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CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

2.1. IT Architecture 

Building a house needs many people from different job ranging from painter,

constructor, carpenter, and etc. Imagine if those people from different job do not know

what will the house looks like only know buld house, it will be disastrous. Each people

will have different perspective. What will happen if owner of the house continually

adding new rooms to meet the requirement, the house will be unattractive [2]. Those will

not happen if there is an architect that architects the house base on the owner

requirements before the house is build. Then the architecture will be distributed to

people that will building the house. The result of it, the house will be built better, no

need another configuration and also the time might be faster.

Looking to what has been done to houses. Business people have to realize that building

an IT system also needs an architect who is called IT architect. The needs of IT

architecture comes to more and more important because the system gives too many

resource silos which means that every business unit own IT systems and too many

platforms. Around 20 years ago, this IT architecture was born. It made architecture

become more important in organization IT strategy. According to IT architecture

bootcamp, the demand of IT architect in the industry is increasing in 2010. The best job

in the US is the software architect among other 100 jobs [3]. It shows that IT

architecture is on demand job and organizations are having problem with their

organization architecture. IT architecture bootcamp stated that only 1% of total IT

workforce are doing IT architect role, only 320,000. Looking to the fact that only 1%

 

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people do the IT architect, it indicates that the job of IT architect is not an easy task. The

next paragraph will explain the definition of the IT architecture and then the framework

of IT architecture.

IT architecture can be described as an underlying infrastructure that enables a disparate

computer systems and networks to work together [2]. The goal of IT Architecture is to

ensure the alignment of information and communications technology to business

strategy [4]. IT Architecture is recognized as a key catalyst that organizations can use to

make progress towards the vision of Boundary less Information Flow [5]. IT architecture

can also be called an Enterprise Architecture.

According to Monash University,

“Enterprise architecture (EA) is the discipline of scientifically designing the technology

elements of an enterprise, guided with principles, frameworks, methodologies,

requirements, tools, reference models and standards.” [6]

In IT architecture, developing of new system is important to consider other system or

technology as well. For example, change a new email platform looks simple but it

affects not only the user but also other aspects such as the backup and recovery, data

storage, security solutions, instant messaging solutions, existing and future e-mail

integrated applications, network fax or voice mail solutions, and directory services and

authentication [7]. A particular application can affect enterprise performance and

business operational so the technology selection must not only look from the user

requirements but also it must align with enterprise vision and mission.

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There are quite a number of frameworks for developing IT architecture. The frameworks

are Zachman, TOGAF and FEA. Those frameworks will be discussed throughout this

chapter. According to the American Heritage Dictionary as quoted by Roger session, a

framework is defined as:

A structure for supporting or enclosing something else, especially a skeletal support used

as the basis for something being constructed; An external work platform; a scaffold; A

fundamental structure, as for a written work; A set of assumptions, concepts, values, and

practices that constitutes a way of viewing reality. [8]

This chapter focuses on Zachman, TOGAF, and FEA. The reason choosing those

frameworks are because 90% of the field in IT architecture use them [8]. This thesis also

uses IASA ITA BOK. IASA ITABOK is a skill from IASA for IT architect when

developing IT architecture.

“IASA is the premier association focused on the architecture profession through the

advancement of best practices and education while delivering programs and services to

IT architects of all levels around the world.” [9]

The next section will be discussed deeper about IASA ITABOK, Zachman Framework,

TOGAF Framework and FEA Framework.

2.1.1. IASA ITABOK

IASA ITA BOK stands for an association for all IT architect (IASA) IT architecture

(ITA) body of knowledge (BOK). The purpose of IASA ITA BOK is helping the IT

architect in a proper way so it is not needed to have 10 years of IT experiences nor be a

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consultant or be in IT expert. Architecture is an art so the creation of IT architecture is

different from one organization to another. The IT architect can modify the framework

based on the needs of the organization so the framework that is used is suitable for the

organization. There are 4 pillars in the ITABOK which are business architecture,

information architecture, software architecture, and infrastructure architecture. In IASA

software architecture and infrastructure architecture are getting mature while the

business architecture and information architecture are still being developed [10]. The

ITABOK also provides the body of knowledge to support the 4 pillars. The body of

knowledge is a set of skills that equip the architect in creating the architecture.The figure

2.1 shows the picture of IASA ITABOK.

Figure 2.1 IASA ITABOK [3]

Enterprise Architecture 

Software Architecture 

Infrastructure Architecture 

Information Architecture 

Business Architecture 

Foundation Body of Knowledge 

Human Dynamics

Quality Attributes

IT Environments

Design

Business Technology Strategy

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2.1.1.1.Business Architecture

“Business architecture is needed to expand the role of IT architecture that supports not

only the technological issues but also the business and semantic issues that are required

for management and other business challenges.” [10]

The purpose of Business Architecture is creating a link between strategy and the IT

initiatives. It also enables an integration of business to all IT, organizational, and

security architecture [11]. Business architecture and IT architecture should be aligned

and work together. The reason is business architecture can drive the IT planning, the

technology architecture and business solution. The IT architecture also drives business

architecture. Because IT capability is improving, it influences the business design

choices in the capabilities, value chains, processes, and channels [12]. Then business

architecture covers the strategy, policies, business process, and organization. Person who

does business architecture is called business architect. Aaron Tan Dani as the Chief

Architect stated,

“Business architects focus on a common, enterprise-level business language and

framework for documenting how the business language and framework for documenting

how the business is structured to support a technology strategy within a business

strategy.” [3]

In order for business to align with IT, it needs business architect that develops

documentation about how the current business do and what is the future of the business

based on the framework so the IT and business people will have the same language.

After understand each other, the business will be structured to optimize the technology

based on the business strategy. In building business architecture, business architect

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needs support from the business domain units, business stakeholders and other IT

architect roles. According to IASA there are five components in the Business

Architecture which are strategic business planning, strategic IT planning, value stream,

integrated enterprise IT architecture, and IT architecture.

2.1.1.1.1. Strategic Business Planning

Strategic business planning discusses about the mission, object and the strategy to strive

the mission. This component describes the formulation of strategy. There are three

frameworks that can be used to develop strategy. The frameworks are Porter

Framework, Resource-Based View, and Delta Framework [13]. The focus of strategic

attention of Porter’s framework is with the five forces model and the value chain

analysis. The Resource-Based View of the Firm expands the scope of attention to the

full corporation, with a possible full portfolio of business, since that is where the Core

Competencies reside. Finally, the Delta Model extends the scope to include the

Extended Enterprise that is composed by the firm and its key Suppliers, Customers, and

Complementors.

2.1.1.1.2. Strategic IT Planning

“Strategic IT planning is the process of defining IT architectures for the use of

information in support of the business, and the plan for implementing those architectures

[3].” There are 5 major processes in strategic IT planning that are IT and business

alignment, application direction, technical infrastructure, IT organization, and IT

strategic investment and value roadmap [14]. IT and business alignment is to get the IT

plans and the business goal in line. Application direction is an assessment to existing

application and identifies new technology. Technical infrastructure directions are

assessment of technology infrastructure and identify the future direction of

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infrastructure. IT organization is identification of the readiness to support the current and

future system.

2.1.1.1.3. Value Stream

“Value stream is an end-to-end collection of activities that creates a result in delighting a

customer. Value stream has a clear goal. For example, to satisfy or to make customer

happy as delighted customers will result in loyalty, increased profits and higher levels of

stakeholder value [3].”

The value stream can be described using value chain. Value chain was developed

originally by Michael Porter (1985) and shows the different organisational activities that

are grouped together to deliver value to customers [15]. The value chain is a useful

technique for business analysts who are working on business process improvement

assignments. Understanding the ‘value’ that the organisation delivers to its customers,

and the activities that contribute towards delivering this, is very powerful. It provides a

view of the organisation’s processes that helps the analyst ensure there is a customer

focus when changes to the organisation are being considered. The original value chain

devised by Porter is shown in Figure 2.2.

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Figure 2.2 Michael Porter’s Value Chain [15]

2.1.1.1.4. Integrated Enterprise Architecture

According to the center for Information Systems Research as quoted on the IT

Architecture bootcamp, “Integrated enterprise architecture is the organizing logic for

data applications, and infrastructure, captured in a set of policies and technical choices to

achieve the firm’s desired business goals, technical standardization and integration [3].”

2.1.1.1.5. IT Architecture

The last component is IT architecture. “IT architecture is the art and science of designing

and delivering valuable technology strategy for the business [3].” It designs and delivers

the technology strategy to support business. Information Technology Architecture is a

high-level map or plan of the information assets in an organization, which guides current

operations and is a blueprint for future directions [16]. The figure 2.3 shows the example

of IT architecture in online travel agency.

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Figure 2.3 IT Architecture of Online Travel Agency [16]

2.1.1.2.Information Architecture

“Information architecture (IA) is the art of expressing a model or concept of information

used in activities that require explicit details of complex systems.”[17]

Information architecture describes the data flow in the business process. The flowing of

data in organization from one application to another application is not as simple as the

data is sent and the particular applications receive it. The users only know that the data is

sent and the data is received but actually the sending or receiving data from an

application is having a process on the backend. For example, sending the data from an

application, the data can be routed to the database to be stored and also go to the other

process. Information structure discusses how the information is being stored in database,

file, image or other digital formats, how the information is technically retrieved, usage

and time constraints, how the use of information support the business strategy, and how

the information that is presented to the user is relevant and how the design of the

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information. The information can be structured, content, relationship, dependence or

data management. People who handles information architecture is called information

architect. According to chief architect of IASA,

“Information Architects focus on the management of information resources including

storage, retrieval, delivery, classification and utilization of information to best deliver

stakeholder values as well as to support technology strategy.” [3]

2.1.1.3.Software Architecture

“Software architect focuses on delivering an developing technology strategy related to

software and solution implementation”. [3]

The software architecture produces the strategy of choosing the software for the

organization. It designs and chooses whether the software will be built or bought based

on the needs of the organization. It also designs the specification of the software needed.

The quality attribute optimization will also be designed. People who are needed to

interact for completing the software architecture is the development team, project

manager, business user and the stakeholder.

2.1.1.4.Infrastructure Architecture

“Infrastructure Architects focus on the bottom four layers of the OSI seven-layer

model and requires skills in operations, network, engineering, server sizing,

storage management, backup & restore technologies, disaster recovery and

physical data center design.” [3]

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Infrastructure Architecture discusses the designing of the IT system from the

middleware to support the application how it will be built and operated. The

infrastructure architecture is collaborating from the business architecture and software

architecture to design the IT environment according to those. According to RL

Information Consulting LLC, the infrastructure describes the system foundation likes

defined IT process. Furthermore, it will discuss the convergent architecture standard

which is the platform. After that, the specification of the hardware and software are

needed or used in all of the system. The framework that can be used for infrastructure

architecture is ITIL, COBIT, and ISO-27001.

2.1.1.5.Body of Knowledge

Body of knowledge roles is as a basis of foundation to the specialization. In the IASA

ITABOK there are five bodies of knowledge which are design, human dynamics, quality

attributes, IT environment and business technology strategy.

2.1.1.5.1. Design

“Design is a proposed solution to a specific problem that includes techniques, process,

methodologies and behavior.” [3]

The activities in the design are using a tool in the creation of design, the understanding

and knowledge of existing problem, the material for the design and design artifacts. It

also analyzes and tests the design to mitigate and reduce the risk. It also discusses the

framework that is used to design the IT system.

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2.1.1.5.2. Human Dynamics

“Human dynamics are the communication, political and leadership skills necessary for

any person on the job.” [3]

Human dynamic focuses on the human side. This body of knowledge describes the

employee behavior based on the organization strategy. The IT architect should analyze

what is the key behavior in order to achieve the business strategy.

2.1.1.5.3. Quality Attributes

Quality attributes focus on all aspect of IT strategy to monitor the quality of the

technology. The quality can be measure by looking to the performance, reliability,

availability, scalability, manageability, maintainability, extensibility, flexibility,

usability, localization, accessibility, and personalization. Security of the IT architecture

must also be considered in the quality attributes.

2.1.1.5.4. IT Environment

“IT environment covers the functional and procedural aspects of an IT Organization that

includes the structures and processes fundamental to an IT architect’s role as part of the

greater technology organization. [3]” IT environment is important to understand the

platforms and how the system is built.

2.1.1.5.5. Business Technology Strategy

Business Technology Strategy is the key in the IT architect. It connects all IT architects

with business strategy. It is the foundational BOK base for the whole IT works. It

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defines the strategy of the business and the IT architecture strategy. The IT architecture

strategy is validated to support business strategy.

2.1.2. Zachman

In 1987 enterprise architecture is established, it is developed with the Zachman

framework [12]. Zachman is established by Zachman Institute for Framework

Advancement (ZIFA). Zachman framework consists of what (data), how (process),

where (locations), who (people), when (time) and why (motivation). Those questions

will be asked to key people such as planner, business owner, designer, builder and

subcontractor. Zacham will help to know what kind of data, process, locations, people,

time, and motivation the key people. Looking how Zachman works, it is like defining an

issue. Roger Session said, "The Zachman "Framework" is actually a taxonomy for

organizing architectural artifacts (in other words, design documents, specifications, and

models) that takes into account both who the artifact targets (for example, business

owner and builder) and what particular issue (for example, data and functionality) is

being addressed [8].” Figure 2.4 describes the Zachman Framework.

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Figure 2.4 Zachman Framework

2.1.3. The Open Group Architectural Framework (TOGAF)

TOGAF is a standard framework that may be used by any organization to develop IT

architecture within a particular organization [18]. TOGAF from the mid of 90s it is still

developing by the open group forum coordinate with the IT customer and vendor

organization.

TOGAF divides an Enterprise Architecture into 4 categories which are the business

architecture, data architecture, application architecture, and technical architecture.

Business architecture describes the business process to meet its goals. Application

architecture describes designing of application and the interaction between them. Data

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architecture describes the organizing and accessing the datastores. Technical architecture

describes how the interaction of the application and the application will be supported by

the hardware and software infrastructure.

TOGAF is using a process from the general to specific, from the enterprise continuum to

the organizational architecture and the Architecture Development Method (ADM) is the

process driving from the general to the specific. In the figure 2.5 in the below, the

relationship between the ADM and the enterprise continuum is shown clearly. [8]

Figure 2.5 TOGAF Enterprise Continuum

The TOGAF Enterprise Continuum specifies Technical Reference Model (TRM)

consists of a model about the Application system, Application Platform and

Communication Infrastructure and their inter-connectivity. How the service quality of

the system is also presented in the TRM [19]. Foundation architecture is the most

generic architectures that are architectural principles that theoretically can be used by IT

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organization. The common systems architecture is a system that any organization would

like to have it [8]. To more specific, the industry architectures are principles to integrate

the common system with the specific system within an organization and then create an

industry solution for the specific customer problem. The most specific is the

Organization Architectures that are described and guided the final of the solution

component and the network base on the customer problem and customer IT environment

[19].

Figure 2.6 TOGAF Architecture Development Method (ADM)

In the figure 2.6 above, it describes the process of ADM that contains a preliminary

phase and then the 8 phases that are cycled. The activities inside each phase are well

defined but it depends on the implementation to determine the suitable activities to get a

required system and the required outcome.

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Figure 2.7 TOGAF – ADM and COBIT Model [20]

Figure 2.7 shows the model based on the TOGAF – ADM and COBIT model [20]. The

vision and mission of institution refer to the regulation of institutions. The scope &

requirement refer to the vision and mission of each institution. The business architecture,

information systems architecture and technology architecture refer to the available

resources.

2.1.4. Federal Enterprise Architecture (FEA)

“FEAF is a framework issued by the US CIO Council to promote shared development for

common US Federal processes, interoperability, and sharing of information among Federal

Agencies and other Government entities.” [19]

FEA is a combination of Zachman and TOGAF; it has taxonomy like Zachman and has

a process of architectural like TOGAF. FEA has FEA reference models to make

everyone on the organization have the same language or the same vision. The FEA has 4

levels. The first level is the architecture drivers and strategic direction architecture. It

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discuss about transformation from current architecture to the target architecture using

architecture standard and process. The second level discusses about the analysis of

business driver and design driver of architecture. It produces the the target business

architecture and target design architecture. The level 3 discusses more detail about the

target architecture using the business, data, application and technology views for the

target architecture. The last level includes the description of data, function and network

to represent Data Architecture, Application Architecture and Technology Architecture. It

includes the 5 component in the zachman framework. This level also includes the

process of architecture planning. FEA process is similar with TOGAF. It uses

architecture drivers, business drivers, and design driver for the architectural planning.

2.1.5. Framework Comparison

The framework in IT architecture is different from one to another. There is no such best

framework but there is the most suitable framework to the organization. Every

framework has strength and weakness. The above framework will be evaluated using the

criteria from the journal that is conducted by the School of Information Technology in

Swinburne University of Technology [19]. The criteria are divided into 3 parts that are

goals, inputs and outcomes. The criterion that is implemented is from the journal that is

a comparison analysis of architecture framework. The goals are the target of the

organization want to be. The criteria for goals are :

• Architecture Definition and Understanding – provides terms, principle and

guideline for architecture information so the stakeholder can understand

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• Architecture Process – framework has a well process to guide in creation of the

architecture

• Architecture Evolution Support – the framework support the system evolution

• Architecture Analysis – helps to gather and analyze information for architecture

• Architecture Models – documentation of specification for the architecture for

planning, management, communication and execution

• Design Tradeoffs – choosing the design from several design

• Design Rationale – the reason of the choosen design

• Standardisation – ensure using a standard architecture

• Architecture Knowledge Base – a knowledge base for representation of design

• Architecture verifiability – provide information to verify the architecture design

The second criteria is the input, it represents the data that can be used to model the

architecture.

• Business Drivers – business goals, strategy, priorities and direction

• Technology Inputs – strategic IT planning for future or target architecture

• Business Requirements – all requirement needed for the architecture like user

requirement, functional requirement, data requirement, etc

• Information System Environment – describe the budget, schedule, resources,

stakeholder, organization structure

• Current Architecture – current infrastructure architecture

• Non Functional requirements – provides the quality attributes for the architecture

(availability, reliabity, security, etc)

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The third criteria is the outcome, it shows the result of the Architecture.framework that

answering the goal.

• Business Model – the model of the organization business such as the business

process, policy, and business requirements.

• System Model – the model of the system includes the future system

improvement

• Information Model – contains data model, data transformation and data interface

• Computation Model – description of the functional system,

• Software Configuration Model – description of software configuration, how it is

stored, managed, and shared

• Software Processing Model – describes the process of the software

• Implementation Model – describe the infrstructure like operating environment,

hardware and network of the system

• Platforms – describe the operating systems, hardware, network, protocols and

standards for the software

• Non-functional Requirements Design – helps to design a system that fulfill non-

functional requirement also

• Transitional Design – a planning for the transitional, from the current to the

target architecture

• Design Rationale – documentation of analysis the reason of the design

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ZF FEAF TOGAF

Goals

Architecture Definition and Understanding

P Y Y

Architecture Process

N Y Y

Architecture Evolution Support

N Y Y

Architecture Analysis

Y Y Y

Architecture Models

Y Y Y

Design Tradeoffs

P P P

Design Rationale

P P Y

Standardization N P Y

Architecture Knowledge Base

N Y Y

Architecture Verifiability

N N Y

Inputs

Business Drivers

P Y Y

Technology Inputs

N Y Y

Business Requirements

Y Y Y

Information System Environment

P Y Y

Current Architecture

P Y Y

Non Functional Requirements

P P Y

Outcomes

Business Model

Y Y Y

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System Model Y Y Y

Information Model

Y Y Y

Computation Model

Y Y Y

Software Configuration Model

N N Y

Software Processing Model

Y Y Y

Implementation Model

P P Y

Platforms Y Y Y

Non-functional Requirements Design

P P Y

Transitional Design

N Y Y

Design Rationale

N N P

Table 2.8 Framework Comparison Table [19]

P = Partial

Y = Yes

N = No

Looking to the Table 2.8, TOGAF framework is the most comprehensive framework

compare to the other framework. TOGAF is chosen by the researcher as the

framework to analyze the business architecture in Binus International. It is also

because TOGAF has a complete process, reference model, neutral with vendor,

and information is available. TOGAF has characteristic for university and

information system [21]:

1. University needs a flexible method to integrate all information units and

do information systems planning. TOGAF ables to integrate for different

systems.

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2. Characteristic of TOGAF is general and flexible that can anticipate for artifact

that might arise because TOGAF has adequate resource base, the standards is

acceptable and can handle changes.

2.2. Benefit of IT Architecture

The benefit of IT Architecture is derived by the business benefits it brings to enterprise

[22]. By understanding its value, better decisions can be to the appropriate level of time,

money, and people resources to invest in the development, implementation, and

maintenance of the IT architecture. Key benefits include better decision making,

improved business operations, foster business alignment, and guide business innovation.