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UNIT 23

THE STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE: POSITIVE ANDNEGATIVE STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS AND

EXCLAMATIONS.

OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.1.1. Aims of the unit.

1.2.

Notes on bibliography.

2. A LINGUISTIC FRAMEWORK FOR SENTENCE STRUCTURES.2.1.

Linguistic levels involved in the notion of sentence structure.

2.2. On defining the notion of sentence: what and how.

2.3.

Grammar categories involved: open vs. closed classes.

3. A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

3.1. The structure of the sentence: categorial vs. functional description.

3.1.1. Categorial description: main sentence constituents.

3.1.2. Functional description : main syntactic functions.

3.2. Phrase, sentence and clause structure.

3.2.1. The phrase structure.

3.2.2.

Sentence vs. clause structure.

3.3.

Simple, complex and compound sentences.

3.3.1. Simple sentences.

3.3.2. Complex sentences.

3.3.3. Compound sentences.

3.4. The notion of ‘collocation’: sentence word order.

3.5. Main types of sentence structure.

3.5.1. Sentences and their grammatical form.

3.5.2. Sentences and their main functions in communication.

3.6. Main structural features of sentence types : form, function and use.

4.

STATEMENTS.

4.1.

Statements: morphology and syntax.4.2. Statements: phonology and semantics.

5.

QUESTIONS.

5.1.

Questions: morphology and syntax.

5.2. Questions: phonology and semantics.

6. COMMANDS.

6.1.

Commands: morphology and syntax.

6.2. Commands: phonology and semantics.

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7. EXCLAMATIONS.

7.1. Commands: morphology and syntax.

7.2. Commands: phonology and semantics.

8. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

9. CONCLUSION.

10.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

Unit 23 is primarily aimed to examine the English the structure of the sentence regarding positive

and negative statements, questions , commands and exclamations in terms of their main structural

features regarding form, function and main uses in order to provide a relevant and detailed account

of this issue. However, we have dared to include the analysis of commands, though not stated in the

title, because it is included in the traditional classification of sentence structures:

Then, the study will be divided into nine chapters. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a linguistic framework

for sentence structures, by answering questions such as, first, which linguistic levels are involved in

the notion of sentence structure; second, what it describes and how; and third, which grammar

categories are involved in its description at a functional level.

Once we have set up sentence structures within a linguistic framework, we shall continue on

offering the reader in Chapter 3 a general introduction to the structure of sentences regarding some

previous considerations which are closely related to the notion of sentence structure and which

prove to be relevant in our analysis in subsequent chapters. Thus, we shall start by revising some

important notions which are closely related to the description of sentence structures: for instance,

(1) the basis to analyse the structure of the sentence: functional vs. categorial description; and

therefore, (2) the difference between phrase, clause and sentence since these three notions may lead

us to misunderstandings; (3) the difference between simple, complex and compound sentences; (4)

the sentence structure in terms of word order; (5) a brief typology of sentence structures followingthe main grammatical forms and functions in communication; and finally, we shall offer (6) the

main structural features of sentence types regarding form, function and uses. The latter will be fully

described in the subsequent chapters.

Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 will offer a descriptive account of the main structural features of the four

sentence structures under study in terms of form, function and uses, namely following

morphological, phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic guidelines. Thus we shall examine

the structure of statements, questions, commands and exclamations regarding their form regarding

morphology (subject-verb structures) and phonology (pronunciation) whereas function will be

approached in terms of syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (different meanings = differentuses).

Chapter 8 provides an educational framework for the structural features of sentence structure within

our current school curriculum, and Chapter 9 draws on a summary of all the points involved in this

study. Finally, in Chapter 10 bibliography will be listed in alphabetical order.

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1.2. Notes on bibliography.

In order to offer an insightful analysis and survey on the sentence structure in English regarding

positive and negative statements, questions and exclamations, we shall deal with the most relevant

works in the field, both old and current, and in particular, influential grammar books which have

assisted for years students of English as a foreign language in their study of grammar. For instance,

a theoretical framework for this type of verbs is namely drawn from the field of sentence analysis,

that is, from the work of Thomson & Martinet in A Practical English Grammar (1986); Flor Aarts

and Jan Aarts (University of Nijmegen, Holland) in English Syntactic Structures (1988); and also,

Rodney Huddleston with his book entitled English Grammar, An Outline (1988).

Other classic references which offer an account of the most important and central grammatical

constructions and categories in English regarding sentence structure, are Quirk & Greenbaum, A

University Grammar of English (1973); Sánchez Benedito, Gramática Inglesa (1975); Greenbaum

& Quirk, A Student’s Grammar of the English Language (1990). More current approaches to

notional grammar are taken from Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge

Grammar of the English Language (2002); and Angela Downing and Philip Locke, A University

Course in English Grammar (2002)

2. A LINGUISTIC FRAMEWORK FOR SENTENCE STRUCTURES.

Before examining in detail the notion of sentence structure in English in terms of form, main

functions and uses, it is relevant to establish first a theoretical framework in order to fully

understand the subsequent chapters on the main types of sentence structure regarding positive and

negative statements, questions, commands and exclamations since they must be described in

grammatical terms. In fact, this introductory chapter aims at answering questions such as, first,

which linguistic levels are involved in the notion of sentence structure; second, what it describes

and how; and third, which grammar categories are involved in its description at a functional level.

2.1.

Linguistic levels involved in the notion of sentence structure.

In order to offer a linguistic description of the notion of sentence structure, we must confine it to

particular levels of analysis so as to focus our attention on this particular aspect of language. Yet,

although there is no consensus of opinion on the number of levels to be distinguished, the usual

description of a language comprises four major components: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and

semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic,

lexical, and semantic (Huddleston, 1988).

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First, the phonology describes the sound level , that is, the pronunciation, stress and intonation

within the sentence structure. Secondly, since the two most basic units of grammar are the word and

the sentence, the component of grammar involves the morphological level (i.e. third person

singular in positive statements) and the syntactic level (i.e. word order in the sentence). Third, the

lexicon, or lexical level , lists vocabulary items, specifying how they are pronounced, how they

behave grammatically, and what they mean.

Finally, another dimension between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is

semantics, or the semantic level , to which all four of the major components are related. We must not

forget that a linguistic description which ignores meaning is obviously incomplete, and in

particular, when dealing with the notion of sentence structure where semantics plays a very

important role in order to express the speaker’s attitude.

Therefore, we must point out that each of the linguistic levels discussed above has a corresponding

component when analysing the notion under study. Thus, phonology deals with the accent, rhythm

and intonation on statements, questions, commands and exclamations (i.e. You are studying tonight

/Are you studying tonight?/Study tonight!/Pity you are studying tonight!); morphology deals with

certain morphological features in the formation of statements either positive (i.e. third person

singular in positive statements) or negative (i.e. the auxiliary “doesn’t”), interrogative (i.e. Does he

usually cook?) and so on; and syntax deals with those combinations of words which constitute

grammatical strings and those which do not (i.e. NOT: the dog she for a walk takes always BUT

She always takes the dog for a walk ).

On the other hand, lexis deals with the wide range of grammatical categories involved in sentencestructure (i.e. verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and so on ); and finally, semantics

deals with meaning where syntactic and morphological levels do not tell the difference (i.e. Would

you like some coffee?=where a positive answer is expected ).

2.2. On defining the notion of ‘sentence’: what and how.

On defining the notion of sentence structure, we must link this notion (what it is) to the grammar

categories which express it (how it is showed). Traditionally, on answering What is a ‘sentence’? ,

we would define it as ‘the largest unit of grammatical description since it does not function in thestructure of a unit higher than itself’, that is, on treating the sentence as the highest unit implies that

we do not take into account larger stretches of language such as paragraphs and texts since this is

the domain of text grammar or discourse analysis.

Regarding how multi-word verbs are realized, we must examine the grammar categories related to

them, that is, open vs. closed classes which are fully examined in next section.

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2.3. Grammar categories involved: open vs. closed classes.

So far, in order to confine the notion of sentence structure to particular grammatical categories, we

must review first the difference between open and closed classes since the structure of the sentence

involve both. Yet, grammar categories in English can be divided into two major sets called open

and closed classes. The open classes are verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and are said to be

unrestricted since they allow the addition of new members to their membership, whereas the closed

classes are the rest: prepositions, conjunctions, articles (definite and indefinite ), numerals,

pronouns, quantifiers and interjections, which belong to a restricted class since they do not allow

the creation of new members. Yet, as we shall see, sentence structures shall deal with both classes.

3. A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

Once we have set up sentence structures within a linguistic framework, we shall continue on

offering the reader a general introduction to the structure of sentences regarding some previous

considerations which are closely related to the notion of sentence structure and which prove to be

relevant in our analysis in subsequent chapters.

Thus, we shall start by revising some important notions which are closely related to the description

of sentence structures: for instance, (1) the basis to analyse the structure of the sentence: functionalvs. categorial description; and therefore, (2) the difference between phrase, clause and sentence

since these three notions may lead us to misunderstandings; (3) the difference between simple,

complex and compound sentences; (4) the sentence structure in terms of word order; (5) a brief

typology of sentence structures following the main grammatical forms and functions in

communication; and finally, we shall offer (6) the main structural features of sentence types

regarding form, function and uses. The latter will be fully described in the subsequent chapters.

3.1.

The structure of the sentence: categorial vs. functional description.

Generally, linguistic units are considered to be constituents of larger structures within the rankscale

(sounds-morpheme-word-phrase-sentence-text) and also linguistic objects in their own right.

According to Aarts (1988), “with the exception of the sentence, every unit, at every level of analysis

can be considered either as an element that plays a role in a larger structure, or as something that

has its own individual characteristics”.

Hence, if we view a linguistic unit as an element that plays its role in a larger linguistic structure,

we are concerned with its function. On the contrary, if we view it as something that has individual

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characteristics which it shares with other units of the same kind, we are concerned with the category

or class to which it belongs , and sometimes, with the type of phrase it is embedded in (noun phrase,

verb phrase, etc).

In other words, when we assign some sort of meaning to each word in a sentence individually, we

have to do it in order to make sense of the sequence as a whole. We shall therefore say that, if a

sequence of words is to constitute a sentence, it must be meaningful. Apart from being internally

coherent, these groups also stand in a certain relation to each other. We refer respectively to the

main constituents in a sentence and their syntactic functions in it, that is, the sentence word order.

This duality (function-category) is relevant in our study since sentences are best described in

functional and categorial terms at the same time, and the notions of phrase and clause (examined in

next section) come into force regarding categorial description. This description specifies not only

the category of the constituents of which the sentence is composed (i.e. noun phrase, verbal phrase,

adjectival phrase, prepositional phrase) but also it shows what function these constituents have (i.e.

subject, predicator, complement, etc).

Therefore, for our purposes, sentences shall be described in two ways: first, in terms of functional

description and second, in terms of categorial description, where we shall review both the sentence

constituents (categorial) and their word order within the sentence structure (functional).

3.1.1. Categorial description: main sentence constituents.

Regarding a categorial description we shall provide information about the categories to which their

constituents belong since sentences can also be described in terms of the phrases of which they are

made up (i.e. function: object =category: noun/noun phrase). The main constituents we find in a

sentence structure are (1) subject (2) predicate (i.e. The moon rose), and (3) adverbial constituents

(i.e. The moon rose at midnight ). These three elements are function-labels denoting the relation

between the constituents bearing these labels and the sentence as a whole. In other words they are

function-labels for immediate constituents of the sentence.

Further on, within the predicate we find (a) predicator and (b) complement. Moreover, within the

latter one, we find different elements:

1. direct object (i.e. Many students enjoyed the concert =NP-VP-NP); the direct object may be

a noun (i.e. I like fruit ) or a noun phrase (i.e. They’ve sold their car ); a bare infinitive (i.e.

He dared not speak to her) or a ‘to-infinitive’ (i.e. He didn’t want to die); an –ing form (i.e.

I like swimming ); or a subordinate clause (i.e. I saw him do it ).

2. indirect object (i.e. The firm has sent him an e-mail=NP-VP-NP-NP); the indirect object

may be a pronoun (i.e. He gave him a book); a noun (i.e. He gave Peter a book); or a noun

phrase (i.e. He gave my brother a book).

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3. benefactive object (i.e. My boss has bought his daughter a flat=NP-VP-NP-NP); this type

of object is similar to the indirect object.

4. subject attribute (i.e. That solutions seems easy=NP-VP-Adj.P); with verbs such as ‘to be,

appear, lie, look, feel, remain, seem, smell, taste, sound, stay, stand, and so on’ or ‘become,

fall, get, go, grow, turn’, we may add: a noun or noun phrase (i.e. He became a lawyer;

she’s a very good nurse); an adverb or adverbial phrase (i.e. She’s there; she is in Berlin); a

subordinate nominal clause (i.e. It seems that we are wrong; the truth is that nobody likes

you).

5. object attribute (i.e. Susanne will make her husband very happy=NP-VP-NP-Adj.P); the

object attribute may be: an adjective (i.e. You’ll make me angry; they left it empty; serve

me the beer cold) or a participle (i.e. I had the car repaired; I got dressed); or a noun (i.e.

They elected him Minister) or a noun phrase (i.e. He was appointed Foreign Minister).

6. and predicator complement (i.e. This street reminds me of New York =NP-VP-NP-Prep.P).

Some verb s such as ‘say, ask, explain, cost, buy, cook, get, give, and so on’ may be formed

with certain prepositions when accompanying the indirect object at the end of the sentence

(i.e. I said it to him; I bought a present for him).

3.1.2. Functional description: main syntactic functions and word order.

We also need a functional description because a description of a sentence in terms of its constitutent

phrases is obviously inadequate because many constructions consist of identical strings of phrases

(NP-VP-NP-NP) as it is the case of these two sentences “My boss bought her lover a flat” and Thefirm has offered me a job”, being the former a Subject-Predicate-Benefactive Object-Direct Object

type, and the latter a Subject-Predicate-Indirect Object + Direct Object type, respectively.

So we shall specify the functions of the different constituents we find in a sentence structure in a

similar way to categorial description (i.e. subject + predicate (predicator; complement –direct

object, indirect object, subject attribute, object attribute, etc) + adverbial) where subject and

predicate are the two obligatory parts of the sentence. Thus:

1. The function of subject : it may be attributed to a constituent of a sentence on the basis

of the following criteria: (a) position (precedes the verb phrase in statements andquestions, and follows the first word of the verb phrase in yes/no questions, questions

introduced by ‘when, where, why, how and their compounds in –ever’ and in questions

introduced by ‘who(m), whose, what, which and their compound in –ever’; (b) concord

(it is associated with that constituent which accounts for the presence of a sibilant suffix

in the verb phrase (i.e. Peter hates me) or with plural constituents (i.e. Boys love

adventure); (c) passivization, since in passive sentences it occurs in the by-phrase (i.e.

The pope excommunicated the Cardinal vs. The Cardinal was excommunicated by the

pope); (d) repetition in tag-questions, where the subject is pronominalized (i.e. Peter

hates cats, doesn’t he?).

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2. The function of predicate is the other obligatory part of the sentence. It consists of two

internal parts: predicator or complement, where the former is obligatory and the second

is optional (i.e. Birds sing vs. Birds sing at night). Let us concentrate on complements,

which can be segmented into six types (already mentioned above): (1) direct object

which follows immediately a verb phrase; the indirect object, which may be substituted

by a to-phrase following the direct object; benefactive object, which resembles the

direct object and precedes immediately the direct object; the subject attribute after

certain verbs such as copula verbs; the object attribute, formed by two noun phrases

(indirect + direct object); and predicator complement, which makes reference to those

constituents that obligatorily complement the verb.

3. The adverbial function is associated with a constituent which occupies a position on the

same level as the subject and predicate constituents (prepositions, noun phrases,

adverbs). They have two main features: they are optional and they are movable.

With the exception of the function predicator, which is invariably realized by a verb phrase,

sentence functions can be realized in a variety of ways. Thus the functions subject and direct object

can be realized by noun phrases (John; last week) but also, for example, by finite and non-finite

clauses, as in “That the men are unwilling to compromise is obvious” and “I regret being unable to

come tonight” (Aarts, 1988).

3.2. Phrase, sentence and clause structure.

“So far we have assumed that the sentence, being the largest unit of grammatical description, does

not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself. Units are not always consistently composed

of units of the next lowest rank. Quite frequently, a unit of a given rank functions as a constituent of

a unit of the same rank or even of a unit which is one step lower down the rankscale. We refer to

two further possibilities within sentence formation: first, when a sentence can function in the

structure of another sentence, that is in the structure of a unit of the same rank; and secondly, when

a sentence can function in the structure of a phrase, that is in the structure of a unit lower than

itself” (Aarts, 1988).

We refer to the distinction between phrase, sentence and clause structure at a functional level wherethey will function first, in terms of single units of syntactic description within the structure of the

phrase (noun phrase, adjective phrase, verb phrase, etc) and second, in terms of larger units as part

of the structure of the sentence (subject and predicate) or embedded in the sentence structure, that is,

clauses (subordinate). Following Aarts (1988), these larger structures are, apart form the morpheme

and the word, “two major units of grammatical description”. But let us examine their main

differences.

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3.2.1. The phrase structure.

The phrase structure is defined as a constituent which can be identified on the basis of the word

class membership of at least one of its constituent words which is called the ‘head’ of the phrase

(i.e. a noun phrase is a phrase which has a noun as its most important constituent and similarly with

an adjective or adverbial phrase). Note that the other elements show a relation of dependency or

subordination to the head (in noun phrases we find: determiners which are divided into pre-central-

post determiners and modifiers: pre or post modifiers).

However, the factors which determine which of the words of a phrase constitutes its principal part

are not the same for all five phrase types. Thus, in three types, the noun, adjective and adverb

phrase, the dominant element is that which can replace the whole phrase without affecting the

structure of the sentence (i.e. We like medieval stories = we like stories). However, a fourth type of

phrase, the verb phrase, differs from the former in that the essential element, mainly taken from

semantic considerations, cannot replace the whole phrase without causing serious harm to syntactic

structure (i.e. John has phoned Cristine vs. John phoned Cristine).

On the other hand, the fifth type of phrase, the prepositional phrase, differs from the rest in that the

element that gives its name to the phrase cannot be called its head since it cannot replace the whole

phrase. In addition, only one of its constituents is a preposition and therefore, its relation is not one

of subordination but one of government.

3.2.2.

Sentence vs. clause structure.

In order to clarify the difference between sentence and clause syntactic differences, we must review

the hierarchy of units of linguistic description when dealing with this duality. For instance, we

observe that morphemes function as constituents of words, words function as constitutents of

phrases and phrases as constituents of sentences. But then, what is the difference between sentence

and clause structure? Aren’t they the same?

The sentence is actually identifiable on the basis of the relations holding among its immediate

constituents (subject, predicate, direct/indirect object, complement, adverbial, and so on). Yet, “the

sentence is placed at the other extreme of the rank scale and regarded as the largest unit ofgrammatical description since it does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself”

(Aarts, 1988:79).

Once we have assumed that the sentence is the largest unit of grammatical description and that it

does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself, we are ready to understand the duality

sentence vs. clause by means of two further possibilities. First, when a sentence functions in the

structure of another sentence of the same rank (i.e. I believe that he is quite loyal; what she says is

false); and secondly, when a sentence functions in the structure of a phrase, that is in the structure of

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a unit lower than itself (i.e. as postmodifier: the man that came yesterday was a politician; she is

afraid of what may happen here).

Hence, when sentences are embedded in the structure of other sentences or in the structure of

phrases we call them ‘clauses’, which usually corresponds to the notions of subordination (or

embedding) and coordination. Note that clauses can have other clauses embedded in them, as in

‘That she is rich is obvious’ or ‘The problem is that they have no money left’ .

3.3. Simple, complex and compound sentences.

Up to this point, we shall approach the notion of sentence regarding the established typology

between simple, complex and coumpound sentences since quite often, the sentence has been

described as an indeterminate unit in the sense that it is difficult to establish where one sentence

ends and another begins. Some grammarians (Jesperson, Allerton, Huddleston, Aarts) affirm that a

sentence is a unit capable of occuring itself as long as there is no change in prosodic patterns

(accent, intonation) in spoken English (i.e. I told him. I won the lottery vs. I told him (that) I won the

lottery) and that it may be formed by one or more words (i.e. Stop! =. Can you stop, please?).

3.3.1. Simple sentences.

Simple sentences can be defined as “a sentence in which none of the functions are realized by aclause” (Aarts, 1988), that is, a simple sentence does not contain an embedded (or subordinate)

sentence as realization of one of its functions (i.e. He likes science fiction films). In addition, a

simple sentence is always an independent sentence which can occur on its own (i.e. John is a

bachelor vs. He says that John is a bachelor ).

3.3.2. Complex sentences.

On the other hand, the complex sentence is defined as “those sentences in which one or more

sentence functions are realized by a clause (finite or non-finite)” (Aarts, 1988). Then a complexsentence (or a clause) may contain one or more clauses in a relationship of coordination (i.e. I

believe that she is English) or subordination (i.e. I wonder if you would tell me where my keys are).

As sentences show, clauses can, in turn, contain more deeply embedded clauses (i.e. She was angry

because he went away).

Hence clauses can be classified in two ways. First, from a structural point of view by distinguishing

three types: finite clauses (i.e. We discovered who sent the e-mail); non-finite clauses (i.e. I don’t

remember saying that); and verbless clauses (i.e. A staunch liberal, George did not believe in state

ownership). Secondly, in terms of the functions they play in the structure of the sentence: subject

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clauses (i.e. Having a hot shower is rather nice), direct object clauses (i.e. He didn’t know what to

say), indirect object clauses (i.e. She gave whoever came in an angry look), benefactive object

clauses (i.e. She bought whoever came in a drink), subject attribute clauses (i.e. My feeling is that

she doesn’t want to study), object attribute clauses (i.e. I call that killing two birds with one stone),

predicator complement clauses (i.e. I promised to come back) and adverbial clauses (i.e. To speak

frankly, I don’t like this soup).

3.3.3. Compound sentences.

Following Aarts (1988), compound sentences are defined as “a sentence in which two or more

sentences (called conjoins) have been coordinated”. Note that each of the conjoins is independents

since there is no question of embedding. Coordination may be then asyndetic, in which case it is not

marked overtly (i.e. She was an odd woman, her life was always a mystery); or syndetic (quite

frequent) where at least two sentences are involved, being indicated by means of one the

coordinators ‘and, or, for, but’ (i.e. He got up at six o’clock but he still missed the bus).

To sum up, a compound sentence may consist of (1) two (or more) simple sentences (i.e.Oil is now

more expensive and that will affect our economy); (2) a combination of simple and complex

sentences (i.e. If he believes that, he must be mad); and (3) two (or more) complex sentences (i.e.

He must believe what I say about the case and that is what matters now.

3.4. Word order and sentence structure.

Word order is closely related to the way verbs and particles are combined and therefore, to the

notion of sentence structure.. However, word order is not the only factor that determines, but the

way words co-occur together and their varying degrees of exclusivity”. We refer to “the tendency of

two or more words to co-occur in discourse” (Schmidt, 2000:76). These degrees of exclusivity refer

to specific types of collocations which, in our case, refer to the way sentence elements may be

combined, for instance, obligatory or optional elements.

Following Quirk et al. (1973) “the order in which the elements appear is common but by no meansfixed. It is a principle of sentence organization that what is contextually familiar or ‘given’

information comes relatively early, while the part which needs to be stressed or which seems to

convey the greatest information is given the special prominence of ‘end-focus’. Therefore, they

suggest the following word order: subject + predicator + complement (OI+OD) + adverbials

(process-place-time).

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3.5. Main types of sentence structure.

Once we saw that in terms of their structural complexity sentences can be divided into three types:

simple, complex and compound, this sections will deal with the main types of sentence structures

based on their grammatical form and their function in communication (also called the illocutionary

force), that is, from their syntactic structures and their association with one particular function in

speech situations.

Therefore, concerning the sentence grammatical form, the classification comprises four types:

declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences

whereas the classification concerning their function in communication shows that declarative

sentences are chiefly used to make statements, interrogative sentences to ask questions, imperative

sentences to give commands and exclamatory sentences to make exclamations, depending on the

way speakers express their attitude through phonological, syntactic and semantic cues.

Within this classification, the first four types are named under the grammatical category of

adjectives: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences whereas the

communicative functions are named under the grammatical category of nouns (i.e. statement,

question, command and exclamation, respectively). Yet, the grammatical form of sentences shall

establish the main morphological and syntactic features under the scope of simple sentences , whose

use correlates with different communicative functions.

It must be borne in mind that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the grammatical form

of a sentence and its function in communication. This means that sentences with the samegrammatical properties need not have the same illocutionary force and, conversely, that

grammatically different sentences can have the same illocutionary force. Thus, the following

request to have a pizza can be expressed in a variety of ways: ‘Let’s have a pizza’, ‘Shall we have a

pizza?; Why don’t we have a pizza?; Would you like to have a pizza?’

3.5.1. Sentences and their grammatical form.

The main grammatical forms of declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentencesare as follows:

(1) Declarative sentences always have a subject, which precedes the verb (i.e. Madrid is the capital

of Spain; in 1954 my parents emigrated to France) and usually correlates with the communicative

function of ‘stating facts’ either positive or negative. Hence, the verb, as an obligatory element, may

appear in positive or negative form (i.e. London is not the capital of Spain; in 1954 my parents did

not emigrate to France).

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(2) Interrogative sentences make reference to the communicative function of ‘asking for

information’ or ‘questions’. They contain a subject and can open the sentence with an auxiliary verb

or a WH- word depending on the type of answer we expect. Then, they can be divided into three

major classes. For instance, (a) yes-no questions, where the operator is in front of the subject (i.e.

Will you come? / Does he live in Bristol?), included question-tags; (b) Wh-questions, where they

open with a WH- word and this is positioned initially (i.e. Where do you live?); (c) alternative

questions (i.e. Are you going to have milk or coffee?), which are similar to the structure of yes/no

questions;

In addition, there are other minor types of questions, such as questions (i.e. You go to the cinema?);

exclamation questions (i.e. Wasn’t it amazing?); rhetorical questions (i.e. Can anyone avoid loving

this woman?); and echo questions (i.e. Have a look at this!- Have a look at what?).

(3) Imperative sentences contain a verb in the imperative mood. If a subject is present it is usually

‘you’, but as a rule the subject is lacking (i.e. Shut that door, please/You go in first). This type of

sentences are known as commands in their communicative function.

(4) Finally, in exclamatory sentences the subject precedes the verb. They are introduced by phrases

opening with the words ‘how’ + adjective or ‘what’ + a(n) + (adjective) + noun (i.e. How beautiful

she is! / What a wonderful day!). Their communicative function is namely to emphasize how much

somebody likes something or appreciates a situation/thing/person/animal/etc.

3.5.2. Sentences and their main functions in communication.

When we deal with sentences and their main functions in communication, we refer to their

respective discourse function in the sentence, for instance, statements are namely used to convey

information in an assertive or non-assertive way; questions are used to ask for information,

sometimes yes/no answers and sometimes specific data; commands are namely used to order

somebody to do something; and exclamations are primarily used to express emphasis on the part of

the speaker.

Again, we insist on the fact that there is no fix correspondence between their grammatical form and

their communicative function. The speaker moves on morphological, phonological, syntactic andsemantic guidelines in order to state the difference, for instance, a sentence like “She turned down

my invitation” is at first sight a declarative sentence (morphologically and syntactically speaking).

However, if the speaker deals with phonological and semantic features, suddenly this sentence may

turn into a question, both phonologically and semantically speaking (i.e. She turned down my

invitation?).

Then, different types of sentence structures presented above are going to be examined more in detail

in the subsequent chapters, which shall analyse each type in order to express the speakers’ attitude

in speech.

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3.6. Main structural features of sentence types: form, function and use.

With respect to the main structural features of the four sentence structures under study, they will be

analysed in terms of form, function and uses, namely following morphological, phonological,

syntactic, semantic and pragmatic guidelines. Thus we shall examine the structure of statements,

questions, commands and exclamations regarding their form regarding morphology (subject-verb

structures) and phonology (pronunciation) whereas function will be approached in terms of syntax

(sentence structure) and semantics (different meanings = different uses).

4. STATEMENTS.

4.1. Statements: morphology and syntax.

As stated above, statements can be positive or negative, that is, assertive or non-assertive. Hence, in

case we want to construct a declarative sentence in the negative form, we may do it by: (a) adding

the negative particle ‘not’ to: (i) auxiliary verbs “be, have, shall, will, etc” (i.e. He is not; You are

not), with the possibility of contratect forms (isn’t; aren’t); (ii) modal auxiliary verbs “must, can,

could, may, etc” (i.e. You must not=you mustn’t); (iii) the first person plural of the imperative form

(i.e. Let us play=Let’s play); (b) with (i) the primary auxiliary verb “do + not” and “does + not” (i.e.

I don’t like it/He doesn’t like it); (ii) with the second person singular or plural of the imperative (i.e.

Don’t speak); (iii) by using “did + not” = “didn’t” when talking in the past tense; (c) with the verb“to fail” (i.e. I fail to understand your ideas); (d) with any negative particle, such as “never, nobody,

none, etc”. We must bear in mind that we cannot use a negative particle when the verb is in the

negative form (i.e. NOT: There isn’t nobody at home BUT: There isn’t anybody at home / There is

nobody at home).

4.2. Statements: phonology and semantics.

Statements can convey messages in a variety of ways, for instance, by asserting or not (i.e. He

is/isn’t my brother); by making predictions (i.e. I am going to have a baby); by offering apologies(i.e. I am sorry about being late); by stating facts (i.e. Unemployment is said to have decreased this

year); opinions (i.e. I think you are right); etc. Declarative sentences may convey the meaning of (1)

statements (i.e. I will be 32 in January); commands (i.e. You have to leave this room now); requests

(i.e. I would love a martini); and warning (i.e. That plate is really hot).

Within each type, one of the most important syntactic devices that play a role in the representation

of a message is the focusing of information. Yet, English sentences normally have end-focus, which

means that the last open-class item in the sentence is often the most prominent (i.e. Robert is

driving to LONDON), usually marked by accent in speech. However, if the context requires this, it

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is possible to depart from the normal patter by shifting the focus to other words where again,

pronunciation, will play an important role (i.e. Robert is driving TO London = and not FROM

London). This is called the contrastive focus. Note how this syntactic device is so closely related to

the phonological one.

As Gimson (1980:274) states, “The grammatical and attitudinal function of intonation, in addition

to its function of providing a means of accentuation, may also serve to distinguish sentence types

(i.e. statement vs. question) and to indicate the emotional attitude of the speaker. Such functions

apply equally to utterances consisting of more thatn one word and to those of a single word. In these

cases, it is not so much the situation of the nucleus which is of importance, but rather the type of

nucleus employed, for instance, whether a fall, rise-fall, rise, or fall-rise is used”.

Thus, for our purposes, a statement form of words may be made into a question if a rise is used

instead of a fall, for instance, “He is ‘not here” (statement) vs. “He is ,not ‘there?” (question). In

addition, Palmer (1960) mentions a case in the sentence “He doesn’t lend his books to anybody”

which may have two meanings according to whether ‘anybody’ is said with a falling nucleus (i.e. he

lends them to nobody) or with a falling-rising nucleus (i.e. he does lend them to some people). This

semantic function also applies to the rest of sentence types as we shall see in subsequent sections.

5. QUESTIONS.

5.1. Questions: morphology and syntax.

As stated above, questions are mainly used to ask for information, but depending on the answer we

expect on the part of the speaker, they can be divided into three major classes. For instance, (a) yes-

no questions, where the operator is in front of the subject (i.e. Will you come? / Does he live in

Bristol?); (b) Wh-questions, where they open with a WH- word and this is positioned initially (i.e.

Where do you live?). Question-tags are included in this type as a minor type of questions; and (c)

alternative questions (i.e. Are you going to have milk or coffee?), which are similar to the structure

of yes/no questions.

5.2. Questions: phonology and semantics.

As Gimson (1980:274) stated above, the grammatical and attitudinal function of intonation may

serve to distinguish statement vs. question sentence types and to indicate the emotional attitude of

the speaker when asking for information (low-falling nuclei: curt, impatient, testy, insistence, etc;

rising nuclei: politeness, pleading, suspicion, etc; falling-rising: forceful, encouraging, propting;

rising intonation). In these cases, it is not so much the situation of the nucleus which is of

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importance, but rather the type of nucleus employed, for instance, whether a fall, rise-fall, rise, or

fall-rise is used”.

Questions, as statements, can convey messages in a variety of ways, for instance, questions (i.e.

Who is the President of Spain?); requests (i.e. Can you sing us a nice song?); exclamations (i.e.

Isn’t that wonderful?); and commands (i.e. What are you laughing at?). The structures in which they

are embedded in are:

(1) yes/no questions (which are usually formed by placing the verb before the subject or by

auxiliary + subject + verb) expect an assertive or non-assertive answer (i.e. Have you seen this

film?) by using the rising intonation. On the one hand, yes/no questions expecting positive answers

are generally neutral, but if they have positive items in between (i.e. Would you like some ice-

cream?/Do you really want to leave now?) they lead us to positive answers in fact. On the other

hand, yes/no questions with negative items in between will lead us to negative answers (i.e. Don’t

you believe me? = Of course, I don’t believe you). A further and minor type of yes/no questions are

question-tags, which can convey the meaning of presuposing agreement calmly (i.e. It is lovely,

isn’t it?) when pronounced with low-falling nucleus or demanding agreement when pronounced

with high-falling nucleus (i.e. She doesn’t believe me, does she?).

(2) Secondly, when questions are open with Wh-pronouns (What, When, Where, Why, How, Who,

etc) or nouns sometimes (i.e. What kind of.../What time.../How often...), these Wh-items are

positioned initially (i.e. What did you do?) and they are called Wh-questions. They expect a wide

range of answers according to the different meanings of Wh-items (place, manner, time, action,

duration,...). Unlike yes/no questions, they are pronounced with falling intonation (i.e How did youdo it?).

(3) Thirdly, alternative questions (i.e. Are you going to have milk or coffee?), which are similar to

the structure of yes/no questions, may expect both assertive and non-assertive answers, one out of

two options (i.e. Which car is yours, the red or the blue one?). However, unlike yes/no questions,

this type of questions do not carry a rising intonation but a falling one.

(4) In addition, there are other minor types of questions, such as declarative questions (i.e. You go

to the cinema?) which have the syntactic construction of a declarative sentence but have a question

intonation, that is, a final rising intonation (i.e. You’ve got the keys); exclamation questions (i.e.Wasn’t it amazing?), which are interrogative in structure but has the illocutionary force of an

assertive exclamation, within a final falling intonation (i.e. Hasn’t she said I am wrong?); rhetorical

questions (i.e. Can anyone avoid loving this woman?), which have a normal rising intonation of a

yes/no question, but combine the interrogative structure and the assertive declarative (i.e. Is that a

reason for leaving now?). Finally, we find echo questions, whose main communicative function is

to repeat part of the previous question in order to get confirmation of it (i.e. The Smiths are moving

tonight?- Tonight?).

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6. COMMANDS.

6.1. Morphology and syntax.

As stated before, commands are embedded in the structure of imperative sentences, which contain a

verb in the imperative mood, that is, a bare infinitive in initial position (if assertive) and the

operator “Don’t + bare infinitive” in initial position (if non-assertive). If a subject is present it is

usually ‘you’, but as a rule the subject is lacking (i.e. Shut that door, please/You go in first). They

differ from declarative sentences or statements in that they have no subject and are placed in initial

position.

6.2. Phonology and semantics.

This type of sentences are known as commands in their communicative function because they are

namely used to order somebody to do something. If we want to convey the meaning of calm or

detachment, we use it with falling intonation (i.e. Count them. Get it then). However, if we want to

express gentle command or request, we shall use the rising intonation (i.e. Wait. Hold it).

Sometimes, this type of sentence structure is embedded within the exclamation type, but Aarts

(1988) and Quirk et al. (1973) are in favour of examining it separately.

7. EXCLAMATIONS.

7.1. Morphology and syntax.

As mentioned above, in exclamatory sentences the subject precedes the verb. They are introduced

by phrases opening with the words ‘how’ + adjective/adverb/statement (i.e. How beautiful she is!/How fast you drive!/How I used to like chocolate!) or ‘what’ + a(n) + (adjective) + noun/noun

phrase (i.e. What a wonderful day!/What a wonderful day we have had today!). The syntactic order

is therefore changed to the extent that the wh- item (who or what) may be taken from its usual

position (i.e. statements) to initial prominence to express emphasis. Another structure is “such/so +

(adjective) + noun (i.e. He is such a good student!; they are so nic e to me!).

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7.2. Phonology and semantics.

Their communicative function is namely to emphasize how much somebody likes something,

appreciates a situation/thing/person/animal/etc. or to express how impressed the speaker is by

something. These expressions are quite common in everyday usage and we can find them in many

different patterns, both formal and informal ones. For instance, the formal ones, “How quickly you

run!” or “What a nice time we had today!”, when pronounced with falling intonation, they may

convey the meaning of boredom, unconcerned, or even sarcastic (i.e. How annoying the film is!).

Often used in ordinary colloquial speech, they may convey the meaning of strong surprise or

indignation (i.e. What a surprise!). On the other hand, informal ways of exclamations in colloquial

speech are “Really!; Damn!; Bloody dog!; Oh, my God!; Good heavens!; Shit!; and so on.

8. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

The different verbal paradigms dealt with in this study are so relevant to the learning of a foreign

language since differences between sentence structures related to different patterns in the learner's

native language (L1) and that of the foreign language (L2) may lead to several problems, such as

the incorrect use of verbal structures, especially because of the syntactic, morphological, and

semantic processes implied in these categories.

This study has looked at the structure of the sentence structure in terms of form and function, that is,

regarding morphological and phonological forms and syntactic and semantic functions, all those

related by the relevance of usage in everyday speech. This study is mainly intended for teachers to

help Spanish-speaking students establish a relative similarity between the two languages that would

find it useful for communicating in the European framework we are living in nowadays.

According to Thomson & Martinet (1986), a European student may find especially troublesome the

use of sentence structure, and particularly those which have double pattern, that is, declarative

sentences which are interrogative. In fact, when communicating in English our students must know

the specific constructions a verb needs or not in affirmative, interrogative, imperative orexclamatory structure (i.e. Is he a student?/Does he go to school?) and, second, which sentence

structure to use when certain situations are given depending on the speaker’s attitude (command,

questions, surprise, incredulity, and so on) and on top of that, how to place noun, adverbs,

adjectives in this type of structures (i.e. He is such a good swimmer ).

This choice becomes problematic for our Spanish students when they deal with the wide range of

sentence structures and their semantic offer. For instance, the most common mistakes for Spanish

students, both at ESO and Bachillerato level, is to construct the negative and interrogative forms of

English modal verbs as the ordinary verbs do (i.e. Does she be able to pay her debts?) or to use

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incorrectly question-tags (i.e. He never comes alone, does he?) or sometimes by omitting certain

elements (i.e. He lives in New York?). Often, they make serious grammatical mistakes.

It has been suggested that a methodology grounded in part in the application of explicit linguistic

knowledge enhances the second language learning process. In the Spanish curriculum (B.O.E.

2002), the use of different sentence structures is envisaged from earlier stages of ESO in the use of

simple structures (subject + predicate + complement) to talk about their everyday life or any

specific topic, up to higher stages of Bachillerato, towards more complex sentence structures, such

as exclamations to express emphasis (subject + predicator + object + complement + etc (i.e. My

mum is such a good friend that I can’t help loving her as crazy).

So, the importance of how to handle these sentence structures cannot be understated since you can

communicate but not successfully because of the relevant distinction of meaning between them to

express different nuances: asking for things, showing surprise, stating your likes, etc. We must not

forget that Spanish students are likely to use the imperative form to ask for things rather than using

structures such as ‘Can I use the phone?’, ‘Could you tell me the way to the gym?’, ‘Shall I copy

this?’ and so on.

Current communicative methods foster the ‘teaching’ of this kind of specific linguistic information

to help students recognize the main differences with the L2 words. Learners cannot do it all on their

own. Language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, do not automatically recognize

similiarities which seem obvious to teachers; learners need to have these associations brought to

their attention.

So far, we have attempted in this discussion to provide a broad account of sentence structures by

means of form, function and use within verb phrase morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics and

usage in order to set it up within the linguistic theory, going through the localization of sentence

structures at the core of syntax studies, to a broad presentation of the main grammatical categories

involved in it. We hope students are able to understand the relevance of handling correctly the

different sentence structure to successfully communicate in everyday life.

9. CONCLUSION.

The notion of “sentence structure” implies a broad description of the structure of the sentence in

terms of form, function and use so as to get to the paradigms of morphology, phonology, syntax,

semantics and use which, combined, give way to the study we have presented here. The appropriate

answer suitable for students and teachers, may be so simple if we are dealing with ESO students,

using simple sentence structures or more complex if we are dealing with Bachillerato students, who

must be able to handle with high-level structures.

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So far, in this study we have attempted to take a fairly broad view of sentence structures since we

are also assuming that there is an intrinsic connexion between its learning and successful

communication. Yet, we have provided a descriptive account of Unit 23 dealing with Sentence

structure: posititive and negative statements, questions, commands and exclamations whose main

aim was to introduce the student to the different paradigms that shape the whole set of sentence

structures in English regarding their form and function.

In fact, the correct construction of sentence structures (simple, complex or compound), is currently

considered to be a central element in communicative competence and in the acquisition of a second

language since students must be able to use and distinguish these forms in their everyday life in

many different situations. As stated before, the teaching of them comprises four major components

in our educational curriculum: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get

five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical, and semantic.

Therefore, it is a fact that students must be able to handle the four levels in communicative

competence in order to be effectively and highly communicative in the classroom and in real life

situations, now we are part of the European Union. The expression of these verbal paradigms in

form and function, proves highly frequent in our everyday speech, and consequently, we must

encourage our students to have a good managing of it.

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10. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

- Aarts, F., and J. Aarts. 1988. English Syntactic Structures. Functions & Categories in Sentence Analysis.

Prentice Hall Europe.

- B.O.E. RD Nº 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre por el que se establece el currículo de la Educación

Secundaria Obligatoria/Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia.

- Downing, A. and P. Locke. 2002. A University Course in English Grammar . London: Routledge.

- Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk. 1990. A Student’s Grammar of the English Language . Longman Group UK

Limited.

- Huddleston, R. 1988. English Grammar, An Outline. Cambridge University Press.

- Huddleston, R. and G.K. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge

University Press.

- Quirk, R & S. Greenbaum. 1973. A University Grammar of English . Longman.

- Sánchez Benedito, F. 1975. Gramática Inglesa . Editorial Alhambra.

- Thomson, A.J. and A.V. Martinet. 1986. A Practical English Grammar . Oxford University Press.

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