemocratic decision-making and actual access andusage of denied resources. The social worker must,from time to time, evaluate and monitor the progressof social action in relation to the overall goal ofempowerment. Any deviation from this goal may lead


to failure of the philosophy of social action andaccumulation of power and resources in the handsof a few selfish people. It would mean injustice tothe entire group or community for whose cause socialaction is being carried out.

Dealing with Groupism: Social action questions theunjust power equations and unfair distribution ofresources. It implies confrontation with those havingpower and resources. In the process, certain groupsmay develop having members with vested interestswhich might not be apparent. These groups may tryto take lead and influence the social worker to beon their side. Any opposition may raise inter-grouptensions and conflicts. Depending upon the situation,the counter attack can be very fierce and challenging.At the level of planning itself, the social workersmust foreseen this possibility and handle the situationvery judiciously and tactfully.

Accountability: The professional social worker hasto ensure that there is consistent and continuedcommunication amongst all stakeholders and a processof clear accountability and transparency is maintainedin order to give the cause positive legitimacy. Anymiscommunication or negative communication mayresult in losing the credibility, and in turn, mayaffect the entire social action process.

Building Right Alliances: Social action process callsfor participation of various stakeholders for the causeor issue. It is essential that the social worker usesskills to understand the perceptions of thesestakeholders and their levels of interests in socialaction. Only then the social worker will be able toutilize their capabilities and skills in the socialaction process effectively. While doing so the socialworker may have to form alliances and partnershipswith several people and organisations to further


the cause. Therefore, he/she needs to be carefulin guarding against those who may use the activitiesfor their own gain and may even dilute the causeand thereby defeat the goal of social action. Indeedgiving chance to those who may jeopardize the causemay legitimate them as genuine social actionists,when in reality, they would be fostering their personalrather than the group cause.

Balancing Micro-Macro Issues: Social action oftenentails a shift from the micro to macro in addressingpolicy change and also legislative alterations. Thiscan be illustrated by the example of an organisation,which has been working with street children providingthem with education. However, as the work progressesthe organisation shifts towards developing coalitionswith several such organisations with regard toformulation of and change in child related policies.

Remaining Apolitical: Social action entails a clarityand understanding of political environment. However,politics does not mean party politics or formal politics.Any kind of political affiliations of the social workerwill on the one delegitimize the activities and atthe same time jeopardize the real cause by ensuringthe selling out of the cause for the promotion ofone party interest rather than group interest.

Conclusion

Social action is a secondary method of professionalsocial work. It is used for mobilizing masses in orderto bring about structural changes in the social systemor to prevent negative changes. Certain social problemslike ecological balancing, bonded labour, child labour,women empowerment, substance abuse, etc., canbe tackled through social action.

The primary objective of social action is to bringabout solutions to mass problems, improve mass


conditions and redistribute power and resources(human, material and moral).

Principles of social action are: a) principle of credibilitybuilding; b) principle of legitimization; c) principleof dramatization; d) principle of multiple strategies;e) principle of dual approach; and f) principle ofmanifold programmes.

A social worker using social action, as a methodof social work, requires certain skills. They are: a)relational skills i.e. to relate effectively with thepeople to build rapport and credibility building; b)analytical skills i.e. ability to analyze the socialsituation and social problem objectively andscientifically; c) intervention skills are needed tohelp the clientele chalk out practical interventionstrategies to deal with the social problem; d) managerialskills are required to coordinate and collaboratewith various groups and local leaders so as to unitethe clientele for the required intervention; e)communication skills to educate, facilitate, negotiateand persuade for necessary actions at needed places;f) training skills i.e. the social worker should beable to train leaders for taking up the charge ofmass mobilization and confrontation with theauthorities.

Some critical issues which influence the successof social action are: empowerment of the clientelewhich is the inherent goal of any social action,dealing with intra and inter group conflicts,accountability and transparency, building allianceswith the ‘right’ people and organisations, shiftingvision from micro to macro problems and avoidingpolitical involvement.


References

Britto, G.A.A. (1984), Social Action and Social WorkEducation in the Eighties, in Social Work and SocialAction (ed) H.Y. Siddiqui, Harnam Publications.

Britto, G.A.A. (1984), Some Principles of Social Action,in Social Work and Social Action (ed) H.Y. Siddiqui,Harnam Publications.

Chowdhry, D. Paul (1992), Introduction to Social Work,Atma Ram & Sons, Delhi.

Davis, Martin (2000), The Blackwell Encyclopaedia ofSocial Work, (eds.) Blackwell Publishers, Massachusetts,pp.317-318.

Friedlander, W.A. (1977), Introduction to Social Welfare,Prentice Hill, New Delhi.

Mishra, P.D. (1992), Social Work – Philosophy andMethods, Inter India Publications, New Delhi.

Moorthy, M.V. (1966), Social Action, Asia PublishingHouse, Bombay.

Nanavati, M.C. (1965), ‘Social Action and TheProfessional Social Work’ Social Work Forum, vol.III,no.2, pp.26-29.

Pathak, S.H. (1971), Social Welfare, Health and FamilyPlanning, New Delhi.

Siddiqui, H.Y. (1984), Social Work and Social Action(ed.), Harnam Publications.

Singh, Surender (1986), Social Action in Horizonsof Social Work (ed). By Surender Singh & K.S. Soodan,op. cit. p. 161.


12

Strategies and TacticsEmployed in Social Action


Introduction

Social action is the process of ‘confrontation’. It isused when other methods of social work like groupwork and community organisation fail to meet theneeds of the clientele group. When the resourcesare in the hands of a few people and they dictatetheir own terms and conditions, when power equationis imbalanced and rights are denied to a particularsection of the community, social action comes intoplay. It aims at equitable distribution of resourcesand power among different stakeholders.

Professional social work, for long, has relied on primarymethods (casework, group work and communityorganisation) for providing remedies to humanproblems. However, in the sixties of the precedingcentury, there was growing realization about humanenvironmental situation as an integrated whole. Itrequired holistic approach and more dependence onthe primary methods of social work was beingquestioned. Social institutions and social structurewere found inadequate to meet the needs of individualsand groups.

Therefore, the relevance of social action is beingincreasingly felt. Social action is used for mobilizingmasses to bring about structural changes in thesocial system. It is an organised effort to changeor improve social and economic institutions. It


Strategies and Tactics Employed in Social Action 233

encompasses movements of political reform, industrialdemocracy, social legislation and social justice.

Social action, like any other method of social work,uses certain strategies and employs certain tacticsduring its process to bring about the desired results.

What are these strategies and tactics?

Strategies and Tactics in Social Action

The dictionary meaning of strategy is plan/policy/approach/stratagem. Tactic means method/approach/course/ploy/pol icy/device/scheme/way/trick/manoeuvre. As indicated by the definitions of thetwo words, we understand that, like many socialworkers do, they can be used interchangeably.However, some social workers have made finerdistinction between strategy and tactic, as the formeris a larger term equivalent to a form or type ofsocial action. Strategies and tactics in social actionmeans to organise strike, boycott, persuade, negotiate,bargain, etc. Let us take a look at how variousstrategies and tactics are used in the process ofsocial action.

For better understanding of the strategies and tacticsemployed in social action, attention should first bepaid to the process of social action. Social action,many times, is considered an extension of communityorganisation. It necessarily involves the skills andstages of casework, group work and communityorganisation. The process of social action involvesthe following.

First stage is Developing Awareness. It is the studyof the social problem, its gravity, causes, impact onpeople, etc. It involves understanding the socio-culturalmilieu of the community and the pressing socialproblem affecting the well-being of a section of or


the whole community. It also includes making peopleaware of the causes responsible for social problems.

The next stage would be Organisation. It includessharing the study results with the people concerned.The leaders of various groups and local leaders ofthe community are called for taking an integratedaction. Awareness is created especially by usingthe means of mass communication. It is followedby efforts to mobilize people to organise for the givencause.

Next stage is Making Strategies. Goals are set onthe basis of felt needs and strategies are developedto achieve them. The strategies could be negotiatedwith the authorities or if the need arises, therecould be direct confrontation.

The last stage is Action in which implementationof the proposed intervention is done. This stage ismore methodical and concrete as the final outcomelargely depends on action.

Cohen also suggests similar stages in his definitionof methods of social action. “The methods of socialaction consist of research, planning, enlistment ofpublic support and interpretation to (and to applypressure on) those in the authority to implement”(Cohen, 1958). Similarly, Dunham (1958) definesprocess of social action as “efforts to bring aboutchange or prevent change in current social practicesor situations, through education, propaganda,persuasion and pressure on behalf of objectives believedby the social actionists to be socially desirable”.Here it may be noted that people’s participation inprioritizing their own needs and determining theobjectives as well as the strategies for social actionis of utmost importance. However, Dunham givessocial actionists the right to decide on their own,the objectives they feel desirable.


In the Indian context, the sarvodaya movement isone of the best example of social action. The processused by Sarvodaya workers is quite similar to theprocess of social action. The stages are:

Parichaya (first introduction): This is a stage ofintroduction to the clientele and their social needsand problems. In this stage social issues and strategiesare introduced to the masses.

Adhyayan (survey or study): Information is gatheredfrom the population on the burning issues and itsimpact on the socio-economic and cultural aspectsof life are discussed in great detail.

Prachar (propaganda): It involves creating awarenessat the mass level. The propaganda is meant formass mobilization for taking action at the integratedlevel.

Sahavasa (association): Cooperation is sought fromdifferent people and organisations working in thesame area and or on similar issues.

Seva (service): Welfare and developmental servicesare offered to the target population.

It helps in establishing support.

Pratikar (resistance): It involves coercive measuresagainst the existing authority, which require changeof power, structure and/or functioning.

Construction work or community service: Emphasisis on the constructive activities carried out at thecommunity level. This enhances the credibility ofthe movement.

Building the climate of change: Social environmentis made conducive to positive change.

However, if the emphasis is on rendering of services,then it becomes more akin to community organisation


than social action. But the concept of lok shaktiin sarvodaya clearly indicates that the emphasis ison change. Das Gupta mentions “Lok shakti maymean the collective capacity (power) of the peopleexpressed or latent, to deliberate, decide and acttogether”. Awakening of Lok shakti dilutes the powerof the state.

Now we focus on the tactics and strategies involvedin social action. Lees suggests nine tactics usedby social actionists in various stages of social action.These tactics generally overlap across various stagesin the process of social action.

They are:

1. Research 2. Education

3. Co-operation 4. Organisation

5. Arbitration 6. Negotiation

7. Mild coercion 8. Violation of legal norms

9. Joint action.

There is hardly any consensus on the strategiesthat are possible and available, which can form thecore of social action practice. However, three mainstrategies identified by Lees are:

1) Collaboration: In this strategy social workerscollaborate with the local authority and otherauthorities or agencies in order to bring aboutimprovements in the existing social policy. Theunderlying assumption of this approach ishomogeneity of values and interests, throughwhich substantive agreement on proposedinterventions is obtained. It doesn’t involve lossor gain of power, authority or money; changeoccurs within a consensus that includes bothvalues and interests. In collaborative strategy,


the change in the social structure or institutionis brought about by peaceful means which includeeducation, persuasion, demonstration, andexperimentation. One of the premise on whichit is based is that all those who have power willnot necessarily respond to change only throughthe conflictual approach. Through the abovetechniques, change can be brought about as forthem, the intended change is either the lesserof the two evils, or, they have themselves identifiedthe factors which affect the very existence ofthe institution or the achievement of its goals.They themselves are disenchanted or dissatisfiedand hence willing to change.

2) Competition or Bargaining, Negotiation,Advocacy: The second set of techniques are basedon the premise that one anticipates someresistance to change, and the activity of thechange agent may have to be accompanied bytactics which are not persuasive rather seek toaffect change through pressure. In this strategycontending parties utilize commonly acceptedcampaign tactics of persuasion, negotiation andbargaining with the willingness to arrive at aworking agreement.

3) Disruption, and Confrontation: Third set oftechniques are based on the premise that inthe struggle between those who are pro statusquo and those who are pro change, resistanceis an aspect of the change effort and thereforethe dynamics of conflict is inherent in the socialaction effort. This strategy signifies a more militantapproach and it may include strikes, boycotts,fasts, tax-refusal, ‘sit-ins’ etc. Lees also includesriots and guerilla warfare though these may beomitted by many other social workers as anyuse of violence will be unacceptable to valuesand ethics of professional social work.


Both the overall strategies and tactics suggestedby Lees seem to follow a sequence, which may meanthat one should begin with collaboration and if itdoes not produce the desired result, one may resortto a disruption strategy for the achievement of thedesired objective. The use of strategy or the tacticswould also depend on the goals selected and theprevailing socio-cultural milieu.

Richard Bryant also postulates two sets of strategies—Bargaining and Confrontation. By bargaining hemeans lobbying, submitting petitions, informationand publicity campaigns, etc. Whereas confrontationincludes strikes, demonstrations and sit-ins. Singhadds another approach or strategy as Administrativeapproach. He mentions that “Most often than not,any struggle or effort towards drastic or radicalchange is viewed by the establishment as a lawand order problem and therefore, an administrativeapproach or strategy is adopted to deal with thesituation”. It includes persuasion, bargaining, pressure,coercion, infiltration, concession, co-option, splitting,etc.

It may be noted that perception of the situation bythe leaders or decision-makers and their experiencecounts much more in the selection of the strategy.To exemplify, in the backward classes or peasantmovements, strategies like withdrawal, self-organisation, conversion, combining of caste withclass, mobilization, division of labour, attacking themonopoly of reference groups by the deprived, useof secular and religious themes, participation in orshunning of elections (democratic political processes),emulation, propaganda, mass-appeal, articulation,deprivation, sensitization, protest, demonstration,etc. have been used.

Hornstein lists certain strategies for socialintervention. They are: Individual change, techno-


structural, data-based, organisational developmentand cultural change, violence and coercion, andnon-violent direct action, accommodation, exposures,living examples, public support, presentation ofproposals, competition, lobbying, agitation andsubversion. Hornstein has classified these strategiesor tactics of social action as:

1) Direct action: E.g. picketing, marches,fraternization, haunting, leafleting and renouncinghonours.

2) Non-cooperation: E.g. strikes, boycott, tax-refusal.

3) Intervention: E.g. sit in, reversal strike,obstruction.

In the Gandhian tradition, non-violent protest andpersuasion, non-cooperation and non-violentintervention have been included in the three broadcategories of strategies or methods of social action.In fact these three characteristics of Gandhian socialaction shares striking similarity with the ethics,values and philosophy of professional social work.It may be noted that though social action requiresconfrontation, negotiation or persuasion, it does notapprove of any violence, or hostility, cruelty andblood shedding. It means that even the discontentis shown in a peaceful manner.

Common methods used in Gandhian social actionare: parades, vigils, posters, teachings, mourning,protest meetings, etc. These methods are peacefuldemonstration of discontent and dissatisfaction. InGandhian approach workers are guided by certainfactors in the selection of methods or strategiesthey adopt for social action. The factors enumeratedin the Gandhian studies are:

a) Keep in mind the socio-cultural, economic andpolitical milieu of the community. Strategy adopted


should consider the tradition or background ofthe target population.

b) Whether and how much the target populationpossesses the knowledge about the non-violentaction, whether they have had the experiencewith non-violent action. It basically assesses thecapability of the general population for showingdiscontent in a peaceful manner.

c) General social and political situation of thecommunity also influences the selection orrejection of a particular strategy. The socialactionist appraises the possibility of simplenegotiation or persuasion with the authoritiesor use of demonstration of noncompliance.

d) Degree of repression the target population isundergoing is one of the main factors in theselection of the appropriate strategy.

e ) Nature of opponents, their objectives and strategiesalso counts a lot in the selection of the socialintervention.

f) What resources are at the opponents’ disposal,is another important factor and how much socialpressure they can bear also help in selectingthe appropriate strategy.

g) Degree of ruthlessness the opponent is preparedto use would by and large determine the extentof peaceful demonstrations and strategies thesocial actionist is prepared to use.

h) Degree of opponents’ dependence on the membersof the non-violent opposition determines theeffectiveness of negotiation as a strategy.

i) Number of participating actionists and the degreeof support they receive from the population isalso a crucial factor in selecting strategy especiallyfor carrying out rallies, morcha and dharna.


j) The use of different strategies also depend uponthe quality of social actionists and leaders andtheir own value system, adherence to virtueslike non-violence and commitments towards thewell-being of the target population.

k) Nature of grievance or the social problem, itsintensity and extension also influences theintervention strategy.

l) Lastly, physical details of the specific situationsin which action is contemplated too helps inselecting appropriate strategy for social action.

Thus we see that many strategies and tactics areused by the social workers in the process of socialaction. Here, it may again be reminded that thoughsocial actionist may use strategies such asconfrontation and tactics like boycott, sit-ins, rallies,blockades, marches, tax-refusals and other formsof showing disobedience and discontent to theauthorities having power and resources, stress ison equitable distribution of resources and powerand social justice through a peaceful process.

Example From Field Situation

Below is an example from a field situation whichenumerates how social workers are able to bringabout certain positive structural changes in the socialenvironment of the drug users through social action.

A Delhi based NGO, ABC is working in the fieldof drug abuse and HIV/AIDS. Two NGO workers,Nishant and Anand (names camouflaged) went toYamuna Pushta area (at the bank of river Yamuna,North Delhi) to have a feel of the field area. Theymet many drug users who were not in their sensesand were under the influence of drugs. These drugusers were almost in rags. They could hardly telltheir name and native place. The social workers


also met some of the shopkeepers and talked aboutthe drug users. They were told that most of themdo rag picking and some resort to stealing also.

After several interactions with the drug users andother people of the area, the social workers feltthat there is a pressing need to establish an outreachcentre to meet some of the needs of the drug users.One of the reasons for the urgency to start sucha centre was that drug users were sharing theneedles. This could increase the chance of HIV/AIDS among them many-folds. The social workersmotivated the drug users to come to the centre andexchange the used needles for the new ones.Medicines were given for their minor health problems.For major ailments like abscess, referrals were madeto nearby Lok Nayak Hospital. On various occasionsocial workers also accompanied them to the hospital.

Gradually, after rapport building, the social workersstarted calling the drug users for group activitieswhere some information was given to them aboutthe spread of HIV/AIDS. These group activities werelater regularized; say twice in a week. Social workerstook up casework with the drug users facing certainpressing problems. Certain health check-up campsfor the target group, drug users, in collaborationwith other NGOs were organised.

Drug users have had the experience of avoidance,neglect and rejection from the society. They wereeither not given employment anywhere or thrownout of the jobs once the employer came to knowthat they were drug users. They were labeled asthieves, burglars, picketers, ‘having bad character’by the general public. As a result, they were victimof low self-esteem, self-hatred and feeling ofhopelessness.

Gradually, through group work, they gained someconfidence. The ‘acceptance and non-judgmental


attitude’ of the social workers made a differencein their perception of the society and themselves.Group work process slowly and slowly gave thema feeling of self-worthiness and hope. In a few groupsessions the social worker facilitated the groupmembers to prioritize their needs and problems tobe solved. After discussions and arguments,development of many sub-groups and again reunion,the group members made a list of their needs andproblems on the priority basis. The first one wasdetoxification.

Collaborations were done with detoxification centersand the group members were sent there. However,after completing the course of detoxification, 19 outof 25, relapsed again. Main reasons were identifiedsuch as, constraints at the family level, unemploymentand unchanged negative prejudice of society towardsthem. The social workers then decided to intervenein their family situation also.

Through repeated interactions with wives of the groupmembers and their children the social workers gainedsome insight into their life-style. All the familieswere facing problems in interpersonal relations andin the interactions with various institutions of thesocial environment like school, neighbours, workplace, etc.

After rapport building, many small groups were formedlike wives of drug users, drop out children engagedin rag-picking, etc. Many of them were engaged indrug paddling too. A group of adolescent girls andanother comprising youth were also formed.

During several group activities specific to each group,the social workers came to know that frequent healthproblems was one of the major concerns of eachgroup. The community had many quacks, registeredmedical practitioners and a few ojhas and tantriks.In the initial stages of group development, the members


talked about minor health problems like frequentcough and cold, itching, etc. However, when thegroups became cohesive and members gainedconfidence to shed out their inhibitions to discusstheir pressing problems within the group, they cameout with symptoms of urinary and reproductive tractinfections, and sexually transmitted diseases. Theirhealth seeking behaviour showed that most of themused to go to these local doctors and pay about Rs.30/- per visit. Symptoms subside for few days andthen they again crop up. Some group members alsotold that these local doctors often give injectionsfrom the used needles and syringes. On asking whythey do not utilize the services of the nearby LokNayak hospital which is run by state governmentand hence free and proper treatment may be giventhere, the group members shared their negativeexperiences. They told that going to such a governmenthospital means losing out one day’s salary as ittakes too long in queues. Also, once the doctorscome to know that they have come from a slum orare drug users or are from the family of a druguser, without looking at any symptom, they ask forHIV test.

In addition, delays in treatment, discrimination, andearly discharges were also reported by the patientswho went for their treatment in the hospital. Manypatients, who happened to be the group memberstold that corner beds or beds near toilets areearmarked for them, no doctor or nurse come nearthem. They throw away the medicine to them froma distance. Labels are put on their bed as ‘HIV +’and the same entry is made on their files also.They are forced to bring their own medicines andeven gloves. Prompt surgeries required are postponedfor unlimited time. They face neglect anddiscrimination in the hospital.


All these factors indicated that the population ishighly prone to HIV/AIDS infections and somestructural changes are required to solve the problems.The social workers then called a meeting of theleaders of these groups and discussed with themthe whole situation. The following interventions weredecided with mutual agreement:

1) A survey on the health status and their needsto find out the gravity of the situation of thepossibility of spreading of STDs/RTIs and HIV/AIDS.

2) Awareness generation about the modes of spreadof STDs and HIV/AIDS.

3) Formation of a committee of people who wouldkeep a check on the wrong practices of the localdoctors.

4) Persuading hospital authorities for correctmeasures to deal with patients.

5) Approaching NACO and Ministry of Health tointervene.

A structured interview schedule was designed andadministered on the general population. Findingsrevealed that as high as 50% of the population,between the age group of 15 to 45 years, showsymptoms of RTIs and STDs. More than one-thirdhave used or are using drugs. Results of qualitativeanalysis after focused group discussions shows thatdrug use has also resulted in broken families andunemployment, which in turn has created a viciouscircle. There was much of the financial, emotionaland health constraints in almost all the familiesof drug users. There was an emotional surchargein the population to bring about a change for abetter future.


IEC (Information education communication) materiallike posters, brochures, leaflets were distributed tocreate awareness about STDs and HIV/AIDS. Nukkad-nataks, puppet-shows, group activities, etc. wereorganised/done to inform the people not only aboutthe modes of spread of STDs/HIV/AIDS but alsoabout the myths and misconceptions related to itand the emotional and financial cost involved therein.

Next step was confronting the local doctors and healthcare workers who are engaged in practices like reuseof needles and syringes. Firstly, all those local healthpractitioners were invited in a meeting. Nobody turnedup. The committee people went and talked to thembut they became defensive and rejected the chargesleveled on them. The committee members threatenedthat Public Interest Litigation would be filed againstthem if they resort to wrong practices. Negativepropaganda against the wrong practices like reuseof needles and syringes by local health practitionerswas carried out in the whole community with theuse of slogans like “bachao-bachao in doctoron kikharab sui syringe se khud ko bachao” (save yourselffrom the contaminated needles and syringes usedby these doctors). With repeated discussions andpropaganda, the local doctors agreed that their stockof needles and syringes would be checked by thecommittee members every morning and evening.Patients were also asked to see that no doctor usescontaminated needles and syringes on them.

The next step of taking corrective measures at thehospital level was the most difficult one. A meetingwith the Heads of the Department of Medicine, Skinand STD and Surgery was fixed and the matter ofmedical negligence and discrimination with patientswho are suspected to be HIV + was put up. TheHeads, however, showed least interest and defendedtheir staff. The social workers left the meeting placewith a mild threatening note. Meeting with the Medical


Superintendent and sharing concerns with him alsoproved futile.

The NGO personnels formed a HIV/AIDS forum ofrepresentatives of different NGOs working in thesame field. Another pressure group named ‘DelhiNetwork of (HIV) positive people’ also collaborated.The representatives of different groups of the YamunaPushta area also joined in. They formed a committeeamong themselves and approached the Delhi StateAIDS Control Society. Lawyers fighting for socialcause were also approached. They filed public interestlitigation (PIL) against the hospital authority. Printand electronic media were involved to propagatethe matter at a larger scale. Newspapers and Newschannels came into action. A rally followed by sit-in was organised to pressurize the hospital to comeup with a written policy for the care of HIV+ patientsin the hospital and sincere adoption of the sameinto practice.

Finally, the hospital authorities came forward andasked the HIV/AIDS NGO forum to help in formulationof the policy. A sensitization programme for all thelevels of staff, that is, doctors, nurses and ClassIV employees was organised to orient them for bettercare for HIV patients and dealing with their negativeattitudes with them. The policy guidelines weretranslated into Hindi and posters and brochureswere put up all over the hospital for awarenessgeneration. Strict guidelines were made for HIVtesting and disclosure of results so that confidentialityis maintained.

Meetings were fixed up with the Ministry of Healthand NACO, DSACS and a counselling centre wasstarted for the counselling of HIV patients and theirfamily members. The centre was linked up with theNGO forum for community out-reach programmes.


Funds and other resources were collected throughvarious corporate and private agencies and fundingorganisations. A small income generation centre ofbutton fixing and interlocking was started for thedrug users in the community. It was linked witha popular branded mans’ wear industry for supplyof raw materials and delivery of finished products.

Remarks: This example gives some clarity aboutthe process of social action and different strategiesand tactics used in the same. Here we see thatthe inherent theme behind the social action wasthe well-being of a number of community people,many of them were either drug users or the memberof a family of a drug user. The impact of drug useon the social and economic aspect of their life wasclearly visible. We also see the use of group workand community organisation in the process of socialaction. The field example also shows the use ofdifferent and appropriate strategies and tactics atdifferent places.

Conclusion

Three main types of strategies for social action are:

Collaboration: In this strategy the social workerscollaborate with the local authority and otherauthorities or agencies in order to bring aboutimprovements in the existing social policy.

Competition: In this strategy contending parties utilizecommonly accepted campaign tactics to persuade,to negotiate and to bargain, with the willingnessto arrive at a working agreement.

Disruption: This strategy signifies more militantapproach and it may include strikes, boycotts, fasts,tax-refusal, sit-ins, etc.

Tactics used in social action are strikes, boycott,tax-refusal, persuasion, picketing, marches,


fraternization, haunting, leafleting, sit-in, reversalstrike, obstruction, renouncing honours, etc.

References


Davis, Martin (2000), The Blackwell Encyclopaedia ofSocial Work, (eds.) Blackwell Publishers, Massachusetts,pp. 317-318.

Lees, R. (1972), Politics and Social Work, Routledgeand Keegan Paul, London.






13

Models of Social Action* Beena Antony, Archana Kaushik

Introduction

The literal meaning of ‘Model’ is the modality orstyle or pattern of doing a particular thing, whichis replicable. Conceptually, a model is an aid tocomplex theoretical activity and directs our attentionto concepts or variables and their inter-relationships.A ‘model’ of social action means a peculiarway or process of achieving set goals with certainidentifiable stages and characteristics. Stateddifferently, social action, in its process of achievingits objectives, adopts certain manner or modality,which is termed as ‘model of social action’.

Social action can be undertaken by the elitesexclusively without the participation of the masses.It can also be carried out by the elites with a greateror lesser degree of participation of the clientele.It can also be initiated and led entirely by thebeneficiaries or the community people themselves.To exemplify, in one type or model, certain elitepeople initiate and conduct social action withoutinvolving the target population. Raja Ram MohanRoy worked for social legislation against ‘sati-pratha’.In another way or model, the target population takesup the total charge of the social movement in itsown hands, though under the guidance of their leaders.For instance, freedom movement for our countrywas carried out under the guidance of Gandhiji.

It would be worthwhile to examine the characteristicsand inter-relationships of these models. The emphasis


Models of Social Action 251

in a particular model therefore should be the guidingprinciple for its comparison with other models. Ina particular instance, social action may be initiatedby an institution or an agency but may not havebecome institutionalized. It may be in the processof being so. Similarly, people may have initiatedaction but the same may have changed its characterby becoming institutionalized.

Models of Social Action

There are two main models of social action as givenby Britto (1984). They are:

1) Elitist Social Action

2) Popular Social Action

When social action is carried out by the eliteexclusively or with marginal participation of themasses, it is termed as ‘elitist social action’. Elitesocial action is essentially a group action. The othermodel of social action is termed ‘popular social action’in which either the elite incorporate the clientelein the process or the beneficiaries themselves carryit out. Three sub-models can be identified in eachtype of social action. Let us take a look at both themodels in some detail.

Elitist Social Action: It is the action initiated andconducted by the elites for the benefit of the masses.In this model of social action, general public or thetarget group is not involved. The three sub-modelsof elitist social action are:

1) Legislative Social Action Model: It is a processin which elite groups conduct studies on thegravity, extent and urgency of the problems, createpublic opinion and lobby to try to modify thesocial policy. Here, the general population orthe target group is not involved directly in the


process. Some elites either themselves or alongwith like-minded individuals take-up the socialissues, which they think can be related to thepressing problem. They do lobbying and othersimilar activities in order to achieve some benefitsfor the entire segment of people or prevent somemaladies from affecting their clientele or to removesome problem that is hindering their growth.How is such type of social action conducted?

The elites set up or be a part of commissionsand conduct studies on the social problem theyconsider crucial. After conducting studies on thegravity, extent and urgency of the problem, theychalk out scientific, feasible interventions, createpublic opinion and do lobbying. Following this,they discuss the matter with the concerned officialsand Ministers and persuade them to take upappropriate interventions. In this way the elitesget the rule, law and appropriation approved.They also assist in proper implementation of thenew policy.

Social legislations like ‘Child Labour (Prohibitionand Prevention) Act 1986; Dowry Prohibition Act,1961; Sati Prevention Act (revised) 1987; ImmoralTraffic (Prevention) Act 1956; Juvenile JusticeAct, 1986; Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 are theresults of the legislative social action carriedout by the elites.

2) Economic Sanction Model: In this type of socialaction, the elites, by gaining control over someeconomic, social, political or religious weapontry to obtain benefits for the society. In thisprocess, the elites gain control over some economicresources and use it as a threat to obtain benefitsfor their clientele. For example, labour officerin a shoe making industry was sensitive enoughtowards the felt needs of the female labourers


who wanted some time off to feed their infants.The authority of the industry put their standclearly that if any female worker takes the timeoff, her pay would be deducted. There were fifteensuch females out of 90 female staff who wantedthe time off. The labour officer held a meetingwith the female staff and asked the opinion ofall on this issue. He said that tomorrow anyother female might be in the position of these15 lactating mothers. After a series of meetings,all the females agreed to stand united for specialprivileges given to them. The authorities firstdisagreed. However, later, when the whole staffthreatened to go on indefinite strike and persuasionfrom the labour officer giving the reference ofMaternity Benefit Act 1961, they agreed to givein to the demands of the female staff. Not onlythis, a small crèche was also opened for theinfants and children of the female staff.

3) Direct Physical Model: It is a process whereelites take the law in their own hands and punishthose responsible for the cause of injustice andthus try to bring about benefits to their clientele.The NGOs working for the welfare and developmentof the child labour got united and initiated aCampaign Against Child Labour (CACL) throughoutthe country. It was realized that mere formulationof Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Actis not enough to provide security and justice tothe children working in formal and informal sectors.So a campaign was initiated in 1992 at the nationallevel to work for eradication of child labour andensuring the fundamental right to education forthem. The NGO workers carried out rallies,morchas, dharnas and did sit-ins against theapathy of the government as well as the greedof employers who ruin the lives of millions ofchildren for their profits and selfish motives.


Another example of direct physical model of socialaction is the naxalite movement. Naxalites tooklaw in their own hands and started punishingthe feudal oppressors. Their action has drawnnational attention to the problems of the ruralpoor and as a result several reform measureshave been announced. Land reform gatheredmomentum after the outbreak of Naxalbariactivities. However, it may be reminded thatNaxalite movement, though started with thepurpose of social justice and power re-distribution,it seems to have lost its goal and has turnedout to be no better than a terroristic activity.A more typical example of this model would befreedom struggle carried out by the Indianrevolutionary groups.

Popular Social Action: It is the second type of socialaction model given by Britto. In the popular socialaction model, a large section of people with or withoutelite participation is involved. They aim theirconfrontational/conflictive action against the unjustand dehumanizing structures, agencies, policies,procedures or oppressive agents. Direct mobilizationmodel, dialectical model and the conscientizationmodels are the sub-types of social action. Thesemodels differ from each other in some respects andthey have some common features, as mentionedbelow:

1) Conscientization Model: It is based on PauloFriere’s concept of creating awareness amongmasses through education. Paulo Friere developedthe concept of conscientization, which meanseducating the people about the oppression,oppressed and the oppressor (their own positionin the two groups), their inter-relationship, thepower structure and ways to liberate from theoppressed or oppressor class. Friere maintainsthat the situation when the oppressed and/or


oppressor are conscientized, there exists motivatingpossibilities for the true liberation of mankindas well as for the most efficient domesticationof man. He believed that education can be a toolfor re-education and social action. Conscientizationprocess results not merely in learning of literaryskills, but it is intended to assist the participantsto liberate themselves from all structures, whichinhibit the realization of their full humanity throughaction-reflection-action. This form of social actioninvolves maximum participation of the concernedpopulation. People are given opportunity to analyseand understand the social structures, whichcircumscribe their life. To know is to change;and so they are invited to transform the structuresthrough the means of their choice. As a resultof humanization, it is hoped that the oppresseddo not become oppressors in their turn. In thepresent situation, this model of social action isbeing extensively used in several countries.

Field example: An NGO working in a resettlementcolony in Kolkata has taken up the issue ofdiscriminatory treatment done against the girlchild at the familial, community and society level.The prejudices and gender bias in our patriarchalsocial structure have most often given lessershare to girl in the distribution of family resources,be it nutrition, education or other opportunitiesfor development. The NGO made use of streetplays, emotional speeches, debates, documentaryfilms, etc., to conscientize the people towardsthe vulnerability and exploitation of female children.Issues of female infanticide/feticide, poor healthand malnutrition, school drop-outs, low wages,torture for dowry, rape, molestation and manymore were projected through various means. Withthe use of conscientization model of social action,the NGO was able to make a little differencein the negative and indifferent attitudes of general


public towards girl child.

2) Dialectical Mobilization Model: It helps inpromoting conflict to exploit the contradictionsin a system, with the belief that a better alternativesystem will emerge as a result. Dialectic meansthe art of logical disputation. This process involvesan initial proposition (thesis), which is inadequateand generates a counter proposition (antithesis)and the rational context of both are taken upinto the synthesis. In other words when individualsor groups take up extreme positions and argue,the position of one may be taken as the thesisand that of the other as antithesis. The resultof their argumentation, a certain conclusionacceptable to both, may be termed synthesis.Thus, the posing of contradictory positions andarriving at a better conclusion is termed dialecticsin logic. Actionists who follow a dialectical processtake the logical to the ontological. They assumethat all forces in nature and human institutions,clash and develop. Every institution and everysocial force contains in itself the element of itsown disintegration. They expose the contradictionswithin a system, promote conflicts and expecta higher-order-result in the social-economic-political structures.

Field Example: An NGO in Kerala is creatingawareness among the general public about humanrights and electoral reforms. Use of posters,distribution of booklets in local language onelectoral reform, speeches and group discussionswere held to make the people aware that theirvoting right is very powerful tool in creating ajust society and that right should be used veryjudicially. Money and muscle power should notbe the criteria for giving votes to any candidate.Just a fortnight before Assembly elections, theNGO organised group discussions with the aspiring


candidates and sitting MLAs in variousconstituencies. The perception of people’s problemsand their probable solutions were discussed. Thegeneral public attended the discussions. The NGOpeople anchored the discussions, which oftenled to heated arguments and conflicts. Throughlogical disputation, the general public was madeaware of the credibility of the candidates andan appeal was made to give their vote to thedeserving candidates and not to get lured awayby any temporary favours offered to them by thesecandidates. Usage of dialectical mobilization modelof social action for electoral reform proved quiteuseful in enabling the people to establish a cleandemocratic political institution in their respectiveareas.

3) Direct Mobilization Model of Popular SocialAction: In direct mobilization model, specific issuesare taken up by the social actionists and themasses are mobilized to resort to protests andstrikes to achieve the objectives. In this process,the leaders or elites pick up specific grievancesor issues that are affecting the people at large.They analyse the causal factors, which are atthe root of the injustice. They formulate thealternative policies and procedures and mobilizethe masses for protest activities for the purposeof achieving the set objectives.

Let us take the example of the fish workers’ movementto understand the direct mobilization model in abetter way. During post independence period, a largenumber of trawlers and mechanized boats enteredin the fishing sector. This led to massive over fishingto capture lucrative foreign markets. Their fishingmethod destroyed several species of fish. Theimbalance, thus created in the eco-system, led tolowering of the stock available for traditional fishermen.Mechanization in the fishing sector put poor fishermen


at the mercy of moneylenders, merchants, exportersand multinationals. The government was apathetic.

The fish workers united together and raised theirvoice against the issue. They developed a well-structured organisation and started their protest.As the movement started spreading from blocks todistricts, the leaders formed union to bargain theirdemands with the government. The movementexpanded to the coastal areas of Kerala, Karnataka,Tamilnadu, Goa and Maharashtra and later to otherstates also. The union forced the governments tomake suitable policies and programmes to securetheir livelihood and maintain eco-balance.

A Commentary on Social Action Models as givenby Britto: The main difference between the twotypes, Elitist and popular social action, lies in thefact that in the elitist social action, the massesare not involved either in determining the goal orthe strategy, or even in action. Popular social actionon the other hand involves mobilization of the massesfor their own betterment. There is a loophole in theelitist sponsored social action. Though elitist socialaction may result in some benefits to some segmentof the population, by and large the real issues willnot be tackled. The elitist concept of the problemsof the weaker sections and the solutions offeredwill inevitably be determined by their own valuesystem, which may not be in conformity with howthe weaker sections themselves perceive theirproblems and how they want to solve them.

In addition to the above mentioned models of socialaction, Singh (1984) also describes certain othermodels of social action. The approaches taken inall these models of social action might be overlapping.Let us take a look at other models of social action.

Loka-Sakti Model of Social Action: This is the classicmodel of mass mobilization which attempts to bring


about the desired change in social structure fromthe perspective of Gandhian social work. There aretwo major view-points or approaches in the traditionof Gandhian constructive work. One group believethat constructive social work can gradually bringabout the desired change within the existing legaland constitutional framework. The stress, here, ison educating people and appealing to the conscienceof those who possess property and power to sacrificeit. Constructive work, along with awarenessgeneration, undertakes programmes with state supportfor community reconstruction.

The other group of Gandhians maintain that theneed of radical activism or massive changes in thesocial institutions arises when the state machineryor constitutional means fail to deliver services tothe community adequately. As a result there is aneed for mass action. Their conception of Gandhiansocialism aims at eliminating exploitation and poverty;provision of equal opportunity to all for self-development;full development of the material and moral resourcesof the society and their adequate appropriation. Theybelieve that in a socialist society, people are voluntarilyprepared to give in their own interests and wishesto the larger interests of the society. Such a kindof socialism cannot be achieved only through politicalaction; social action is also needed. Sarvodaya istaken as a social movement aimed at individualand social action. Emphasis is laid on revolutionin thought and method, the role of citizen, the needfor loka shakti (people’s power) and loka sammati(people’s consent) for building up swaraj (self-governance) and su-raj (good-governance).

The concept of loka-shakti is very significant inGandhian constructive work tradition. Loka-shaktirefers to the collective capacity or power of thepeople, expressed or latent, to deliberate, decideand act together. Loka-shakti, in order to be effective,


must have the quality of ethical virtues and appeal,and it must use non-violent methods for social change.The underlying thought behind the concept of lokashakti is that unless the energies and capacitiesof the community people are mobilized, and theybecome self-reliant and capable of taking initiativecollectively and voluntarily, their development wouldundoubtedly be slow especially in a democracy. Loka-shakti is the essence of democracy. The state power(rajya-shakti) cannot fulfill its objectives withoutloka-shakti.

From the above description it may be inferred thatdifferent models of social action incorporate differentperspectives. Some questions as to what is theconception of society, what are the goals that aresought to be achieved through social action, withwhat means and methods, what are the respectiveroles of people and the state and what is the ideology— determine the basis on which one or the othermodel rests. The social action might be initiatedby elites or the beneficiaries themselves or evenby the state or government. The target of actionmay be individuals, groups or communities. The actionmay either visualize their participation, or only thatof elites/institutions with people as recipients. Inaddition, the locus of action again may be state,institutions, associations, groups, and people, andits coverage may be confined to grassroot level, ormay even extend to intermediate and macro levels.The action may be active (a need is perceived byan individual, group or agency and becomes thecause of action) or reactive (the action is a responseto a situation created by an earlier action). Takingthese factors into account, a framework of socialaction has been described below:


Models of Social Action

Institutional Institutional Social Populist/ Gandhian(state) (social) Institutional Movemental

Militant non-violent Gentle non-violent Citizenship model of

tradition tradition constructive work

Institutional and Non-institutionalModels

Institutional (state) Model of Social Action: It isthe social action initiated by the state or government.Social action by the state generally takes an indirectform, and its aim is to benefit the people with orwithout their participation. The approach isparliamentary, representational, bureaucratic andelitist. The action is organised or sponsored withinthe framework of law and may be legalizedsubsequently. For example, government passesexecutive orders for regularization of unauthorizedsettlements of poor in urban settings and alsoimplements programmes for community reconstruction,say, proper sewage, availability of safe drinking water,free immunization and health check-ups.

Institutional-Social Model of Social Action: Itvisualises social action by non-governmental institutionswhich are aided or unaided by government. In thismodel, action is initiated either directly or withthe support of the people. Even in certain cases,people’s active support is sought in due course oftime. In the beginning the action is initiated forthe people but subsequently it progresses with andthrough them. The inherent theme behind such type


of social action is primarily ‘welfarist’ or providingrelief and services to the needy. The action oftentakes place within the framework of law, such as,social action taken up by NGOs, say, sanitation drivein a slum area or a movement to re-admit schooldrop-out girls and boys in a community.

Social Institutional Model of Social Action: Thistype of social action may be organised by the citizens,self-help groups, elites, the deprived and others fortheir benefit but in its progression and developmentmay seek support from formal groups and institution(s)which may like to espouse its causes. It may bedirect, participatory and even radical. Dependingupon its success it may institutionalize itself formallyor remain a spontaneous and sporadic effort withan informed and critically aware social base andpower. The nature of such action may be constitutionalor extra-constitutional. The social institutional modelcan be distinguished from the institutional socialmodel in the sense that in the latter one actionis initiated by the institution, say an NGO, and atsome stage people are mobilized to participate. Onthe other hand, in social institutional model peopleinitiate social action and may collaborate with someinstitution working for the similar cause.

Field Example: In a middle class residential colonyin Delhi, the elderly people united themselves toprovide better security services for them like initiatinga telephone help-line for the elderly people connectedto the nearest police-chowki, day and night patrollingto the area by police, giving space in the communitycentre for starting an elderly club for the aged tospend their free time together with friends andneighbours. The sitting MLA didn’t pay much attentionto their demands. The elderly people mobilized otherstoo to show their protest. They approached two NGOsworking for the care and support to the elderly for


participating in the social action. This is an exampleof social institutional model of social action.

Populist/Movemental Model of Social Action: Thefourth model relies entirely on popular social baseand power. It rejects dependency and stresses self-reliance through collective effort, active participation,and continuing education. This is an ideal form ofsocial action in which participants experience thinking,deciding and working together in helping themselvesand in the process also strengthen their social baseand power. It is an action of the people, for thepeople and by the people. This type of action maypartake of some of the characteristics of a movementand may both be constitutional and extra-constitutional.It may be routinizing or self-terminating.

Field Example: In a village of Rajasthan water scarcitywas affecting the life of people badly. Women folkhad to walk miles together to fetch some water.In the last summer more than 500 cattle died inneed of water. The village people got united to solvethe problem. They approached the Block DevelopmentOfficer and talked to the authorities. The BDO promisedto sanction some money for constructing wells andhand-pumps but did not keep his promise even afterseveral follow-ups by the villagers. The village peoplethought about other alternatives along with persuasionof money allotment from the BDO. They decided tobuild check-dams to conserve rain-water. The villagepeople collaborated and cooperated and finallyconstructed two check dams. Some people approachedthe district collector and requested him to intervene.With persistent persuasion the authorities also releasedmoney for building wells and hand-pumps. Theirsuccess story motivated people of other villages too.

Gandhian Model of Social Action: Social action ofthe Gandhian tradition emerges as a class by itselfbecause of its emphasis on spirituality, purity of


means and ends, non-violence as a creed, austerity(limitation of want), and moral re-armament of people.Constructive thinking, mobilization, organisation andaction are the essential ingredients of this model.People’s power remains the basis in all the threetypes of social action of this tradition. This modelhas three sub-types:

Militant non-violent tradition: With non-violencestill the base, this tradition or approach calls forpolitical and revolutionary character to the socialaction. It aims at forceful intervention to bring aboutradical changes in the social system. It does notrely totally on the peaceful and mere constructivework done at the grassroots level. It believes in re-distribution of power and resources and to achievethis aim it intends to mobilize masses to take action.For example, chipko movement emerged out of theprotest against rampant deforestation in the Himalayanhills caused by indiscriminate deforestation forcommercial consumption.

Gentle non-violent tradition: The Satyagraha doneby Vinoba Bhave for satyagraha and village andcommunity reconstruction explains gentle non-violentform of Gandhian social action. It blends thecomponents of the social (populist-movemental) andthe grassroots-institutional (constructive work). Bhu-daan (donation of land) and gram-daan (donation ofvillages) for reconstruction of the Gandhian socialistcommunity are the fine examples of this tradition.

Citizenship model of constructive work: This typeof social action concentrates mainly on the grassrootlevel of social action (citizenship) through the meansof education. This type of social action relies onconstructive work and believes that necessary changesin the social system would take place in due courseof time. It rejects coming in conflict with theauthorities, protests and boycotts to achieve the


desired objective of social change. It prefers to laystress on consensus (Lok-sammati), citizenships role(model) and through it visualizes a revolution inthought and method (Bichar kranti and paddhatikranti).

Gandhian approach further subscribes to the viewthat the government depends upon the people andnot the people on the government. That all exploitationis based on cooperation-willing or forced– of theexploited and therefore there is a need to generatesocial power – a capacity to control the behaviourof others, directly and indirectly, through action bygroups of people which impinges on other groups.Non-violent action is not only a policy for a trueGandhian worker but also a creed, and the constructiveprogramme is considered to be the core of suchaction.

In all the three traditions of Gandhian social action,people’s base is considered primary; a parliamentaryapproach is regarded as inadequate; and while thelast two types concentrate on the solution of socialand economic problems, through people building andaction, militant non-violent tradition model also addspolitical dimensions to them. The role of institutionsis considered enabling, people-based and supportivein all the three forms–which aims towards the creationof a caring and welfare society as contrasted withwelfare state.

The above five models of social action are interrelatedphases of a process and its progression from theinvolvement of institutions to that of the people.These may be contributive, complementary, completing,and even counteracting depending upon theirperception of the need situation, goals, approachesand respective roles of the institutions and/or people.These should however, not be treated in as ‘either/or’ fashion, or as mutually exclusive. Initiative for


an organised effort may spring from one model, onlyto be seized upon by the others, and to be routinizedby the third. Social action is a process of continuingconstituency work through education and wheneverit is found feeble or absent, it needs to be ‘cultivated’.

Conclusion

Model of social action is a particular manner ormodality used in the process of social action forachieving its objectives. Britto gives two models ofsocial action as

Elitist social action: The elite carry out social actionexclusively by themselves or with marginalparticipation of the masses. It has three sub-types.Legislative social action model is a process in whichelite groups conduct studies on the gravity of theproblems, create public opinion and lobby to try tomodify the social policy. In economic sanction modelthe elites, by gaining control over some economic,social, political or religious weapon try to obtainbenefits for the clientele. Direct physical model isa process where elites take the law in their ownhands and punish those responsible for the causeof injustice and thus try to bring about benefits totheir clientele.

Popular social action: A large section of people withor without elite participation take confrontational/conflictive action against the injustice. It also hasthree sub types. Conscientization model is basedon Paulo Friere’s concept of creating awareness amongmasses through education. Dialectical mobilizationmodel helps in promoting conflict to exploit thecontradictions in a system, with the belief that abetter system will emerge as a result. In directmobilization model, specific issues are taken up bythe social actionists and the masses are mobilizedto resort to protests and strikes to achieve theobjectives.


There are some other models of social action tooas given by Singh. In institutional (state) modelsocial action is initiated by the state or government.In institutional-social model social action is initiatedby non-governmental institutions which are aidedor unaided by government and later people’s activesupport is sought. In social institutional model socialaction may be organised by the people for theirbenefit and they may seek support from formalinstitutions working in similar field. Populist/movemental model is an action of the people, forthe people and by the people. Gandhian model ofsocial action has three sub types: Militant non-violenttradition, Gentle non-violent tradition and Citizenshipmodel of constructive work. Loka shakti is the inherenttheme behind Gandhian social action.

References


Davis, Martin (2000), The Blackwell Encyclopaedia ofSocial Work, (eds.) Blackwell Publishers, Massachusetts,pp. 317-318.







14

Social Action in Relation toCommunity Work and Social

Movement


Introduction

Human society is dynamic and constantly changing.These changes may lead to betterment and progressor may worsen the situations. Also, uncontrolledand unthoughtful changes may carry with theminequality and exploitation to certain sections ofthe society. On the other hand, consciously andcarefully designed interventions bring peace andsocial justice in the society. Social action is onesuch effort to bring about changes in the socialsystem for mass betterment. Let us take a look atthe relation between social action vis-à-vis socialstructure and social conflict vis-à-vis social change.

Social Action in Relation to SocialStructure

In order to understand the relation between socialaction and social structure, we need to look intothe concept of social structure. From sociologicalperspective, social structure refers to basic socialinstitutions of a society. It is an abstract concept.In order to have a better understanding of socialstructure, Herbert Spencer and others conceived ofsociety as an organism the parts of which areinterdependent and therefore form a structure. Social


Social Action in Relation to Community Work & Social Movement 269

structure, like body structure, denotes ‘permanence’but also refers to dynamism and does not necessarilyindicate lack of change. For example, kinship structureof a society (the typical composition of householdunits, rules governing marriage and line of descent)is maintained. However, there is continuous changein the families, as marriages are conducted, childrenare born, grow up and become adults, and peopledie. These social processes are always on, more orless in a cyclic manner. These social structuresgive a base or foundation, a pattern, guidelines andregulations, and a way to lead human life. Kinship,economic structure, caste, class, legal and politicalstructure are a few constituents of social structure.

The concept of social structure indicates that humanbeings form social relations that are not arbitraryor coincidental but exhibit some regularity andpersistence. The notion of social structure impliesthat human beings are not completely free in choosingtheir activities but the social structure in whichthey live limit their freedom. In any society,furthermore, there are arrangements within thestructure to regulate and guide the behaviour andactivities of humans like setting up family,reproduction, care and education of the young, etc.During the process of social change, certain socialsystems, within the social structure start creatingconflicts influencing the harmony of life. Such socialchanges need to be prevented or rectified. Socialaction is one form of social change, which is controlled,guided and guarded, meant to re-establish socialharmony within the social structure.

Let us take an example. Caste system has stratifiedIndian society giving privilege to a fewer sectionsof the community than the others. People belongingto upper caste, more or less, have accumulated landand power resources in their hands. Members oflower caste, as a result, are exploited in several


ways. Land reform movement is a form of socialaction meant to rectify the processes in social structureso that landless farmers also get their share ofequality, in terms of resources and power.

Social action is a method of social work meant forbringing about radical changes in the social structure.It denotes radical activism, which questions theexisting basis of society and proposes alternatives.It aims at development of the democratic processthrough more effective communications, participationand sharing of decisions within the presentadministrative and economic system. Social actiontargets the achievement of specific reforms throughcommunity action in the form of pressure groupsand consumer organisations. It helps in the promotionof community groups as a means to enrich the lifeof members by fellowship, self-help and communityservice.

The relevance of social action as an important methodof social work lies within the fact that it is meantfor bringing about the essential changes in the socialstructure. It is very much needed in developingcountries like India. However, it is important tonote that social action does not intend to ‘changethe social structure’ itself but it aims to amendcertain social processes inherent in the social structurewhich is detrimental to cohesive and harmonioussocial life. For instance, social action does not intendto call for abolition of institution of marriage butwould aim at removing social evils like dowry systemassociated with it.

Some of the social evils that are deep-seated in oursocial structure can be tackled through social actionlike dowry problem, child labour, untouchability,prostitution, zamidari system, illiteracy, child marriageand restrictions on widow remarriages, etc. Theseproblems not only affect a few individuals, but the


groups or communities and call for public awareness,mass mobilization and radical solutions. Social action,as a radical action, is needed to put social processesand social systems in place in a social structurefor maintaining social harmony.

Social Action in Relation to SocialConflict

Social conflict is inherent into the social fabric ofany society. Social change, controlled and arbitrary,invariably results in social conflict. Though peaceand harmony are always the goal of social plannersand the people, social conflict is also the inevitablereality. Social conflict arises whenever there is anydisturbance between coordination and collaborationof different social units of social structure. So, thedynamism of social process rests on two pillars:social harmony and social conflict.

Social action is a process, which intends to minimisesocial conflict and enhance social harmony. Thoughit appears contradictory as social action itself isconsidered a ‘conflictual’ process intending to ‘confront’authorities. However, the ultimate goal of socialaction is to provide relief to the masses fromexploitation, despair and frustration. It aims at creatingan environment of peace, social justice and dignityof all humans. Social action intends to re-distributepower and resources which calls for confrontationwith those who possess these resources and powerand most often are unwilling to give due share totheir fellowmen. As a result, ‘soft steps’ do not helpin removal of pain and exploitation of the masses.Such situations call for radical solutions and coursequality conflict with authorities is needed.

Here, it is important to note that social action doesnot mean agitations, violence or any other coerciveapproach to bring out a solution. Social action,


essentially, has two central characteristics as itsphilosophy. Firstly, it rejects the deficit blamingand victim blaming approaches. It means that itdoes not hold anybody responsible for and condemnhim/her for creating social conflict. It believes inthe inherent goodness and worthiness of all people.Secondly, it grounds this action on a process ofopen participation in which people, preferablycollectively, explore the underlying social issues oftheir circumstances as foundation for action. Itencourages people to participate and take actionsfor the well-being of the entire community or masses.Though ‘conflict’ is inherent in social action, emphasisis on adoption of peaceful strategies as far as possibleand making use of ‘harder’ steps as the last resort.For instance, the Fisherman struggle in the coastalregions of Kerala comprises a conflict between therich trawler owners and the traditional small boatfishermen. Methods of social action have been verypersuasive and the traditional fishermen have beensuccessful to get a ban every year for trawler fishingduring the rainy season.

The term ‘social action’ refers to organised or legallypermitted activities designed to mobilize public opinion,legislation and public administration in favour ofobjectives believed to be socially desirable. Socialaction prepares the general public or the clientelewith skills like cooperation, collaboration and inter-dependence. It teaches the community people, thepractical way of solving interpersonal conflicts ina peaceful manner and work together for thebetterment of the society. It trains community membersin people’s participation and democratic functioning,which goes a long way in minimizing social conflictsand increasing social harmony. Social action, therefore,is a mass approach in the most peaceful mannerused for changing or modifying existing social andeconomic institutions, which do not function properly.


Social Action in Relation to SocialChange

Before understanding the relation between socialchange and social action, let us have a look intothe concept of social change. In its broadest sense,social change is any change in social relations.More specifically, social change may be changes atthe group level, which might be important for thatgroup itself, but negligible on the level of largersociety. Similarly, from time perspective, social changemay be short-term or long-term. The specific meaningof social change depends on the social entityconsidered. Social change is the general characteristicof all human societies as change itself in the lawof nature. Customs and norms change, inventionsare made and applied, environmental changes leadto new adaptations and conflicts result inredistributions of power. It suggests that social changeis ‘ever present’ phenomenon in any society.

In a strict sense, social change is defined as thechange in the social structure. Here it is importantto make a distinction between social dynamics andsocial change. Social dynamics are the processeswithin the social structure, which serve, at leastpartially to maintain the structure. On the otherhand, social change includes the processes thatmodify the social structure. Any change in thestructure and functioning of the social institutionsmay be taken as social change. It is an ongoingprocess. Many times, this change goes on uncontrolled,unguarded, unaware and at a slow pace. It maybring betterment, peace and harmony or conflict,frustration and discord. Commercialization,industrialization, urbanization, modernization, all hasbrought social change with both positive and negativerepercussions.


Social action is also meant to bring about socialchange but in a directed, conscious, guided, guardedand radical way with the aim of creating a justsociety. Social action may also mean preventing thosechanges that may have deleterious effect on thetarget population. To exemplify, Narmada Bachao Andolanhas been taken up to secure the rights of millionsof poor people living near the banks of NarmadaRiver and construction of a dam on that river wouldhave uprooted them.

Thus, we see that social action is a collective action,aiming at specific social changes for the bettermentof the society. The change does not mean that thebasic structure of a society has to be totally altered.But changes must be visible in the social institutions,in the customs of a society, in the social relationshipsand even in the social systems. Whatever may bethe form, a change occurs when a collective bodyof people opts and acts for it. Social action is directedtoward bringing about social change that is positive,guided, controlled and aiming at a just society.

Social Action in Relation to Ideology andConsciousness

Ideology means ‘manner of thinking, ideas,characteristics of a person, group, etc., especiallyas forming the basis of an economic, social or politicalsystem’. Ideology means strong attitudes or perceptionstowards any aspect of life, say, religious, moral,economic and the like. People do have their ideologicalstands or firm beliefs about any social process oftheir social life. These ideologies regulate behaviourand actions of persons towards this social process.

Social action is a process of rectifying the attitudes,ideologies and behaviour of those people who tendto hinder the route to social justice. It also strengthensthe ideological beliefs of those who are pro-poor


and pro-development. During its process, social actionbrings about changes in the thinking, feelings,ideologies and actions of the people so as to correctthe problems, enhance their social functioning andbring better quality of life. For instance, India has,mostly, remained a patriarchal society. Females havebeen given unequal share in almost all aspects oflife starting from right to life itself. Female foeticide,malnutrition, low educational and occupational status,limited role in decision making in the family whatto say of community and society – all these problemshave links with our patriarchal beliefs and ideologies.Even most women themselves have been foundperpetuating these ideologies of ‘females being inferiorsex and should always be dependent on male membersof the family for their financial, social and emotionalneeds’. Social action, as a method of social work,plays crucial role in bringing about change in theseideologies so as to bring about gender-equality inthe society in almost every aspect of life.

The dictionary meaning of consciousness is ‘all theideas, thoughts, feelings, wishes, intentions of aperson or persons’. However, here, it has a moralconnotation too. Social action, during its process,deals with the consciousness too. During massmobilization, the leaders do try to wake theconsciousness of the people by preaching that it istheir moral duty to fight for the cause. For instance,during freedom movement Gandhiji, in his speeches,motivated the people to participate by saying thatit is their moral obligation to fight against injusticeand the people who tolerate injustice are a partyto it. Let us look at another instance of the successof social action by waking the conscience of people.During Campaign against Child Labour, people’sconsciousness, particularly that of school children,was touched and they were asked to boycott fire-crackers as many of their unfortunate brothers and


sisters go through immense torture during manufactureof the fire-crackers. As a result, most school childrenunderstood the plight of child workers and stoppedbuying and firing crackers.

So, we see that social action does deal with ideologiesand consciousness of people during its course offighting for a cause.

Social Action and CommunityDevelopment

The term ‘community development’ refers to a processmeant to enhance conditions of economic and socialprogress for the whole community with the activeparticipation of the community people. Communitydevelopment is a combination of two important aspects.First is people’s participation and second is technicaland financial assistance from the government agencies.Both these aspects are complementary to each other.Community development is not possible if any oneof the aspects is missing. People’s participation, theirability to cooperate and assimilate tied up with thetechnical know-how from government agencies isnecessary to realize the goal of communitydevelopment.

Implementation of a community developmentprogrammes on a national scale requires adoptionof consistent policies, specific administrativearrangements, recruitment and training of personnel,mobilization of local and national resources, research,experimentation and evaluation. So, communitydevelopment is a process as well as the objective,the means and also the end. Let us now view itslinkage with social action.

Community development as well as social action,have same inherent goal – overall development ofthe community. They both correspond to the basic


needs of the community and all their activities areinitiated in response to the expressed needs of people.Both these processes adhere to concerted actionand the establishment of multi-purpose programmesfor achieving the goal of full and balanced communitydevelopment.

The identification, encouragement and training oflocal leadership is omnipresent in both the processes.Also, change in attitudes and behaviours of thecommunity people are an important requirement forcommunity development as well as social action.Social action as well as community developmentshare a basic belief that greater reliance on theparticipation of women and youth in the processinvigorates development programmes, establishes themon a wide basis and secures long range expansion.

Community development aims at increased and betterparticipation of the people in community affairs,revitalization of existing forms of local governmentand transition towards effective local administrationwhere it is not yet functioning. Social action worksfor re-distribution of power and resources to achievesocial justice. In fact, in communities where thereis inequality and injustice, community developmenthas to first rely on social action and once resourcesand powers are reallocated, then only constructivework has any meaning.

Sometimes, in order to achieve the objective of overallcommunity development, some changes in the socialsystem and institutions, that is social action, arerequired. To exemplify, poverty has remained oneof the most pressing problems of our country. Formore than two decades, many piece meal programmeswere planned and implemented to a number of poverty-affected communities in the country to make a dentin the poverty problem. Still, the situation kept onworsening as the number of people living below poverty


line sore. During late 60s and early 70s, a rethinkingwas done on the whole concept and strategies ofdevelopment, highlighting the need for structuralchanges in society, to bring about a substantial changein the standards of living of the masses which meansgreater access to essential services such as education,health, housing and employment. As a result,‘Structural Adjustment Programmes’, Land Reforms,20-point poverty alleviation programmes, etc., wereevolved. These strategies of radical change emphasizea more equitable distribution of resources and theorganisation of people to strengthen their capacityfor claiming a better deal in society.

However, to be fully effective, communities’ self-help projects require both intensive and extensiveassistance from the government whereas social actionis anti-authoritarian. Community development is doneat the micro-level whereas the social cause for whichsocial action is required, most often, has wider range.Lastly, the most basic factor in social action is amethod of working with people in professional socialwork while in community development is the processand a goal to indulge in constructive and developmentalwork with people’s participation and governmentassistance.

Social Action and Social Movement

Social movements are an inspiring reality in India.The downtrodden and the marginalized communitieshave mobilized themselves and raised their voiceagainst the failure of state and society to safeguardtheir livelihood and to save rights. A social movementis a deliberate collective endeavour to promote changein any direction and by any means, not excludingviolence, illegality, revolution or withdrawal into‘utopian’ community (Wilkinson, 1971). In anotherdefinition, Blumer (1957) says, “social movementsare collective enterprises to establish a new order


of life”. Peasant movement, tribal movement, dalitmovement, women’s movement, students’ movement,etc. are a few examples of social movement.

Before looking into the relation between social actionand social movement, let us view an example of asocial movement, which has a special place in theliterature of social movements in India, the Chipkomovement.

Chipko is considered as the first organisedenvironmental movement in India. The movementoriginated in 1968 in the Tehri Garhwal, also knownas Uttarakhand, the then Uttar Pradesh.

What factors led to this movement? There was rampantcommercial exploitation of timber in that area. Thestate had set terms and conditions with the privatecontractors, individual businessmen, wood merchantsand owners of forest based industries and allowedthem to exploit forests. People were told thatdeforestation is essential for nation building. Underthe disguise of development, for self interest andto meet commercial greed, the forests were cutdown at the large scale. This was followed by overflowof Alaknanda river in 1970 due to massive deforestationoccurring in hills. It resulted in washing away offields, crops, property and human settlements.

After this natural calamity, a sizeable number ofhill dwellers started realizing the necessity of theecological balance in the livelihood of hill habitats.Added to this, after massive deforestation, only non-timber bio-mass like leaves, twigs, fruits, etc., wereleft for hilly people which were never adequate tosustain the life-system of hilly people. Deforestationover the decades hardly left anything substantialfor the bare survival of the Himalayan eco-systemand its people.


A consciousness was spreading among the peopleof that area to do something to save the ecosystem,which is the base of their livelihood, rather thanbeing the mute observers of devastation anddestruction. They felt that in order to re-establisheco-balance, firstly, indiscriminate falling of treeshad to be stopped and secondly, regeneration offorests was needed. A number of enlightened peoplestarted mobilizing the people against the injusticeof denial of their rights on their own forests. Onelocal poet Ghanshayam Sailani, in his folk poemsnarrated the distress of the people resulting fromdeforestation. Along with creating mass awarenessagainst environmental degradation, Sailani’s songswere of great help in making the climate conducivefor people’s movement in that area.

In 1971, Dashauli Gram Swaraj Sangh (DGSS), alocal voluntary organisation, took the lead andorganised several public meetings to discuss thecause. After discussions with different village groupsand local leaders, it was decided to propose thegovernment to replace the contract system by forestlabour cooperatives and setting up of small scaleindustries.

During 1970-72, the people of Himalayan regiondemonstrated their protests against outside contractors.In 1973, DGSS demanded for the allotment of ‘ashtrees’ to local people to make agricultural implements.However, the forest department of Uttar Pradeshdidn’t pay attention to the demands of the voluntaryorganisation, representing the people of Tehri Garhwal,and allotted those trees to a ‘Sports Goods Company’.As a reaction to this, several agitations and protestswere launched against the government decision andthe contractor system. Many individuals of Sarvodayamovement, the Left oriented students and youthorganisations joined with DGSS to raise mass opinionagainst this discriminatory policy.


The contractors were portrayed as the main constraintto the development of the hills. The people adoptedthe strategy to chase away the contractors in anon-violent way to prevent them from cutting trees.The people belonging to poor and marginalized sectionsalso joined the struggle. In 1973, in a public meetingorganised in Gopeshwar where many politicians,journalists, gram pradhans (Village heads) chalkedout the strategies to prevent the contractors fromentering into the forests. The common men andwomen organised themselves in groups to fail everyeffort of the contractors to axe the trees. The successof these acts spread the movement from one hillto another. Spontaneous vigilance by hill dwellersagainst the contractors cutting down trees took deeproots in that area.

In 1974, women of hilly areas, under the leadershipof Gaura Devi saved large number of trees fromfelling by physically embracing them. ‘Chop me beforeyou chop my tree’ was the inherent emotional questand slogan, the women uttered while embracingthe trees, saving them from the axe of contractors.This was first women’s participation. The protest ofwomen who were agricultural labourers defendingtheir traditional forest rights against stateencroachments made this movement a peasantmovement. After this, there were a series of similardemonstrations in several parts of the region onthe same issue.

The students also played crucial role in keepingthe movement alive. They organised several protestsagainst the unfair policies of the government. Themovement flared up with the arrest of some studentsof Parvatiya Van Bachao Sangharsh Samiti. SundarlalBahuguna, a Gandhian, marched 120 Km., thestudents also demonstrated their discontent throughmarches and rallies. Another Gandhian, ChandniPrasad Bhatt also extended his support. Through


consorted demonstrations, students, agriculturallabourers and various other sections of the hillcommunity pressurized the state authorities to adoptpolicies beneficial to local people.

Finally the government set up a review committeeand uttar pradesh van nigam was formed takingover the forest administration. This Nigam immediatelydeclared ban on the forest felling. On the basis ofthe review committee report, the governmentdiscontinued the private contractor system in thehills and banned commercial felling of trees for aperiod of ten years in the upper catchment areasof the river. Later the ban was renewed in 1985for another ten years.

In spite of the official ban forest felling continuedin the hills through illegal nexus between the forestersand the private contractors. The students playedsalient role in mobilizing people against illegal forestfelling. They conducted many demonstrations andcourted arrest. Students’ organisation UttarakhandSangharsh Vahini, joined hands with local peopleand stopped axing of trees for a paper industry nearAlmora. Similar activities were carried out by thestudents in different parts of the hills under theleadership of S.L. Bahuguna. Not satisfied with thegovernment’s move to just ban deforestation, Bahugunasat on indefinite fast against illegal felling of trees.He wanted a complete ban on felling trees abovean altitude of 1000 meters. He undertook a 4,870Km. foot march from Kashmir to Kohima from 1981to 1983 to generate awareness about man and naturerelationship.

During the following years Chipko movement becamesporadic in action. It lost its original strength andvigour. Yet, this movement contributed greatly toawaken the Indian masses about the danger ofenvironmental degradation.


Let us now look at the relation between social actionand social movement. What are the similaritiesbetween the two? Social action as well as socialmovement is a collective action aiming at specificsocial change. Both the processes work with theobjective of social justice and securing the rightsof the people. Social action as well as social movementare anti-authoritarian and they keep a distance frompolitical parties. Authorities are challenged andnecessary steps are taken to ensure re-distributionof power and resources. Both the processes rest onpeople’s participation. In both the cases, people showtheir protests through strategies like dharna, rallies,fast, morchas, etc. People’s conscience is shackedthrough emotional speeches, slogans, poems, andother similar ways. In fact, the above descriptionof the chipko movement gives much clarity aboutthe striking similarity between social movement andsocial action.

However, social action is a method of professionalsocial work comprised theoretical base, skills ofworking with people, which are learned and refinedunder meticulous professional guidance. On the otherhand, social movements are not necessarily led byprofessional social workers. One of the main reasonsof dissolution of Chipko movement was the inter-group conflicts between the followers of two leaders,Sunderlal Bahuguna and ChandiPrasad Bhat based on the ideologies, strategies andpersonal egos. The people’s participation couldn’tbe institutionalized for constructive work anddevelopment.

Conclusion

To summarize, social action, as a method of socialwork shares some relation with certain characteristicsof social life, which are as follows:


Social action and social structure: During the processof social change, certain social systems, within thesocial structure start creating conflicts influencingthe harmony of social life. Social action is one formof social change, which is controlled, guided andguarded, meant to re-establish social harmony withinthe social structure.

Social action and social conflict: Social conflictarises whenever there is any disturbance betweencoordination and collaboration of different social unitsof social structure, whereas social action is a process,which intends to minimize social conflict and enhancesocial harmony.

Social action and social change: Social action ismeant to bring about social change but in a directed,conscious, guided, guarded and radical way withthe aim of creating a just society. Social actionmay also mean preventing those changes that mayhave deleterious effect on the target population.

Social action and ideologies and consciousness:Social action is a process of rectifying the attitudes,ideologies and behaviour of those people who tendto hinder the route to social justice. It also strengthensthe ideological beliefs of those who are pro-poorand pro-development. Social action, during its process,deals with the consciousness too. During massmobilization, the leaders do try to wake theconsciousness of the people by preaching that it istheir moral duty to fight for the cause.

Social action and community development:Community development as well as social action,have same inherent goal – overall development ofthe community, both involve grassroot interventionand people’s participation. Social action is, however,anti-authoritarian and works for re-distribution ofequitable share of resources to the community people.


On the other hand, community development restson assistance from government agencies.

Social action and social movement: Social actionas well as social movement is a collective actionaiming at specific social change with the objectiveof social justice and human rights. Both processesare anti-authoritarian and rest on people’sparticipation. They share similar strategies to showtheir protests like dharna, rallies, fast, morchas,etc. However, social action is a conscious, guidedand guarded process to achieve equality and justice,whereas social movements are more or less basedon emotional upsurge and may not involve professionalexpertise of social work.

References

Chakraborty, Somen (1999), A Critique of Social Movementsin India, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi.


Shah, Ghanshayam (1990), Social Movements in India,Sage publications, Delhi.


Singh, Surender (1986), Social Action in Horizons ofSocial Work (ed). By Surender Singh & K.S. Soodan,op. cit. p. 161.

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1992), Volume27, University of Chicago.


15

Social Action as a Method ofSocial Work

* Beena Antony,Archana Kaushik

Introduction

Social problems and conflicts have remained an integralpart of the society from the time immemorial. Forproviding relief and solution to these problems, socialwork and social welfare have also remained a partof human society. Professional social work utilizescertain methods of working with people, in view ofempowering the people to solve their problems. Amongthe methods of social work, social action is a newintroduction in the professional social work practice.Though its relevance is often felt in the field situations,social workers do not practice this method quitefrequently. The inherent theme behind social actionis re-adjustment of the social institutions andredistribution of power and resources for social justiceand empowerment of the community. As a methodof social work, social action mobilizes the generalpopulation to bring about structural changes in thesocial system.

Also the relation of social action with other methodsof social work is very important to understand. Socialaction process heavily rests on other social workmethods like group work and community organisation.In fact social action comes into the picture whenpeople’s needs and problems remain unmet andunsettled through other methods of social work.Social action seems to be a step forward to communityorganisation. Social work research helps in perceiving


Social Action as a Method of Social Work 287

the social problem objectively. Group work andcasework are the foundation to social action wherepeople are mobilized to confront authorities. Socialwelfare administration gives the ground to socialworkers to prepare the community for social action.Social workers make use of the skills and experiencesgained through other methods of social work in theprocess of social action.

Social Action: A Method of Social Work

Every profession has a tested body of knowledge,which includes principles, techniques, methods,procedures, tools and terminology of its own. Thesame is true with professional social work. Socialwork has six methods of working with people (casework,group work, community organisation, social action,social welfare administration and social workresearch). These methods are the techniques ofenabling the people for better social functioning.Social action, as a method of professional socialwork practice, is an organised effort to change orimprove social and economic institutions throughorganisation and mobilization of the community people.Unlike other social work methods, social actionemphasizes on long-term essential changes inestablished social institutions. Social action coversmovements of social, religious and political reform,social legislation, racial and social justice, humanrights, freedom and civic liberty. Previously socialaction was considered as a tool within the field ofcommunity organisation, but now it has beenconsidered as a separate technique of social workand as such a fourth process (see Siddiqui, 1984).

Why social action is considered a method ofprofessional social work? A method of professionalsocial work is a technique or approach havingcharacteristics like: an established process with easilyrecognizable stages, based on the philosophy of social


work, having principles or guidelines or theories,skills of working with people which are learned andrefined through professional guidance. Let us viewsocial action within these parameters.

Social action process, more or less, passes throughthe recognizable and systematic stages. First of all,a scientific analysis or research on the social problemaffecting the community people is carried out. Then,awareness is generated regarding various aspectsof the problem and people are encouraged to takecollective and collaborative action to solve the problem.Third stage is centred on organising people forcoordinated and directed intervention whereas infurther stage suitable strategies are developed toachieve the goals and lastly, action is taken. Everysocial action process passes through these stagesand professional social workers or actionists arewell-equipped with knowledge and skills requiredin different stages.

As a method of social work, social action adheresto the philosophy of professional social work. It doesnot blame people for the deficiency or problem. Itstrongly believes in the worth and dignity of humanbeings. Social action rejects the doctrine of laissez-faire and survival of the fittest. The unfit personhas the same fundamental rights as do the morefit, and the rich or powerful is not necessarily fit,and nor a poor or weak is indeed unfit. It adoptsa commitment to the capacity of all the people totake action to improve their life circumstances. Itgrounds this action on a process of open participationin which people, preferably collectively, explore theunderlying social issues of their life situations asthe foundation for action. Practitioners do not lead,but, through a non-elitist highly skilled process,they facilitate members in making choices and takingaction for themselves.


Like any other method of professional social work,social action does have certain principles, detailsof which are given in the previous unit. Very briefly,these principles are mentioned here. Firstly, thecommunity people must have the faith and confidencein the social worker (principle of credibility building).The social actionist or social worker should makethe people believe that their actions to achieve theset goals are legitimate (principle of legitimization).Certain strategies adopted like dharna, morcha,slogans, emotional powerful speeches, rallies createdramatic effects in social action (principle ofdramatization). Social action does not depend on asingle strategy, rather it adopts many different waysand means to achieve the goal (principle of multiplestrategies). Social action must not rest only onconflictual activities with authorities. It should alsoconcentrate on constructive developmental activitiesalong with confrontation (principle of dual approach).Social action does not confine itself to a single aspectof the social issue. Rather, it emphasizes onprogrammes having multi-prong aspects like social,economic, cultural, etc. (principle of manifoldprogrammes). Social workers or actionists, duringsocial action, make use of these principles for achievingthe overall goal of social justice.

Social action has a definite set of goals and objectives.The goal of social action is redistribution with regardto resources and power to provide social justice toall. Its objective is the proper shaping and developmentof socio-cultural environment in which a richer andfuller life may be possible for all the citizens. Socialaction aims at prevention of needs, solution of massproblems, improvement in mass conditions, influencinginstitutions, policies and practices, introduction ofnew mechanisms or programmes, redistribution ofpower, resources (human, material and moral) andimprovement in health, education and welfare.


Social action employs certain strategies and tacticsas tools to attain its goals, which makes it differentfrom other social work methods. They are negotiation,persuasion, competition, disruption, collaboration,bargain, strikes, boycotts, fasts, tax-refusal, sit-ins,picketing, marches, fraternization, haunting, leafleting,reversal strike, obstruction, renouncing honours, etc.Here it may be stressed again that violence andblood-shedding are not at all included in strategiesused to confront the authorities.

Social workers practicing social action are well versedwith certain skills that are developed through teaching-learning and training. They have the skills of rapportbuilding, objective analysis of the social situationand problems, knowledge and ability to use othermethods of social work like casework, group work,social welfare administration adequately andappropriately. The social workers do have the abilityto use his relationship with clients and communityconstructively. This relationship is characterized byobjectivity and confidentiality on the one hand andsensitivity and warmth on the other. Social workershave in their command the techniques of programmeplanning, organisation, coordination and administrativeand managerial skills.

Social action is a method of social work, which is,used for/with/by any unit of society larger thansociologically defined community. It is an organisedeffort to change or improve social and economicinstitutions, as distinguished from other methodsof social work, which do not characteristically coveressential changes in established institutions throughconfrontation with the authorities. It may be describedas organised group effort to solve mass problemsor to further socially desirable objectives by attemptingto influence or change basic social and economicconditions or practices. It always involves publicpressure in one form or the other. However, it does


not approve of physical coercion or violence. Anotheraim of social action, which has been mentioned bymany social work scholars, is formulation of or changein existing social legislation. Once the legislationcomes into force, its implementation at the groundlevel is another salient task of social actionists orsocial workers. Thus we see that social action, asa method of social work profession, is a powerfultool of bringing about positive changes in the socialsystem for the betterment of the masses.

Social Action in Relation to Case Work

Social Action does utilize other social work methodsin the process of attaining its goal of communityempowerment. In fact, we see that the whole processof social action is the amalgamation of various methodsof social work. In this section of the unit, we wouldtry to understand the relation of other methods ofsocial work with that of social action. Let us firstpay attention to social casework.

As we already know that social casework is a methodof social work to help individuals to cope moreeffectively with their social problems. The psychosocialproblem(s) of the client are dealt mainly in one-to-one relationship between the client and thecaseworker. The relation of social action with caseworkcan be understood with the fact that individualsand society are interdependent. Most of the problems,which affect an individual, have connections withor repercussions to his/her inter-personal relations.These inter-personal relations could be within thefamily and/or with various institutions in thecommunity, say, educational institutions, work place,legal, neighbourhood, friends, etc. So, casework processmay involve interventions not only at the familylevel but also at the institutions in the largercommunity. The client may be having the same socialproblem, which the social worker is addressing, at


the macro level through social action. In such asituation, caseworker needs to build confidence andfaith among the client and prepare him/her to bea part of social action process.

Let us view the relevance of social casework insocial action. Apparently, there appears no connectionbetween the two methods of social work. However,during initial process of credibility building in thecommunity, the social worker makes use of caseworkin dealing with those members of the clientele groupwho are facing some adjustment problems and requiretherapeutic help for harmonious social functioning.To exemplify, if the social worker finds a membershowing problematic behaviour in the group sessions,which is affecting the working and integrity of thegroup, he/she takes up separate casework sessionswith that member. After making the social investigation(psycho-social study) adequate social diagnosis isdone. Once the member having problematic behaviourstarts showing better social functioning, the groupalso becomes cohesive.

It may be noted that casework is required not onlyin the initial stages of social action, it may be neededwhen the community is organised to take appropriateaction against the authorities. At that time also,any member of the core group may start showingdeviant behaviour and require counselling from thesocial worker.

Added to this, the skills a social worker uses forsocial investigation and diagnosis during caseworkprocess, learning human behaviour, psycho-socialproblems, using caseworker-client relationship forbuilding confidence and courage in the client forsolving his problems becomes quite handy in theprocess of social action when the social worker hasto deal with not only one individual, but many typesof personalities simultaneously and keep themintegrated for the targeted social goals.


Social Action in Relation to GroupWork

The importance of social group work can be understoodwith the fact that a man is considered a groupanimal. Group experiences are the essential needsof human beings. A human turns from a biologicalbeing to a social being through group life. Attentionmay now be paid to social group work, which is amethod through which individuals develop the abilityof establishing constructive relationships with eachother through group activities.

Social group work acts as a building block in theprocess of social action. Group members learnorganisation, cooperation and coordination. They learninterdependence and democratic values. In the groupwork process, while participating in the activitiesof the group, the group members learn to live andwork together to attain some specific goals. Socialgroup work solves adjustment problems and enhancespositive interpersonal relations. It prepares theindividuals to learn and share responsibility in workingtogether. All these factors contribute to the successof social action taken up for a social cause influencinga large segment of the population.

During the social group work process, the groupmembers learn to respect each other’s views andtake criticisms positively. They learn emotional controland tolerance, empathy and sympathy, breaking downof prejudices and enhance problem solving capacity.It teaches the individuals to keep their personallikes-dislikes, aspirations, perceptions, ego-hasslesaside and work towards the goals planned by thegroup as a whole. Such a learning opportunity preparesthe individuals for a social change and chances offailure of a movement due to internal conflicts aresubstantially minimized. Social group work alsoexplores leadership qualities among its members.


These leaders, in turn, take up the responsibilityof mass mobilization and targeted activities in socialaction process.

Added to this, social group work also helps the socialworker to refine his/her skills of dealing with differentpersonalities to work for common goals. The socialworker resolves various intra-group conflicts andpersonality clashes. These skills and experiencesbecome handy while dealing with conflicting situationsbetween different groups during the process of socialaction. The group worker makes use of programmemedia in social group work. It contributes to programmeplanning and management in a better way whiledealing with many groups during social action process.Experiences of social group work with one grouphelp a lot in managing many groups when the wholecommunity is mobilized for a common social cause.

In addition, the social worker, during initial stageof group formation and during group work processestablishes rapport with the community people andgains knowledge about various structural and functionalaspects of the community, a precursor to studyinga social problem, which is affecting a large sectionof the community and undertaking mass movementand social action for remedies. The social workergains credibility in the community during the groupwork process, which is one of the main requirementsof social action. So, social group work acts as aslapping stone in the process of social action.

Social Action in Relation toCommunity Organisation

Social action shares many similarities with communityorganisation. Sometimes there is a debate whethersocial action is a part of community organisationor is completely a different entity. Some believethat it is a part of community organisation. The


problem of confusing social action with communityorganisation arises mainly on account of lack ofagreement as to what the term community standsfor in social work. While community organisationis meant for a limited geographical area – the‘community’, social action has larger context. It signifiesthe society, say, nation-state. Social action definitelyhas a larger scope and impact.

Some of the techniques used by both the methods(social action and community organisation) may becommon but they differ in their approach. Communityorganisation is a process of effective coordinationof different agencies within a particular area andinvolves cooperative planning and implementationof social policy relating to the area. However, socialaction as a process is used for tackling issues, whichare of a much wider nature than issues affectinga particular area.

Community organisation is an integral part of socialaction. It is the precursor or pre-requirement tosocial action. In fact, many of the social workprofessionals consider social action as an extensionof community organisation. Community organisation,as defined by Ross (1955), is a process by whicha community identifies its needs or objectives, ordersor ranks these needs or objectives, develops theconfidence and will to work at those needs orobjectives, finds the resources (internal and/orexternal) to deal with these needs or objectives,takes action in respect of them, and in doing soextends and develops cooperative and collaborativeattitudes and practices in the community. Socialaction is a conflictual process of varying intensityto bring about or prevent changes in the social systemthrough the process of making people aware of thesocio-political and economic realities conditioningtheir lives and by mobilizing them to organisethemselves for bringing about the desired change,


or to prevent the change that adversely affects them,through the use of whatever strategies they mayfind workable, with the exception of violence.

Thus we see that ‘organising people or communityor target population’ is the common thread betweencommunity organisation and social change. In boththe methods of social work, people are helped torealize their needs or problems and in finding outthe solution of their felt needs. People organisethemselves, collaborate and cooperate and worktogether for a commonly accepted goal. In both theprocesses, that is, community organisation and socialaction, need or problem identification is the firststep. It is followed by making the people aware oftheir pressing need or problem, that is, prioritizingthe problems. An environment is created in whichthe community people feel confidence and gain faiththat together they would be able to solve their pressingproblems or meet their needs. Emotional impulseto meet the need and to take required action quicklyis inherent in both the processes.

However, in social action, change of authority andpower structure is involved which invariably requiressome degree of conflictual process. It is theredistribution of resources and power. So, we seethat social action is community organisation withthe aim of bringing about or preventing long lastingsocial change where confrontation with the existingauthority is involved. The strategies and tactics involvedin social action like, propaganda, picketing, strike,boycott, sit-in, fast, etc. make social action differentfrom community organisation.

When just by integrating the community to worktogether and mobilizing the available resources thedevelopment is not sufficient for achieving the setgoals, because of accumulation of power and resourcesis in the hands of a few people who are not ready


to work for the community development, social actioncomes into play. The goal of social action isredistribution of power and resources so that allthe sections of the community get equitable shareand opportunity for optimum growth and development.Once this objective is achieved, people’s participationis used for constructive activities in the community.People’s participation is the key term common inboth, community organisation and social action. Socialaction is, thus, one step further to communityorganisation.

Social Action in Relation to SocialWelfare Administration

Before looking into the relation between social actionand social welfare administration, let us first takea brief look at social welfare administration as amethod of social work. It is the process by whichwe apply professional approach to certain goals andtransform social policy into social action. It is aprocess of planning, implementing, directing,monitoring, organising, coordinating and evaluationof services rendered for the welfare and developmentof the people. Social welfare administration is mainlyconcerned with providing social welfare services likeactivities related to child care, women’s development,etc., in an organisational set-up and thus translatingthe social mandates into operational policies. Theorganisation delivering these social services doeshave a definite set of goals, staffing pattern andadequate administrative and managerial skills.

Let us take an example in order to understand thesocial action in relation to social welfareadministration. An NGO working with children ina slum area provides night shelter, mid-day meal,non-formal education and other developmental andrecreational activities. Soon, the social workers realizethat just providing these services is not providing


any relief to the working children. Parents wanttheir children to work and earn rather thanparticipating in the activities of NGOs. The employersof these children not only pay very less for theirhours of tedious work, but also abuse them physically,emotionally and even sexually. Many children arelured by drug peddlers and they are used for illegalwork. Added to this, apathetic attitude of policetowards the whole situation worsens the situation.In such circumstances, the NGO realizes it cannotplay a substantive role for the well-being of thechildren just by adhering to its already set policiesand programmes. No matter how well the NGO isperforming its services, it cannot improve the livingconditions of the children unless and until it decidesto take up firm steps for bringing about structuralchanges in the social system. It needs to take upinterventions like shaking up the conscience of thefamily members, police, government administration,general public, school authorities and the mostimportant the employers, change in governmentpolicies which are pro-child welfare and developmentand effective implementation of the same at theground level. So, we see that unless strict and firmsteps like confrontation, negotiation, demonstration,etc. are done, which is social action, the servicesrendered by a social welfare agency remain superficial.It clearly shows the relation of social welfareadministration and social action.

Social welfare agency, working in the community,provides a working ground to take up social causeat the macro level with people’s participation. Allthe preliminary works needed for social action, say,rapport building, in-depth knowledge about thecommunity and its social problems, credibility buildingand the like are done by social welfare administration.

Now, let us examine the skills a social worker acquiresand/or refines in a social welfare administration.


The social worker does planning of social goals andpolicies for the agency. Planning is an intellectualand crucial activity requiring adequate knowledgeand vision about the social causes. A good planningis a pre-requisite of a successful service delivery.This skill is of key importance during carrying outsocial action for a social cause. Secondly, organisingskills has been referred to as the administrator’sraw material. Needless to mention how crucial thisskill is for mobilizing people for taking up socialaction against authorities. The social worker alsorequires skills in staffing. Staffing means recruitment,training, orientation and supervision. During socialaction, though these skills are not applied apparentlyand directly but experiences of working with people,training them, dealing with their aspirations, differentworking patterns, conflicts, etc. help the social workerto manage the people participating in mass mobilizationand collective action taken during social action. Inthe same way, skills acquired and refined by a socialworker in social welfare administration like budgeting,evaluating, reporting, directing, all become handyduring social action.

Social Action in Relation to SocialWork Research

Social work research is the systematic and scientificstudy of social problems, and its objective is to produceknowledge that can be used in planning and carryingout social work programmes and (if the need arises)social action. Social work research is a very powerfultool in social action. It helps in ‘knowing’ the socialproblem, its intensity and extensiveness, its causalfactors, its impact on the target population and itsrepercussions on social life of the people. It alsogives the understanding of the factual ground realities(and not mere perceptions) of the social situations,which in turn helps in conceptualizing the pros and


cons of various possible social interventions. So, asystematic study of a social problem, and lookingfor remedies through social work intervention, isa must for the attainment of goals through socialaction.

It is social work research, which helps the socialactivists to gain in-depth knowledge about the socialproblem, factors contributing to it and its impacton the socio-cultural and economic aspects of life.The findings of the research help in formulatingthe goals for social change, design the interventionand plan their strategies and tactics accordingly.Research on the problems which affect thedisadvantaged, and then conscientizing them (thepublic as well as the policy makers), can haveconsiderable effects. Social work needs to highlightsuch research to a great extent than the ordinarysurveys of “social problems” which tend to neglectthe interplay of powerful social forces causing theseproblems.

Social work research is a careful, critical, scientificand objective way of investigation of the social needor problem. It is free from biases and prejudices.It gives clarity to the social issue. The social workerneeds the base of social work research to carry outsocial action as its absence may lead to wrong andinadequate perception of the problem. The planningof interventions based on such inadequate data andfindings would obviously be faulty. As a result, socialaction may fail to adhere to its basic philosophy ofthe goal of community well-being.

Social planning and social action would be ineffectivewithout proper research. Social work research enablessocial workers to satisfactorily assess the needs ofthe community and make their interventions andprogrammes very effective, useful and worthwhile.The social worker shares the findings of social work


research with the community people through groupsand then with people’s participation; careful andmeticulous interventions are chalked out for socialaction. It helps the social worker to observe andrecord the relationship of individuals and groups inactual operating situations. Through social workresearch, the social worker or social actionist getsthe right perspective or picture of the social problem,which is essential for the success of social actionin attaining its goal.

Conclusion

Social action is a method of professional social workaimed at solving social problems through redistributionof power and resources. Its objective is to achievesocial justice and empowerment of the community.Social action mobilizes the general population tobring about structural changes in the social system.

Social action is weighed through certain parametersto establish that it is a method of professional socialwork. It has a recognized process with easilyidentifiable stages. It rests on the philosophy thatevery individual is worthy and has the capacity toimprove his life conditions. Like any other methodof professional social work, social action does havecertain principles and social workers or actionists,during social action, make use of these principlesfor achieving the overall goal of social justice. Socialaction does have a definite set of goals of providingsocial justice to all. It employs certain strategiesand tactics like negotiation, persuasion, competition,disruption, collaboration, bargain, strikes, boycottsto attain its objectives, which makes it differentfrom other social work methods. However, it rejectsviolence and blood-shedding. Social workers practicingsocial action are well versed with certain skillsthat are developed through teaching-learning andtraining.


Social action depends upon other methods of socialwork during its process. The role of social actionis visible when people’s problems remain unsolvedthrough other methods of social work. Social caseworkand group work can be taken as the base to socialaction where people are mobilized to confrontauthorities. Social action is considered to be a stepforward to community organisation. Social workresearch helps in identifying objective and developingcritical perception of the social problem. Social welfareadministration provides the ground to social workersto prepare the community for social action. Socialworkers utilize skills of other methods of social workin the process of social action.

References


Davis, Martin (2000), The Blackwell Encyclopaedia ofSocial Work, (eds.) Blackwell Publishers, Massachusetts,pp.317-318.





Singh, Surender (1986), Social Action in Horizons ofSocial Work (ed). By Surender Singh & K.S. Soodan,op. cit. p. 161.

25 BSWE-003 Volume-I

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Transcript of 25 BSWE-003 Volume-I