22846,2014r03 en environnement environment world road association mondiale route

Road tRanspoRt system and enviRonment pReseRvation - RevieW oF nationaL poLiCiesWorld Road Association Technical Committee A.1Preserving the environment

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statements

The World Road Association is a nonprofit organisation established in 1909 to improve international co-operation and to foster progress in the field of roads and road transport.

The study that is the subject of this report was defined in the PIARC Strategic Plan 2007 – 2011 approved by the Council of the World Road Association, whose members are representatives of the member national governments. The members of the Technical Committee responsible for this report were nominated by the member national governments for their special competences.

Any opinions, findings, conclusions and recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of their parent organizations or agencies.

This report is available from the internet site of the World Road Association (PIARC)http://www.piarc.org

Copyright by the World Road Association. All rights reserved.Cover photograph: - The A2 Motorway from Karavanke border crossing to Obrežje border crossing connects Slovenia’s north with the south. (photo: archive DARS d.d.), photo published in Routes/Roads 360, 4th quarter 2013 Forum for PIARC National Committees, Slovenia

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Road tRanspoRt system and enviRonment pReseRvation - RevieW oF nationaL poLiCies2

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This report has been prepared by Working Group 1 of the Technical Committee TCA.1 Preserving the Environment of the World Road Association.

The contributors to the preparation of this report are:

Mike Savonis (USA),Pierre Skrabine (France), Felix Huber (Germany), Pierre Dorchies (Canada), Marco Garozzo (Italy), Hirofumi Ohnishi (Japan), Wenche Kirkeby (Norway), Ijaz Khan (Pakistan), Johanna Daniels (Sweden), Dora Hunyadi (Hungary),Jackie McAllister (Scotland).

The Technical Committee was chaired by Simon Price (United Kingdom) and Agnès Jullien (France) and Lisa Rossiter (New Zealand) were respectively the French, English and Spanish-speaking secretaries.

The editor of this report is Helen Murphy (Australia) for the English version, who was also responsible within the Technical Committee of the quality control for its production. PIARC General Secretariat expresses its gratitude for her outstanding contribution in the final redaction of this report.


2014R03EN table of contents

ExECUTIvE SUMMARy 6INTRODUCTION 7

1. OvERARCHING POLICIES AND MEASURES 8

2. FISCAL DEMAND AND MANAGEMENT MEASURES 9

2.1. MANAGEMENT MEASURES RELATED TO TRAFFIC DEMAND 92.1.1. Road Pricing and Congestion Charges 102.1.2. Parking Charges 102.1.3. Workplace Parking Levy 10

2.2. MANAGEMENT MEASURES TO DECREASE POLLUTION FROM vEHICLES 102.2.1. Incentives for Low emission Vehicles 112.2.2. economic Contributions 11

2.3. THE SPECIAL CASE OF FUEL TAx 11

3. BEHAvIOURAL DEMAND MANAGEMENT MEASURES 12

3.1. INCREASED USE OF LESS ENERGy INTENSIvE MODES 143.1.1. expand and Improve Public Transport Services 143.1.2. Improve Cycling and Pedestrian Networks 153.1.3. Car Pooling 153.1.4. Car sharing 15

3.2. LAND USE AND TRANSPORT PLANNING – PROMOTING COMPACT URBAN DESIGN 163.3. IMPROvEMENT OF FREIGHT TRANSPORT EFFICIENCy 17

4. vEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS 18

4.1. FUEL EFFICIENCy POTENTIAL OF CURRENT INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE LIGHT-DUTy vEHICLES 184.2. IMPROvEMENT OF HEAvy GOODS vEHICLE FUEL EFFICIENCy 184.3. ELECTRIC CARS, HyBRIDS AND OTHER NEW TECHNOLOGIES 184.4. DRIvER INFORMATION 194.5. BIOFUELS AND LOWER CARBON FUELS 19

5. ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE MITIGATION MEASURES 225.1. TRANSPORT PLANNING 225.2. PROJECT DESIGN 235.3. CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 235.4. OPERATIONS 23

5.4.1. Securing Smoothness of Traffic Flow 245.4.2. Active traffic management 255.4.3. Speed Limit enforcement 265.4.4. eco-driving 265.4.5. electronic Toll Collection 265.4.6. energy consumption for roadside operation 28

5.5. MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING 28

6. ADAPTATION MEASURES 29

7. COST EFFECTIvENESS OF MEASURES 31

8. CONCLUSIONS 33

9. REFERENCES 37


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APPENDIx I - SAMPLE SURvEy 38

SURvEy MADE By THE WORLD ROAD ASSOCIATION 38

APPENDIx II - NATIONAL ExAMPLES SORTED By TOPICS 42

OvERARCHING CLIMATE CHANGE POLICIES AND MEASURES 42LAND USE AND TRANSPORT PLANNING 46MANAGEMENT MEASURES RELATED TO TRAFFIC DEMAND 48MANAGEMENT MEASURES TO DECREASE POLLUTION FROM vEHICLES 50INCREASED USE OF LESS ENERGy INTENSIvE ENERGy MODES 52vEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS 53ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE MITIGATION MEASURES 55OPERATIONS - SECURING SMOOTHNESS OF ROAD TRAFFIC FLOW 58MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING 60ADAPTATION MEASURES 62


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This report provides a summary of international policies and strategies that have been adopted by governments and road authorities to respond to the need for mitigation and adaptation of the road transport system with respect to projected impacts of climate change.

The report highlights the increasing awareness among nations of the importance of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Whilst transport is a key driver of the economy - supporting economic growth and facilitating the movement of people and goods - it is also a significant and growing contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report report [11] indicates that:

• the transport sector is responsible for about 23% of world energy related greenhouse gas emissions;• road vehicles account for more than three quarters of total transport energy use;• virtually all (95%) of transport energy comes from oil based fuels largely diesel (35%) and gasoline (47%).

Recognizing that more than 95% of transport emissions are from vehicular traffic, many of the climate change measures are based on the general evidence that less and more efficient vehicles will produce fewer emissions. From this evidence, the report provides numerous examples of measures adopted throughout the world. The measures undertaken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions include:

• fiscalmeasurestoreducetrafficdemandorincreasecarefficiency;• behaviouralmeasuresusedtopromotetheswitchtomoreefficientmodesoftransportation;• vehicletechnologiesemployedtodelivermoreefficientandlesspollutingvehicles;• design elements of the road network and increased use of recycled materials in road construction.

The report recognizes that the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions will be as a result of multiple approaches and the combination of numerous measures. Any measure, regardless of its contribution should not be ignored, as even a small step in reducing greenhouse gas emissions is important in achieving the overall goal of stabilising the climate to avoid the serious global threat of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

On adaptation, the report recognizes that nations are facing important challenges in climate conditions, from permafrost melting to significant increases in precipitation and risk of flooding. The need to assess future changes and potential risks is clear and many countries are employing risk analysis tools to better assess the need for changes in design criteria and standards for construction, maintenance and operation.

executive summary


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Climate change is one of the most serious threats facing the world today. There is compelling scientific evidence that the global climate is changing and the primary cause is the release of greenhouse gases resulting from human activity.

In 1997 the Kyoto Protocol, led by the United Nations, introduced the concept of legally binding commitments to emissions reductions. The Protocol came into force in February 2005 and it committed signatories to reducing their combined emissions of the six main greenhouse gases by 5.2% below 1990 levels over the period 2008-2012. This built on work in the early 1990s which had sought to encourage industrialised nations to stabilise their greenhouse gas emissions.

More recently, at the 2012 UN Climate Change Conference in Doha, Qatar (COP18), governments consolidated the gains of the last three years of international climate change negotiations and opened a gateway to necessary greater ambition and action on all levels. Among the many decisions taken, governments:

• strengthened their resolve and set out a timetable to adopt a universal climate agreement by 2015, which will come into effect in 2020;

• emphasized the need to increase their ambition to cut greenhouse gases and to help vulnerable countries to adapt;• launched a new commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol, thereby ensuring that this treaty’s important legal

and accounting models remain in place and underlining the principle that developed countries lead mandated action to cut greenhouse gas emissions;

• madefurtherprogresstowardsestablishingthefinancialandtechnologysupportandnewinstitutionstoenableclean energy investments and sustainable growth in developing countries.

Governments at all levels have a responsibility to address climate change issues. Many governments are putting in place legislative and policy frameworks at a national level to address climate change. This report concentrates on the measures being developed from a technological, operational and behavioural perspective to drive mitigation of transport emissions and adaptation of the road network to climate change.

The report complements the work of other PIARC committees. It also draws on international intelligence from reports such as the recent OECD report: The Economics of Climate Change Mitigation: How to Build the Necessary Global Action in a Cost-Effective Manner [17].

The content of this report is based upon a survey of participating PIARC - World Road Association countries (appendix I). Information was gathered via a questionnaire and supplementary data provided by country representatives or through independent research. To this extent it is, therefore, largely self-evaluating and seeks to provide a high level international overview across a breadth of issues. While efforts were made to obtain input from a cross section of countries, this report does not seek to provide a comprehensive assessment of each country’s approach and by the nature of the survey data collated may be more representative of select developed nations and may not address issues faced by developing countries.

The report is structured to provide an overview of supply side and demand measures for climate change mitigation and adaptation. When it comes to mitigation, road authorities generally have much greater control over supply side measures (i.e. direct provision of roads services) and more limited control over implementing demand management measures that can reduce emissions caused by vehicles on the road. Control over supply- and demand - side measures, as well as the emissions they produce, varies from country to country. Examples are provided by country to illustrate the range of measures that are being employed to address climate change (appendix II, page 42). Many are examples of best practices from which all countries may learn. The order of presentation of the country examples is not intended to reflect any particular level of importance or priority.

introduction


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1. overarcHinG Policies and measures

In response to the challenges of climate change, many Governments are introducing overarching legislation and policy frameworks to ensure that action is taken to respond to climate change.

The status of Governments efforts to engage in legally binding agreements and issue strategic plans has changed and will continue to evolve in the post-Kyoto time frame. Diplomatic efforts continue to change, as do those in individual countries, apparently toward greater and greater understanding for the need to take action and increasing vigour in developing strategic plans and approaches. As such, the information presented herein must be viewed as representative of a point in time only.

It is to be recognized, that the subject of climate change and of reduction in greenhouse emissions is a relatively new one. Therefore, the reality is that many Governments, particularly and largely those in the developing countries and countries in transition have either no such specific policies, so far, or they are in very early stages. However, many of these Governments are initiating moves to frame policies and legislation and to put in place frameworks for implementation. The speed with which these Governments are progressing in this direction is a challenge, as a result of their poor economies and competing priorities in other sectors vis-à-vis scarce financial resources.

Obviously some countries and regions emit more greenhouse gases than others as a result of a number of factors (e.g. population size and demographic growth, travel distances, climate, power sources and level of economic activity). Per capita emissions of greenhouse gases from transport among International Transport Forum countries1 varies from 6.5 tonnes in the USA to 7 to 0.1 tonnes in India.

Many countries have announced new mitigation commitments and voluntary actions in the run-up to Copenhagen and in response to the Copenhagen Accord’s call for both binding greenhouse gas reduction targets from Kyoto Appendix 1 countries and declarations of voluntary Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) by other parties to the UNFCCC.

Few countries address transport sector emissions in their national targets although a number of non-Appendix-1 countries have identified NAMAs within the transport sector [10].

At the 2008 International Transport Forum [16], Transport Ministers agreed that countries should aim to develop a broad strategic policy approach – both within and across modes and at all appropriate levels of government – to improve energy efficiency in and reduce CO2 emissions from transport. The Forum’s key messages called for a package of policy measures to reduce transport-related CO2 that includes: strengthened research into new technology and fuels, increased use of information technology and integrated mobility management, as well as a wide variety of non-technology policy tools with potential to improve economic efficiency and reduce emissions. A major component of the policy package included measures that encouraged the travel behaviour changes needed to combat climate change and simultaneously meet other objectives of transport policy. These measures included: improved organisation and telematics to optimize transport modes and their inter-linkages; and more effective use of rail, inland waterways and short sea shipping for freight transport.

They also included a number of policy initiatives that specifically addressed travel in urban areas:

• enhanced public transport and rail services;• support for non-motorised means of travel: walking and cycling;• measurestomanagetrafficdemand;• moreefficientlogisticsconcepts;• continued efforts to better integrate land use and transport planning;• pricing mechanisms to encourage behavioural change and ensure that externalities are taken into account

These measures all have potential to reduce CO2 emissions from travel activity while simultaneously serving a wider set of objectives to improve the sustainability of urban travel (e.g., congestion mitigation, improved air quality, better accessibility).

Interestingly, there remains in many countries something of a disconnect between local policy initiatives to improve the sustainability of urban travel and reduce CO2 emissions, and national climate change mitigation strategies, which in a number of cases either overstate the role of urban travel policies in meeting national objectives (often

1 The International Transport Forum at the OECD is an intergovernmental organisation with 54 member countries. It acts as a strategic think tank for transport policy and organises an Annual Summit of ministers.


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without quantifying the actual abatement potential of these measures) or assign little importance to the CO2 mitigation potential of local policies.

Based on survey responses submitted by our committee members, all agreed on the need for greenhouse gas reductions. However, the responses varied as to the status of action taken ranging from greenhouse reductions mandated through legislation to strategic plans or policies or at the very least implementing or in the process of implementing measures to reduce and/or adapt to climate change.

The nature of policy measures adopted has clear implications for road agencies from planning, construction, operation and maintenance of the road network (figure 1).

FIGURE 1 – TRANSPORTATION DELIvERy CyCLE

2. fiscal demand and manaGement measures

Greenhouse emissions from road transport are dominated by the vehicles using the road network. For each road project, using a whole of life costing approach, more than 95% of greenhouse emissions are generated by the vehicles with construction, maintenance and operations relatively small by comparison.

Mitigation of greenhouse gases due to road transportation is possible in two main ways. The first is the reduction of traffic demand. This reduction is obtained through fiscal demand management using measures such as road pricing and congestion charges. Land use management and parking management are also key factors in determinating supply and demand. These measures also affect modal shift.

The second way is to decrease the polluting capability of the vehicle through the use of less polluting sources of energy or a more efficient use of energy to move the vehicle. Fiscally, this is achieved through measures such as surtaxes or rebates on the ownership and use of the vehicle according to its pollution level.

At the intersection of these two approaches, the quasi universal tax on fuel has an influence on both traffic demand and choice of emission level of vehicles. An integrated approach is required to enhance the advantages of each measure in order to maximize the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions.

2.1. manaGement measures related to traffic demand

The following measures have historically been implemented as a measure to control traffic demand and congestion and reduce or at least delay the need for new construction of infrastructure. However, by their impact on demand, they are now being used as a tool for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions as a consequence of their impact on fuel consumption. More and more, the use of traffic demand measures and intelligent traffic systems (ITS) are viewed


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as integral components of any strategy to reduce transport emissions.

2.1.1. road Pricing and congestion charges

This approach proposes the development of charging schemes based on the number of kilometres travelled (distance-based) or with differential charges based on vehicle efficiency, road capacity or time of the day (congestion) pricing. It can apply to a specific city, a region or the whole country. While this policy will deliver a reduction in the number of trips - by increasing travel costs - there are often barriers to implementation as a result of a low level of public acceptability to this approach.

Several countries or urban regions have introduced some form of road pricing, either targeting heavy duty vehicles (Germany, Austria and Switzerland) or as a congestion charge in cities, such as Singapore, London, Stockholm [19], Trondheim and planned schemes in Shanghai, New york and San Francisco [8]).

San Francisco congestion pricing is a traffic congestion user fee for vehicles travelling into the most congested areas of the city of San Francisco at certain periods of peak demand. The charge is combined with other traffic reduction projects. The congestion pricing charge is part of a mobility and pricing study being carried out by the San Francisco County Transportation Authority (SFCTA) to reduce congestion at and near central locations and to reduce its associated environmental impacts, including cutting greenhouse gas emissions.

2.1.2. Parking charges

This approach seeks to limit free parking provisions in urban and densely populated areas by introducing charges where they currently do not exist with on-street metre bays and in off-street car parks. Charges may be tailored to dissuade long stay commuter parking while allowing short stay shopper parking so as not to affect retail vitality. It may also include Controlled Parking Zones focussing on areas of high parking demand outside the central business district to protect residential on-street parking.

While it can be a challenge to include private commercial parking in parking policies, there are examples including Melbourne, Australia which introduced a congestion levy in 2006, aiming at reducing central business district (CBD) traffic congestion by deterring all day parkers.

Parking pricing can be used to address several issues including congestion reduction and equalising parking demand, as well as serving as a revenue-raising tool. The increase of total trip price due to parking charges or the availability of parking spaces can have a great impact on both total volume of traffic entering the urban area and individual modal selection of the trip, such as public transit, so that there is a shift to bicycles, carpooling or forgoing the trip entirely. This, in turn, reduces driving activity and congestion, hence reducing total greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector.

2.1.3. Workplace Parking levy

The workplace parking levy is a charge on employers who provide workplace parking. The revenue gained through the levy is used to fund local transport and the levy is designed to incentivize employers to manage and potentially reduce their workplace parking requirements. Whilst intended to focus on employers, the levy can be passed onto employees depending on the laws in each country. The key issue is the need to avoid parking displacement by offering public transport incentives as employees.

2.2. manaGement measures to decrease Pollution from veHicles

To encourage consumers to buy vehicles with low fuel consumption, the European Union - Directive 1999/94/EC [6] – is one example where manufacturers are required to provide information for potential buyers about the fuel consumption and associated greenhouse gas emissions. This information must be included in notices about the vehicles, as well as being included on posters, guides and other promotional material.

Other approaches are also possible, including differential taxes in the form of registration, based on the emissions profile of the vehicle. These measures are intended to encourage or force the use of more fuel efficient vehicles.

Using the vehicles emission standards as a reference, various countries have implemented a system which tends to influence the renewal of the vehicle fleet by encouraging the purchase of low emission vehicle and/or penalizing the ownership of old and new high emission vehicles.


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2.2.1. incentives for low emission vehicles

Several other countries have introduced subsidies to car buyers to encourage the uptake of low emission vehicles. These subsidies can take the form of a tax or toll reductions for vehicles that use bio-fuels or those that have relatively lower greenhouse gas emissions. In addition to tax or toll reductions, further incentives can be granted to low emission vehicles in the form of using high-occupancy vehicle lanes even if driving alone.

Examples where such incentives are in place include: Austria, Belgium, Canada (Ontario, Quebec), Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States of America.

Seen as an economical stimulation for the automotive industry, scrappage programs have been introduced by a number of countries to promote the replacement of old vehicles with modern vehicles. Many European countries have introduced large-scale scrappage programs as an economic stimulus to increase market demand in the industrial sector during the global recession that began in 2008.

Scrappage programs were touted with different names, mostly referring to an environmental benefit. The vehicle Efficiency Incentive in Canada was based on fuel-efficiency of cars. In Germany, the economic stimulus program was called “Umweltprämie” (environmental premium) and in Austria “Ökoprämie” (eco-premium) while most of the public referred to it simply as “Abwrackprämie” (scrappage premium).

Other countries have not tried to connect the program title with an environmental aspect. Nonetheless, the Italian, French and Unites States schemes all required that the newer car has a better fuel efficiency than the old car.

2.2.2. economic contributions

Governments have also provided economic contributions to communities that implement measures that reduce the amount of transport and change the modal split. These measures may include public transport measures, cycle lanes and walkways, road pricing, parking policies or space planning. These systems exist in several countries and examples include the Cycling Demonstration Towns programme in England. Results from these programmes have been positive with - in the case of the England - cycling levels outside London increasing by over 27%.

2.3. tHe sPecial case of fuel tax

Fuel taxes are a widely used tool for its ability to address all types of demand side components such as activity, mode share, energy intensity and fuel choice. As fuel consumption is directly relating to greenhouse gas emissions, governments have access to a direct tax on the cause of the pollution.

Higher fuel taxes lead to an increase in travel cost and as a result, commuters tend to reduce their overall demand for travel in terms of car trip distance. A reduction of trip distance can be achieved by changing destinations in the case of non-work trips, and in the long-run, further influence activity options such as choice of retail and service centres. Alternatively, commuters may shift to the other modes that are less affected by increased fuel cost such as public transport, car sharing, cycling and walking, or exercise the option to telework. However, the effect on travel distance is relatively small unless the fuel tax is raised significantly. For public transport, an increase in the service quality such as fare, frequency and comfort is the greater determinant rather than fuel tax.

Increases in fuel tax can have a significant impact on energy intensity. There is sufficient evidence to show that increased fuel taxes will result in people driving in a more fuel efficient manner and purchasing more fuel efficient vehicles. Taxing fuels also provides an incentive to shift to less carbon-intensive fuels. Although the availability of alternative fuels is still limited, several countries have provided tax relief on fuels with relatively low carbon contents, such as LPG, ethanol, or natural gas, in order to promote their market penetration.

A number of countries have implemented fuel taxes for generating revenue as well as for other purposes. These include the use of a carbon tax on fossil fuel or a special part of a fuel tax related to the embodied carbon content. While a direct tax should send a clear signal to the consumer, its use as an efficient market mechanism to influence consumers’ fuel use has been challenged in some areas, namely:

• theremaybedelaysofadecadeormoreasinefficientvehiclesarereplacedbynewermodelsandtheoldermodelsfilterthroughthe“fleet”;

• there may be practical political reasons that deter policy makers from imposing a new range of charges on their electorate;


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• there is some evidence that consumers’ decisions on fuel economy are not entirely aligned to the price of fuel. In turn, this can deter manufacturers from producing vehicles that they judge have lower sales potential. Other efforts, suchas imposingefficiency standardsonmanufacturers,or changing the income tax ruleson taxablebenefits,maybeatleastaseffective;

• inmany countries fuel is already taxed to influence transport behaviour and to raise other public revenues.Historically, they have used these fuel taxes as a source of general revenue, as their experience has been that the price elasticity of fuel is low, hence increasing fuel taxation has only slightly impacted on their economies. However, in these circumstances the policy behind a carbon tax may be unclear.

Some also note that a suitably priced tax on vehicle fuel may also counterbalance the “rebound effect” that has been observed when vehicle fuel consumption has improved through the imposition of efficiency standards. In these circumstances, rather than reduce their overall consumption of fuel, consumers have been seen to make additional journeys or purchase heavier and more powerful vehicles.

Calculations from the Norwegian cost benefit analysis “Climate Cure 2020” [2] indicate that a 100% increase in fuel price can provide a 10% reduction in the emissions from vehicle traffic, when combined with better public transport. However, socio-economic costs of such a policy are relatively high. Hence, while this policy will deliver a reduction in the number of journeys and more use of public transport, there will be barriers to implementation as a result of a low level of public acceptability to the higher fuel costs.

3. beHavioural demand manaGement measures

This chapter focuses on measures that can influence future demand for travel and in particular, for car based travel.

The behaviour of people is a consequence of their needs, desires and possibilities. The needs for transport are influenced by many things. Development patterns can make it easier or more difficult to meet travel demand. Urban sprawl will require more energy per passenger mile than more compact development. It will also make it more difficult to meet the demand through effective public transport approaches. The degree of diversification of labour, educational and leisure facilities, the extent and nature of transport infrastructure and the population’s knowledge about the transport choices can also affect travel behaviour.

The spatial separation of human activities creates a need for the movement of people and goods. Suburbanization leads to increased spatial division of labour and, thus, traffic. This encourages the development of the transport system, which in turn influences the locations of businesses and households. Car use determines most of the suitable locations in the city-regions. In 1981, Zahavi [24] developed the Unified Mechanism of Travel. By analyzing the traffic of more than 100 city-regions, he presented the following hypotheses:

• when making decisions about ways households consider money and time budgets, the monetary and the time budgets for transport change only very slowly;

• in context of their monetary and time budgets households try to maximize spatial opportunities (i.e. travel-distances).

Therefore, the change of spatial structures is one of the most fundamental and long-lasting measures to influence travel demand, allowing people to behave more environmentally-friendly without an awareness of loss or restraint.

The next most efficient way to keep people from travelling is to make noticeable increases in travel costs. Such a measure is often perceived disapprovingly by the public and has negative social impacts. Travel costs can be increased by various systems like tolls, taxes, fares and fees. Each fee has its own guidance, but also its own side effects. There is significant research to demonstrate that transport costs need to increase in a very noticeable manner in order to generate behavioural changes. Such changes produce significant impact: reduction of travel distances, increase in walking and bicycling, expansion of public transport and decline in car usage. However, some of these actions may be opposed by the public and can have negative effects on the economy.

Transport infrastructure improves access. Positive effects include more opportunities for interaction using less time. Negative effects include the subsequent enlargement of space structures, or the increase in commuting distances due to newly accessible but farther opportunities. Transport planners must take into account the different effects of new infrastructure. In the long run, noticeable travel costs will result in stronger densification and multifunctional integration of urban and regional structures.

There is a large availability and diversity of transport options in developed countries; naturally, it is smaller in developing countries. For middle-aged and older people, driving a car not only reflects freedom, but also status.


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People in rural areas are limited to using cars, but people in cities have the choice of using public transport, walking, or bicycling. More and more people living in cities are utilizing multi-mode transport options to best suit their travel demands. The importance of owning a car is declining compared to the importance of driving a car. One of the main strategies must be developing public transport and near-by mobility and walking and cycling paths. The development of individual motorized transport will lead to traffic chaos and will increase the generation of greenhouse gas emissions. The most important effect of this near-by mobility strategy is that space structures are kept close together. The idea of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) has the following strategies:

• walkable design with pedestrian as the highest priority;• direct regional and local train connections in the town centre;• the train station as prominent feature of the town centre;• high density, high-quality development within a 10-minute walk circle surrounding the train station;• collector support transit systems including trolleys, streetcars, light rail, and buses, etc.;• designed to include the easy use of bicycles, scooters, and rollerblades as daily support transportation systems.

For any transport activity, energy-efficient transport mode should be used or promoted. There are various kinds of transport modes and the best choice of transport mode may depend on the demands of passengers or characteristics of the goods to be transported. Some kinds of transport modes are suitable for short trips; some are suitable for long trips; some are suitable for quick delivery, while some are suitable for mass transport. Therefore, it is important to enable people to choose the appropriate transport mode according to the characteristics of transport demand (figure 2).

Some transport modes require infrastructure development. As for the rail transport systems which require the development of new infrastructure, the cost and time period for infrastructure development should be taken into account.

FIGURE 2 – OPTIONS FOR TRANSPORT MODES

Many countries highlighted the promotion of partnerships with local authorities to improve public transport, cycling and walking. These local strategies are more effective when several measures are coherently implemented. The introduction of restrictions in entering to the urban area would be more accepted with mobility management strategies such as promotion of public transport usage, car sharing, cycling and so on. Greater impact is possible when these mobility management measures are integrated with urban planning and taxation.

A full consideration of the energy and greenhouse gas characteristics of the travel mode should be employed when planning for mode shifts. This will depend on the source of energy, the fuel economy of the vehicles and usage (figure 3, next page). In Japan, the greenhouse gas intensity of travel is such that bus and railway travel emit less per passenger-kilometre than air travel or private car. In the USA, however, bus patronage is relatively low and the greenhouse gas intensity per passenger-kilometre is comparable to light trucks and higher than automobiles, according to the US Department of Energy.


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FIGURE 3 – TRANSPORT ENERGy EFFICIENCy MJ/PASSENGER KILOMETRES TRAvELLED [SOURCE: HTTP://THECONvERSATION.COM/WHICH-TRANSPORT-IS-THE-FAIREST-OF-THEM-ALL-24806]

3.1. increased use of less enerGy intensive modes

3.1.1. expand and improve Public transport services

In terms of public transport promotion, it is important to choose an appropriate public transport mode based on the situation in each country or region. In rural areas with low population density, public transport tends to be less feasible than in highly populated urban areas. Even though public transport is energy efficient, public buses with few passengers may be less efficient than automobiles.

If the trip length is intermediate in level and the user density is medium-high, public transport may be feasible. In this case, it is necessary to promote public transport use by improving its convenience and attractiveness. If the trip length is intermediate and the user density is low, the feasibility of public transport may be lower in the short term (figure 4). However, in the long term, it is necessary to convert city structure to improve the feasibility of public transport.

As for the freight transport, it is also important to choose an appropriate transport mode according to the distance of transport. Multimodal terminals and good interconnection between ports and terminals is important.

FIGURE 4 – SCOPE OF INNER-CITy PUBLIC TRANSPORT SySTEMS [SOURCE: CITy AND TRANSPORT: 65TH ISSUE. JAPAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING ASSOCIATION]

The measures used to promote public transport use for passenger transport can be categorized into following four measures.

Provision/expansion of Public transport: Most developed and developing economies provide some level of public transport, including buses, trams, subways and rail systems. Alternatives to car travel are an essential component


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to reducing greenhouse gas emissions where most efficient modes can provide similar levels of service. Public transport can be implemented for a variety of reasons, the most important of which are: accessibility, reducing energy dependence, addressing congestion and promoting economic expansion.

About 84% of survey respondents indicated that improving public transport was a key strategic approach to reduce greenhouse gases. Some capacity expansions were noted while others sought to improve the attractiveness of public transport relative to private vehicles, and still others moved to encourage more people to use public transport. However, many analyses suggest that in order to get a significant amount of people to change from private cars to public transport, it is important to place restrictions on car driving.

improvement of amenity for the Promotion of Public transport use: From a short-term perspective for the promotion of public transport use, it is necessary to improve the user-friendliness and attractiveness of public transport. From the aspect of the “promotion” of public transport use, a key measure should be how to improve the convenience of public transport. Public transport is less convenient than automobiles that provide door-to-door mobility. Therefore, in order to promote the public transport use, it is necessary to improve the convenience and attractiveness by implementation of public relations activities and improved connections. A key aspect is to encourage employers to introduce flexitime thereby allowing staggered commuting hours, in order to improve the attractiveness of public transport and thus facilitate the public transport use. The recent focus on universal design in many countries counteracts discrimination against people with functional impairments, and at the same time improves surroundings for the entire population.

Provision of Public transport for the Promotion of Public transport use: From a long-term perspective for the promotion of public transport use, it is necessary to provide public transport systems with higher energy efficiency than automobiles, such as railway, medium-capacity transit systems, light rail transit (LRT), buses, etc.

raising Public awareness for the Promotion of Public transport use: Even though public transport is provided or the convenience and attractiveness of public transport is improved, public transport use may not be utilised without raising the public awareness of these improvements. Therefore, it is important to implement the measures like awareness-raising activities, education, public relations, mobility management, etc.

3.1.2. improve cycling and Pedestrian networks

In New Zealand and Norway, walking and cycling facilities are provided to facilitate non-powered transport modes and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The UK is also supporting the development of the National Cycle Network as a key component of the trunk road network, where off-road provision cannot be accommodated, to encourage active travel as an alternative to the private car. Other examples include Copenhagen and Amsterdam who have designed and implemented extensive bicycling networks and infrastructure. These have been highly successful alternatives to automobile travel in these urban locations.

Bike share programs are now an integral feature of many cities including, Paris, London, Milan, Washington, Montreal and Oslo.

3.1.3. car Pooling

Sharing rides has long been a way to meet travel demand at less cost and less environmental impact. Doubling vehicle occupancy can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by as much as half. Some countries have expanded strategies to include matching programs to connect those needing rides with ridesharing services and high occupancy lanes as a further method of improving the efficiency of ride sharing programs.

3.1.4. car sharing

“Car sharing” is a mobility-concept for people who like driving a car from time to time, but prefer not to own a private car for cost or environmental reasons [14]. According to some estimates, car sharing saves about two to three thousand Euros a year and between 1,000 and 10,000 litre of fuel per household (figure 5, next page).

The Swiss Federal Office of Energy [19] calculated that each year CarShare:

• saves around 200 kg of greenhouse gases,• replaces the use of 4 - 10 cars by 1 car,• reduces the production of around 15 tonnes of greenhouse gases for each car replaced on the road.


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Surveys have shown that, on average, car sharing-customers had a preference for private cars prior to their participation in the scheme [4]. Post car sharing, the intent for private purchase had either been delayed or abolished completely. Based on information from Germany, if car sharing were to become common a reduction from 40 million cars to 4 million could be achieved. By comparison, a review of the programme in Oslo, Norway indicated that car sharing would only generate a reduction in emissions of 0.3-0.6% mainly because potential car share users tend to not own a car and hence car sharing increases their greenhouse footprint.

Nonetheless, car sharing has the potential to save resources, whether in the manufacturing and operation of passenger cars or by delaying the need for new road construction [14].

FIGURE 5 – CONCEPT OF CAR SHARING

3.2. land use and transPort PlanninG – PromotinG comPact urban desiGn

This approach promotes higher densities and land uses that reduce travel need. Land-value taxation that incentivises infill development and contributes to increased density may also help. Furthermore, it is likely to be more effective if the policy accords with local strategies such as the introduction of restricted circulation areas, low emission zones or urban tolls to restrict motor traffic [16]. Coordinating the deployment of a large range of mobility options covering traditional public transport provision, bus rapid-transport, car-sharing schemes, city-bikes, etc. can help provide options for less and lower greenhouse -intensive travel in urban areas.

Coordination amongst land use planning, transport planning and public transport operators is necessary for less greenhouse intensive urban growth. Emissions reduction strategies for transport often envisage linking transport policies to town planning policies, to reflect explicitly the service of major developments and to favour developments served by public transport. They suggest finding alternatives to travel based exclusively on private cars.

From a city planning perspective, it is important to induce the conversion to compact city structure. If the compact city structure is realized, population density will increase and transport demand will become sufficient for the introduction of a public transport system (figure 6, next page). Sustainable cities require good planning and regional co-operation; however, there can be conflict between densification around public transport junctions and preservation of open space.

The ability to introduce these measures will be determined by geographic conditions as land reform or changes to the built environment will be necessary. As a result, they may require substantial investment and a long time period for implementation. Meanwhile, in the countries where the frameworks for land use and city structure have not been developed, such measures may require less investment and a shorter time period. In this sense, reduction of transport demand by introducing environmentally-friendly transport systems at an early stage of national development may be an effective measure to reduce future greenhouse gas emissions.


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FIGURE 6 – RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN POPULATION DENSITIES IN URBAN AREA AND MAINTENANCE COST OF URBAN FACILITIES [SOURCE: REPORT ON THE RESEARCH ON THE CREATION OF COMPACT CITy (DIGEST vERSION), TOyAMA CITy, MARCH 2004]

3.3. imProvement of freiGHt transPort efficiency

Improvement of freight logistics can result in reductions of greenhouse gas emissions by reducing vehicle kilometres travelled (vKT), smoothing traffic flow and shifting to more efficient modes of transportation like rail and maritime freight services.

In addition, significant reductions in fuel usage and associated emissions can be achieved if growth in freight activity can be effectively concentrated into a limited number of freight precincts of business areas.

Local governments and communities are often exposed to the issues associated with the last segments of heavy vehicle freight journeys off the principle freight networks, particularly in urban locations where freight journeys may encounter narrower local roads and a lower level of free flowing movements through residential and community areas. Significant studies have been undertaken in Europe over recent years which have produced a range of best practice strategies for dealing with last kilometre urban freight problems in high density urban areas (figure 7).

FIGURE 7 – ExAMPLE OF JOINT COLLECTION AND DELIvERy SySTEM IN JAPAN [SOURCE: ROAD BUREAU, MINISTRy OF LAND, INFRASTRUCTURE AND TRANSPORT, JAPAN]


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4. veHicle tecHnoloGies to reduce GreenHouse Gas emissions

This chapter provides an overview of policy measures that seek to stimulate demand for fuel efficient vehicle technologies. Improvement of the energy efficiency of vehicles is essential to achieve significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector. It must apply to private cars, light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty vehicles. Energy efficiency of car accessories such as air conditioning is also a key factor.

4.1. fuel efficiency Potential of current internal combustion enGine liGHt-duty veHicles

The EU regulations on car emissions will lead to better vehicles with fewer emissions. However, in some countries, specific policies are needed to change the profile of the vehicle fleet, such as increased fuel taxes or a differentiation of the non-recurring duty on new cars. Norway for example, has the highest electric vehicle penetration per capita. Among the existing government incentives, all-electric cars are exempt in Norway from all non-recurring vehicle fees, including purchase taxes, which are extremely high for ordinary cars, and 25% vAT on purchase, together making electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars.

The world vehicle fleet is currently dominated by internal combustion engines (ICEs). It is likely that over 10-25 years this domination will continue, because of the superior (in terms of energy density and portability) nature of the fuels used, relatively low manufacturing costs and the lagged momentum of global industrial, servicing and fuel distribution networks. Over the mid to long term (25-50 years), other propulsion systems more dependent on grid-based electricity or electro-chemical energy transformation (plug-in hybrids, full electric and fuel-cell vehicles) will likely increase their share of new vehicle sales.

A number of technologies (e.g. direct injection, turbo- and super-charging, variable compression ratio cylinders, variable valve lift and timing, variable cam profiles and cam-less operation) all enable smaller engines to retain the same performance characteristics as larger, more fuel consuming engines. Improvements in fuel economy are also likely to come from more efficient transmissions, improved aerodynamics and increasing the efficiency of auxiliary equipment. Start-stop systems are already migrating from hybrid vehicles to more traditional ICEs and will improve fuel economy in urban driving conditions.

Market penetration of new fuel efficient vehicles will rely on the ability to retain key vehicle performance characteristics. In addition, care must be taken to account for full life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of materials since greater upstream greenhouse gas emissions from the production of light-weight materials such as aluminium may in some cases erode the benefit from reduced in-use vehicle emissions.

4.2. imProvement of Heavy Goods veHicle fuel efficiency

Given that heavy-goods vehicles (HGvs) already use relatively efficient compression-ignition diesel engines and are constrained in some cases by specific duty cycles that preclude further efficiency gains, opportunities vehicle efficiency gains are more limited for HGvs than for light-duty vehicles. IEA estimates that future HGv efficiency may improve by 20% by 2050 under business-as-usual trends.

This may be increased to 33% with additional technology, fuel switching and more aggressive operational changes but the potential falls short of the 50% improvement foreseen for Light Duty vehicles (LDvs). However, it is also said that an aggressive application of existing technologies and operational practices could reduce fuel consumption by 40% to 50% by 2050 in North America. Technology-related HGv improvement opportunities concern either vehicle efficiency or drivetrain efficiency. The former covers all non-engine/transmission improvements while the latter focuses specifically on the propulsion system. Alternative fuels may play a role in reducing HGv emissions.

4.3. electric cars, Hybrids and otHer neW tecHnoloGies

Plug-in hybrids and electric cars are major options for decarbonising road transport, particularly over the medium to long term. Policies in this area are designed to accelerate the roll-out of the supporting infrastructure (e.g. charging points for batteries) required to make the use of electric-powered cars more feasible and attractive to consumers. More specifically, it may focus support for recharging points in areas that are less likely to be served by the private sector. Other engine and propulsion technologies (e.g. propane, compressed natural gas, battery electric, hybrids, etc.) are also present in the world fleet, but are still largely confined to niche or emerging markets (e.g. in the case of hybrids).


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Fully electric vehicles powered solely from an on-board battery are not new - the basic electric motor and battery technology pre-date the ICE - and they have several key advantages over these fuel based drive trains. However, electric vehicles have suffered in comparison to their ICE counterparts because of their limited performance in terms of vehicle range and peak power output - two factors that are critically linked to battery technology and costs.

The lifecycle greenhouse gas profile of battery electric is critically dependant on the amount of greenhouse gases released during the production of the vehicle and its components (e.g. the battery) and especially on the manner in which electricity is produced. The wide-spread deployment of battery-electric vehicles will require some level of standardisation among vehicle manufacturers (for in-car charging circuits and sockets), electric utilities or energy providers (for car-grid interfaces, smart-charging infrastructure and billing systems) and local authorities and private facility managers for locating non-home-based charging infrastructure.

Typically, hybrid vehicle combines an ICE with an electric motor and a battery along with several other advanced energy-saving features, such as stop-start systems. Plug-in hybrids have a greatly extended electric-only range, compared to regular hybrids. Plug-in hybrids can be considered to share many of the attractive features of the all-electric vehicle but are not limited in range, since they combine the “electric-only” capabilities with an on-board recharging and power boost capacity supplied by the ICE.

From a lifecycle greenhouse gas perspective, battery electric as well as hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, are only as clean as the electricity they use. However, regardless of the source of the electricity, these cars generate less greenhouse gases than a typical conventional fuel powered vehicle over its lifespan.

4.4. driver information

Many countries are exploring the use of multiple measures to improve aerodynamics and fuel efficiency. This package of information can provide feedback to influence driver behaviour through targeted eco-driving messages or through in-car technology such as fuel economy meters, gear shift indicators, tyre pressure indicators, intelligent speed adaptation (ISA) and “green” satellite-navigation systems.

4.5. biofuels and loWer carbon fuels

Fuel choices have been playing an important role in terms of scarce resources, energy security, air pollution and greenhouse gases. It is highly likely that spark and compression-ignition internal combustion vehicles will continue to dominate both new sales and world fleet composition for the short to mid-term globally, while other technologies such as battery electric, hybrids, propane, compressed natural gas etc, are also present but in small markets.

Transport fuel use is currently dominated by petroleum in the world, with over 95% of fuel being either gasoline or distillate fuels such as diesel, kerosene or jet fuel. However, some countries use significant amounts of compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquid petroleum gas (LPG), a mix primarily of propane and butane (figure 8, next page).

Non-petroleum fuels play an increasingly significant role in some regions (figure 9, next page). The United States and Brazil are rapidly increasing their use of biofuels and more than 21 European nations report that biofuels are an important part of their strategy to reduce greenhouse gases. The EU has a coordinated strategy - Directive 2003/30/EC [7] - to promote the use of biofuels and meet specific country targets. In April 2010, the US implemented a new requirement to raise the proportion of renewable fuels to 36 billion gallons which must be in place by 2022. Similarly, Canada has implemented a renewable fuels standard that mandates that renewable fuels constitute 5% of fuel produced in or imported to Canada starting in 2010. In some countries in Europe, Latin America and North America, CNG and LPG play an important role, such as in the use in ferries.


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FIGURE 8 – FUEL USE By REGION, 2005 [SOURCE [9], PG 72]

FIGURE 9 – NON PETROLEUM FUEL USE By REGION, 2005 [SOURCE: [9] PG 73]

The characteristics and comparison of fuels are shown in table 1, next page. Even though some characteristics vary by region, this table gives a broad assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of different types of fuels.


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table 1 – comParison of tHe cHaracteristics of various fuelsfuel enerGy

densityProduction cost WitH oil at use

100/bbl

distribution infrastructure

current Production and retail

availability for veHicles

comPatibility W itH existinG

ice veHicles

tyPical GHG emissions

Gasoline High Moderate Complete Complete Complete Highdistillate High Moderate Complete Complete Complete HighJet fuel High Moderate Complete Complete Complete HighHfo High Moderate Complete Complete Complete Highctl diesel High Moderate-high Compatible with

existingvery low Complete very high (high

with CCS)Gtl diesel High Moderate-high Compatible with

existingvery low Complete High (even with

CCS)Grain ethanol Medium Moderate-high Partial Low-moderate Partial Moderate-highcane ethanol Medium Low-moderate Partial Low-moderate Partial Lowadvanced lingo-cellulosic ethanol

Medium High Partial None Partial Low

oil seed biodiesel

High Moderate-high Partial Low-moderate Partial Moderate

advanced btl diesel

High High Compatible with existing

None Complete Low

cnG Low Low-moderate Partial very low Requires conversion Moderate-highlPG Low Low-moderate Partial very low Requires conversion Moderate-highmethanol from nG

Low Moderate very low very low Requires conversion Moderate-high

dme from nG Medium Moderate very low very low Requires conversion Moderate-highH2 from fossil fuels

Low Moderate very low very low Requires conversion Moderate-high

H2 from renewable sources

Low High very low None Requires conversion very low

electricity/fossil Low Low Widespread very low Incompatible Moderate-highelectricity renewable

Low Moderate Widespread very low Incompatible very low

Notes: Table classifications are indicative, based on current characteristics and estimates, and apply only to near term. There may be situations and regions in which these classifications to not apply. [Source: [9]]

The cost of producing fuels can vary considerably both over time and in different regions, depending on factors such as the local market price of inputs. The market price of fuels also has a great impact, due to market forces such as supply and demand, the quality of competition in the market, and local subsidies or taxes.

One fuel that does reasonably well across all categories is cane ethanol, given its low production cost, expanding distribution infrastructure, compatibility with today’s vehicles, and good greenhouse gas emissions characteristics. Only three types of fuels can deliver very low greenhouse gas emissions: ethanol, advanced biofuels, and electricity or H2 from low-greenhouse gas emissions lifecycle feedstocks. For biofuels, the impacts of land use change are not included in this table. These can in some cases be large enough to move a low greenhouse gas emissions fuel into the very high greenhouse gas emissions category.

Concerns have been raised, however, about the potential impact on agricultural land use and possible displacement of food stocks with ethanol-producing products. Similarly questions have been raised about the amount of energy needed to produce the bio-fuels making them less attractive from both an economic an environmental perspective.The greenhouse gas emissions associated with different fuels depend on the way in which those fuels are produced. To compare the greenhouse gas impacts of fuels it is necessary to take into account all the emissions generated from their production, transport and storage, as well as the emissions associated with their use in vehicles on the basis of a full life-cycle analysis.


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5. road infrastructure mitiGation measures

This chapter outlines the extent to which operational policy associated with each stage of the delivery cycle is evolving to adapt to climate change and to optimise mitigation measures. An assumption is made that there are desired outcomes that we should seek to achieve in order to optimise the extent of mitigation and adaptation measures that can be achieved (table 2).

The remainder of this chapter takes each stage of the delivery cycle in turn and reviews the extent to which operational policies and practices are in place. In particular, it considers:

• operational policies are in place to optimise outcomes at each stage of the delivery cycle,• the extent to which these are deployed/funds are directed to policy implementation,• whether there is active research and development in this area,• the ease of international knowledge transfer.

5.1. transPort PlanninG

The desired outcome of effective transport planning is a system that fully considers sustainable transport options and the whole life carbon impacts of potential transport interventions. Taking greenhouse gas emissions into consideration often means the same in practice as limiting traffic growth and providing for a change in modal split.

The design of a new road includes various planning decisions each of which can influence the generation of greenhouse gases. The first task of road planning is the decision about the functional role of the road. The definition of the functional role should be deduced from an integrated assessment of the land use requirements and the accessibility needs. Oversized roads result in an increased use of resources; undersized roads will be characterized by congestion and detours leading to an unavoidable increase use of fossil fuels.

Accounting for greenhouse emissions in transport planning, however, is not done in a uniform manner. Some countries quantify the sources of greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector in terms of carbon dioxide equivalency. This approach quantifies greenhouse gas emissions through the assessment of fossil fuel consumed based on vehicle-kilometres travelled, fuel consumption of the vehicle and greenhouse gas emissions factors for various types of fuels.

A more complete assessment of greenhouse gas emissions, however, would be to determine the full life cycle of all aspects of the transport system, including the manufacture and maintenance of the vehicle during its life. An example of the use of life cycle analysis associated with analysing the options association with the construction of a bridge are detailed in Jutila and Sundquist [13].

The greenhouse gas emissions related to manufacture and maintenance but excluding final recycling of the vehicle are in the order of 15% of the greenhouse gas emissions due to fuel consumption per kilometre. A value of 3 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions per tonne of weight of the vehicle is often quoted as a good reference to establish the carbon footprint of the vehicle.

table 2 – delivery cycle desired outcomes to address climate cHanGedelivery cycle desired outcomeTransport Planning Transport planning at the project and metropolitan levels to minimise land use and environmental

concernsProject Design Design of systems and projects that minimise the carbon generated by new transport schemes, whilst

ensuring that transport systems can continue to adapt to climate change.Project Construction Carbon efficient construction operations that support the continued resilience of roads networks.Maintenance Carbon efficient maintenance operations that support the continued resilience of roads networks.Operation Procedures and techniques that minimise the carbon associated with the operation of road networks.

Fully integrated policies that support Government and international climate change objectives by promoting more sustainable transport behaviours.

Measurement and Monitoring Tools and systems to measure and monitor the effectiveness of policies to reduce emissions and to support the continued resilience of road networks.


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5.2. ProJect desiGn

Design is a critical stage in the delivery cycle to drive change. If mitigation and adaptation are considered at project design, this will naturally flow through all the other stages and improve performance across the life of the road. The appropriate design of new infrastructure projects represents an opportunity to reduce carbon impacts, increase efficiency savings and secure resilience. As carbon management systems become more embedded within roads agencies, it will be easier to make comparisons between different designs on the basis of both monetary and carbon costs. Many of the measures that will deliver emission reductions may also deliver a net financial benefit, thereby achieving greater value for the public purse.

Project design involves both geometric and structural aspects. For geometric design, gradient, curvature, type of crossing, capacity etc are generally fixed by standards.

However, there are still many opportunities to consider during project design to reduce embodied energy including:

• the use of a larger median to avoid the installation of concrete safety barriers;• thechoiceofgradientmayalsoinfluencetheamountofearthworkandfillrequirementsandwillhavesignificant

impact on the embodied carbon emissions particularly where tunnelling is involved;• thechoiceinthetypeofpavementbetweenrigid,flexibleormixedpavementandtheuseofrecycledmaterialwill

have an impact on the embodied carbon emissions.

5.3. construction and maintenance

Opportunities exist at the construction and maintenance phases to use innovative products and processes to optimise approaches to sustainability. Considerable research has already gone into issues such as the processing of local construction materials, the recycling of waste materials, the use of hybrid construction materials and new techniques such as the “crack and seal” re-use of concrete road bases. Many road agencies now recognise these issues and have specific policies and practices in place to secure more sustainable goods and services through their procurement processes.

Examples of areas where procurement processes can influence the construction and maintenance phase are:

• theuseofregionalmaterialscanreducetransporteffortsandtheuseofdefinedconstructionmaterialscansupportthe replacement of deconstructed materials in the construction of the restored road;

• intelligent line design also can help to reduce the efforts required for winter maintenance, if the road will be under the predominant snow border;

• the use of certain road construction materials can elongate the cycles needed for rehabilitation work thereby reducing the whole of life emissions of the road and also reducing congestion associated with any maintenance work;

• roads need a lot of facilities to operate them like lights, signs or pumps. All these facilities should use fossil free energy sources;

• facilitieslikenoisewallscanbeusedforphotovoltaic;whitesurfacescanhelptoreducesolarheatingbyreflectingthe sun and roads can be used as storage for energy;

• Carbon offsetting of the greenhouse gas emissions-emission associated with the construction of new roads may involve the planting trees along the road (avenues, parkways) and forests as compensation measures.

Increasingly more frequent use is being made of lifecycle analysis which takes into account decisions about construction materials, maintenance, facility management and rehabilitation measures and last but not least, the demolition and decommissioning of a road. Preventive maintenance of road structures is being adopted by many road administrations in the world, replacing the conventional ex-post maintenance. Effective maintenance is conducted more frequently but less intensely reducing life cycle costs and greenhouse emissions. Care must be exercised, however, since maintenance activities can lead to delays which can offset these reductions.

5.4. oPerations

Road traffic operation has a vital role in reducing greenhouse emissions from the vehicle fleet. This is mainly based on the ability to influence traffic flow and the relationship between the vehicle speed and the greenhouse gases generated by fuel consumption (figure 10, next page). From a greenhouse gas emissions reduction point of view, it is essential to encourage drivers to run at the most fuel efficient speed, which is at the range from 60 to 80 km/h. (Note that from a noise or air pollution perspective, different speed/emission curves have been identified).


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Traffic congestion hinders smooth road traffic flow and causes more greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles, although it may also limit traffic growth. various measures available to road traffic operations are discussed further in the following sections.

FIGURE 10 – RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CO2 EMISSIONS AND AvERAGE vEHICLE SPEED [SOURCE: NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR LAND AND INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT, MLIT, JAPAN]

5.4.1. securing smoothness of traffic flow

Removal of bottlenecksA policy measure widely used in OECD countries is targeted investment in infrastructure bottlenecks in order to improve traffic flow and reduce congestion through intersection modification, lane increases and provision of bypasses/ring roads. This approach can potentially increase transport efficiency. However, it should be noted that, although it is likely to reduce energy consumption per kilometre travelled, it may also lead to rebound effects where induced travel may partially or totally erode initial emission reductions. This rebound effect is different among countries and cities with a relatively low rebound being reported for the USA and higher induced travel impacts for Europe. Figure 11 illustrates the impact of road modifications on CO2 emissions and vehicle-kilometres travelled in Japan. In this example, although the traffic volumes are induced by the road modifications, the overall CO2 emissions decrease in most cases due to an improved vehicle travelling speed. However, these may be short-term benefits and long-term effects need to be monitored.

FIGURE 11– IMPACT OF ROAD MODIFICATIONS ON CO2 AND vEHICLE KILOMETRES OF TRAvEL (vKT) IN JAPAN


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Utilizing emergency lanes and hard shouldersUsing hard shoulders at times of peak demand allows road agencies to relieve congested stretches of roadways, maintain speeds and reduce emissions. Hard shoulders can also be used exclusively or predominantly for high-occupancy vehicles. The improvement in traffic flow needs to be considered against the potential safety concerns and similar to other measures to increase capacity, induced demand may also occur.

Completion of missing road linksBuilding new expressways may improve traffic flow and reduce emissions, as long as the new road does not induce additional traffic leading to increased vehicle emissions over the network (figure 12).

FIGURE 12– ExAMPLE OF THE COMPLETION OF THE MISSING ROAD [SOURCE: MINISTRy OF LAND, INFRASTRUCTURE AND TRANSPORT, JAPAN]

Synchronised control of traffic lightsRoad traffic tends to be congested in most urban areas, particularly where traffic lights are installed at intersections to manage the safe transition of vehicles. In many cases, area-based synchronized control systems are used in order to smooth traffic flow which in turn contributes to the reduction of CO2 emissions.

Emerging technologiesThe increasing development of technologies such as Global Positioning Systems (GPS) now available in cell phones and portable units in cars has changed the way information is communicated to traffic management systems as well as the road user. These technologies allow the supply of traffic congestion information in real time whereby the driver is now an active actor in the decision to change or not his/her route. The emergence of GPS together with existing road management and Intelligent Transportation Systems has opened new possibilities toward effective road management for multiple goals. Many road agencies are seeking to modify the algorithm used in congestion management software to optimize traffic flow whilst simultaneously managing for CO2 emissions and air quality.

5.4.2. active traffic management

Active traffic management (ATM) involves the dynamic management of recurrent and non-recurrent congestion on roads based on the prevailing traffic conditions. This comprises variable speed limits communicated by variable message signs on gantries after each junction and reinforcement between junctions with signage and average speed cameras. Speed limits vary between countries but are used to improve speed compliance as well as reduce emissions. On local roads, due to concerns regarding pedestrian safety and in particular school children safety, lower limits of 40 km/hour have been adopted during school operating hours.


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5.4.3. speed limit enforcement

various efforts are being made to lower the driving speed through enforcement of traffic regulations and installation of devices in vehicles and roadsides. In one study [21], the use of speed limiters on heavy trucks, not only reduced truck speed but the average speed of all vehicles on expressways leading to an overall decrease in greenhouse emissions from the vehicle fleet. The greenhouse savings associated with this measure was estimated to be about 0.555 -1.185 Mt/year.

5.4.4. eco-driving

Ecodriving means smarter and more fuel-efficient driving. Ecodriving represents a new driving culture that makes best use of advanced vehicle technologies, while improving road safety. An important component of sustainable mobility, ecodriving can contribute to greenhouse reductions.

Educational information available to drivers highlights key aspects of eco-driving [3], namely:

1. anticipate traffic flow. Read the road as far ahead as possible and anticipate the flow of traffic. Act instead of react – increase your scope of action with an appropriate distance between vehicles to use momentum (an increased safety distance equivalent of about 3 seconds to the car in front optimises the options to balance speed fluctuations in traffic flow – enabling steady driving with constant speed).

2. maintain a steady speed at low rPm. Drive smoothly, using the highest possible gear at low RPM.3. shift up early. Shift to higher gear at approximately 2,000 RPM. Consider the traffic situation, safety needs and

vehicle specifics.4. check tyre pressures frequently at least once a month and before driving at high speed. Keep tyres properly

inflated as low tyre pressure is a safety risk and wastes fuel. 5. consider any extra energy required costs fuel and money. Use air conditioning and electrical equipment wisely

and switch it off if not needed. Electrical energy is converted from extra fuel burnt in a combustion engine, so electrical equipment doesn’t work “for free” – it always costs extra energy and money. Avoid dead weight and aerodynamic drag and remove unnecessary weight or wind resistance accessories.

These practices require the driver to be self aware and also require sustained changes in behaviour. Therefore, education (and regular enforcement) of the benefit from these practices is essential to help promote eco-driving. As technology progresses, much of this information can be directly communicated to the driver, such as automatic tyre-pressure monitoring systems (TPMS) and feedback on sub optimal gear changing for manual shift vehicles.

Table 3, next page outlines the potential reductions in greenhouse emissions associated with various eco-driving policies. Eco-driving is estimated to be a highly cost-effective way of reducing greenhouse emissions in some locations, particularly due to its relatively low implementation costs.

Apart from some actions funded by private companies on a commercial basis, there are some important eco-driving promotions led by governmental intervention such as:

• communication campaigns: when eco-driving is promoted as a “brand” with advertising inspired by commercial marketing, it can be an effective means of communicating either directly or indirectly practical eco-driving tips. TheGovernmentofNorthwestTerritories,Canada,isundertakingapublicawarenesscampaignonenergyefficientdriving for both the Government employees and the public;

• driver training: implementing eco-driving as a part of driving licence education and examination can result in significantsavingsinfuelconsumptionaswellasreducingCO2 emissions, as it may convey behavioural changes to future licensed drivers;

• monitoring and evaluation: eco-driving equipment and monitoring devices are also helpful since they prompt driverstoadoptafuelefficientdrivingstyle.Severalcompanieshaveimplementedeco-drivingmonitoringandfeedbacksystemswhichserveasthebasisforrewardingfuelefficientdriving.

5.4.5. electronic toll collection

Reduction of expressway tolls has been implemented to promote the utilisation of energy-efficient expressways along with the elimination of the traffic congestion on general roads and reduction of CO2 emissions from the vehicles. However, there is a risk of induced demand as more traffic is diverted to expressways due to increased capacity.


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table 3 – co2 reduction Potential of eco-drivinG Policies/ProGrammescountry method short-term mid-termNetherlands National programme 10-20% 5-10%Austria National programme 10-15% 5-10%Japan Smart driving contest 25%Japan Idle-stop driving 10%Japan Eco-driving workshop 12%Japan Average mileage workshop. 26%Sweden Driver training courses 10% 5%Austria Öbb Post bus Best Practice training courses, competition, monitoring and

feedback10%

Austria Ecodriving competition for licensed drivers 30-50%Austria Mobility management for company fleets 10-15%Germany DvR National novice drivers programme

Professional fleet drivers <7.5tDriver training courses for passenger cars (evaluation)

6-10%10-25%

6-10%6-8%

10-15%Deutsche bahn Training courses, monitoring, feedback, rewards 3-5%Shell 5-20%Ford Training courses and trip/driving style analysis 25% 10%FIA-AASA 15%FIA-Plan Azul 14%FIA-ADAC 25%FIA-ÖAMTC 6%FIA-JAF 12-16%Nissan 18%UK Freight Best Practice 10%UK-Lane Group 4%UK-Walkers 9%USA 1% 4%Source: Findings and messages for policy makers: workshop on ecodriving, 22-23 november 2007 and us dot report to congress, transportations’ role in reducing greenhouse emissions, april 2010.

Where expressway tools are in use, Intelligent Transport Systems-based Electronic Toll Collection Systems are promoted in order to eliminate congestion and to improve the convenience of road users by introducing the cashless system for toll collection.

FIGURE 13– IMPACT OF REMOvAL OF ExPRESSWAy TOLL IN JAPAN [SOURCE: DOCUMENT OF THE 6TH MEETING OF THE PANEL ON INFRASTRUCTURE DEvELOPMENT, JAPAN]


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5.4.6. energy consumption for roadside operation

Lighting, signalization, roadside messaging, and maintenance of rights-of-way in the median or alongside roadways all require energy that contributes to the generation of greenhouse gases during the operation of the road. New technologies, particularly the use of renewable energy sources can significantly reduce these emissions.

5.5. measurement and monitorinG

Many roads authorities are seeking to develop, pilot and implement bespoke carbon management systems which can be applied to specific aspects of the organisation’s activities and profile the impact of specific infrastructure projects to help inform the appraisal process.

Carbon management systems generally seek to deliver:

• a comprehensive system for recording and measurement of carbon across the agency’s activities, which can feed into annual reporting of their carbon footprint (a carbon account);

• a design tool for application on infrastructure projects to help reduce the footprint of infrastructure through the appraisal, design, procurement and construction phases.

Terms such as “carbon footprint” or greenhouse gas emissions are used to quantify the sources of greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sectors in terms of carbon dioxide equivalency. Carbon dioxide equivalency is a quantity that describes, for a given mixture and amount of greenhouse gas, the amount of carbon dioxide that would have the same global warming potential (GWP), when measured over a specified timescale (generally 100 years).

Two approaches to measuring transport emissions are possible. The first approach is a macroscopic approach which identifies the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions generated through the consumption of fossil fuels within the transportation sector. Information required involves fuel consumption and the associated emissions factors of the fuels involved (petroleum, diesel oil, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, biofuels, etc).

This information is generally standardised to a metric such as greenhouse emissions per vehicle-kilometres travelled. Inventories can then be compared across countries. At a microscopic level, road agencies can use additional information such as driving speed, vehicle type and road alignment to assess the greenhouse gas impact of different road configurations or when comparing options for road alignment.

The second approach is the carbon footprint approach. This is used to assess the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the planning, construction, maintenance, operation and decommissioning of a road, including the vehicles on the road. various countries, including the UK, France, Australia, Sweden and Norway all indicated the availability of life cycle assessment tools. The Swedish Transport Administration’s tool - Klimatkalkyl - has been developed to estimate carbon dioxide and energy emissions from construction and maintenance from both road and rail infrastructure. The tool is now being tested on a range of projects. Similarly, the Norwegian Public Road Administration has developed a Life Cycle Assessment model to support the cost benefit analysis of road projects and for comparing different project alternatives [15].

By some accounts, operation of the road network represents some 95% of the whole of life greenhouse gas emissions associated with a new road [20]. Ignoring the operational aspects of the vehicles that use the road2, construction emissions

2 A value of 3 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions per tonne of weight of the vehicle is a good reference to establish the carbon footprint of the vehicles itself excluding the greenhouse gas emissions related to fuel consumption.


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dominate maintenance emissions and hence significant savings in embodied energy can be achieved through selection of less greenhouse intensive material, alignment and grade optimisation or by purchasing local materials.

Measurements and evaluation of greenhouse gas emissions from the road transport sector are important to assess the impact of emission reduction measures and policies and to formulate new emissions reduction strategies for the sector. In addition, the use of carbon footprint tools will also have implications for other sectors such as the waste industry (greater amounts of recycled material are being used in road construction) and energy intensive industries such as cement manufacturing and steel (innovative products are being developed to reduce the embodied energy of these products i.e. geopolymer) as well as land clearing which has implications for carbon sequestration.

6. adaPtation measures

The World Bank has indicated that to adapt to a world 2° degrees Celsius warmer, developing countries will require $75–100 billion per year over the next 40 years to build resilience to these changes, and mitigation costs are expected to be in the range of $140–175 billion per year by 2030 [23].

Against this backdrop, analysis from the Climate Policy Initiative found that global climate finance flows plateaued at $359 billion in 2012, with developing countries receiving some $182 billion – far below what is needed. According to the International Energy Agency, the world needs $1 trillion a year between 2012 and 2050 to finance a low-emissions transition.

Since greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere ranging from a few years to thousands of years, climate change will continue into the future. As a result, even if emissions stopped increasing, atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations would continue to increase and remain elevated for hundreds of years. Moreover, if greenhouse gases stabilized at the current concentrations and the composition of today’s atmosphere remained steady (which would require a dramatic reduction in current greenhouse gas emissions), surface air temperatures would continue to warm. This is because the oceans, which store heat, take many decades to fully respond to higher greenhouse gas concentrations. The ocean’s response to higher greenhouse gas concentrations and higher temperatures will continue to impact climate over the next several decades to hundreds of years.

As this warming is in evidence worldwide, its effects are already being felt and will continue to worsen through 2040 despite mitigation measures. Of course, effective mitigation today will minimize the climate effects beyond the 2040 time frame.

As climate change effects worsen, there will be a growing need for transport agencies to adapt their infrastructure and services. Coastal roads and bridges may need to be elevated. New design features to cope with increased coastal storm intensity will likely need to be developed. Drainage capacity will have to be enlarged to address heavy downpours and reduce flooding. New heat-resistant materials and equipment will need to be put in place as the number of extreme temperature days are predicted to increase.

Design standards of road facilities will need to be modified to adapt to changes in external forces and conditions caused by climate change. Although the changes are different from area to area, the issues are common and include:

• road runoff drainage facilities due to a change in design rainfall;• stability of earthworks, especially cutting/embankment slopes, due to a change in design rainfall;• flood-pronelocationsofroadnetworkduetochangesinrainfall,seawaterleveland/orstormsurges;• durability of surface courses of pavement due to high temperatures;• full or partial closure of road sections susceptible to possible high winds;• vegetation management within road areas.

Country experiences varied in their approaches to adaptation. All countries surveyed indicated a growing awareness of the need to begin the process of adaptation. While in its infancy, several countries have begun the process of conceptually or analytically determining what transport facilities are at risk of the negative climate effects. Serious study of the effects of climate change on transport did not begin until the early part of the 2000s. Since that time, however, more and more studies have been undertaken. Several countries have conducted at partial assessments of their transport infrastructure and others have developed comprehensive guidebooks for conducting climate assessments.

The ability of transport agencies to conduct a vulnerability assessment of their infrastructure depends on the science that is available describing the future climate effects at a geographic level relevant to transport decision


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makers. This can be problematic for transport agencies when climate change data is more at a country or regional level and transport decision making is often made at the metropolitan level or on a project by project basis. Even during the four years of this report’s development, the science has advanced considerably and more is being accomplished every day. A great deal of information is already available, particularly with respect to sea level rise and it is possible to take existing information and being to make better decisions leading to more robust transport services.

In 2012, IPCC reported that [12] economic losses from weather and climate-related disasters have increased, but with large spatial and interannual variability. Global weather and climate-related disaster losses reported over the last few decades reflect mainly monetized direct damages to assets and are unequally distributed. Estimates of annual losses have ranged since 1980 from a few US$ billion to above 200 billion (in 2010 dollars), with the highest value for 2005 (the year of Hurricane Katrina). Loss estimates are lower bound estimates because many impacts, such as loss of human lives, cultural heritage, and ecosystem services, are difficult to value and monetize, and thus they are poorly reflected in estimates of losses. Impacts on the informal or undocumented economy as well as indirect economic effects can be very important in some areas and sectors, but are generally not counted in reported estimates of losses.

Developing countries are more exposed and less resilient to climate hazards. Several international efforts on adaptation in developing nations have been undertaken. The UN Development Programme has developed several resources to assist developing countries in planning for adaptation, including a monitoring and evaluation framework for adaptation, policy frameworks on stakeholder engagements and assessing vulnerabilities, hot spot analyses, and country portfolios for risk and adaptation opportunities.

In 2009, Sweden called for mobilization of additional funds to assist the most vulnerable countries. A study by Sweden’s Commission on Climate Change and Development said the world’s most vulnerable communities have somewhat adapted to climate change as many have already felt its impacts. Fighting poverty and climate change are inseparable and must be solved together in order to pursue goals of development in poor countries, the study said. The poor have no voice in the current debate on climate change at the highest levels of government and international organizations, it added.

In 2010, developed countries pledged to provide USD30 billion in fast-start climate finance by 2012 to kick-start mitigation and adaptation initiatives in developing countries and to produce lessons for future investments. Australia and other developed countries including Canada, the countries of the European Union, Iceland, Japan, Liechtenstein, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland and the United States contributed to this collective goal. Australia committed AD599 million over three financial years (Fy2010/11 – Fy2012/13) to this goal as part of its continued commitment to support developing countries in their efforts to respond to climate change.

Australia’s program focused on near neighbours in Asia and the Pacific, many of whom are particularly vulnerable to climate change. As part of this program:

• 40,000peopleinVanuatuandmorethan29,000peopleinSolomonIslandshavebenefittedfromtheupgradeofroadsandbridgesvulnerabletofloodsandstormsurges;

• communities in Papua New Guinea (Manus and New Ireland) are being supported to combat challenges to water and food security arising from increased coastal inundation- through the construction of dry stone walls, coral farming, drought resistant crops, protecting marine areas, and mangrove rehabilitation;

• activities including rain water harvesting, improvements to the water reticulation system, building seawalls and planting mangroves have improved water security in Kiribati;

• vietnam is being supported to reduce its vulnerability to climate change, particularly in the Mekong Delta where risingsealevels,saltwaterintrusionandfloodingarealreadyaffectingcoastalcommunities;

• inBangladesh,whichisparticularlyvulnerabletofloodsandcyclones,morethan620communitydisasterriskassessments have been developed, under a Comprehensive Disaster Management Program.

Other examples include the Climate Change Adaptation in Africa (CCAA) program which is a joint initiative of the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) and Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC). This program supports research and capacity building to reduce climate change vulnerability in Africa. The aim of the four year program is to bring together researchers and policymakers to develop knowledge and skills in climate change adaptation.


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7. cost effectiveness of measures

As described in this report, many measures are being employed by transport agencies across the globe, but a critical question is, “how effective are these measures at reducing greenhouse gas emissions?” Agencies use a wide variety of analytical techniques and modelling in order to assess “effectiveness”. Few, if any, actually conduct before-and-after studies to measure effectiveness, except on an ad-hoc basis, primarily as the cost of doing so can potentially rival the cost of implementing the measure itself.

The effectiveness of many greenhouse gas emissions reduction measures for the transport sector will likely depend on the national context. Demographic, social and economic variables will likely play an important role in assessing whether a measure will work within this context. Different policy and operational measures have different impacts. Research from a number of agencies has illustrated that the greatest source of greenhouse gases associated with the road network is due the vehicles [20].

In the US for example, the transport sector is responsible for 29% of all USD CO2 emissions and light duty vehicles are responsible for 58% of transport emissions (17% overall) [22]. Other countries may have very different greenhouse gas emission profiles, but it appears that traffic-generated greenhouse gas emissions are an important source across the globe.

This means that there is a requirement for supply and demand-side measures to deliver effective results, as well as efforts focused on vehicle technology and fuels, alternatives to driving alone, operational improvements, construction and maintenance practices and enhanced planning and design. Data are lacking on the effectiveness of many of these measures.

The impact of measures related to reduce road transport emissions will vary country by country and even city by city. Measures to improve road efficiency will depend on the magnitude of the traffic, the types of vehicles (whether heavy, light or medium duty), the CO2 emission rate of those vehicles, the level of congestion and other variables. The US recently attempted to estimate what emission reductions were possible on a national basis. Table 4 shows that measures to improve the efficiency of road transport could reduce CO2 emissions collectively by three to six percent. Individual measures would have a smaller impact.

Similarly, measures to reduce demand will also depend on the country-specific context. Table 5, next page shows what some measures proposed in the US are likely to yield on a national basis, resulting in reductions of about five to 17% if applied in combination with aggressive implementation.

An understanding of the cost effectiveness of different measures to mitigate the effects of carbon is essential. Table 6, next page provides an indication of the contribution that each policy measures makes to economic growth in Scottish based on the tonne of carbon abated. Of course this is only one consideration in determining the cost/benefit of particular policy measures. Again, it is important to recognize that like the overall effectiveness of measures, the cost-effectiveness will also be subject to great differences, even on similar projects, in different countries and even with a country. Caution is encouraged when attempting to extrapolate these findings to the context of other countries.

table 4 – imPact of measures to imProve road efficiency Reductions by 2030 Key Assumptions

Traffic management <0.1-0.5%* Signal coordination, faster clearance of incidents, ramp meteringReal-time traveller information <0.1%* Electronic message boards, 511, webHighway bottleneck relief <0.1-0.3% Improve top 100-200 bottlenecks by 2030Reduced speed limits 1.1-1.8% 55mph national speed limitTruck idling reduction 0.1-0.2% 26-100% of sleeper cabs with on board idle reduction technologyFreight rail and marine operations 0.1-0.5% Reduce rail chokepoints, shore-side power for ships, reduce vMT

in intermodal terminal, limited modal diversionConstruction materials 0.7-0.8%** Recycled material in cement, low temperature asphaltOther 0.3% Truck size and weight, freight urban consolidation centres,

transportation agency energy efficient buildings, alternative fuel fleet and construction vehicles

Combined strategies 3-6%Source: Mike Savonies, Federal Highway Administration, US Department of Transportation


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table 5 –imPact of PricinG, Public transPort and otHer measures in tHe usreductions by 2030 Key assumptions

Pay as you drive insurance 1.1-3.5% Requires states to allow (low)Requires companies to offer (high)Congestion Pricing 0.4-1.6% LOS D on all roads (avg 65c/mi for 29% of urban and 7% of rural vMT)Public transportation 0.2-0.9% 2.4-4.6% annual increase in serviceNon-motorised travel 0.2-0.6% Comprehensive urban bike/pedestrian improvements 2010-2015Land Use 1.2-3.9% 60-90% of new urban growth in approximately >5 units/acreParking management 0.2% Downtown workers pay for parking ($5/day avg/for those not already

paying)Commuter/worksite trip reduction 0.1-0.6% Widespread employer outreach and alternative mode supportTelework/compressed work week 0.5-0.7% Doubling of current levelsIndividualised marketing 0.3-0.4% Reaches 10% of populationEco-driving 0.8-4.3% 10-50% of drivers reached, half implementCombined Strategies 5-17% Does not include interactive effects, Includes induced demandvMT Fee (not included above) 2-5 cents per mileSource: Mike Savonies, Federal Highway Administration, US Department of Transportation

table 6 – cost effectiveness of selected measures Policy option cost effectiveness

(£Pv/tonne abated 2010-30)

Wider economic benefits (transport economic efficiency, economic activity and location impacts)

Supply Side MeasuresActive traffic management 1,090 Moderate PositiveSpeed reduction on trunk roads 20 Neutralbus/rapid/mass transit infrastructure investment (including bus priority)

>3,000 Slight Positive

Cycle infrastructure investment 170 NeutralDemand Side MeasuresFiscal Demand MeasuresNational road user charging 1,090 Large PositiveIntroduction or increase in public parking charges 20 Slight PositiveIntroduction/raise in residential/private parking charges 625 Slight Positive *(assumes charges are lower for

those with more fuel efficient vehicles)Workplace parking levy 25 Slight Positivebus /LRT fares reductions >3,000 Moderate PositiveBehavioural Measures (Smart Measures)Widespread implementation of travel plans 10 Slight PositiveNational network of car clubs 100 Slight PositiveProvide community hubs 5 Slight Positivevehicle TechnologiesElectric car technology & network development 100 Moderate PositiveProcurement of low carbon vehicles 880 NeutralNational motoring package 20 NeutralA) Ancillary Impacts – Land Use PlanningUrban density increases 30 Moderate PositiveSource: Adapted from [1]


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8. conclusions

This report is prepared by Technical Committee A1 “Preserving the environment” of the International Road Organisation, PIARC. The purpose of this report is to examine different countries’ plans, policies and initiatives for mitigating the impacts of roads and road transport on the climate and adapting road transport systems to climate change. The content of this report is based upon a sample survey of participating World Roads Association PIARC countries along with supplemental research on country experiences.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the rising concentration of greenhouse gases due to manmade activities is altering the world’s climate. Climate change is already occurring, and its effects are expected to worsen over the next century. The average global temperature has risen 0.74 °C since 1900, and the IPCC estimates that it will further rise 1.1 to 6.4 °C by the end of the 21st century. Seas have already risen as a result of this warming and will rise further due to thermal expansion of the oceans and ice melt. Also expected are an increased number of days with extreme heat, heavy downpours, intensity of coastal storms, thawing permafrost, and other major effects.

These climate effects have important ramifications for transport agencies as well as society as a whole. Coastal areas are at risk of permanent flooding, and heavy downpours can temporarily inundate inland and coastal areas. Increased storm intensity causes damage from storm surge, high winds and debris making transport infrastructure vulnerable as well. Flooding of roads, bridges and transit has been projected. Transport facilities, built on permafrost, have already been damaged, and in some cases whole villages have been relocated to safer areas as warming in the arctic regions has occurred. Coastal storms already destroy infrastructure as witnessed by the 2005 Hurricane Katrina in the US which caused more than $134 billion in damages. Increased intensity will only make those effects worse.

Many nations are already making concerted attempts to reduce greenhouse gases. While this report is not intended to be comprehensive in scope, it is clear that some nations have been better able to achieve political consensus. Nonetheless, many nations are taking steps to address this important issue. Several nations have comprehensive approaches, affecting all sectors of the economy, to reduce emissions with legally binding limits on the amount of emissions allowed. Other nations have made clear their intent to reduce emissions by measureable amounts but have not yet been able to pass laws or regulations that would make these reductions binding. Finally, others have recognized the importance of environmental protection in general ways. The recent economic downturn has undoubtedly made it difficult in the short term for many nations to further the progress made previously to achieve consensus and reduce greenhouse gases. Nonetheless, recognition of the long term problem continues to grow, particularly as more scientific information is made available and greater understanding is achieved regarding the potentially devastating effects of a changing climate on society.

In line with the growing national identification of the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, there is an emerging recognition that climate change is an important, even critical, issue for transport agencies. Many, if not all, transport agencies across the globe are taking measures that could reduce greenhouse gases. Some nations have very clear and comprehensive targets and measures to reduce transport emissions as part of their overall national plans. Others are taking action for congestion relief, efficiency, mobility or revenue enhancement purposes that will nonetheless have a positive effect on emission reduction.

This report has detailed the actions taken by transport agencies under the following categories:

• fiscalmeasures (Chapter 2, page 9) that entail a wide variety of efforts that can include gas or distance-based tax increases, feebates, incentives for denser development or low emissions vehicles or fuels, reduced costs for transit, and parking control;

• behavioural measures (Chapter 3, page 12) that focus on efforts to reduce future demand for single-occupant automobile travel by promoting alternative forms of travel (transit, cycling, walking, etc.), ridesharing and car sharing,improvedlanduseandtransportplanning,andshifttohigherefficiencymodesinthetransportoffreight;

• vehicle technology measures (Chapter 4, page 18)thatseektorequireorpromotehigherefficiencyorlowercarbon alternative fuels in passenger or freight vehicles;

• road infrastructure measures (Chapter 5, page 22) that attempt to improve theefficiencyofpassengerandfreight movements through a wide variety of measures that include better planning and road design, lower emissionmethodsforroadconstructionandmaintenance,andeffortstoimprovetrafficflowthroughimprovedoperations of the roadways.

All nations surveyed have employed some or all of these types of measures that have reduced greenhouse gas emissions compared to what they would have been if such measures were not taken. In addition, many countries


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participate in the international emissions trading systems. Collectively, transport agencies have invested many billions of dollars each year in these types of projects that are designed to improved mobility and efficiency of the surface transportation networks in their countries and thus reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

vehicle technological improvements have shown the greatest potential for long term reductions, and are the easiest to implement. Even though these are not currently sufficient to achieve the kinds of reductions necessary to limit climate change to what are now considered acceptable levels (+2°C by 2050), they are still very important. First there are issues of fleet turnover. Countries employing fuel economy specifications to limit emissions typically regulate new vehicles. Given the longevity of these vehicles and the cost of new purchases, fleet turnover to the more efficient technology standards set today can take 20 to 25 years for the benefits to be fully realized. Second, there are limits to current technologies since they still depend on the combustion of gasoline or diesel fuels which produce carbon dioxide. However the development within this area has occurred quickly and can be influenced by regulatory instruments.

Newer vehicle technologies, like electric hybrids, currently cost considerably more, limiting their uptake into the marketplace. As a result, there are still relatively few hybrids running today even though it is a promising approach. The new plug in hybrids may result in increased sales. Other approaches such as hydrogen or pure electric vehicles appear to have technological hurdles that limit their commercialization at this time. Advanced fuels can have negative side effects. Bio-fuels for example, were shown to create competition for the crops that can produce both fuels and food. Their aggressive introduction caused food prices to increase, creating food availability and nutrition concerns.

Ultimately higher cost energy sources, including clean energy carriers such as hydrogen and electricity, produced from renewable energy sources or from fossil fuels with carbon sequestration and storage, will be required if there are to be further cuts in transport sector CO2 emissions. Major research and development programmes will be required to bring these technologies to commercial viability [5].

Fiscal measures may be necessary; however, they can raise costs to consumers which are politically unpopular. Elected officials face voter reprisals if costs increase too much which effectively places a price cap on the levels that can be implemented. There are further concerns that limiting demand for transport services could have negative effects on economic progress and decentralized settlements. Alternatively, where fiscal incentives, rather than taxes, are used there are negative budget consequences which have to be made up. Feebates can mitigate these effects, but citizens sometimes demonstrate a lack of trust that tax revenues collected from them will be returned in full.

For the short and medium term, policies that target fuel efficiencies offer most potential for reducing CO2 emissions. The most effective measures available include fuel taxes, vehicle and component standards, differentiated vehicle taxation, support for eco-driving and incentives for more efficient logistic organisation, including point of use pricing for roads.

Fostering alternative modes of transport, such as transit services, cycling and ridesharing, are usually accomplished through capital investment and grants and new programs in distinct locations. Many cities have strategies to promote a change of modal split that include cycling and public transport. New transit projects are typically still only available to a small segment of an area’s population. Promotion of other alternative services is also usually focused on a particular part of an area which limits their effectiveness to reduce greenhouse gases. In the absence of measures to raise the cost of single-occupant automobile travel at the national level, these behavioural measures will frequently only have small impacts on national emissions.

For the long term, more integrated transport and spatial planning policies might contain demand for motorised transport. Land use measures which can reduce the need for surface transport services, are very long term since much of the existing building stock in metropolitan areas will last for decades. Perhaps more importantly, such measures are beyond the purview of transport planners in most countries, and require the direct intervention of elected officials and other metropolitan leaders. If consistently implemented, these measures may prove to have longer lasting benefits.

Road infrastructure measures are also very limited in their ability to significantly reduce emissions. Construction and maintenance emissions are just a small part of the total life time emissions of a project, perhaps on the order of 5%. And while some technologies are available to reduce these emissions, and the transport of materials may be reduced, the emissions cannot be eliminated entirely.


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Operation of the road network is a much larger share of the total emissions but traffic management approaches merely improve the efficiency of the network. The vehicles still run on carbon-producing fossil fuels and the emissions, while minimized, are still substantial. Some estimates indicate that even aggressive measures to improve road efficiency will result in only a three to six percent reduction while incurring significant costs. Further, any improvement to road efficiency has the potential to “induce demand”, that is make the section of roadway more attractive to motorists, thereby reducing the effectiveness further.

These limitations listed should not be construed to mean that they are not worthwhile or should not be implemented. Background conditions are a description of today’s situation, and may change with time. Technological measures, especially, can be developed more quickly if conditions allow. While there are limitations, these measures are nonetheless important to at least reduce the growth, and possibly to make baseline reductions, of carbon emissions from transport. Scientists have indicated that short term reductions are needed to limit climate change over the next 50 to 100 years as greenhouse gases can remain in the atmosphere for a very long time. These measures also have very important benefits for mobility, congestion relief, efficiency and the effective management of the surface transportation networks.

Many measures will be necessary to significantly reduce greenhouse gases from transport because of these limitations, and complementary combinations of measures that both provide low carbon means of transport and reduce the attractiveness of automobiles using existing technologies will be necessary to both meet travel demand and limit emissions. While considered in isolation in this report, most countries are implementing a variety of different measures to enhance their benefits. Still, given the difficulty in realizing significant reductions, project-level measures focusing only on particular corridors or addressing small parts of travel demand will not likely be very effective. In order to achieve more significant reductions, coordinated strategies with legal authorities to implement emission reduction efforts, action plans, and accountability measures will be necessary. Developing nations face particular challenges due to their growing needs for mobility. Car oriented development patterns will likely result in the same emissions patterns.

Motorization trends throughout the world continue to be strongly positive. Many more of the world’s populations are seeking and achieving access to personal vehicles. Their mobility fuels economic activity and increases their quality of life. If current conditions hold, their vehicle activity will continue to increase greenhouse gas emissions. Given the likely vehicle activity in the future, reductions on the order of 80% by 2050, as agreed to at the G8 summit in July 2009, will likely require new unconventional fuels that are very low- or no-carbon.

Since greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere for decades to centuries and for some species even longer, it is a cumulative problem. As gases are emitted into the atmosphere and trap heat for a long period of time, the climate changes because of gases that were emitted in the past as well as any future emissions. As such, scientists indicate that the world is already committed to a certain amount of warming even if emissions were to dramatically drop today. As this warming is in evidence worldwide, its effects are already being felt and will continue to worsen through 2040 despite mitigation measures. Of course, effective mitigation today will minimize the climate effects beyond the 2040 time frame.

The need to assess future climate effects and develop cost-effective adaptation measures is already clear. Many nations are taking important substantive steps to develop the science and assessment tools and begin the decades-long process of adapting to climate change. As scientific information improves, our ability to specify future conditions and descriptive variables will also improve our ability to provide robust transportation services under wider and more challenging conditions. Nonetheless, countries vary in their development and use of risk assessment tools and vulnerability analyses.

As climate effects worsen, there will be a growing need for transport agencies to adapt their infrastructure and services (Chapter 6, page 35). Coastal roads and bridges may need to be elevated. New design features to cope with increased coastal storm intensity will likely need to be developed. Drainage capacity will have to be enlarged to address heavy downpours and reduce flooding. New heat-resistant materials and equipment will need to put in place as the number of very hot days increases in tropical and currently temperate areas.

Country experiences vary in their approaches to adaptation. All countries surveyed indicated a growing awareness of the need to begin the process of adaptation on an ongoing basis. While in its infancy, several countries have begun the process of conceptually or analytically determining what transport facilities are at risk of the negative climate effects.

This analysis, however, depends on the scientific ability to “downscale” global effects to a geographic level relevant to transport decision makers. This is more typically at the metropolitan or even the specific facility. Country


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analyses also depend on the scientific ability to narrow the potential effects to ranges that are important to transport planners. For example, trends in average precipitation are difficult to project for specific geographic areas. yet adaptation measures depend greatly on whether average precipitation will increase or decrease and to a somewhat lesser extent by how much. Where the direction of the effect is in doubt, transport planners cannot reasonable plan for effective adaptation measures. Even during the four years of this report’s development, the science has advanced considerably and more is being accomplished every day. A great deal of information is already available, particularly with respect to sea level rise, and it is possible to take existing information and being to make better decisions leading to more robust transport services.

The need to assess future climate effects and develop cost-effective measures is already clear. Many nations are taking important substantive steps to develop the science and assessment tools and begin the decades-long process of adapting to climate change. As scientific information improves, our ability to specify future conditions and descriptive variables will also improve our ability to provide robust transportation services under wider and more challenging conditions.


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9. references

1 Atkins, University of Aberdeen (2009): Mitigating Transport’s Climate Change Impact in Scotland: Assessment of Policy Options, www.scotland.gov.uk/ Publications/2009/08/26141950/0

2 Climate and Pollution Agency, Oslo (2010), Climate Cure 2020. Measures and Instruments for achieving Norwegian Climate Goals by 2020. TA 2678/2010

3 Ecodriving, Ecodriving - The Concept. www.ecodrive.org.4 Ecoplan (2000), Britton, E @World Carshare Association (http://ecoplan.org/carshare) CarShare 2000:

Sustainable Transport’s Missing Link, the Journal of World Transport Policy and Practice, Ecologica Limited 5 European Conference of Ministers of Transport (2007). Cutting Transport CO2 emissions: What Progress?

OECD Publishing.6 European Union (1999), Direction 1999/94EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December

1999 relating to the availability of consumer information on fuel economy and CO2 emissions in respect of the marketing of new passenger cars

7 European Union (2003), Directive 2003/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 May 2003 relating to the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport.

8 Federal Highway Association (2010) International Scan: Reducing Congestion and Funding Transportation Using Road Pricing – Executive Summary- AASHTO/TRb, April 2010. http://international.fhwa.dot.gov/pubs/roadpricing/roadpricing.pdf

9 International Energy Agency/OECD (2009), Transport, energy and CO2: Moving Toward Sustainability. 10 International Transport Forum (2010) Reducing transport greenhouse gas emissions: Trends & Data 2010 -

International Transport Forum Publications. http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/Pub/pdf/10greenhousegasemissionsTrends.pdf

11 IPCC, (2007) Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New york, Ny, USA.2007.

12 IPCC, (2012): Summary for Policymakers. Managing the Risks of extreme events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation [Field, C.B., v. Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New york, Ny, USA, pp. 1-19.

13 Jutila A, Sundqvist H., (2007) Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Bridge Engineering, 2007, Teknillisen korkeakoulun sillanrakennustekniikan julkaisuja, Espoo 2007 TKK-SRT-37, ETSI PROJECT (Stage 1), Bridge Life Cycle Optimisation.

14 Minesota Transportation Institute (1991): TI Report 09-11 Greenhouse Gas emission Impacts of Carsharing in North America June 2010 Elliot W. Martin, Ph.D. Susan A. Shaheen, Ph.D. San José State University San José, CA 95192-0219 Created by Congress in 1991

15 Norwegian Public Roads Administration (2009): Metode for beregning av energiforbruk fra utbyggingsprosjekter (Method for calculation of energy consumption from construction projects). Report 2009/11 (Only in Norwegian).

16 OECD (2008) Competitive Cities and Climate Change. Chapter 5 - Reducing CO2 emissions from Urban Travel: Local Policies and National Plans, Mary Crass.

17 OECD (2009): The economics of Climate Change Mitigation: How to Build the Necessary Global Action in a Cost-effective Manner. Burniaux, J.M., Chateau, J., Dellink, R., Cuval, R., Jamet, S

18 Stockholm City (2006) Facts and results from the Stockholm Trials. First version - June 2006. http://www.stockholmsforsoket.se/upload/The%20Stockholm%20Trial,%20facts%20and%20results_expert%20Group%20Summary%20June%202006.pdf

19 Swiss Federal Office of Energy (2006), evaluation Car Sharing, Interface Institut für Politikstudien, Luzern, Infras AG, Zürich,

20 Transport Agencies Greenhouse Group (TAGG) (2011). Greenhouse Gas Assessment Workbook for Road Projects. Cited in IRF Bulletin March 2012. Environmental and Climate Change, volume - 2.

21 Transport Canada (2006), Summary Report - Assessment of a Heavy Truck Speed Limiter Requirement in Canada. http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/motorvehiclesafety/tp-tp14808-menu-370.htm

22 USEPA 92005) Inventory of US greenhouse gas emission and sinks 1990-200523 World Bank (2010) Climate Change Overview, http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/climatechange/overview#224 Zahavi, y, Beckmann, M J, Golob, T F, (1981). The UMOT/Urban Interactions


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aPPendix i - samPle survey

survey made by tHe World road association

Please complete the following and return to [email protected] by 01 December 2008. If your responses require more space, please continue them on a separate sheet of paper

namecountryorganisationPosition

Question 01 Does your country/organisation have a strategic assessment plan taking into account climate change?

Response 01.01 No (please go to Question 02)

Response 01.02 yes (please complete the table below)

title of strategic assessment planchapter/section titles description

Question 02 Does your country/organisation take into account climate change in its decision-making process when planning and/or implementing transportation infrastructures?


Response 02.02 yes (please go to Responses 02.02.01, 02.02.02)

Response 02.02.01 Please describe the level/s at which planning and/or implementation occur

(P) Planning and/or i (implementation) level comment

Response 02.02.02 Please describe your country’s/organisation’s process with regard to the above (for example: policy development/analysis; strategic assessment; planning; impact assessment; design; construction; operation; maintenance; monitoring; rehabilitation; etc.).


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Question 03 Please describe the methods and tools your country/organisation uses to measure greenhouse gas emissions and the costs of these measurements.

Response 03

methods tools costs

Question 04 Please describe how your country/organisation uses the information gathered by the above methods and tools in its decision-making

Response 04

information gathered How the information is used

Question 05 Please describe how your country/organisation avoids, or compensates for, or mitigates, or reduces greenhouse gas effects at each stage of planning and implementation (for example: speed-reduction, choice of materials, etc.).

Response 05

Greenhouse gas effect insert a (avoidance); c (compensation); m (mitigation) or r (reduction), followed by description

Question 06 Please describe what measures your country/organisation adopts for reduction of emissions on its

existing road network (for example: limitations on vehicle emissions, ITS, maintenance of machinery, etc.).

Response 06

emission reduction measure description


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Question 07 Does your country/organisation develop and implement initiatives to change people’s mobility behaviour?


Response 07.02 yes (please go to Responses 07.02.01, 07.02.02, 07.02.03)07.02.04)

Response 07.02.01 Please describe the initiatives

initiative description1234

Response 07.02.02 Please describe how the initiatives are implemented

initiative implementation1234

Response 07.02.03 Please describe how the impacts of the initiatives are measured

initiative impact measurement1234

Response 07.02.04 Please identify and attach or link any case studies (or their abstracts or summaries) that exemplify the above (English, French or Spanish welcome!)

initiative year and title of case study www.link to case study (if applicable)

1234

Question 08 Has your country/organisation identified areas within its boundaries that may be vulnerable to climate change impacts in the future?

Response 08.01 No

Response 08.02 yes

Question 09 Has your country/organisation identified vulnerability to climate change impacts at either the project or network level?

Response 09.01 No

Response 09.02 yes


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Question 10 Has your country/organisation developed and/or implemented assessment tools that measure its vulnerability to climate change impacts?


Response 10.02 yes (please go to Responses 10.02.01, 10.02.02)

Response 10.02.01 Are the assessment tools similar to or the same as, the ones that apply to other known risk areas (for example seismic zones)?

similar same description

Response 10.02.02 Please describe the effect/s (if any) that the risk assessment tools described above and any pursuant activities have had on asset management

Question 11 Has your country/organisation developed and/or implemented any Specific climate change risk assessment tools?

Response 11.01 No

Response 11.02 yes (please go to Response 11.02.01)

Response 11.02.01 Please identify and describe the specific climate change risk assessment tools

climate change risk assessment tool description

Any other comments or observations you would like to make in respect of your country’s/organisation’s actions and approach in respect of climate change mitigation or adaptation.


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aPPendix ii - national examPles sorted by toPics

overarcHinG climate cHanGe Policies and measures

canada

Canada has an Action Plan to reduce greenhouse gases and has fully aligned its 2020 emission reduction target to reduce emissions by 17% from 2005 levels with the United States. This target has been inscribed in the Copenhagen Accord and is subject to adjustment to remain consistent with the U.S. target.

The Government of Canada’s approach to climate change is through:

• regulations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions;• strategic investments in areas such as clean energy technology and climate change adaptation;• world-classscientificresearchtosupportpolicydevelopmentanddecision-making;and• taking a leadership role in international climate change efforts.

The Action Plan sets out the Clean Air Regulatory Agenda, which was established in 2006 to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutant emissions including regulatory measures to reduce emissions from the transportation sector.

france

In France it is a requirement for each new infrastructure project to have its own greenhouse footprint assessment. A prospective survey is made by the National Council of Roads and Bridges which includes an “energy and greenhouse impact’’ assessment.

Germany

Germany has targeted a reduction of CO2 by 40% by 2020. Every year 2.6 million Euros are invested into climate protection.

HunGary

In Hungary, the National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) was prepared pursuant to §3 of Act No. Lx/2007 (v. 28.) of the framework for the implementation of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and of the Kyoto Protocol. The objectives of the National Climate Change Strategy are to be implemented by National Climate Change Programmes and prepared on a biannual basis. The NCCS is also adjusted to the National Sustainable Development Strategy adopted by the Government by Government Decree No. 1054/2007 (vII. 9.) The scientific background for the NCCS was a research project known as “Global Climate Change: National effects and Responses VAHAVA” (vÁltozás - HAtás - vÁlaszok; ‘Change - Effect - Responses’).

The Kyoto Protocol came into force on the 16th of February 2005, in which the EU-15 already made the commitment for an average reduction by 8% and Hungary undertook to make a reduction by 6%. At the time of signing the Kyoto Protocol, Hungary took the average of the years from 1985 to 1987 instead of the general base year of 1990 as the basis for its emission mitigation commitments. In this period, the quantity of greenhouse gas emission was as high as 113 million tons which was reduced to 76 million tons by 2005. Hungary indexes its emissions to emissions per capita. On the basis of the data of the National Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory, the current emission levels in Hungary are 24.6% lower than its Kyoto commitment according to the latest data for 2005.

italy

The first official law of Italian Government with a special focus on Climate Change and on greenhouse gas emissions was signed on 15 January 1994. This legislation under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change had the objective to establish national inventories of greenhouse gas emissions. Three months later the first “National Program to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions” was approved. In 1998, the Government approved “National Measures to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions” and in 2002 Italy ratified the Kyoto Protocol and the EU decisions. Italy’s target is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 6.5% before 2012 against a 1990 baseline.


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After passage of the EUs climate change package which aims to ensure that the EU will achieve its climate targets by 2020 of a 20% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, a 20% improvement in energy efficiency and a 20% share for renewables in the EU energy mix, Italy was asked to reduce its emissions by 13% and to increase the use of renewable fuels by 17% by 2010 (against a 2005 baseline). In 2010, Italy approved the “National Action Plan for Renewable energies”.

JaPan

The Japanese Government formulated the Action Plan to Prevent Global Warming in 1990, followed by the Law Concerning the Promotion of Measures to Cope with Global Warming in 1998. Furthermore in 2005 when the Kyoto Protocol became effective, Japan instituted its Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan to set overall and sectarian emission targets.

The plan stipulates nationwide countermeasures including evaluation indicators, expected emission reductions and national policies to promote measures. One such law - Rational Use of Energy - functions effectively to improve fuel economy standards for the automotive industry.

In 2013, the Japanese Government set a new target with an updated time frame, under which Japan would seek to cut carbon dioxide emissions by 3.8% by 2020 compared with their level in 2005. This is a lower target for cutting greenhouse gas emissions than what the previous administration had pledged, as most of the country’s nuclear power plants remain idle after the 2011 earthquake and the any shortage of power must be directed through the thermal power plants.

norWay

The Norwegian government’s greenhouse gas abatement policy has defined the following overall goals:

• tonotonlymeetthetargetsetforthefirstperiodoftheKyotoprotocol,buttosurpassitby10%;• by 2020, to commit Norway to cut global GHG emissions by an amount corresponding to 30% of the country’s

emissions in 1990;• by 2050, to achieve total carbon neutrality;• as part of a possible, ambitious global agreement, to commit the country to national carbon neutrality by 2030

already.

It is, however, understood that not all the cuts in emission need to be made ‘at home’, i.e. domestically. Up to one half of the cuts could be achieved through the purchase of internationally tradable carbon credits. Deliberations in the Parliament have since sharpened this target, suggesting that no more than one third of the emission cuts should be achieved by international trading.

Emissions from the domestic transport sector (including fisheries, agricultural machinery and other mobile sources, but excluding international air and sea transport) amounted to 17.3 million tonnes of CO2 equivalents in 2010, representing some 32% of Norway’s total greenhouse gas emissions. Between 1990 and 2010, greenhouse gas emissions from transport rose by 29%. Road transport represents some 59% of the transport emissions.

To reduce these emissions, the central government has pledged, in its 2012 white paper on greenhouse gas abatement (Meld. St. 21, 2011-2012), to implement new, climate friendly technology and facilitate a gradual transfer to public transport, walking and bicycling. Local governments are expected to reduce the demand for transport by a coordinated land use and environmental policy. Public transport use is to be stimulated through direct subsidies as well as through urban densification.

Among the targets laid down, the following are perhaps the most concrete and verifiable:

• in all the major urban areas, any future growth in travel demand should be absorbed by public transport, bicycling or walking;

• by 2020, the average CO2 emission rate of new passenger cars should not exceed 85 g/km.

In the National Budget for 2011, greenhouse gas emissions from transport are, in the business-as-usual scenario, projected to rise to 18.7 million tonnes in 2020 and to 18.9 million tonnes in 2030. Road transport would represent 11.9 million tonnes in 2020.


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In the so-called Norwegian ’Klimakur 2020’ study, the technical greenhouse gas reduction potential in the transport sector (including fisheries) was estimated at 2.5–4.5 million tonnes at the 2020 horizon. viewed as a target, this translates into a roughly 15-25% abatement ambition compared to the 2010 level.

PaKistan

The Natural Environmental Policy (NEP) has been issued by the Pakistan government in 2005, which provides an overarching framework for environmental issues and climate change. It provides measures for combating environmental degradation and meeting international obligations. The NEP recognizes the goals and objectives of the “National Conservation Strategy’’, the “National Action Plan’’ and other related policies, strategies and plans.

sWeden

The Swedish climate strategy contains both national instruments and instruments common to the EU. Targeted measures and instruments have been introduced, principally in the form of an increased CO2 tax, climate information initiatives and special climate investment subsidies. In 2009 decisions were taken on a new, coherent climate and energy policy. The target for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, from activities not included in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme is to decrease by 40% by 2020 (in comparison with 1990). There is also a long term objective of zero net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050.

Six Swedish government agencies have presented a joint report, The Swedish Strategy for more Efficient Energy Use and Transport [http://www.naturvardsverket.se/upload/01_sveriges_miljomal/eet/rapport_5777.pdf ], containing around 50 specific proposals for more efficient energy use and transport. The strategy also contains proposals for changes to policy instruments.The Swedish Transport Administration’s climate basis for planning (2010), [http://publikationswebbutik.vv.se/upload/6053/2010_095_rafikslagsovergripande_planeringsunderlag_ for_begransad_klimatpaverkan_.pdf ]describes how the road transport sector can contribute to stabilization of the average global temperature to a maximum 2°C increase relative to pre-industrial time. The target means that the industrialized countries need to cut their greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2030. To achieve this within the road transport sector actions are needed in three different areas: more energy efficient vehicles and use, replacing fossil fuels with renewable fuels and electricity and finally measures to decrease vKT (vehicle kilometres travelled) which includes sustainable urban planning, improved public transport and possibilities for cycling and walking and also to make transport of goods more efficient.

sWitZerland

Under the Kyoto Protocol, Switzerland’s target was to lower its greenhouse gas emissions by 8%. In order to achieve this objective, in 1999 the Swiss parliament passed the CO2 Act as the centre piece of climate policy. The CO2 Act specifies 10% less CO2 by 2010 as a reduction target. Efforts to achieve this cut draw on a mix of instruments: voluntary measures by industry and individuals, a carbon dioxide tax in case voluntary measures have too little effect, and emissions trading. On 1st January 2008, the Swiss Confederation introduced a CO2 tax on fuels (oil, gas), raising the price by three cents per litre, and by nine cents per litre. Prior to this, many businesses had already entered into voluntary agreements. The climate cent on fuels is a “ fuel tax” of 1.5 cent per litre introduced by the car industry in the year 2005. The revenues are used to finance climate protection projects, some in Switzerland but the majority abroad.

To a limited extent, foreign emission allowances can also be taken into account in Switzerland’s internal emission trading program. Other policy areas influence the carbon balance in line with climate policy. The energy label for motor vehicles creates transparency at the point of sale by making it easier to choose a climate-friendly product. The Swiss Energy programme supports measures to improve energy efficiency and make use of energy from renewable sources. The mileage-related heavy vehicle tax is helping to finance the construction of the new Alpine rail transversal thus facilitating the shift from road to rail freight. The tax exemption on biofuels (including biogas) makes it cheaper to use vehicles with better environmental performance in operation than conventional alternatives.

united KinGdom

The UK legislative framework sets the agenda for domestic action to adapt to the projected impacts of climate change. The UK Climate Change Act (2008) legally requires reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of 34% by 2020 and at least 80% by 2050, from a 1990 baseline. To achieve this objective, five year carbon budgets have been introduced covering the period from 2008 to 2022.


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The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, published in July 2009, sets out a pilot system of departmental carbon budgets, across the government for meeting the targets. The carbon reduction framework is described in detail in Climate Change: Taking Action. The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan’ presents the key policies which will enable it to meet its first three carbon budgets.

The strategy for transport carbon reduction is presented in the document Low Carbon Transport: A Greener Future which includes a detailed action delivery plan projected to save around 85 million tonnes of CO2 over the period 2018-2022 in addition to existing policies.

At an agency level, the Department of Transport has produced a plan which factors climate change risks into its decision making processes and policy developments in all related areas. The plan details actions up to 2012.

SCOTLAND

The Scottish Government is moving towards a low carbon economy as part of its commitment to sustainable economic growth. To support this, the Climate Change Act (2009) sets very challenging statutory climate change targets: by setting an interim 42% reduction target for 2020, with the power for this to be varied based on expert advice and an 80% reduction target for 2050. To help ensure the delivery of these targets, annual targets are established (through secondary legislation), for Scottish emissions from 2010 to 2050.

The Act sets duties on public organizations in relation to climate change: to contribute to emissions reduction targets and adaptation programme and to act in a way it considers most sustainable. These duties came into force on 1st January 2011 and cover around 7,000 public bodies, including transport agencies.

After setting annual targets, Ministers must produce a report setting out proposals and policies for meeting those targetsanddescribinghowtheycontributetotheinterimand2050targets.Thefirstofthesereports,LowCarbonScotland - Meeting the Emissions Reduction Targets 2010-2022, was published in March 2011. The second was published in draft on 29 January 2013. It extends the time period out to 2027 and also revisits the proposals and policiessetoutinthefirstreport.

With regard to adaptation, the Climate Change (Scotland) Act (2009) requires the Scottish Government to produce anadaptationprogrammetoaddressrisksidentifiedforScotlandintheUKClimateChangeRiskAssessment.

In preparation for this, a Climate Change Adaptation Framework was published in December 2009. This Adaptation Framework represents a non-statutory forerunner, necessary to have systems in place to deliver the statutory requirements when they come into force.

The Framework sets the strategic direction for Scottish Government and has been developed with a series of accompanyingSectorActionPlans,whichoutline thekey issuesandplannedactivityforadapting.AspecificAction Plan has been developed for the Transport Sector. In November 2011, the Adaptation Sub-Committee (ASC) completed an assessment of how well Scotland is preparing for climate change, based primarily on a review of the Adaptation Framework and the Sector Action Plans.

The Scottish Government’s Climate Change Delivery Plan sets out high level measures to meet Scotland’s climate change targets in the long term. Of the four transformational outcomes which the Scottish Government is working towards, the one relevant to transport includes “Almost complete decarbonisation of road transport by 2050 with significant progress by 2030 through wholesale adoption of electric cars and vans, and significant decarbonisation of rail by 2050”.

united states of america

Under the Copenhagen Accord, representing the 15th session of the Conference of Parties (COP 15) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the USA submitted its intention to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 17% by the year 2020. According to the US submission on 28th January 2010, this goal is subject to ratification by the US Congress, and as yet has not been enacted [UNFCCC (2010), Letter from Todd Stern, US Special Envoy for Climate Change, to yvo De boer, Executive Secretary]. In July 2009, at the G8 Summit in Aquila, Italy, President Obama and the leaders of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia and the United Kingdom signalled their agreement to reduce emissions by 80% by 2050.

In October 2009, demonstrating a commitment to lead by example, USA President Obama issued Executive Order 13514. This Executive Order sets sustainability goals for Federal agencies and focuses on making improvements in


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their environmental, energy and economic performance. The Executive Order requires Federal agencies to set a 2020 greenhouse gas emissions reduction target; increase energy efficiency; reduce fleet petroleum consumption; conserve water; reduce waste; support sustainable communities; and leverage Federal purchasing power to promote environmentally-responsible products and technologies. The overall target for the Federal agencies is a 28% reduction by 2020 [refer to Executive Office of the President of the United States (2009). Executive Order on Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and Economic Performance, Executive Order 13514].

In June 2013, President Obama issued a Climate Action Plan, which is a broad-based plan to cut the carbon pollution that causes climate change and affects public health. The plan, which consists of a wide variety of executive actions, has three key pillars:

1. cut carbon pollution in America, 2. prepare the United States for the impacts of climate change,3. lead international efforts to combat global climate change and prepare for its impacts.

The plan presents a blueprint for steady, responsible national and international action to slow the effects of climate. It highlights progress already set in motion by the Obama Administration to advance these goals and sets forth new steps to achieve them.

Individual US States have the legislative ability to set their own approaches on greenhouse gas mitigation and adaptation. As of March 2012, thirty four States plus the District of Columbia (DC) had developed climate action plans and twenty of these, plus DC, had set greenhouse gas reduction targets. These State plans target reductions between 5 and 85% of their greenhouse emissions by the target year ranging between 2020 and 2050 using various baseline years (usually 1990, 2000, or 2005).

One of the more significant of these plans is the California State Law - the Global Warming Solutions Act (2006). This Law seeks to address climate change by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the State. It requires the California Air Resources Board to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California’s greenhouse gas emission to 1990 levels by the year 2020, representing a 25% reduction state-wide with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emission sources.

Of the 34 State plans on climate change to date, more than 300 transportation strategies were proposed to reduce greenhouse gases. The five most popular of these are: low carbon fuel measures, improved public transport and alternatives to driving; new vehicle fuel efficiency standards (based on the California model) and incentives to purchase lower emitting vehicles.

land use and transPort PlanninG

JaPan

In Japan, a compact city policy is being applied to urban land use planning in order to reduce city administration costs and abate environmental burdens. In Toyama-city, of which the population is approximately 420,000, local railway lines are renovated to promote compact city land use programs. Land in a vicinity of railway stations is planned to be densely utilized to consolidate urban functions including commerce, cultural and residential areas. This reduces passenger transport demand and enhances the use of the public transport such as railways, LRT and buses.

In another example in Aomori-city (population of approximately 320,000), the local government has a policy to concentrate its urbanized area near the city centre and in the nearby outskirts which will reduce passenger-kilometres travelled as well as reducing administration expenditures including operation and maintenance of infrastructure. In order to achieve this compact city, the local government is providing various urban facilities and housings and gradually tightening land use regulations to restrict development in the more remote suburban areas.

The overall of federal transport planning in Germany is designed to manage investment in transport infrastructure to achieve the greatest possible contribution to public well-being. Germany employs benefit-cost-analysis that examines carbon dioxide emissions as an input (among other things). Construction costs of the different projects and benefits of avoiding damage due to climate change are compared. The evaluation of greenhouse gas emissions is done by balancing the principal impact of CO2 and monetizing the change with a damage valuation of 205 Euros per tonne of CO2.


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In Freiburg, on the former area of a French barrack site, vauban, a new district has been developed for more than 5,000 inhabitants and 600 jobs. In 1993, the planning for the district started and in 2006, after three development sections, the district (38 hectares) has been completed. As owner of the vauban area, the City of Freiburg was responsible for its planning and development. The principle “Learning while Planning” adopted by the city allowed flexibility in reacting to new developments. This allowed an extended citizen participation that went far beyond the legal requirements and enabled citizens to participate even in the planning process. Car usage was reduced in the city district with a noticeably higher quality of life. The goal of the traffic concept is not a small, car-free enclave, but rather reducing the use of cars in the entire district to everybody’s benefit. The result is the combination of two forms of living that are usually not integrated into one concept, i.e. “parking-free” and “car-free” living. In the parking-free area 80% of the households are living car-free, the others are parking their cars on the other edge in one of the two high-garages.

sWitZerland

At the end of 2001, the Swiss government approved a report on federal agglomeration policy, which was triggered by a new article in the Federal Constitution that obliges the Confederation to give due consideration to the particular situation of the towns/cities and agglomerations. Given the social and economic significance of urban centres, the sustainable development of the living environment in Switzerland is inextricably linked to the sustainable development of urban space. From this principle, the Confederation derives three key objectives:

1. the economic appeal of the towns and cities needs to be enhanced and civic amenity improved for the population;2. every effort must be made to preserve Switzerland’s decentralized urban system, with its complementary and

mutually supportive towns and cities of different sizes and functions;3. the growth of agglomerations is to be contained, in large part, within their existing boundaries (inward urban

development). Continuing urban sprawl is undesirable for economic, environmental and planning reasons.

The Confederation is currently sponsoring 25 model projects throughout Switzerland and provides funding for cities with model city and transportation planning programs. A town with more than 30,000 people would qualify for the Program. The subsidies go towards public transportation and improvement of road transport.

Several States, including Oregon and California and Washington have passed laws to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through transportation planning:

• in 2008, Washington House Bill 2815 established reduction targets for greenhouse gas emissions and vehicle miles travelled (vMT). In addition to the greenhouse gas emission reduction goals, the Bill also called for eighteen percent vehicle miles travelled per capita reduction below business-as-usual projections for 2050; 30% by 2035; and 50 percent by 2050. In 2009, the Governor issued Executive Order (EO) 09-05 which directed the Washington State Department of Transportation to work with the four largest Regional Transportation Planning Organizations and Metropolitan Planning Organizations to “develop and adopt regional transportation plans that will, when implemented….reduce greenhouse gases and achieve statutory benchmarks to reduce annual per capita VMT” ;

• in March 2010, the State of Oregon enacted Senate Bill 1059 which calls for a State wide transportation strategy to achieve greenhouse gas emission reduction goals and requires metropolitan areas within the State to consider how regional transportation plans could be changed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

California enacted a similar law that will attempt to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through better transportation and land use planning. It requires that the 27 metropolitan areas in the state develop “sustainable community strategies (SCS)” and includes new requirements to align housing needs assessments and the regional transportation plans to meet the greenhouse gas emissions targets as part of their regional transportation plans.

virtually all States and major metropolitan areas in the United States use federal funding to create alternatives to driving alone or by making them more attractive. In March 2009, DOT Secretary LaHood unveiled the President’s plan to make communities in the US more liveable by providing enhanced funding and cooperation across key federal agencies, including transportation, housing and environment, known as the Partnership for Sustainable Communities. Some cities are employing demand management strategies specifically for greenhouse gas emissions reduction. Others use them for their other benefits, like enhanced mobility and economic vitality in densely populated areas and improved liveability. Nonetheless, these projects will also have the added benefit of greenhouse gas emissions reductions. The US invests more than USD 47 billion annually in public transport from all levels of government, and Americans take nearly 10 billion trips annually. Transit has been the fastest growing mode of surface transportation since 1998.


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manaGement measures related to traffic demand

cHina

Following the strategy of Singapore, the city of Shanghai has implemented policies to restrain both car use and ownership, while improving public transportation. Since 1998, the number of new car registrations is limited to 20,000 vehicles a month. Car registrations are sold in a public auction, with prices reaching up to USD 5,000 in 2006. Also parking is limited and there are restrictions on obtaining driver licenses.

Main roadways and highways are toll roads and an assessment was completed to evaluate implementation of congestion pricing for vehicles entering the central business district. Beijing has now announced a five-year traffic plan to introduce a congestion charge in the city centre to ease its crowded roads. The City of Nanjing is also considering the implementation of congestion pricing.

Germany and austria

Germany and Austria schemes for charging trucks started from 2005 and charging is based on a variable scale per kilometre depending on the emission levels and number of axles. The expensive scheme, combining satellite technology with other technologies, suffered numerous delays before implementation, whilst a scheme using much simpler technology in Austria was up and running in 2004.

italy

In Italy, all vehicles on the highway system are charged with a different level of price depending on vehicle category and the distance travelled. Introduction of different levels of charge depending on the congestion level or time of day have been proposed. In the recent past, the Government proposed to extend the pricing charge to all road meeting highway standards but the proposal has been frozen due to a lack of support from the population.

A traffic charge program in Milan called “ecopass” began on a trial basis on January 2nd, 2008. It exempts vehicles compliant with the Euro3 and Euro4 (and starting from June 2010 - Euro 5) emission or higher, as well as several alternative fuel vehicles. Residents within the restricted zone may purchase a discounted annual pass. Although the program is operationally similar to existing congestion pricing schemes, its main objective is to reduce air pollution from vehicle emissions rather than relieve traffic congestion. The program was extended until December 31st, 2009 and then confirmed. Results based on 2009 data show a decline of 11% in GHG emissions and a decrease of 22% of vehicles that are in noncompliance with the pollution standard.

malta

A fully automated system called a Controlled vehicular Access (CvA) system has been launched in the capital city of valletta in Malta since May 2007. When compared to other countries that make use of congestion charging models, the Maltese system makes use of a wider array of innovations including variable payments according to the duration of stay, flexible exemption rules, including exemptions for residents within the charging zone, and monthly or quarterly billing options for vehicle owners. Pre-payment facilities, including direct debit arrangements and purposely designed vouchers, are also available. The billing system was designed in Malta and has been described as a state of the art “next generation congestion charge billing solution”.

tHe netHerlands

Netherlands is close to starting a national road pricing schemes. However at the time of this report, formal implementation is still waiting final legislative approval

norWay

Norway has authorized local authorities to implement road pricing in order to collect funds for new infrastructure. One of the earliest approaches was introduced in Bergen in 1986. Bergen has now a fully automated toll plaza system that is based on passing without stopping for all traffic. A similar system was introduced for the Oslo Toll Ring in 2008.


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sinGaPore

The Singapore Area Licensing Scheme was first implemented in Singapore in 1975. The system charged drivers entering downtown Singapore and thereby aimed to manage traffic demand. This scheme originally affected all roads entering a 6-km2 area in the central business district called the “Restricted Zone” later increasing to 7.25 km2 in order to include areas that later became commercial. In September 1998, the scheme was terminated as Singapore upgraded to the current Electronic Road Pricing system, which is completely automatic and allows passing the control gantries at normal speeds.

sWeden

The capital of Sweden - Stockholm - has had a congestion pricing system since August 2007. All the entrances and exits to the city centre have unmanned control points operating with automatic number plate recognition. Congestion tax is charged for Swedish-registered vehicles, with a few exceptions, that are driven into and out of central Stockholm, Mondays to Fridays between 06.30 and 18.30.

sWitZerland

Switzerland introduced a heavy vehicle tax in January 2001 calculated according to weight and distance driven. This is part of Switzerland’s general policy to divert transport from road to rail, which has been relatively successful.

united KinGdom

Road pricing schemes in place in the UK include road congestion pricing in London and Durham; the London low emission zone which is a pollution charge scheme only affecting trucks with less efficient engines entering London; and the M6 toll, the only existing toll road on a strategic road in the UK. The Dartford crossings toll was retained as a demand management tool in 2003.

various local and national road pricing schemes promoted by the Labour Government in 2005, were then abandoned following strong public opposition.

London was the world’s first major city (Durham City congestion charge was the first congestion charge to be introduced in the UK in October 2002) to introduce a congestion charge to reduce the flow of traffic into and around the city centre. Introduced in February 2003, the congestion charge is currently £11.50 per day for driving between 07:00 and 18:00, Monday to Friday.

London’s congestion charge zone currently covers the following areas:

• St. James’s,• Waterloo,• Borough,• City of London,• Clerkenwell,• Covent Garden,• Fitzrovia,• Charing Cross,• London Bridge,• Holborn,• Finsbury,• Bloomsbury,• Soho,• Mayfair,• Westminster,• parts of Marylebone, Lambeth and Southwark.

People living within the congestion zone receive a 90% discount on the charge and motorbikes, mopeds and bicycles are exempt. There is also an Ultra Low Emission vehicle discount for some electric and plug-in hybrid cars and vehicles with nine or more seats.


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In addition to the congestion charge, a Low Emissions Zone (LEZ) operates 24 hours a day, every day of the year, including weekends and public and Bank Holidays. The LEZ operates separately to the congestion charge in as much as if you drive within the charging zone during the designated times, the driver is still required to pay the Congestion Charge, even if the vehicle meets the LEZ emissions standards. The LEZ covers most of Greater London.

A congestion charge scheme similar to the one in London has been variously proposed for other areas including Manchester, Cambridge, Birmingham and Coventry. The proposals were part of a bid to the Government’s Transport Innovation Fund (TIF) for a £2.7 billion package of transport funding and the introduction of a road congestion charging system. To date all proposals have been subsequently abandoned.


The US began several experiments in congestion pricing in the 1990s, for reasons, however, other than greenhouse gas emissions reduction. Congestion pricing pilot programs were started in several states, including California, Florida, Texas, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. These are tolled roadways whose prices vary by time of day. Other programs include a Washington State pilot on congestion pricing, zone-based pricing in California and comprehensive pricing in Illinois.

More recently, the virginia Department of Transportation (vDOT) initiated work in 2012 on the I-95 Express Lanes. The project will create a regional network of tolled managed lanes in Northern virginia. The project consists of the development, design, finance, construction, maintenance and operation of 29.4 miles of High Occupancy vehicle (HOv)/High Occupancy Toll (HOT) Lanes along I-95 and I-395 corridor in Northern virginia. The new managed lanes will provide congestion relief and connectivity to users travelling to and from major employment centres in Northern virginia and five major military sites, while providing a reliable pathway for transit vehicles and carpools to travel throughout the region. In many areas, the project will provide first-time, direct HOv and transit access to these destinations.

In 2013, the Riverside County Transportation Commission (RCTP) in California began work on the SR91 Corridor Improvement Project. This will significantly expand the existing toll portion of SR9; a heavily travelled east-west corridor through Riverside and Orange Counties, California. The new SR91 express lanes will use an electronic tolling system, and congestion pricing to moderate traffic flow. vehicles with three or more passengers will be able to use the express lanes for free or at a discount depending on the time and day of use. Pricing will be adjusted quarterly based on express lane toll volume. The project will ease congestion and improve long-term efficiency, cost, and reliability of goods movement in the region.

manaGement measures to decrease Pollution from veHicles

canada

Since 2007, Canada has applied a special excise tax on fuel inefficient passengers cars modulated on the fuel consumption. The tax ranges from CD 1,000 for cars having a fuel consumption over 13 litres per 100 kilometres up to CD 4,000 for cars with fuel consumption over 16 litres per 1,000 kilometres.

Since January 2010, the province of Quebec has implemented a tax on manufacturer according the level of pollution of the vehicle fleet they are marketing in the Quebec market. The manufacturer should declare the weighted emission of its vehicle fleet. beginning with the 2010 model year for large volume manufacturers and the 2016 model year for other manufacturers, a fee of CD 5,000 per vehicle equivalent is payable for any excess over the maximum emission standards. The particular aspect of this measure is that the financial burden is on the manufacturers in order to influence the development on more fuel efficient vehicles. Even if the final cost may be passed to the users, the economics laws are used to shape a new type of vehicle fleet put on the market.

Canada has also introduced a feebate system consisting of two programs. The ecoAuto rebate program offers rebates from CD 1,000 to CD 2,000 to people who buy or enter a long-term lease (12 months or more) for a fuel-efficient vehicle. The government is also levying a tax on fuel-inefficient vehicles from CD 1,000 to CD 4,000 in its Green Levy program.

france

France has developed a system of tax to be paid on new cars according to the pollution level, as well as providing financial assistance to buy less polluting cars. There is also an annual tax on vehicles according the pollution level of the vehicle and a tax on company car fleets.


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Germany

Since July 2009, some 40 million cars on German roads are now taxed based on the CO2 emissions. Drivers of fuel-efficient cars benefit from a lower tax burden, while owners of fuel-inefficient vehicles are paying greater costs. The tax is calculated from a base rate which is 2€ per initial 100 cc for petrol and 9.50€ for diesel. For cars with emission levels beyond a defined threshold an additional 2€ is paid per every excess gram of CO2 per kilometre. This threshold is fixed at 120 grams of CO2 in the years 2010 and 2011, at 110 grams in 2012 and 2013 and at 95 grams after 2014.

italy

The Italian Government has provided financial assistance to purchase less polluting cars with the requirements that the older, more polluting car is scrapped. The same kind of fiscal assistance has been provided for motorcycles - a fast-growing phenomenon in Italy where motorcycle purchases have increased 27% in the last 5 years.

JaPan

Japan has implemented fiscal incentives to address climate change and air pollution. vehicle-related taxes are reduced or exempted for vehicles which have more fuel efficient performance than the fuel efficient standards stipulated under “the Top Runner approach”. Conventional vehicles with fuel efficiencies 25% or more than standard vehicles have tax rates reduced by 50% and vehicle acquisition and vehicle weight taxes are reduced by 75%. Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, natural gas vehicles, etc., have tax reductions of 50% for vehicle tax, and are exempted for both vehicle acquisition and vehicle weight tax. These tax reductions apply to vehicles which are newly registered from 2012 to 2015.

Conversely, vehicles exceeding 13 years from the first registration have an increased vehicle tax of 10%. Introduced in 2001, this is designed to drive changes in the vehicle fleet resulting in improved emission performance and fuel efficiency.

norWay

Norway has introduced a vehicle taxation system which is intended to internalize the costs of the car due to air pollution, noise, traffic accidents and surface wear. In addition, there is a carbon tax on fuel and registration is linked to carbon emissions.

sWeden

Sweden has a CO2 differentiated tax on light vehicles. This means that a car with high CO2 emissions costs more to own than a car with lower emissions. Sweden also has a system where some vehicle models are classed as environmental friendly cars. These cars are tax free for the first five years.

Introduced in January 2012, the Swedish Government will invest SEK 200 million in a super-green car rebate over the next three years. This investment aims to encourage car buyers to make the best environmental choice. A super-green car is a passenger car that meets the latest EU exhaust requirements and emits a maximum of 50 grams of carbon dioxide per kilometre.


The “Cash for Clunkers” program was in operation in the United States between the first of July 2009 and the 24th of August 2009. Over these 55 days of program, some 700,000 new cars were replaced for old cars for a cost of 2.8 billion dollars for the US government. Used as a measure to boost the automotive industry, a collateral effect of the program is the reduction by 61% of the average fuel consumption of the new fleet. It has been estimated that the average consumption of the new fleet is 9.2 litres per 100 kilometres compared with an average of 14.89 litres per 100 kilometres for the old fleet. This represents an annual reduction of 1,750,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions.


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increased use of less enerGy intensive enerGy modes

canada

Under the EcoMobility Program in Canada public transport authorities work with municipalities to help reduce the emissions from urban traffic by promoting the increased use of public transport and other sustainable transport options such as walking, cycling and carpools.

JaPan

Several measures such as introduction of IC cards, integration of railway stations and bus stations, introduction of bus location system, are implemented to improve the convenience and attractiveness of public transport in Japan.

neW Zealand

Improving the effectiveness of public transport is one of the strategic priorities for the New Zealand Transport Agency. Encouraging public transport also has the potential to help alleviate congestion and improve the reliability of travel times on New Zealand’s urban road networks.

The New Zealand Transport Agency is working in partnership with key stakeholders and provides assistance and advice across a range of core activities to improve the effectiveness of public transport. The Transport Agency co-funds public transport and will invest $1.74 billion in public transport during 2012-15.

The Agency is also responsible for regulating and licensing bus and rail operations in New Zealand and provides the public transport infrastructure on the state highway networks.

The Transport Agency educates the public - especially children and commuters - about benefits of active/shared modes through regular campaigns and producing policy and guidelines to assist uptake of new initiatives e.g. cycle trains for school children.

scotland

The Scottish Government has developed an online resource centre – chooseanotherway.com – for organisations and travel plan practitioners. It is designed to help them promote and implement a range of measures to encourage and facilitate more active and sustainable travel. The Scottish Government will undertake further analysis of options for introduction of shared facilities in settlements of population less than 10,000. Equipped for remote working, with ICT and remote office facilities (including video-conferencing suites), such facilities could remove a key reason for travel and reduce travel costs. Additionally, these “community hubs” could offer an additional range of benefits such as health, education, shopping delivery, post office and other financial services, and storage for ecommerce deliveries.

The “Smarter Choices, Smarter Places” (SCSP) Programme is a joint Scottish Government –initiative to achieve objectives in National Performance Framework and Single Outcome Agreements. Smarter Choices, Smarter Places (SCSP) is a £15 million Scotland-wide initiative to encourage Scots to reduce their car use in favour of more sustainable alternatives such as walking, cycling and public transport.

Organised by the Scottish Government with support from Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA) local authorities and regional transport partnerships, SCSP will see £10 million of Scottish Government funding being invested in a variety of initiatives across Scotland. A further £5 million of match funding will also be available from councils, public transport operators and developers.

The money will be spent on improving local facilities for walking, cycling and public transport alongside promotion and information campaigns. Benefits include increased physical activity, reduced CO2 emission and air quality pollutants, reduced congestion, greater awareness of healthy ways of living and enhanced community pride in neighbourhoods. SCSP will fund seven areas in Scotland – Dumfries, Dundee, Kirkintilloch and Lenzie, Barrhead, Larbert and Stenhousemuir, Glasgow’s East End and Kirkwall – to explore ways of encouraging local people to drive their cars less and try alternative ways of getting about. Key elements of Smart Measures are Travel Plans, which provide organisations with a framework to engage with all people visiting its sites, especially staff and visitors (including patients and students where applicable).


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Other measures include:

• personalised Travel Planning;• public Transport information (Transport Scotland leading);• flexiworkingandhomeworking;• community events such as mass participation bike rides;• car clubs and car sharing;• use of teleconferencing and video conferencing.

The Scottish Green Bus Fund is providing £4.4 million funding (2010-2011) to bus operators for up to 100% of the price difference between a low carbon vehicle and its diesel equivalent. This will add about 50 low carbon buses to the Scottish bus fleet. In addition, payment rates for LCvs within the bus Service Operators Grant scheme incentivise their purchase. Following Scottish Government funding to establish a network of training providers, fuel efficient driving training for drivers of HGvs and freight vans is now available on a commercial basis with no Government involvement. In addition, free impartial information for the freight industry on saving fuel, developing skills, equipment and systems, operational efficiency and performance management is available under the Freight best Practice programme.

sWitZerland

In Switzerland, FINÖv: Financing of public transport infrastructure is a fund for railway infrastructure projects, which complement each other and enable an improvement in public transport. This project is based on the principle of sustainable transport and transfer policy, which has been repeatedly confirmed in various referendums.

AlpTransit, also known as New Railway Link through the Alps NRLA (German: Neue Eisenbahn-Alpentransversale, NEAT), is a Swiss federal project for faster north-south rail links across the Swiss Alps by constructing base tunnels several hundred metres below the current tunnels. The AlpTransit project is the centerpiece of the Central European rail network. The project comprises two major sections, the Gotthard axis and the Lötschberg axis. The New Railway Link through the Alps is expected completion date is 2016.

With this work, the Swiss Confederation intends to provide an attractive alternative to road-based freight and passenger transport. New north-south connections with substantial improvements in terms of services and capacity are meant to facilitate the transfer of trans-Alpine transport from road to rail, thus reducing road congestion. The NEAT and the “Rail 2000” program have dramatically shortened journey times between major cities. Not only have they reduced the number of kilometres travelled, but they have led to the construction of railway lines compatible with high-speed international trains, like the German ICE or French TGv.


Within the United States, virtually all States and major metropolitan areas use federal funding to create alternatives to driving alone or by making them more attractive. In March 2009, DOT Secretary LaHood unveiled the President’s plan to make communities in the US more livable by providing enhanced funding and cooperation across key federal agencies, including transportation, housing and environment. Some cities are employing demand management strategies specifically for GHG reduction. Others use them for their other benefits, like enhanced mobility and economic vitality in densely populated areas and improved livability. Nonetheless, these projects will also have the added benefit of greenhouse gas reductions. The US invests more than USD 47 billion annually in public transport from all levels of government, and Americans take nearly 10 billion trips annually. Transit has been the fastest growing mode of surface transportation since 1998.

veHicle tecHnoloGies to reduce GreenHouse Gas emissions

euroPe

The coordinated ACEA (European Automotive Manufacturers Association) voluntary standards of attaining fuel efficiencies below 140 g/km that are in effect in Europe may not be fully met, but their impact has been considerable in improving fuel economy for new cars.

JaPan

In Japan, legislation introduced in 1979 imposes fuel efficiency standards on road vehicles including passenger cars and heavy duty vehicles. In 1988, Japan initiated a unique program – the Top Runner Approach– to improve energy


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efficiency of end use products. As part of the Energy Conservation Law, the program set mandatory energy efficiency targets, based on the most efficient (Top Runner) products on the market, including automobiles. The latest standards were established in 2013, targeting fuel efficiency improvement by 19.6% for passenger cars in 2020. This approach is now considered one of the major pillars of Japan’s climate change policy.

Operational optimization can also help reduce greenhouse gas emissions for HGvs. In Japan, a joint collection and delivery system is operated by several logistics companies to improve truck transport efficiency as well as reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Furthermore the law requires passenger and cargo carriers which have a certain transport capacity and/or goods owners to prepare energy saving plans and report annual efforts to attain the energy reductions. The transport-related efforts for energy savings include introduction of fuel efficient vehicles, promotion of eco-driving, use of large-sized trucks and increase in load efficiency through use of the joint collection and delivery system.

PaKistan

Due to Government policy to encourage use of cleaner fuels, Pakistan has now one of the largest networks of CNG gas stations for vehicles and conversion to CNG is encouraged by a low price of CNG compared to petrol and diesel. Other initiatives include:

• a pilot project for biodiesel fuel,• encouragement of smaller engine vehicles through reduced taxes (registration and annual fee),• a scheme to provide soft loans for purchase of environmentally friendly small taxi rickshaws.

united KinGdom

On 19 November 2009, the UK Secretary of State for Transport, announced a scheme called “Plugged-in-Places”, making available £30 million to be shared between three and six cities to investigate further the viability of providing power supply for electric vehicles, and encouraging local government and business to participate and bid for funds. The Government is supporting the ‘Plugged-In Places’ programme to install vehicle recharging points across the UK. The scheme offers match-funding to consortia of businesses and public sector partners to support the installation of electric vehicle recharging infrastructure in lead places across the UK. There are eight Plugged-In Places: East of England; Greater Manchester; London; Midlands; Milton Keynes; North East; Northern Ireland; and Scotland.

In 2010, Transport Scotland committed £4.3m to support the procurement of low carbon vehicles and their infrastructure. The Public Sector Low Carbon vehicle Procurement Scheme will provide funding support to Community Planning Partnerships to assist the uptake of a range of low carbon vehicle technologies in the public sector fleet. In October 2010, Transport Scotland and a range of public and private sector partners submitted a joint bid to the UK Government funded Plugged-in Places electric vehicle infrastructure scheme. The successful bid has resulted in the installation of a high powered interoperable network of 300 double-outlet charging facilities across Scotland’s seven cities and primary road network together with 200 commercial workplace and home charging facilities.

The Plug-in Car Grant program started on 1 January 2011 and is available across the UK. The programme reduces the up-front cost of eligible cars by providing a 25% grant towards the cost of new plug-in cars capped at GB£ 5,000 (USD 7,650). Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for this grant which is received at the point of purchase. The subsidy programme is managed in a similar way to the grant made as part of the 2009 Car Scrappage Scheme, allowing consumers to buy an eligible car discounted at the point of purchase with the subsidy claimed back by the manufacturer afterwards.

united states of america and canada

A major strategy for the United States and Canada to reduce its greenhouse gases is to improve the fuel efficiency of the vehicles on the road, building on the extensive experience garnered since the oil crisis of the 1970s.

In the US, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued joint rules in August 2012 to further improve fuel economy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions for passenger cars and light trucks for model years 2017 through 2025.


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NHTSA established Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA) and EPA established national greenhouse gas emissions standards under the Clean Air Act, which will increase fuel economy to the equivalent of 54.5 mpg for cars and light-duty trucks by Model year 2025.

This rule builds on the success of the first phase of the National Program to improve fuel economy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from US light-duty vehicles completed in May 2010, which established strong and coordinated fuel economy and greenhouse standards for model years (My) 2012-2016. This rule raised the average fuel efficiency for cars and light-duty trucks to 35.5 mpg by My 2016.

The US and Canada coordinate on fuel economy ratings and typically meet the same standard.


Finalised in 2012, the United States introduced a two phase program to establish fuel economy standards for a range of vehicles, including highway tractors, work trucks, and school buses. The US estimated that the fuel efficiency of tractor-trailers could be improved by 25% simply by using existing technologies. Improvements in fuel efficiency are expected to come through a combination of more efficient engines, tyres designed for low rolling resistance and improved aerodynamics. The first phase is expected to save vehicle owners and operators an estimated USD50 billion in fuel costs and save a projected 530 million barrels of oil [http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/presidential-memorandum-regarding-fuel-efficiency-standards and http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/president-obama-announces-national-fuel-efficiency-policy]

In February 2014, the United States Administration directed NHTSA and EPA to develop and issue the next phase (Phase 2) of medium and heavy-duty vehicle fuel efficiency and greenhouse gas standards by March 2016. Under this timeline, the agencies are expected to issue a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) by March 2015.

In 2005, the US Congress mandated that a Renewable Fuels Standards (RFS) Program be created and that 7.5 billion gallons of renewable fuel be blended into gasoline by 2012 under the Energy Policy Act. The EISA increased this amount to be 36 billion gallons by 2022.

The US set standards for quantities of different types of renewable fuels, including cellulosic, biomass-based diesel, and total advanced renewable fuels. For 2010, these amounts are as follows: cellulosic (6.5 million gallons); biomass-based diesel (1.15 billion gallons) and the standard for the total amount of renewable fuels is set at 12.95 billion gallons. By 2022, the cellulosic standard will increase to 16 billion gallons; an advanced biofuel standard will be set at 21 billion gallons to meet the total standard under EISA of 36 billion gallons.

US EPA issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) in November 2013, which proposes to establish the annual percentage standards for 2014 for cellulosic, biomass-based diesel, advanced biofuel and total renewable fuels that apply to gasoline and diesel produced or imported in year 2014.

EPA is also required to determine the applicable national volume of biomass-based diesel that will be required in 2015, as the statute does not specify the applicable volumes for years after 2012.

road infrastructure mitiGation measures

canada

At federal level, Transport Canada’s Environmental Assessment (EA) Program ensures that the department evaluates the environmental implications of projects, through EAs, and incorporates environmental concerns into planning and policy decision-making, through strategic environmental assessment (SEA). The EA program is a systematic approach to identify the environmental effects (positive and negative) of a project proposal before they occur. This allows those involved in the project to modify the project to prevent, minimize, or manage adverse environmental effects. EA is an important planning and decision-making tool used in pursuing the goal of sustainable development. In assessing its initiatives, Transport Canada must comply with both the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA) and the Cabinet Directive on the Environmental Assessment of Policy, Plan and Program Proposals.

The Transport Association of Canada has launched a committee on Green Roads to evaluate how the concept may improve the overall aspect of carbon emission of a road from design, construction, maintenance and operation prospective. On a design build project with performance warranties for highway reconstruction, Transport Quebec has introduced quantification for use of recycling materials as an evaluation point to choose the best solution.


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The vast majority of transport agencies in Canada at the provincial level have set policies for the recycling of materials in construction and in maintenance. The product specifications have been amended to allow increasing use of recycled asphalt pavement in bituminous mixes and of warm mix asphalt. Maintenance techniques such as cold in place recycling, full depth reclamation are now fully developed as alternative solutions to the techniques of rehabilitation using news materials.

In Ontario Province, Canada, in-place pavement recycling is commonly implemented and encouraged by the Ministry. This is a pavement resurfacing technique, where the damaged pavement is reused as a material of new pavement.

In New Brunswick Province, Canada, the road administration is promoting the replacement of road lights with LED lights, which consume less electricity compared to the conventional electric lamps. This has also been undertaken for traffic signals.

france

France is developing a suite of tools for assessing the carbon footprint of construction activities. The ECORCE 2.0 application currently allows for a comparison among various road construction techniques and types of materials employed, focusing on: (i) the composition and structure of the road layers under consideration, (ii) machine quantities and tasks, and (iii) the absence / presence of soil treatments. France also has developed a similar method, called ADEME or the “Bilan carbon method”.

Also in France, USIRF (Union of French Road builder’s Companies) has developed a software package available to all road industry companies. The software named SÉvE is designed to determine the environmental impact of road construction worksites and offers the additional advantage of enabling a direct comparison to be drawn between the baseline solution proposed by clients and an alternate environmentally friendly solution devised by the technical departments and design offices of companies [for future information refer to Union des Syndicats de L’industrie routièere française Seve Ecocomparateur: http://www.usirf.com/site/La-route-et-le-Grenelle/eco-comparateur].

JaPan

Blast furnace cement typically includes 45% blast furnace slag, thereby producing less CO2 emissions compared to the usual Portland cement. In Japan about 0.41 million tons of blast furnace cement and about 4.8 million m3 of blast furnace cement concrete were used in 2006, and CO2 emissions were reduced by 0.4 Mt/year using blast furnace slag.

The temperature of semi-hot asphalt mixture is about 130°C, 30°C less than the hot asphalt mixture, when it is laid and pressed on the base course of the pavement. Therefore the semi-hot mixed asphalt pavement produces less CO2 emissions by about 2.91 kg-CO2/t compared to the usual hot mixed asphalt pavement. In Japan, about 49.8 million tons of hot asphalt mixture is used annually. Replacing all the hot asphalt mixture with the semi-hot asphalt mixture could reduce CO2 emissions by 0.14 Mt/year.

Technology has been developed for recycling demolition waste concrete as a sub base course material of pavement. The fragmented waste concrete absorbs about 11 kg-CO2/t. In Japan there is about 45.7 million tons of demolition waste concrete produced annually and then CO2 emissions can be reduced by 0.5 Mt/year if all waste concrete is recycled.

neW Zealand

The New Zealand Transport Agency, in conjunction with transport authorities in Australia, provides a ‘greenhouse gas assessment workbook for road projects’ that creates a common approach to estimating greenhouse gas emissions from road projects at the key stages of construction, operation and maintenance. This workbook and the accompanying calculator CarbonGauge is available on the Transport Agency’s website:(http://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/greenhouse-gas-assessment).

The Transport Agency has commissioned carbon footprint estimates of the construction phase of six state highway projects and an estimate of the operational phase of one state highway project. Key emission sources are summarised for different construction types and an estimate of the ratio of operational to construction emissions provided. This information is available to project managers and delivery teams.


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norWay

Transport appraisal of new projects in Norway must include transport demand but also the other needs of society including the greenhouse impact of any new proposal. The carbon assessments undertaken are currently based on post construction impacts i.e. traffic emissions, but with the development of the tools for calculating whole-life emissions from construction, this enables a more comprehensive assessment of options to be undertaken.

For example, calculations of whole-life emissions associated with different modal options for a river crossing compared a bridge, a tunnel or a ferry service. Almost all electricity comes from hydro in Norway and once this was taken into account, the bridge and the ferry were comparable options whilst the tunnel used the most electricity. Often new road projects will lead to increased capacity and thereby increased emissions. However, calculations of emissions from different types of road projects can also lead to a reduction in emissions due to improvements in traffic flow.

Recently Norway decided to utilise congestion fees to increase transport supply. Access to funds is only made available for those municipalities that propose increase supply through walking, cycling or public transport.

The Norwegian NRA has developed a Life Cycle Assessment model for calculating greenhouse gas emissions from road construction. The model has been implemented in a tool for cost benefit analysis of road projects and for comparison between different project alternatives. The model provides information about the contribution to greenhouse gas emissions of different processes within construction and how roads can be constructed with lower emissions.

Calculations of life cycle emissions from different types of bridges (wooden, concrete and iron) within the bridge life cycle optimisation project show that wooden bridges have the least emissions while iron bridges have the most.

sWeden

The Swedish Transport Administration has recently developed a Life Cycle Assessment tool for estimate CO2 and energy emissions from construction and maintenance from both road and rail infrastructure. The tool is called Klimatkalkyl and is now been tested in a few projects.

united KinGdom

The UK has developed a comprehensive methodology for Transport Appraisal. variations of these approaches are used in England Wales and Scotland known as webTAG, WELTAG, and STAG.

Transport Scotland is the custodian of Scottish Transport Appraisal Guidance (STAG) the Government’s appraisal methodology for all transport-related projects seeking national funding or approval. STAG provides a framework for identifying potential transport problems and appraising solutions against five criteria: economy; environment; safety; accessibility; and integration. The physical and monetised carbon impacts of a scheme also need to be identified as part of the appraisal process. Transport Scotland has developed a carbon calculator tool and is seeking to develop this into a carbon management system (CMS) that can aid investment decision-making.

SCOTLAND

Transport Scotland has developed and implemented the use of a sustainable reconstruction technique called ‘crack and seat’, where the existing concrete road base is reused, minimising the consumption of new materials, thereby, reducingwasteandcarbonemissions.Thistechniquehasdeliveredconsiderableefficiencysavings–moreroadmaintenance of the same cost and around twice the length of a trunk road section can be maintained. For example, this technique was used on the M77 & Clackmannanshire Bridge in Scotland.

Research into the use of recycled and secondary materials is also developing along with the quality and local availability of such materials for use in infrastructure projects including earthworks, structures and road pavements. On the Upper Forth Crossing project at Kincardine over 80% (or 1,035,000 tonnes) of the total requirement for importoffillmaterialfortheapproachroadsontheprojectcamefromthesesourcesasanalternativetoaggregates.

In addition, the M74 Completion project, a new 8 km dual 3 lane motorway, recycled some 500,000 tonnes of aggregatefromdemolition,around65,000tonnesofrecycledfillmaterialwasusedandsome2,400tonnesofwaste generated by the project itself has been recycled.


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Sustainability rating systems are getting more interest and receive good support by local communities in the USA. The US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration developed a sustainability self-assessment tool called INvEST to help state and local transportation agencies improve the sustainability of their projects and programs. INvEST has modules for system planning, project development (including planning, design and construction), and operations and maintenance, to cover the full transportation life cycle. It is being used by 29 transportation agencies across the country.

Greenroads, developed by the University of Washington, is a sustainability rating system for the design and construction of new roads. Both INvEST and Greenroads provide points for reducing energy usage and greenhouse gas emissions.

Interest in the use of recycled fly ash which can be used in the cement production process to form concrete is growing. The California Department of Transportation currently uses a 25% fly ash mixture, which has reduced greenhouse gas emissions from cement production by 25% and it has a future goal of using a 50% fly ash mixture. The USA is also recycling the aggregate from existing roadways and reusing it to greenhouse gas emissions. Like Canada, the USA is also experimenting with warm-mix asphalt, using chemical additives to lower the temperature needed to achieve the proper viscosity which in turn reduces the amount of fuel used and therefore greenhouse gas emissions.

Transportation infrastructure construction and maintenance practices show modest potential for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions in the USA. Use of fly ash or other recycled materials in cement has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 15 million tons annually. Use of warm and cold-mix asphalt has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by about 3 million tons annually.

oPerations - securinG smootHness of road traffic floW

canada

Highway 407 is a toll road in Toronto Ontario. It was among the first with an open access automatic tolling system. This open road tolled facility has a number of significant sustainability attributes. There are no space extensive land plazas, no speed reduction, acceleration or vehicle idling required to approach/leave toll payment booths, and there is no need to pre-pay to use the facility providing convenience and time savings to users and less environmental impacts (wear and tear on cars, fuel wastage). [for further information refer to Ministry of Transportation of Ontario, Canada (2008) value of 407 ETR as a PPP Project To Support Sustainable Urban Transportation For the GTA by Amy Ibrahim, P.Eng., M.A.Sc. and Julius Gorys, M.E.S., M.C.I.P., P.L.E. Paper prepared for presentation at Urban Transportation Management Session of the 2008 Annual Conference of the Transportation Association of Canada September 2008].

In Quebec, Ontario and New Brunswick Truck Speed Limiter Mandates have been introduced to place speed limiters in heavy trucks that keep velocities below 105 km/h.

Germany

In Hessen, Germany, the sections of roadway that are severely congestion were identified within the “Congestion Free Hessen 2015” initiative. The primary aim of the master plan is to improve the main transit arteries on the motorways in Hessen. The master plan encompasses a total of approximately 340 kilometres of motorway. Apart from stretches on which the quality of traffic flow is impaired at times, other sections have been included where forecasts the road is coming close to saturation point. The temporary use of the hard shoulder is controlled by the Traffic-Centre taking the traffic situation into consideration and road safety is monitored through permanent camera systems.

The capacity of regular three-lane sections of roads is increased by some 25% by using the hard shoulder resulting in considerable improvements in traffic flow. Analysis for the A5 motorway between the Friedberg exit and the Frankfurter Nordwestkreuz junction indicated, for example, that congestion-related loss of time amounting to over 3,000 hours was saved each working day with no negative impact on road safety. In contrary accidents caused by congestion were reduced by 35% compared to motorways not using hard shoulders.

The level of emissions of motor vehicle traffic is influenced by acceleration and deceleration caused by the traffic signals. The fewer stops that are required and the more uniform the traffic flow is, the lower the fuel consumption


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and greenhouse gases. Coordination of traffic signals can minimize the number of stop/start cycles and in the project CeTRANS, innovative measures for traffic guidance to reduce greenhouse gases have been developed. Initial studies show that an improvement in travel times of up to 23% can be achieved with the number of stops in some corridors reduced by 7%.

Germany’s geographic position at the heart of Europe has made it into the hub of international heavy goods traffic. Thousands of heavy trucks from throughout Europe pass through the country, particularly on motorways. In the scope of a public-private partnership on behalf of the Federal Republic of Germany, Toll Collect developed and established a toll system that combines the technology of satellite positioning with mobile communication technology in a single system. In contrast to vignette solutions, the toll charges are raised in relation to the distance travelled on the toll route, the number of axles on the vehicle and the emissions class. All users pay only for the actual distance travelled on toll routes – a fair and equitable system. Toll Collect has created a system that does not hold up the traffic flow during toll collection. The technology applied requires neither speed restrictions nor stopping of vehicle nor confining of vehicles to specified lanes.

The Toll Collect system offers users three different payment options: automatically, using the on-board unit (ObU) installed in the vehicle; manually, at a toll-station terminal; or manually, via Internet.

JaPan

The vICS (vehicle Information Communication System) in Japan provides not only convenience for car drivers but also communicates the impact of congestion on greenhouse gas emissions. The system broadcasts various traffic information including congested areas, which enables the drivers to avoid these areas and choose a less congested route. A study of the benefit of the vICS estimated an annual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2.46 million tonnes.

scotland

In the current economic climate the need to optimise the use of existing assets is critical. In Scotland, the innovative M77 bus hard shoulder running pilot scheme – which will see 8km of the motorway being used for bus hard shoulder running in the morning peak - will support economic growth in the west of the country. It is anticipated that it will open up labour markets and economic opportunities by reducing journey times and promoting efficient and effective transport links through the optimum use of the existing strategic road network.

An investment of £28m has also delivered a number of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) initiatives to benefit the trunk road network. This has included variable Message Signs, CCTv cameras and Journey Time Sites. Further work is currently underway to identify the optimum deployment of ITS on the most congested parts of the central Scotland motorway network.

sWeden

In Sweden a review of the speed limit system is in progress in order to introduce limits that are better adapted to the standard of the roads but also with respect to CO2 emissions which are estimated to decrease due to this change. Sweden also uses cameras for Automatic Traffic Control to improve the speed compliance which then also lower the emissions.

united KinGdom

Active Traffic Management is the key to tackling congestion in the UK to make the best use of the existing road space. The UK Highways Agency is currently implementing an Active Traffic Management (ATM) system as a pilot scheme over the 17 km stretch between junctions 3a and 7 of the M42 (28% of the traffic leaves the M42 at junction 7 to join the M6). This test-bed section of the M42 has extremely variable traffic flows, as it functions as part of a cross-country North-East to South-West route; an orbital route for Birmingham; and an access road to Birmingham Airport, the NEC, and business parks and residential areas. It handles over 120,000 vehicles per day. In the first six months of the full M42 trial, the use of the hard shoulder in peak periods seemed to be a success, with average journey times falling by more than a quarter on the northbound carriageway. In addition, Highway Agency statistics showed overall fuel consumption reduced by 4% and vehicle emissions fell by up to 10%.


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In the US, there is widespread implementation of traffic signal coordination in most cities. In Denver, Colorado for example, more than 1,940 key signals (signals on principal arterials and major regional arterials) are currently connected to a traffic signal control system. This has reduced traffic delay by nearly 36,000 vehicle hours per day, and reduced fuel consumption by more than 15,000 gallon per day.

In 2000, the US designated 511 as the single travel information telephone number to be made available to states and local jurisdictions across the country. 511 is an easy-to-remember 3-digit telephone number, available nationwide, that provides current information about travel conditions, allowing travellers to make better choices - choice of time, choice of mode of transportation, choice of route. Thirty-four States have adopted 511, which not only provides information on traffic conditions, but on transit and other commuter services as well. In addition, numerous radio and television reports provide traffic updates and web applications - both desktop and handheld are widely available.

The US Department of Transportation has conducted extensive research and provides guidance to the States and metropolitan areas under its “Managed Lanes” strategic theme. Employing ATM techniques, the purpose of the program is to provide research, tools, and professional capacity building on how to design and operate individual managed lane strategies/components (access control, vehicle eligibility and pricing) as well as the overall system. It provides a leading role on overall managed lane operations and issues related to access control and pricing. The Texas Transportation Institute maintains a list of projects which shows that ATM projects are in operation in 10 States.

measurement and monitorinG

canada

In terms of greenhouse gas emissions, the objective of the “Full Cost Investigation of Transportation in Canada” (FCI) was to provide a methodology to estimate the unit cost of greenhouse gas emissions and to calculate the value of the unit cost of greenhouse gas emissions generated by transportation activities in Canada. One way of deriving the cost of a ton of carbon dioxide equivalent is to use carbon prices on carbon markets. Under the Kyoto Protocol, the creation of market mechanisms, called the Kyoto Mechanisms, identified the marginal cost of greenhouse gas emissions abatement. The European Carbon Exchange where European Allowances (EUAs) are traded was used in the FCI as the source of the unit value of a ton of carbon dioxide equivalent. Given that currently Canada does not have a very active carbon market, the European carbon market provides a better perspective on the value of a ton of carbon dioxide.

Countries that ratified the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) report their quantities of greenhouse gas emissions. In Canada, Environment Canada is responsible for producing the national inventory of greenhouse gas emissions. The Office of Energy Efficiency attached to Natural Resources Canada, in turn organizes the greenhouse gas emissions inventory in sub-activities that matched the needs of the FCI. The data produced by the Office of Energy Efficiency was used as a primary source to compute the greenhouse gas emission costs in the transportation sector for the year 2000. The greenhouse gas emissions inventory for the transportation sector is disaggregated by mode, by freight and passenger activities and by province, to the extent possible.

Based on the data obtained from the Office of Energy Efficiency and the observed carbon price on the European Carbon Exchange, annual cost estimates of greenhouse gas emissions generated by all transportation activities in Canada would be CD3 and CD6 billion dollars for the lower and upper limit values respectively in the year 2000 alone.

A Results-based Management and Accountability Framework (RMAF) have been established for each of the programs described above. The RMAF contains a performance measurement strategy that outlines performance indicators, data sources, collection frequency, and data collection responsibility. various methodologies are used to monitor program performance. Documents such as program records and contribution agreement related reporting are reviewed to obtain quantitative and qualitative data. Surveys are used to assess quantitative and qualitative program impact information. Standard survey methodologies are used that relate to baseline data, sample size, and choice of survey tool. Project impact in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutant mitigation are/ or will be conducted by analysing participant survey data with standard assumptions for vehicle fleet characteristics and travel distances.

For further information refer to California Environmental Protection Agency, Air Resource Board: California Air Resources Board. http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/inventory/1990level/1990level.htm


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france

France uses different methods for carbon calculations depending on the sector, scale and purpose. The COPERT and ARTEMIS models are used for assessing traffic and greenhouse gas emissions. The ADEME “Bilan Carbone” method is used for assessing the carbon footprint of construction activities. The “eCORCe” calculation tools are under development to also assess the construction carbon footprint in multiple technical fields. The greenhouse gas emissions are calculated as tons of equivalent carbon, then transformed into their monetarised equivalent in Euros, on the basis of 100 € per ton of carbon or 27 € per ton of CO2.

italy

The national emission inventory for Italy collects data on: emissions of greenhouse gas, acidifying and eutrophicating substances, tropospheric ozone precursors, benzene, particles, heavy metals, aromatic polycyclic hydrocarbons, dioxins and furans. Emissions from over 300 anthropogenic and biogenic activities are estimated according to the CORINAIR method (COPERT 4 is the software program aiming at the calculation of air pollutant emissions from road transport).

JaPan

CO2 emissions of the Japanese road transport sector are usually estimated from consumption of road vehicle fuels (petroleum, diesel oil, liquefied petroleum gas, natural gas, etc), which are provided by fuel consumption statistics. However, reduction measures in the road sector is calculated based on changes in transport demand, modal choice, choice of vehicle type and fuels, road traffic, etc. For instance, the effects of congestion abatement measures are estimated on a basis of improvement of vehicle traveling speed and induced traffic volumes, which are forecast or monitored on the road sections where the measures are taken.

neW Zealand

The New Zealand Transport Agency’s economic evaluation manual is used to understand the potential cost benefit ration of proposed state highway projects. The manual calculation includes an estimate of the carbon dioxide emissions resulting from vehicles using the proposed project. Estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from construction, operation and maintenance can also be made using the greenhouse gas assessment workbook for road projects’ and accompanying CarbonGauge tool.

norWay

Within Norway, macroscopic national level greenhouse gas emissions from road transport are calculated by Statistic Norway and the Norwegian Climate and Pollution Agency based on consumption of road vehicle fuels. On a microscopic level for road projects, emissions are calculated from vehicle-kilometres travelled, automobiles driving velocities, fuel consumption efficiency by vehicle type and CO2 emission factors of the fuels.

scotland

Greenhouse gas emissions in Scotland are calculated by the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory as they are in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. In addition to the Carbon Management System (CMS), the Scottish Government is developing a Carbon Balance Sheet (CbS) to monitor and review emission reductions. The CbS will show the level of greenhouse gas emissions of the Scottish transport sector over time. It will explain which transport sectors and sources are responsible for the greatest proportion of emissions, and how this distribution is changing. In doing so, it will also highlight which transport policy options could have the most significant influence on changes in emission levels. Policies will be split between demand-side measures, such as fiscal policy and smarter choices, and supply-side measures such as infrastructure projects.

sWeden

Within Sweden, calculation methods for calculating CO2 emissions are used for comparing different alternatives. The methods adopted are:

• Economic value Added (EvA),• SAMPERS: the Swedish National Travel Demand Model Forecasting Tool.


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Calculated CO2 emissions are used in Cost benefit Analysis for each road investment. The information from the Cost benefit Analysis is used to choose the alternative that is most cost-effective from a national economic point of view. Sweden has an ambitious emission reduction program and this is reflected in the valuation of CO2 used in the Cost Benefit Analysis. In 2010, the value was 1.508 SEK (approximately 0.128 €) per kilo. As opposed to the value being based on the carbon tax price, it is instead calculated on the cost of abatement to return to 1990 greenhouse gas levels.

adaPtation measures

canada

Canada has issued Canada in a Changing Climate: Sector Perspectives on Impacts and Adaptation [http://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/assess/2007/pdf/full-complet_e.pdf ]. Led by Natural Resources Canada, the report includes a section that discusses key climate change vulnerabilities for transportation infrastructure in general, as well as some specific climate change issues for northern transportation systems, coastal regions and shipping in the Great Lakes (all with respect to infrastructure, rather than the system as a whole). The report is not intended to present a comprehensive assessment of impacts and adaptation issues for the transportation sector; a more inclusive and in-depth perspective on these issues will be presented in the upcoming (2015-2016) Transportation Assessment, being co-led by Transport Canada and Natural Resources Canada.

A study using the Engineering Protocol of the Public Infrastructure Engineering vulnerability Committee (PIEvC) has highlighted the need to consider climate change effects on bridge and culvert design processes.

france

France has done extensive work on understanding the effects of climate change on transport systems under l’ONERC, (Observatoire National sur less Effects du Rechauffement Climatique). ONERC has studied problems of flooding and inundation, maintenance needs, impact on service, and development of adaptation measures. It has issued its “Stratégie nationale d’adaptation au changement climatique”. As of 2010, France had not yet identified areas within its boundaries that may be vulnerable to climate change but assessments of vulnerability have been done on a “theoretical” level. To support these assessments, a risk assessment tool has been developed by GERICI and further enhanced by the consultancy EGIS in collaboration with public agencies using data collected on the national road network.

neW Zealand

A two-stage project was undertaken to identify and assess the impacts of climate change on New Zealand’s land transport networks (road, rail, ports and coastal shipping), and provide recommendations, including adaptation options, to address identified information gaps and risks (Research Report 378 Climate Change Effects on the Land Transport Network, 2009).

• stage one included a review of research in New Zealand and overseas on climate change risks and adaptation responses for land transport. A stakeholder survey was used to determine work being carried out by local, regional and central government agencies, crown research institutes and universities. Key climate change risks and knowledge gaps for eachmode, and prioritised aspects requiring further research,were identified by climatescience, planning and transport engineering experts in a risk assessment workshop.

• stage two dealt with regional effects of climate extremes on the networks, and considered how these vary by region, when and where these risks emerge and which parts of the land transport networks are most at risk.

New Zealand’s National Infrastructure Plan has identified resilience as including long term hazards (including sea level rise). The draft Government Policy Statement (2015) on land transport then identifies that a priority is ‘economic growth and productivity’ with the associated long term results that include ‘Improved network resilience and reliability at the most critical points’http://www.transport.govt.nz/ourwork/keystrategiesandplans/gpsonlandtransportfunding/gps2015.

Each part of New Zealand’s state highway and local road network has been classified according to levels of service (including traffic volumes) http://nzta.govt.nz/consultation/mo-review/docs/levels-of-service.pdf

Following on from this a risk assessment will be completed to determine where funding is required for adaptation works. Over the next 3 years (2015-18) the National Land Transport Programme will identify what risk treatment work meets its funding criteria and where in terms of the (1) priority corridors and (2) critical points where spot


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treatments may be justified. In the next round of funding (National Land Transport Programme 2019-2021) works will begin to be carried out accordingly.

The State highway infrastructure is managed in accordance with the State Highway Asset Management Plan (SHAMP), which describes the services provided now, and in the future, the assets and future works, funding and management requirements. The SHAMP requires assets to be regularly checked for dependability to ensure they perform as required, and also discusses risk in respect to climate change effects, recognising that this issue presents a major challenge over the next 30–40 years. To ensure that asset assessments consider both existing and future (design life) dependability, the Agency has prepared the Draft Coastal Effects Assessment Guide to assist infrastructure managers and their advisors to better understand coastal issues over the course of an assets life.

The Transport Agency’s Bridge Manual (3rd edition) requires designs to take into account the effects of climate change. Where it is practical and economic for a bridge or culvert structure to be retrofitted at a later date to accommodate increased flood flows arising from the effects of climate change, the structure need not initially be designed to accommodate increased flood flows arising from the effects of climate change. Where future retrofitting is not practical or does not reflect value for money, future climate change impacts shall be taken into account in the design. Assessment of the effects of climate change shall be based on the Ministry for the Environment Manual Climate Change Effects and impacts assessment and other material based on more recent research published by reputable sources accepted by the road controlling authority.

norWay

In Norway, higher groundwater levels due to climate change are anticipated to increase the probability of floods and erosion. More rain will give a higher risk of landslides, slush avalanches, debris slides and mud flows. The Norwegian Public Roads Association (NPRA) has specific research activities on adaptation needs including vulnerability. The main objectives are to evaluate the effect of climate change on the road network and recommend remedial action concerning design, construction and maintenance of the road network in order to maintain both safety and accessibility in a changed climate. The programme is carried out in cooperation with the Norwegian National Rail Administration and a large number of other partners.

scotland

Scotland must adapt to the uncertain, yet inevitable, physical and economic consequences of climate change, impacts which are already unavoidable. Changing weather patterns are expected to lead to flooding, landslide, high winds and higher temperatures, all of which have the potential to disrupt the operation of rail and road networks. Transport Scotland has included in its Climate Change Action Plan (CCAP) an examination of adaptation measures. These studies were undertaken to determine how the key weather variables impact on the road network, such as temperature and rainfall, are predicted to change in the future. These predictions have been based on modelled climates for 30 year periods centred on the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s. Climatic changes expected in Scotland in the near future, as represented by the 2020s, are relatively small. However, even these small changes may be sufficiently significant to warrant adjustment of current practices. While the report notes that these changes are likely to become more marked over the longer term, the degree of uncertainty associated with these predictions increases. Consequently the recommendations focus on responding to climatic changes predicted to occur in the near future. These are presented in terms of design, operation, further research or policy review, as appropriate to the issue identified. Risk assessment tools have been developed for landslides.

The Scottish Road Network Climate Study (2005) was commissioned to consider potential trends in climate change in Scotland and how these might affect the road network. The Study looked at the effects of temperature, rain, snow, wind, fog and coastal flooding on the transport network. From the Study, 28 recommendations emerged, including design measures such as pre-emptive clearing detritus from water courses and channels to deal with a projected increase in rainfall. The recommendations of the Study have already been put into practice in the design of a number of projects including the Clackmannanshire Bridge.

sWeden

A vulnerability analysis has been completed in Sweden utilising a risk approach to assess all the risks that can occur in the road environment. In the risk analysis, climate change is but one of many parameters to take into consideration. Key risks assessed due to climate change include high temperature, increased rain intensity, change in sea level rise, floods and landslides. Publication vvMB 310 Hydraulisk dimensjonering includes a map of Sweden with values of a coefficient for calculating the values of runoff water.


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sWitZerland

The adaptation to natural hazards is a continuous task in an alpine country like Switzerland. Many of the implemented measures are being evaluated to find out if they need to be adjusted to climate change. A specific Adaptation Strategy is being developed with respect to permafrost. The Swiss Permafrost Monitoring Programme (PERMOS) investigates the development of permafrost deposits. A “Climate Change Impact Assessment” describes possible impacts of climate change and vulnerabilities of the environment, economy and society in Switzerland due to the emission of greenhouse gases that are to be expected up to the year 2050.

Switzerland has not specifically identified the vulnerabilities that projects or the network as a whole face with respect to climate change, but a strategy is under development. Federal laws require the cantons to create maps for natural hazards such as floods, avalanches, landslides and rock falls, which might affect spatial activities. These maps provide a detailed overview and help to define hazard zones and their use.

The Federal Roads Office is currently setting up an integrated risk management system to ensure a common understanding about the risks and opportunities. A new methodological basis has been established to assess gravitational hazards that endanger national roads in Switzerland and plan for their protection as the greatest risks to infrastructure are projected to be due to mud flows, avalanches and landslides due to have precipitation.

This methodology is based on the current national guidelines and recommendations, the newly developed methods for risk analysis and assessment produced by the Swiss Confederation – National Platform for National Hazards (PLANAT) as well as the road research of the Federal Roads Officer.


The US completed its most recent National Climate assessment, entitled, “Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States” in 2014. This study found that previous estimates of sea level rise were likely too low and that three- to four-feet of increase were generally more likely if ice sheet melt was included. Transport impacts were detailed:

• sea level rise and storm surge will increase the risk of major coastal impacts;• intensedownpourswillincreasetheriskoffloodinganddelayfromroad,railandairdisruptionsinservice;• increases in extreme heat will limit operations and cause track and pavement damage;• increased intensity of strong hurricanes will lead to more evacuations, infrastructure damage and failure, and

service interruptions;• arctic warming will increase coastal erosion and thawing permafrost will damage infrastructure.

By law, the US must conduct new assessments every four years.

Transportation vulnerability assessments have been completed in 24 out of 50 US states and 30 metropolitan regions. Examples of states with particularly in-depth analysis include: the Gulf Coast states, Maryland, California, Washington and New york. The US Department of Transportation has developed a suite of vulnerability assessment and adaptation tools and funded multiple pilot projects with state and local governments. Adaptation measures have been taken on a case-by-case basis where vulnerabilities have been identified and design features could be incorporated to reduce risk, though there are not yet a large number of examples. One set of examples comes from federally-funded public transportation projects in the New york metropolitan area for recovery from Superstorm Sandy that were designed to build resilience to future impacts from rising sea levels and stronger storms.

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