Contents · 2021. 2. 8. · Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), Brown bear (Ursus arctos) and Himalayan...

Contents

TIGERPAPER Food and Feeding of Sloth Bears in Aravalli Hills…………………. 1 Study on the Loss of Bengal Tiger in Five Years (1996-2000) from Bangladesh Sundarbans…………………………………… 7 Biodiversity in the Shennongjia National Nature Reserve of China…………………………………………………………….. 13 A Preliminary Survey of the Status of Binturong in Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary……………………………………………….. 17 Nest and Nesting Activities of the White Ibis in Bhavnagar………. 22 Wildlife Survey of Phakhel, Purundi, Rakeskhola and Dandakhola (Nepal)……………………………………………… 29 Conservation of Animals in Hanoi Zoo…………………………….. 33 FOREST NEWS

International Year of Mountains in Asia-Pacific…………………… 1 Effectiveness of Direct Incentives for Forest Pla ntation Development Questioned………………………………………… 3 Lack of Accurate and Relevant Information Limits Forest Policy Reviews…………………………………………………… 4 Wood Energy – Lessons Learned…………………………………. 5 Setting Research Priorities for Vietnam’s Five Million Hectare Reforestation Program…………………………………………… 9 Implementing a Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Myanmar………………………………………………………… 10 FAO Supports Development of a New Forestry Law for Vanuatu………………………………………………………….. 12 Workshop on Strategic Planning on Forestry…………………….. 13 Asia-Pacific Forestry Chips and Clips........................................ 15 FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar.......................................... 17

Tigerpaper Vol.29:No.2 Apr.-Jun.2002 1

Sloth bear (Photo: Chhangani)

FOOD AND FEEDING OF SLOTH BEAR (Melursus ursinus) INARAVALLI HILLS OF RAJASTHAN, INDIA

by Anil Kumar Chhangani

Introduction

There are three species of bears found in India.Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), Brown bear(Ursus arctos) and Himalayan black bear(Selenarctos tibetanus). Sloth bear is morewidely distributed throughout India than Brownbear or Himalayan black bear, but due to forestfragmentation and habitat loss the sloth bearpopulation is now isolated in the Indian sub-continent. In the Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan,they still maintain their populations in areas likeMount Abu Sanctuary, Ranthambhor NationalPark and Keladevi Sanctuary, where sizeablepopulations of sloth bears are found.

This paper describes the food habits of the slothbear in Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and theconsumption of a variety of plant parts indifferent seasons. Data was collected during along-term eco-behavioral study of Hanumanlangur (Semnopithecus entellus) from 1994 to

2000.

Study Site

The Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary liesbetween 20°5' and 23°3' N latitude and 73°15'and 73°45' E longitude, about 200 km south ofJodhpur in the west Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan,India. The total area of the sanctuary is 585 km2.

The altitude ranges from 900 to 3,785 feet abovesea level. Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary hasdistinct winter, summer and monsoon seasons.During the summer, the temperature fluctuatesbetween 30-35°C, and may rise up to 46°Cduring May and June. The mean temperature inwinter is 5°C, which may go down to 2°C inDecember-January. The average rainfall is 725mm, with a maximum of 950 mm and aminimum of 403 mm.

The forest is broadly of the dry deciduous orwoodland type, dominated by Anogeissus

Tigerpaper Vol.29:No.2 Apr.-Jun.20022

latifolia, A. pendula, Boswelia serrata, Lanneacoromandelica, Wrightia tinctoria, Acaciasenegal, A. catechu, Zizyphus mauritiana, Buteamonosperma, etc. The undergrowth mainlyconsists of Z. nummerlaria, Adhatada vasica,Grewia tenex, G. glavescens, Capparisseparaia, Lantana indicus, etc. Some climbersand grasses are also found.

The main fauna of the sanctuary includesleopard (Panthera pardus), hyaena (Hyaenahyaena), Indian wolf (Canis lupus), jackal(Canis aureus), four-horned antelope(Tetracerus quadricornis), chinkara (Gazella g.bennetti), porcupine (Hystrix indica indica),sambar (Cervus unicolor), blue bull (Boselaphustragocamelus), toddy cat (Paradoxorushermaphordiatus), jungle cat (Felis chaus), fox(Vulpes bengalensis), crocodile (Crocodiluspalustris) and rock python (Python molurus).

Materials and Methods

In this study, data was collected on an ad libitumbasis as well as by using the scan samplingmethods of Altmann (1974). Night observationswere also made from machans (observationposts) in trees in different parts of the sanctuary.Methods were designed for estimating theavailability of different “phytophases” of foodplants taken by sloth bear. The crown densitymethod of Koelmeer (1959), Struhsaker (1975),Marsh (1981) and Newton (1988) was used forstudying the phenology of food plants consumedby bears.

There is little information available on the foodhabits of sloth bear in nature. The main fooditems were found to be fruits, insects and nectar(Prater, 1971; Prue and Napier, 1977; Laurie andSeidensticker, 1977). In some cases the scatanalysis method was used to understand thedietary composition of sloth bear by Lander etal. (1976) and Maehr and Brady (1948). Martinet al. (1946) used the aggregate volumetricpercentage method to calculate food items. Butin a long-term study or with a large amount ofdata hours, the proportion of time spent is moreacceptable. The measure used in this study wasto determine the feeding effort by bears ratherthan the food intake.

Results

This study revealed that sloth bears are able tosuccessfully exploit both plant and animalresources available in and around theKumbhalgarh Sanctuary area.

Sloth bears manage to get natural and cultivatedplant food from the ground as well as from trees.Some 22 natural plants and 18 cultivated plantspecies were observed to be consumed by slothbear in different seasons in the sanctuary. These40 plant species were consumed in the form ofyoung and mature leaves, flower buds, flowers,unripe/ripe fruits and also their seeds, bark, arielroots and young stem shoots. Plant parts ofdifferent species consumed round the year andbears were also observed feeding on a fewinsects like honey bees (Apis dorsata), ants,termites, and on carcasses of dead wild anddomestic animals.

Discussion

The results of this study clearly suggest thatsloth bears are omnivorous in habit, as reportedin several other studies (Prater, 1971; Laurie andSeidensticker, 1977; Johnsingh, 1986;Bhaskaran, 1990; Gokula and Vardharajan,1995; Choudhary, 2000). It shows the ability ofthe sloth bear to exploit plant and animalresources available to them. But, compared toplant foods, the animal food is consumed insmall proportions, because insect food is notavailable to the sloth bears of KumbhalgarhWildlife Sanctuary. In the study area, theincreasing agricultural activities in and aroundthe sanctuary provide them with opportunitiesfor supplementary food from crop fields, whichthey seem to relish (Chhangani, 2000). Slothbears often climb trees to consume arboreal foodwhich is rich in food contents like flowers, fruitsand seeds. These food stuffs are available yearround, including the dry months when theground cover is almost disseminated due toovergrazing by livestock (Chhangani andMohnot, 1997).

In earlier studies by some scientists it was foundthat the sloth bear’s diet comprised more animalfood (Laurie and Seidensticker, 1977; Gokulaand Varadharajan, 1995). Maehr and Brady


(1984) observed that the amount of insects in theFlorida black bear’s diet was higher in springcompared to other foods.

However, the present study suggests that animalfood is consumed less because of its limitedavailability, particularly termites and otherinsects. The insect fauna, in particular termites,need sandy ground, good moisture and goodground cover. But in the rocky areas likeKumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, or in gravelareas, the termites are normally absent (Rathore,pers. comm). About 80% of KumbhalgarhWildlife Sanctuary is comprised of rocky hills.The forest is dry-deciduous with hightemperatures in summer going up to 45°C(Chhangani, 2000). Kumbhalgarh WildlifeSanctuary is thus not suitable for insect fauna,particularly termites, which are an importantpart of the diet of sloth bears (40.5%) (Gokulaand Varadharajan, 1995).

The higher proportion of plant food in the dietof sloth bear indicates that it is predominantlyvegetarian as indicated in some previous studies(Prater, 1971; Johnsingh, 1986; Baskaran,1990). The sloth bear is an opportunistic feeder.It eats whatever is available in different seasons,including natural, cultivated, animal food(insects) or carrion. However, it maintains itsomnivorous food habit.

Acknowledgments

This study is part of the Indo-US PrimateProject, a collaborative program of the Ministryof Environment and Forests, Government ofIndia, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service(Grant Agreement No. INT/FWS-2). I would liketo thank Prof. S.M. Mohnot, Director, Indo-USPrimate Project and the State ForestDepartment staff and officials of KumbhalgarhWildlife Sanctuary, especially A.C.F. Shri LalitSingh Ranawat, Shri Sukhdave and Shri MadanMali, Field Assistants, for their support duringthis field study.

References

Altmann, J. 1974. Observational study ofbehaviour: sampling methods.Behaviour 49:227-267.

Baskaran, N. 1990. An ecological investigationon the dietary composition and habitatutilization of sloth bear (Melursusursinus) at Mudumalai WildlifeSanctuary, Tamil Nadu. M. Phil.Dissertation. Bharathidasan University.

Chhangani, A.K. 2000. Eco-behaviouraldiversity of langurs (Presbytis entellus)living in different eco-systems. Ph.D.thesis, JNV University, Jodhpur.

Chhangani, A.K. and S.M. Mohnot. 1997.Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary understress. Proc. of Nat. Symp. PublicParticipation in Env. Prot. December 22-23.pp. 15, JNV University, Jodhpur.

Choudhary, S.S. 2000. Ranthambore BeyondTigers. Himanshu Publications, Udaipur-Delhi.

Gokul, V. and M. Varadharajan. 1995. Foodhabits of sloth bear (Melursus ursinusshaw) on Mundanthurai plateau, TamilNadu, India. Tigerpaper 22(2):27-28.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. 1986. Diversity andconservation of carnivorous mammals inIndia. Proc. Indian Acad. of Sci. suppl.1986. Indian Academy of Sciences/IndianInstitute of Science, Bangalore.

Koelmeyer, K.O. 1959. The periodicity of leafchange and flowering in the principalforest communities of Ceylon. Ceylon For.4:157-189 & 308-364.

Lander, J.K., Hamilton, R.J., Johnson, A.S. andR.L. Marchinton. 1979. Foods and habitatof black bears in Souther North Carolina.J. Wildl. Mgmt. 43(1):143-153.

Lauries, A. and J. Seidensticker. 1977.Behavioural ecology of sloth bear(Melursus ursinus) in Royal ChitwanNational Park, Nepal. J. Zool. 182:187-204. London.

Maehr, D.S. and J.R. Brady. 1984. Food habitsof Florida black bears. J. Wildl. Mgmt.48(1):230-235.


Marsh, C. 1981. Diet choice among redcolobus (Colobus badius rufomitratus) onthe Tana River, Kenya. Folia Primatol.35:147-178.

Praeter, S.H. 1971. The Book of IndianAnimals. 3rd Ed. Bombay Natural HistorySociety, Oxford Univ. Press, Bombay.

Prue and J. Napier. 1977. World Guide toMammals. Octopus Books Ltd., London.

Struhsaker, T.T. 1975. The Red ColobusMonkey. Chicago University Press,Chicago.

Author’s address: H. No. 24, Hardev Colony,Siwanchi Gate, Jodhpur - 342 001, Rajasthan,India. E-mail: [email protected]

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A STUDY ON THE LOSS OF BENGAL TIGER (Panthera tigris)IN FIVE YEARS (1996-2000)

FROM BANGLADESH SUNDARBANS

by Mohammad Osman Gani

Introduction

Once, the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigrisLinnaeus 1758) had a wide range of occurrencein the forests of Bangladesh. It was seen in allthe major forests of Bangladesh until the late1940s. But in recent years, there have been noauthentic reports of the existence of Bengal tigerin the tropical forests of Chittagong, ChittagongHill Tracts, Sylhet and Cox’s Bazar (Anon,2000). The last Bengal tiger was killed in thereserved forests of Masalong of Chittagong HillTracts in the year 1976, in Cox’s Bazar reservedforests in 1974, and in Sylhet forests in 1968.Bengal tigers are presently found only in theSundarbans mangrove forest which is situated inthe southwestern part of the country fromlatitude 21°27' to 23°30' North and longitude89°02' to 90°00' East. The total area ofBangladesh Sundarbans is about 601,700 ha(Canonizado and Hossain, 1998).

Tamang (1993) estimated 362 Bengal tigers inthe Sundarbans mangrove forests. BesidesBengal tigers, there are also spotted deer (Axisaxis), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), rhesusmonkey (Macaca mulatta), wild boar (Susscrofa), red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), otter(Lutra perspicillata), estuarine crocodile(Crocodylus porosus), rock python (Pythonmolurus) and a number of birds and fishes in theSundarbans.

The local people kill tigers if they come intotheir villages, out of a sense of protection forhuman and livestock, and for revenge forprevious attacks. Poachers are also known to beactive, but data on these incidents remain scant.

Vicomte Edmond de Poncins reported from atrip to the Sundarbans in the year 1892 that therewere many Bengal tigers in the Sundarbansmangrove forests. The Forest Department and

District Civil Administration encouraged thekilling of tigers at that time. He also mentionedthat Rs.50.00 was given as a reward to theshooters for every tiger shot in the Sundarbans(de Poncins, 1935). It is known from the 1931Management Plan that 452 Bengal tigers werekilled from 1912 to 1921 (Curtis, 1931). TheDivisional Forest Officer of the SundarbansDivision used to recruit professional hunters forthe posts of Boatman and Forest Guards. Theirservices were used to kill tigers, especially man-eaters or tigers who were disturbing people nearthe timber coupe during harvesting operations.The poachers commonly used shotguns forkilling Bengal tigers. Hunters also use muzzleloaders and rifles to shoot tigers (Anon, 2000).Poisoned baits are also used by poachers againsttigers.

Sometimes a Bengal tiger is ordered to be killedafter being declared a man-eater, but records ofrepeated man killing is required before theForest Department will declare a man-eater. Thelast Bengal tiger to be declared a man-eater waskilled in 1989 at Kachikhali, Sundarbans EastSanctuary. Between 1975 and 1999, tigers killeda total of 544 people – an average of 22 peopleper year (Reza, 2000).

Objectives

The objectives of the present study on the loss ofBengal tiger are:

C Identification of the age and size group oftigers killed by villagers and poachers.

C Determining the relationship between tigersentering villages and tide levels.

C Assessment of the health status of tigersentering villages from autopsy reports.

C Report on behavioral observations of tigersentering villages hunting for prey andkilling people.


C Ascertaining the present extent of poaching.C Development strategies to reduce the killing

of tigers and minimize human-tiger conflictsin the peripheral zone.

Methodology

Data on tiger killing were collected from theoffice of the Conservator of Forests, KhulnaCircle; Divisional Forest Officer, SundarbansDivision, Khulna; Range Offices and RevenueStation Offices. Autopsy reports were alsocollected from the aforesaid offices. The officialfigures on tiger killing in the registers of theSundarbans, Patuakhali and Jessore ForestDivision were also used for this study. Data for5 years were analyzed to get the objectives ofthe study because the register of the ForestDepartment on tiger deaths was not accurate.Information from the register was verified byfield surveys and searches of other records toobtain the actual figure of tigers killed duringthe study period to avoid any confusion. Thus,a five-year period was used to determine theextent of tigers killed.

The length of tiger skins was measured.Information about the causes of tiger deathswere obtained from autopsy reports. Villagerswere questioned during field visits toDatinakhali, Daingmari, Sharonkhola, Baraitoliand Amorbonia, which are all located along thefringe of the Sundarbans Reserved Forests. Tidaldata were collected from the Bangladesh TideTable published annually by the BangladeshInland Water Transport Authority to ascertainthe tide level while tigers crossed rivers on theway to the villages.

Results and Discussion

A total of 23 Bengal tigers were killed between1996 and 2000 from the Sundarbans. Fourteentigers entered villages from the adjacent forestsby crossing rivers or canals. Villagers killed 12of them directly and an official of theBangladesh Rifles (BDR, a paramilitary forceresponsible for border security) killed one. Onetiger came out of the forest and took shelter inan isolated place close to the village on the bermof a flood protection embankment. It was verysick and unable to move due to paralysis. The

villagers did not kill this tiger as it could notenter the village. It was later rescued andbrought to a Military Zoo, where it died undertreatment. One tiger was killed in the farmhouseof a feudal lord on the grounds of self-defense,which was considered as poaching. It wasobserved that 65% of the tiger deaths occurredin the villages and 35% occurred in the forest.Moreover, the villagers directly killed 12 tigers,which is 52% of the total killings, followed bypoachers who killed 10 tigers (44%) and onetiger tided from old age sickness, which may beconsidered as a natural cause of death. The dataon the prey that the tigers went after in villageswas also analyzed. The tigers killed 4 cows, 6domestic pigs, 16 goats, 3 dogs and 2 ducks inthe villages between 1996 and 2000. In addition,the tigers that entered the villages killed 2people and injured another 12 during the sameperiod, mostly during daytime.

The people were killed and injured while thetiger was being attacked by the villagers, whoassembled from all directions with sticks andspears, giving the animal no space to escape. Sothe tiger jumped on the mob, killing and injuringsome people. The author witnessed a similarincidence at Datinakhali. The tigers entering thevillages may be termed as cattle-lifters ratherthan man-eaters.

The skin length (without tail) of the tigers killedin the villages was analyzed and on that basisthe animals were divided into sub-adult andadult categories. Skins less than 1.37 m longwere considered as sub-adult and those longer asadult. It was observed from the data that 6 (43%)sub-adult and 8 (57%) adult tigers enteredvillages in a period of five years. It is assumedthat the sub-adults entered the village after theyhad dispersed from their natural area and weresearching for a new territory. The sub-adultswere in good health except for one animal thatwas sick from nematode infestation. Adult tigersenter the villages due to old age, sickness andinjury (Rishi, 1992), when they are unable tohunt prey. Of seven tigers autopsied, four (onesub-adult and 3adult) had huge nematodecolonies in their stomachs. Veterinary surgeonsalso reported that 2 tigers were infested withticks and had liver problems.


The time of day that the tigers entered thevillages was recorded from the reports preparedby the field forest officials on human/tigerconflicts. In thirteen cases, it was observed thatthe tigers entered the villages either at night orvery early in the morning. This may be due tothe secretive behavior of tiger. The majority oftiger crossings (62%) of rivers and canals wereat near high tide or within two hours of hightide, when the velocity of the current was low.Local people hypothesize that tigers prefer tocross at high tide because at low water the tigermust cross wider and higher banks with deepmud. There are two explanations why tigersprefer crossing at high tide. The first reason isthat tigers want to avoid soft mud at low tide.The other reason is that tiger prefer to crosswhen the current is not strong so that they canbe sure to reach the desired place on theopposite bank.

Local people also have some traditional beliefsregarding the reason for tigers entering villages.An elderly resident of Datinakhali village, thesame location of the attack on the tiger describedearlier, believed that the tiger’s appearance wasinevitable. The tradition holds that if a tiger killssomeone in the forest and that person is removedand buried close to the village, the tiger willreturn to claim its prey within seven days andperhaps kill more people. This proved to beexactly the case in Datinakhali. Seven daysearlier a fisherman had been attacked and killedby a tiger in the forest and had been buried closeto the village.

Forest Department records indicate thatprofessional poachers killed nine tigers duringthe study period. This is evidenced by therecovery of four carcasses from the forest andfive skins from adjacent villages and urbanareas. Only one skin showed signs of a gunshotwound, suggesting that poison was used on theother four tigers. Forest Department officials donot know the current level and method ofpoaching. It is definitely a serious problem,however, and much more effort is needed tounderstand the whole process and develop apractical means to control it.

Present status of tiger conservation inBangladesh

The shooting and killing of Bengal tigerscontinued until the end of 1972, even after it hadbeen declared an endangered species in 1969 bythe International Union for the Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources (IUCN). TheBangladesh Wildlife Preservation Ordinancewas promulgated in 1973 and amended in 1974to become the Bangladesh Wildlife(preservation) (amendment) Act 1974. Killingand hunting of tigers, deer and other threatenedand endangered wildlife of the country is totallyprohibited under this Act. There are at presentthree wildlife sanctuaries in the Sundarbans,known as Sundarbans East, South and Westsanctuaries, which cover an area of 139,000 ha.Unesco declared the entire area of thesanctuaries as a World Heritage Site in 1997. Aprotected area management plan was preparedfor the sanctuaries under the World Bank-financed Forestry Resources ManagementProject. Presently, the Biodiversity Conservationin the Sundarbans Reserved Forests Project isunder implementation and a number o f studieswill be conducted with the objective ofconservation of the Bengal tigers of Sundarbans.

Measures for tiger conservation:Recommendations

Villagers and poachers respectively killed 52and 44% of the total tigers killed in Sundarbans.There is an urgent need for the protection oftigers from villagers as well as poachers. Themeasures for tiger conservation are discussedbelow.

Community Awareness Programme

There is an urgent need to introduce communityawareness programmes in the nearby villages ofthe forest where there are human/tiger conflictsthat result in the killing of tigers. The awarenessprogramme will help to build a positive attitudetoward tigers. It is important that villagersunderstand that the Bengal tiger is the starspecies of Sundarbans and the national animal ofBangladesh. It should be protected, otherwise itwill soon become extinct from Sundarbans. It isequally important that forestry officials practicea community awareness programme in reducinghuman/tiger conflicts, especially those casesoutside the forest. The awareness programme


must be organized in villages to educate peopleto change their antagonistic attitudes towardstigers.

Community-based Conservation

“Tiger Conservation Committees” have recentlybeen created in communities suffering fromfrequent tiger conflicts. They are composed oflocal villagers, elected members of UnionCouncils, Forest Department officials and thelocal elite. Villagers who volunteer for nightpatrol with forest guards are listed and a rosterfor patrol duty is prepared and posted on thenotice board of the local Forest Departmentoffice. Normally two armed forest staff and fourvillagers do the patrol duty jointly along thefringe and alert the villagers about their safetyand responsibilities in the case of tiger intrusionsinto the village. The party normally patrols atnight during high tide, as they know from pastexperience that this is the most common time fortigers to enter. If a tiger is seen, the patrol partyuses firecrackers and drum beating to detour thetigers. The “Tiger Conservation Committee” hasto do more functions like educating peoplethrough motivation on tiger conservation besidespatrolling.

Anti-poaching Activities

The anti-poaching networking is an importantmeasure to assess the nature and magnitude ofpoaching as well as to adopt a strategy tocombat it. At present, this does not exist in theSundarbans Division. Secret registers aremaintained where the names and addresses ofknown poachers are recorded, but there is notsystematic surveillance by Forest Departmentofficials at local or national levels. Moretraining and logistical support is required forForest Department personnel working in thefield.

Compensation to villagers

Villagers consistently complain to ForestDepartment offices that “your” tiger killed andinjured our people and livestock from thevillage. In justifiable cases, the ForestDepartment needs to provide adequatecompensation for the loss of livestock and to

bear the cost of treatment of injured persons.

Fencing of Critical Areas

It is known that there are certain villages, likeDatinakhali and Daingmari, where there is ahigh frequence of tiger intrusions compared toother areas. It was found that five out of 23tigers were killed in Datinakhali village in aperiod of five years. The village is located on anarrow bulge of land, created due to themeandering course of the river, with forest allaround except on the village side. This kind oflocation may be misunderstood by the tigerduring high tide, as it may think that it is movingfrom one section of the forest to another sectionas the village is not visible due to the presenceof an embankment outside the forest. This maybe seen as a mirage. Detailed investigation isneeded as one tiger is killed every year in thisvillage as a result of human/tiger conflicts. Afence may be built along the riverbank of thebulge on the forest side to prevent the intrusionof tigers into Datinakhali. The geographicallocation of Daingmari is similar to Datinakhaliand similar measures may be adopted to avoidhuman/tiger conflicts.

Excavation of a canal along the boundary

Numerous rivers and channels separateSundarbans from adjacent private lands along itsnorthern boundaries. Over time, approximately16 km of one such river, the Bhola, has filledwith silt and now acts as a bridge between forestand village. As a result, there is frequenttrespassing of both people and livestock into theforest. Tiger intrusions into the village are alsomore frequent. Thus, there is an urgent need todredge the river and restore the separation.Seven km have already been opened up throughmanual digging and the rest should be opened asquickly as possible.

Tiger immobilization and relocation

The tigers entering the village may be shifted tothe forest through darting operations. Dartingneeds equipment, training of the ForestDepartment staff and testing of the methodbefore implementation. Baiting traps may be


used to catch tigers to be shifted deep into theforest from the fringe areas (Rishi, 1992). Thiskind of arrangement will boost the morale of thevillagers who will see that the ForestDepartment is actively taking back “their” tigerinto the forest.

Strengthening of existing rules and regulationsUnder the Bangladesh Wildlife (preservation)(amendment) Act 1974, there are provisions forimprisonment from six months to two years andfines from Tk. 500.00 (US$9.00) to Tk. 2,000(US$36.00) for killing wildlife. The killing ofany kind of wildlife is a bailable offense underthis Act. There is a need for a separate section todeal with the crime of killing important andcritically endangered wildlife such as the Bengaltiger, estuarine crocodile, elephant, maskedfinfoot, clouded leopard, etc. Stiffer penaltiesneed to be imposed which are not open to bail.

Creation of a Tiger Unit

Within the Forest Department, a special tigerunit with trained officers and staff is required.This unit could be placed under the Ecotourismand Wildlife Management Division to carry outa variety of tasks related to tiger managementincluding routine censuses, communityawareness program, compensation to villagersand an anti-poaching campaign. It can also beresponsible for tiger immobilization andrelocation.

Training

There is a need for training of ForestDepartment staff on all kinds of conservationmeasures needed. Forest Department staff are tobe trained in protection, anti-poaching activities,darting and participatory conservation programs.A veterinary doctor may also be trained toperform autopsies and conduct medical check-ups of the tranquillized tigers.

Currently a register is maintained in the office ofthe Divisional forest Officer, SundarbansDivision, for recording information of deadtigers. It contains very simple information likelength, height and date th tiger was killed and isnot a structured database. This register should beexpanded to include important information like

sex, weight, nature of death, place of occurrenceand time of entry into villages.

Conclusion

The Bengal tiger is the flagship wildlife speciesof the Sundarbans, and is also the nationalanimal of Bangladesh. The Sundarbans is thelast home of the Bengal tigers within theterritorial jurisdiction of Bangladesh. It isessential to minimize the killing of Bengal tigerseither by the villagers or poachers. There is aneed for strong action and commitment for theconservation of Bengal tigers, otherwise it willdisappear like the rhinoceros, hog deer, and wildbuffalo, which have all disappeared from theSundarbans due to the lack of conservationmeasures.

References

Anon. 2000. Tiger Action Plan. BangladeshForest Department. Bana Bhavan. Dhaka.pp.12.

Canonizado, J.A. and Md. Akbar Hossain. 1998.Integrated Forest Management Plan forthe Sundarbans Reserved Forest. MandalaAgricultural Development Corporation andMinistry of Environment and Forests,Government of Bangladesh. Dhaka.

Curtis, S.J. 1931. Working Plan for theForests of the Sundarbans Division forthe period from 1931 to 1951. BengalGovernment Press. Calcutta.

Reza, A.H.M. 2000. Ecology of Bengal Tiger,Panthera tigris tigris (Linn. 1758) in theSundarbans. A dissertation submitted inpartial fulfilment for the requirements of thedegree of Master of Science in Zoology.Department of Zoology, JahangirnagarUniversity. Savar. Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh.

Rishi, Vinod. 192. Making of a Cattle Lifter –A Sundarban Case Study. Tigerpaper19(2):14-17. FAO, Bangkok.

Tamang, M. Kirti. 1993. Wildlife ManagementPlan for the Sundarbans ReservedForests. Project BGC/84/056. FAO/UNDP.


Khulna, Bangladesh.

Vicomte, Edmund de Poncins. 1935. A HuntingTrip in the Sundarbans in 1892. J.Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. India 37:843-858.

The author is Conservator of Forests, KhulnaCircle, Bana Bhavan, Mahila College road,Boyora, Khulna 9000, Bangladesh.


BIODIVERSITY IN THE SHENNONGJIA NATIONALNATURE RESERVE OF CHINA

By Li Zhaohua and Mohsin Hafeeze

Introduction

The Shennongjia Reserve, established in 1982,is a comprehensive national nature reservefocusing on the protection of mountainous forestecosystems and rare species such as goldenmonkey, tiger, golden-dotted leopard, goldenvulture, white crane and dove tree in subtropicalChina. Due to its biodiversity significance andunique integrated vertical spectrum ofvegetation, Unesco’s Man and Biosphereprogramme selected the Reserve as a member ofthe international reserve network in 1990.

The earliest western scientist to appreciate thebiodiversity of Shennongjia was probablyAugustine Henry, an officer of the ChineseImperial Maritime Customs Service stationed atYichang from 1882 to 1889. He collected plantsamples in Lao Junshan, now the eastern part ofthe Reserve in July 1888. Among his herbariumspecimens collected from Western Hubei, manynew genera and a great number of new specieswere discovered (Cui, 1996). After Henry, E. H.Wilson, an American horticulturist was sent toChina four times to collect plant specimens,seeds, and lily bulbs between 1900 and 1910. Hedevoted himself to collecting in the mountainsof Western Hubei, including the Shennongjiaranges, from February 1900 to April 1902.Among his valuable collections, two newgenera, 225 new species and 162 new varietiesof woody plants were described in theCambridge-published volume “PlantaeWilsonianae” (Sargent, 1913-1917). Since then,the remarkable flora and fauna of Shennongjiahave been recognized allover China, and theworld as well (Zheng, 1993).

Natural Features

The Shennongjia National Nature Reserve,located at the eastern terminus of the Dabamountain range in North-western Hubei

(110º03'05" - 110º33'50"E, 31º21'20" -31º30'20"N), comprises 70,467 ha of steeprugged mountains and elevations that range from420 m to 3,105.4 m above sea level (Zhu, 1999).The land form of the mountain slopes is verycomplex, also affected by strong erosion andshearing, but the mountain tops are usually flatand open, forming sub-alpine terraces which arenormally occupied by bamboos, grasses, shrubsand conifers (Ban, 1995; Li, 1995).

The regional climate of the Reserve is atransitional type between temperate zone andsubtropical zone, mainly controlled by the northsubtropical circulation. However, there is acomplex climate gradient corresponding toelevations. From the foot of the mountains (500m) up to the highest peaks (3,100 m), theaverage annual temperature declines from14.4ºC to 4.8ºC, while the mean annualprecipitation increases from ca. 800 mm to ca.2,500 mm (Zhu, 1999). The south-facing slopesusually get more and warmer precipitation thanthe north-facing slopes.

There are six kinds of soil types in the Reserve:mountainous yellowish brown soil (northernfacing slope: < 800 m, southern facing slope: <600 m), mountainous brown soil (N: 800 –1,800 m, S: 600 – 1,200 m), mountainousdarkish brown soil (N: 1,800 – 2,200 m, S:1,200 – 1,800 m), brown coniferous forest soil(N: 2,200 – 2,600 m, S: 1800 – 2200 m) andmountainous meadow soil (N: 2,200 – 3,100 m,S: 2,600 – 3,000 m)(Zheng, 1986). Darkishbrown coniferous forest soil occurs on thesummits over 3000 m (Cui, 1996).

The unique geographical and environmentalconditions in the Reserve give birth to manycomplicated ecosystems, such as forestecosystems of multi-climax or multi-successionseries, scrub ecosystems, mountainous grasslandecosystems, bamboo forest ecosystems, marsh


ecosystems, and mountainous aquaticecosystems. These ecosystems, as well as theextreme topographic relief coupled with theelevation ranges, provide habitats for anincredible diversity of flora and fauna.

Fauna

There are 75 species of mammal animals in theReserve belonging to 53 genera in 22 families.The species make up 68.81% of the mammalfauna of Hubei and 15.03% of Chinarespectively. Among them, 14 species are listedas State key protected wildlife, including 3species in Category I (first priority endangeredspecies), viz. golden monkey (Rhinopithecusroxellane), southern Chinese tiger (Pantheratigris amoyensis) and golden-dotted leopard(Panthera pardus fusca). The monitoring ofwildlife during the past two decades suggeststhat since the establishment of the Reserve, thepopulation of golden monkey has increasedfrom 420 in 1980 to 501 in 1990, and 720 in1999 (Huazhong, 1980; Zhu, 1992; Zhu et al.,1999), while the population of golden-dottedleopard has been stable at around 15–22animals; however, the survival of tigers isquestionable since there is no direct evidencefrom the field to confirm whether they were stillalive or not after 1995.

In the 1980s, only 197 species of birds wererecorded in the Reserve. This number increasedto 238 in the early 1990s (Cui, 1996). A recentsurvey (Zhu et al., 1999) recorded 308 birdspecies in the reserve ranges, which accounts for67.84% of the bird fauna in Hubei, or 25.97% inthe country. Among the avifauna, a total of 51species are State-protected birds including twospecies, golden vulture (Aquila chryaetos) andwhite crane (Ciconia ciconia) in Category I.

There are 23 species of amphibians in theReserve falling into 11 genera of 7 families.Amphibians are mainly distributed in the lowmountains, and only 3 species are living in areaswith elevations over 2,000 m. Two species,giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) and tigerfrog (Rana tigrina rugulosa), are State keyprotected wildlife in Category II. Traditionally,giant salamander was a favorite food in Chineserecipes, which triggered the shrinking of the

wild population due to illegal catching over thepast three decades

Up to 1999, 40 species of reptiles werediscovered in the Reserve, including 23 speciesof snakes. There are no reptiles in the Reservelisted as State key protected wildlife, but theProvince gives protection to 10 species.

There were 47 species of fishes originallydistributed in the Reserve, including 5 newlyrecorded species in Hubei. Since the Reserve islocated at the middle reaches of Yangtze Riverand upper reaches of Han River, the fish faunaobviously falls within these two river systems:15 species in the Yangze River system, 21species in the Han River system and 9 speciescommon to both.

Only 560 species of insects have been identifiedin the Reserve, of which three species,Luehdorfia chinensis huashanensis, Bhutanitisthaidina, and Carabus lafossei, are State keyprotected wildlife in Category II.

Flora

There are 2,762 species (varieties) of vascularplants belonging to 872 genera in 193 familiesin the Reserve, among which 297 species of 75genera in 34 families are ferns, 30 species of 18genera in 6 families are gymnosperms, and2,435 species of 779 genera in 159 families areangiosperms (Zheng, 1993; Zhu, 1999). Thegeographical component pattern of flora (criteriaaccording to Wu, 1991) is quite complex, inwhich 34% species belong to a globaldistribution type, 19% to tropical andsubtropical types, 17% from tropical totemperate zone types, 18% to holo-temperatetypes and 0.3% endemic to China, including 42species solely endemic to the ShennongjiaReserve

The Reserve holds 34 species of nationalprotected plants, which account for 54.8% of thetotals in Hubei and 8.7% in China respectively(Li, 1992; Ge, 1997). Among them, dove tree(Davidia involucrate) is ranked in Category I,and another 15 species, including the famousGinkgo tree (Ginkgo biloba), goose-palm tree(Liriodendron chinense) and lotus tree


(Cercidiphyllum japonicum) are in Category II.Additionally, the local flora contains 150 speciesof wild fiber plants, 208 species of wild oil-bearing plants, 190 species of wild starchy andcarbohydrate plants, 180 species of wildperfume plants, 160 species of wild vegetables,253 species of wild flowers and over 1600species of wild medical plants (Zhan, 1994).

The flora of mosses in the Reserve was virtuallyunknown before 1990, since there were only 5species officially recorded up until then (Cui,1996). A recent survey (Liu, 1999) preliminarilydocumented 135 species of mosses in theReserve, and most of them are new records fromHubei. So far, 735 species of fungi and 191species of lichens have been recorded in theReserve, including 10 new species, 5 newvarieties, and 113 new records in China. Theincomplete understanding of the biodiversity oflower plants urgently calls for more research.

Generally, the biodiversity in the Shennongjiahas been well preserved since the establishmentof the Reserve. However, since the Reserve isseparated into two scattered, isolated locationsand both hold quite lot of valuable wild plantsand wildlife, illegal poaching, logging andcollecting are still contribute to the decrease anddegradation of the local biodiversity.Meanwhile, biodiversity conservation hasrecently confronted a challenge from the rapidlydeveloping tourism enterprises. Thousands oftourists and vehicles crowd the core areas of theReserve every year (Li, 1994). Thus, a new issueabout the rational utilization of biodiversity isemerging.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the ShennongjiaNational Nature Reserve for providing logisticalsupport during the fieldwork in China andDAAD (Germany) for providing Ph.Dscholarships.

References

Ban, J.D., Qi, G.S. and L.D. Liu. 1995. Studieson the natural vegetation of Mt.Shennongjia in western Hubei. In: Ban, J.D. et al. (Eds.) Studies on the Vegetation of

Western Hubei. Central China University ofTechnology and Science Press, Wuhan. p.9-89.

Cui, J.S., Yu, Z.C. et al. 1996. The History ofShennongjia. Hubei Publishing House ofScience & Technology, Wuhan. 360 pp.

Ge, J.W., Wu, J.Q., Zhu, Z.Q. and B.Y.Zhao.1997. Studies on the plant diversity andpresent situation of conservation inShennongjia Biosphere Reserve, Hubei,China. Journal of Wuhan BitanicalResearch, Vol.15(4):341-352.

Huazhong, 1980. Treasurable animal inShennongjia forest region: GoldenMonkey. Zoological Magazine, 1980(No.4):5-8.

Li, B. and J.D. Ban. 1995. Studies on farges firformation in Mt. Shennongjia. In:. Ban, J.D. et al. (Eds.) Studies on the Vegetation ofWestern Hubei. Central China University ofTechnology and Science Press, Wuhan.p.159-168.

Li, Z.1992. Study on the resources of rarewild plants in Mt. Shennongjia. Resourcesand Environment in the Yangtze Valley,1992. Vol. 1(1), pp. 49-54.

Li, Z. & H.Y. Fang. 1994. Study on thefeatures of scenic resources in Mt.Shennongjia. Resources and Environmentin Yangtze Valley, Vol. 3(1), p. 45-49.

Liu, S.X. et al. 1999. Moss flora inShennongjia. Journal of Central ChinaNormal University, Vol. 33 (4).

Sargent, C.S. 1913-1917. Plantae Wilsonianae.The University Press, Cambridge. Vol. 1-3.

Wu, Z.Y. 1991. The areal-types of Chinesegenera of seed plants. ACTA BotanicaYunnanica, Vol.(Supp. 4), p. 1-139.

Zhan, Y.1994. Shennongjia traditionalChinese medicinal resources. HubeiPublishing House of Science andtechnology, Wuhan. 312 pp.


Zheng, Z. 1993. A preliminary study on theflora of vascular plants in Shennongjia,China. Journal of Wuhan Botanical Studies,Vol. 11(2), p.137-148.

Zheng, Z., Zhao Z. and S.Fu. 1980. Plants inShennongjia. The Peoples’ PublishingHouse of Hubei, Wuhan. 578 pp.

Zheng, Z.H. 1986. Features of forestry soiland its vertical distribution ofShennongjia. Journal of Hubei University(Natural Science). 1986(1), p. 101-107.

Zhu, Z.Q. Song, C.S. et al. 1999. Scientificsurvey of Shennongjia Nature Reserve.Forestry Press of China, Peking. 321 pp.

Zhu, Z.Q. et al. 1992. Size, distribution anddynamics of golden monkey population inthe Shennongjia Nature Reserve. Journalof Central China Normal University, Vol.26(3), p. 277-281.

Authors' address: c/o Center for DevelopmentResearch (ZEF), Bonn University, Walter-Flex-Str. 3, D-53113 Bonn, Germany


A PRELIMINARY SURVEY ON THE STATUS OFBINTURONG (Arctitis binturong) IN TRISHNA WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY, TRIPURAby Atul K. Gupta

Introduction

Binturong (Arctitis binturong) is highlyendangered and rarely encountered carnivorespecies belonging to the family Viverridae. Fivespecies of viverrids are reported from Tripura(Menon 1975, Agarwal and Bhattacharjee 1977;Gupta 1999), namely, large civet (Viverrazibetha), small civet (Viverricula indica), palmcivet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), spottedlinsang (Prionodon pardicolor), and binturong.Binturong is one of the biggest viverrids, and isexclusively distributed in the Indo-Chinese andIndo-Malayan sub-regions. It is also reportedfrom the eastern Himalayas, Myanmar,Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java,Borneo and Palawan (Pocock, 1939). In India,it is reported from all seven northeastern states.It is common in the forests, both in the plainsand hills throughout Arunachal Pradesh toTripura (Choudhury, 1999). In Tripura, it isreported from some parts of West and Southdistricts (Gupta 1999). Binturong forms a verydistinct genus whose place in the natural systemhas not been satisfactorily decided. It wasoriginally classed with racoons, and may beconsidered a sort of link between the plantigradeand digitigrade carnivores with some distantanalogies to lemurs. Two subspecies, namelyArctitis binturong albifrons, and Arctitisbinturong binturong, have been identified.

Though distributed throughout the entirenortheastern states, the binturong is nowherecommon. Lack of surveys and periodicmonitoring of this species has further led to atotal absence of information, not only about itspopulation status, but also about its ecology andbehavior. Indirect incidental accounts of thepresence and absence of binturong is onlyavailable from status survey reports of otherspecies (Rai and Johnsingh, 1991; Laidlaw,1994). No reports are available on any priorresearch on binturong. Similarly, nothing is

known about the population status of thisspecies in Tripura, northeast India. Itsoccurrence in Tripura is confirmed, however,owing to its presence in the State zoo where allexhibited specimens are locally procured. Theauthor had also encountered this species onseveral occasions in the past in different placesin Tripura during various field tours and whileconducting detailed ecological studies onprimate species in the State. Specificallydirected conservation action plans on binturonghave not been reported from Tripura oranywhere in its range areas elsewhere.

This brief survey report is based on a short pilotstudy that was undertaken to document thepopulation status of binturong in TrishnaWildlife Sanctuary (TWLS), Tripura, NortheastIndia. The specific aim of this pilot short projectwas to study the distribution, composition andpopulation density of binturong in TrishnaWildlife Sanctuary and identify the mainconservation problems central to this species. Itwas also visualized that this pilot study wouldfurther help in investigating the populationstatus of other sympatric viverrids, and smallmammalian species sharing habitat withbinturong.

Study Area

Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary (194.708 km2) issituated in the southwestern end of Tripura,adjacent to Bangladesh between 23012’ - 23032’N latitude and 91015’ - 91030’ E longitude. TheSanctuary lies in the South Forestry Circle ofTripura Forest department and South and WestTripura Districts (Anon., 1994). The Sanctuarywas notified in 1988 as per the provisions of theWildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

June is generally the hottest month and Januarythe coolest. The mercury does not go beyond up40°C or below 5°C. The average rainfall in the


study area for the year is ca. 2400 mm, welldistributed throughout the year. Approximately63% of the total annual precipitation is,however, received between June and September.Due to the well-distributed rainfall and warmclimate, the relative humidity in this area is quitehigh and on an average varies from 68% to 75%.During the monsoon months, the relativehumidity usually rises above 85%.

The sanctuary is rich in biological diversity. Thefaunal diversity is comprised of six primatespecies, including slow loris (Nycticebuscoucang), hoolock gibbon (Bunopithecushoolock), pig tailed macaque (Macacanemestrina), rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta),Phayre’s langur (Trachypithecus phayrei) andcapped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus). Thesanctuary also has one of the two known gaur(Bos gaurus) populations in the State and otherfaunal species of high rainfall forest ecosystem(e.g. wild pig Sus scrofa, barking deerMuntiacus muntjak, jackal Canis aureus, wilddog Cuon alpinus, sloth bear Melursus ursinus,large Indian civet Viverra zibetha, leopardPanthera pardus, etc.). Most of these areendangered either locally or at the regionaland/or national level. The sanctuary is also richin floral diversity represented mostly by tropicalsemi-evergreen and moist deciduous species.

In the north and northeastern parts of theSanctuary, there are sal (Shorea robusta) forestsinterspersed with bamboo forests and grassy‘blanks’ where jhumming (shifting cultivation)was practiced years ago and well before thissanctuary was notified. This is mostly a tribalinhabited area, and consequently had and stillhas a higher intensity of traditional huntingpressure. In the southern part of the sanctuaryare patches of semi-evergreen forests along withfew patches of moist-deciduous and degradedforests. This area also has pure patches ofDipterocarpus turbinatus for few kilometers onboth sides of the main road leading to thesanctuary headquarters (Joychandpur). Shorearobusta, Artocarpus chaplasha, Dipterocarpusturbinatus, bamboos and other miscellaneoustree species dominate the Rajnagar range in thesouthern part of the sanctuary. Grassy blanksand crop fields are found interspersed with theforested areas across the sanctuary area, mostly

in the buffer zone.

Methods

There are many methods to determine thenumber of animals per unit area of a givenspecies (Dekker et al., 1991), and each onevaries in accuracy, bias, precision, and in theamount of time or equipment needed to obtainthe required data/information. The choice ofcensus method may also depend on the generalhabits of the target species to census, e.g.nocturnal versus diurnal, solitary versus group-living, calling versus non-calling, etc. Thechoice of the method may further vary with thetype of results desired, e.g. absolute versusrelative density. Direct and indirect are the twobroad categories of the census methods andsince binturong is a solitary and nocturnalspecies, indirect census methods wereconsidered more suitable. The line transectmethod was used both for actual sightings and tostudy the signs (feces) left by binturong.

In this method, three line transects of differentlengths (ranging between 1.8 to 2.2 km) wereestablished covering core area of the sanctuary.A total transect length of ca. 5.8 km was coveredduring the survey (T1-Rangamura toJoychandpur: 2.2 km; T2-Lake No. 2 to RamdasPara: 1.8 km; T3-Lake No. 2 to MKPur to Newroad along the core area: 1.8 km – Total: 5.8km). These transects were walked twice a day –once in the late evening (1800 – 2000) hoursusing the spotlights (night tracker) and thesecond time in the morning (0530 to 0730)hours of the immediate proceeding day. All thetransects were scanned at normal walking speed.The process was repeated twice a month forthree months (May, June, and July) and once inAugust. An optimal gap of 7 to 10 days wasprovided in between two consecutive censusoperations.

Prior to conducting the census, a few days werespent at a local zoo (Sepahijala Zoo) observingthe captive specimens of binturong and otherviverrids that were likely to be encounteredduring the survey. This helped in making properidentification and differentiation of binturongfecal matter from the feces of other species.


Results

The survey did not yield very good results interms of direct sightings, although many indirectsigns confirmed the presence and absence ofbinturong at any given area. Only 12individuals were recorded from direct sightingsand mostly from transect number 3. Out of 23fecal counts, most were recorded from transectnumber 2. Due to very low census counts ofbinturong, no attempts have been made tocalculate their density either from direct orindirect sighting data.

Except for hoolock gibbon, the other fourspecies of primates were recorded from all threetransects. None of the other faunal species werepresent in all three transects, representing anunequal distribution of the faunal species.Transect number 1 covered the largest areaunder survey, but was poorest in terms ofbinturong and other faunal species. Transectnumber 2 was the richest in the number ofbinturong and other faunal species. However,the results on other faunal species in this surveywere incidental and can not be taken as an actualrepresentation of their density in TWLS.

Table 1: Results of the binturong survey in Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura

(a) Direct sightingsTransect Number Length (km) Direct sightings (no. of animals)

May Jun Jul Aug Total1* 2* 1 2 1 2 1

T1 2.2 - 1 - 1 1 - 1 4T2 1.8 1 - - 1 - 1 - 3T3 1.8 2 1 - 1 - 1 - 5Total 5.8 3 2 - 3 1 2 1 12

(b) Indirect sightingsTransect number Length (km) Indirect signs (no. of fecal signs**)

May Jun Jul Aug Total1* 2* 1 2 1 2 1

T1 2.2 1 2 1 - - - 1 5T2 1.8 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 10T3 1.8 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 8Total 5.8 3 4 3 2 4 3 4 23

1* & 2* first and second fortnight** = number of fecal signs recorded correspond to equal number of individuals

Table 2: Population status of other faunal species recorded in different transects in Trishna WildlifeSanctuary

Species Number of individuals in different transectsT1 T2 T3

Bos gaurus 4 1 -Sus scrofa 5 5 2Hylobates hoolock - - 2(1)Trachypithecus phayrei 9(1) 12(20) 6(10)Trachypithecus pileatus 7(1) 17(2) 5(1)Macaca nemestrina 15(2) 32(3) 10(1)Macaca mulatta 10(1) 8(1) 16(1)Felis chaus - 1 -Muntiacus muntjak 2 - -


Herpestes urva - 1 -Herpestes edwardsi - 1 -Hystrix indica 2 1 1Lutra lutra - 1 -Felis bengalensis - - 1Panthera pardus - 1 -Viverricula indica 1 1 -Cuon alpinus - - 1Canis aureus 1 1 -

T1 to T3 = Transects one to three( ) = number of groups/troops

Discussion

Morphology, ecology, and behaviour

The binturong is easily distinguished from othercivets by its tufted ears, long shaggy coat similarto that of a bear, and the thick tail at the basecovered with large bristling hairs longer thancoat hair. It is the only viverrid and higher OldWorld mammal with a prehensile tail longerthan its body length. Head and body togethermeasure 28 to 33 inches, while the tail measures26 to 27 inches. The general body colour isdeep black with a white border at the ears; a fewbrown hairs are scattered over the head and onthe anterior surface of the forelegs. It has largegland between the anus and genitals whichsecretes an oily fluid of an intense but not fetidodour.

The binturong lives in dense forests. In itshabitat, it is nocturnal, solitary, and mainlyarboreal, creeping along the larger branchesusing its prehensile tail. It is more wild andretiring than other viverrids. It spends the daycurled up in a hole in a tree, its head well tuckedunder its bushy tail, only coming out at dusk toseek food. Although the binturong is a heavyanimal it is a skillful climber. Its sharp curvedclaws are useful in grasping uneven surfacesalong a tree. The prehensile tail is used whenthe animal climbs about the branches and whenit hangs head down. Infants are able to supportthemselves by their tails alone. The binturongruns like a bear on the ground, putting the entiresole of the foot down. The slinking motion thatis normally characteristic of viverrids is notfound in binturong. They race about withsurprising agility. Smell is the most important

sense, but its vision and hearing are also welldeveloped. The ears twitch in response to theslightest sound and the animal will raise its headand orient it in the direction of the sound. Whenon the prowl, they howl and make a hissingsound by expelling air through partly openedlips. Because of its secretive nocturnal mode oflife, the animal is rarely seen and nothing isknown of its breeding habits in the wild. Bothparents care for the young and remain in contactwith them until they start moving independently.The diet is a combination of animal and plantmatters and may include small animals, birds,insects, and fruits.

Conservation issues

The history of conservation of forests andwildlife is not very old in Tripura. Beforemerging with the Indian Union, Tripura was aprincely-ruled state. Very little attention wasgiven to the conservation and protection of thevast forest and wildlife resources in the state.Exploitation of forests was the major source ofeconomy and wildlife hunting was a commonsport by the privileged class, in addition to beingthe source of livelihood for many tribal groups.Although the National Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972 was adopted by the state government in1973, serious attempts at wildlife conservationwere only initiated in 1986 when the firstwildlife sanctuary was notified in the state,followed by three more in 1988. Presently, fourwildlife sanctuaries impart necessary protectionand conservation measures to a variedbiodiversity of flora and fauna in the state.However, no specific attempts had been taken toaddress the conservation problems of individualspecies of highly endangered status until the


author undertook and completed one such studyon three highly endangered primate species inTripura. There has been, therefore, noconservation action plan drawn up for binturongin Tripura.

Recognising its endangered status in the wild,the binturong has been placed in the Schedule Iand Part 1 of the Wildlife (Protection)Amendment Act, 1991. The main conservationissues concerning binturong are related to therapid decline in its population followinghunting, habitat fragmentation, deforestation,and replacement of primary forests withsecondary, bamboo, and Imperata cylindrica(thatch grass) forests.

The results of this survey indicate that thepopulation status of binturong is on the declineeven in its prime range habitat. Although nocomparative data on their population size/ statusis available from other areas in Tripura andelsewhere, going by the experience of the authorhimself and based on the reports from foreststaff and local people, encounters with thisspecies have declined to a larger extent thanbefore. This may be an indication of the declinein their population in the state. The main factorsassociated with this decline in their populationare not difficult to ascertain: habitat destruction,fragmentation of primary forests into smallpatches, hunting by tribal groups, shiftingcultivation, and diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes are the main reasons.

Recommendations

This is the first survey on this highly endan-gered species carried out anywhere in itsentire distribution range in India. As a long-term measure, this preliminary survey in TWLScan be repeated in three sanctuaries in the state.A detailed study on the conservation ecologyand behaviour of binturongs in theirrepresentative and human-induced altered

habitats can also form an outcome of this shortstudy. Information on the population status anddata on the ecology and behaviour of binturongcan be central to the formulation of definitiveplans and strategies by wildlife managers forthe conservation of this highly endangeredspecies. It is very important to furtherconsolidate this information and initiate adetailed ecological study for gathering long-termdata on various aspects of the behavioral andconservation ecology of this species. This willhelp in drafting a definitive conservation planfor this species. I also propose a behavioralstudy of this species under captive conditions,which could provide information on some keyaspects otherwise difficult to study in the wild asthe species is nocturnal. The informationgenerated from this study in captivity andstrategies for ex-situ conservation of this speciescan also be worked out as a complement to in-situ conservation measures.

Acknowledgements

I thankfully acknowledge the ForestDepartment, Government of Tripura, andWildlife Conservation Society, USA, forpermission to undertake this study in TrishnaWLS and for providing financial help,respectively. I would also like to thank theWildlife Warden, Trishna Wildlife Sanctuaryand all his staff members for al their help duringthis study.

Author’s address: Prof. (Dr.) Atul K. Gupta IFS,Head, Department of Population Management,Capture & Rehabilitation, Wildlife Institute ofIndia, Post Box No.18, Chandrabani, Dehradun- 248001, India.


NEST AND NESTING ACTIVITIES OF THE WHITE IBIS(Threskiornis melanocephalus Latham) IN BHAVNAGAR,

GUJARAT

by I.R. Gadhvi and V.C. Soni

Introduction

The Indian white ibis (Threskiornismelanocephalus Latham) is found throughoutIndia. It is a colonial breeder, nesting onmoderate to tall-sized trees such as Prosopis,Acacia and various species of Ficus which standin or near water (Ali & Ripley, 1983; Hancocket al., 1992; Dharmakumarsinhji, 1955).

According to Ali and Ripley (1983) the breedingseason of the white ibis in north India is June toAugust, whereas in south India it takes placefrom November to February. In Sri Lanka thewhite ibis breeds during December to April andin West Java from April to August (Hancock etal., 1992). According to Dharmakumarsinhji(1955) the white ibis breeds in Saurashtra duringlate June to October, depending on the monsoon.The present observations were recorded todetermine the breeding season of white ibis inthe Bhavnagar area.

The selection of a nesting site is considered tobe the most important factor in reproductivesuccess among many bird species (Coulson,1968; McCromon, 1978; Ryder and Ryder,1981; Rendell and Robertson, 1989; Li andMartin, 1991; Tuomenpuro, 1991). It wasrecorded that in some ibis species, reducedreproductive success was due to poor nest siteselection (Burger and Miller, 1977; Frederick,1986, 1987a); therefore, studies on the nestingrequirements of bird species are fundamental tounderstanding the management implications forconservation.

Nest site selections of several colonial ibisesnesting in mixed species heronries were studiedby Kushlan (1976), Burger and Miller (1977)and Burger (1978a, 1978b, 1979). However, the

nesting ecology of Indian white ibis is poorlyknown except for a few brief accounts by Aliand Ripley (1983) and Hancock et al. (1992).The nesting activities of white ibis were studiedto find out what factors affect the selection ofthe nesting habitat and nesting tree and theirimportance to the management of the species forconservation purposes.

Study Area

The present study was carried out during 1993to 1997 at Bhavnagar City in India’s GujaratState. Bhavnagar is located in the southeasternportion of the Saurashtra region of Gujarat.Bhavnagar City and its outskirts in a 20 kmradius comprised the study area. Bhavnagar hasa 120 km muddy sea coast which provides anideal feeding ground for many wetland birds.The eastern side of the study area is surroundedby the Gulf of Khambhat.

Vegetation Type

The entire Saurashtra region is drought-proneand often faces the problem of irregular rains.The vegetation growth is therefore severelylimited by aridity. Moreover, an increasinglyheavy demand for wood by the humanpopulation and overgrazing by livestock hasdrastically reduced the regenerative capacity ofthe vegetation to such an extent that nowadayslarge trees are scarce in most parts of BhavnagarDistrict. However, many of the surviving treeswere planted during the time of the princelystate as roadside plantations. In addition, otherlarge trees survive in privet premises.


Methods

According to the secondary data available infield guides (Dharmakumarsinhji, 1955; Ali andRipley, 1983), the breeding season in the studyarea is June to October. Therefore, the studyarea was thoroughly surveyed from March toSeptember during the study period. Nestingcolonies were located by observing the activityof the birds. The other tree species within a100m radius of a nesting tree were identified toanalyze the preference for a particular nestingtree. The height of the nesting tree and girth ofthe tree trunk at breast height (GBH) weremeasured. The canopy cover was measured bytaking four opposite points from the tree trunkto the end of the most extended respectivebranches and computing the average. Nestheights were measured as the distance from thebottom of the nest platform to the ground. Treesof less than 3m height in city areas were notincluded in the survey as it was observed that inurban areas ibises do not nest in trees shorterthan 3m because of the continuous movement ofpeople near the nesting site.

The nest building behavior of an active pair ofibises was studied by monitoring the nest sitefrom early morning to late evening for at leastfour consecutive days. Nidification activitiessuch as the number of hours of labor for nestconstruction, the amount of nesting materialcollected during the busy hours of nidification,average time spent in gathering sticks for nestbuilding, average time taken to carry the nestingmaterial from its source to the nest, nestinspection and rearrangement activities by nestoccupants were recorded to determine the roleof both sexes in nesting activities.

As ibises are known to reuse nests to a certainextent, only five nests from different nestingtrees were examined to observe the nestcomposition and dimensions. The observationsinclude the number and frequency of nestingmaterial to determine any preferences forparticular nesting materials. The nestingmaterials were identified up to species levelwhen possible. Nesting material other than plantspecies were also recorded. Data on abandonednests were collected on nest diameter, cupdiameter, cup depth, and the type and quantity

of nesting material to determine the average nestsize and its different dimensions. Nest diameterwas measured across the middle part of the nestperiphery from one end of the edge to the widestedge of the other end. Sticks extending beyondthe cup of the nest were excluded from themeasurement (Sykes, 1987). The depth of thenest cup was measured from the center of thenest bottom to the horizontal plane of the rim.

Results and Discussion

Nesting seasonOnly one distinct nesting season of the whiteibis was observed during the study period, i.e.April to October. However, in the years 1994and 1995 when unusually high precipitation wasrecorded, very early nesting was reported inJanuary 1995. Due to the heavy rains during themonsoon of 1994, the ideal nesting place wasavailable on an island in Krishnakunj Lake ofVictoria Park. In January 1995, 159 pairs startednesting. This was the maximum number of pairsrecorded breeding during the study period,whereas in the year 1996 not a single pair nestedin the study area. In 1997, the minimum numberof nests (15) were recorded in the usual breedingseason of April to October.

According to Lack (1968) the breeding season ischaracteristic of the geographical area ratherthan a particular species. Accordingly, thebreeding season of the white ibis varied overdifferent geographical areas. Usually nestingtakes place after the rains and varies accordingto the monsoon. The species nests fromDecember to April in Sri Lanka. Eggs have beenfound from April to August in West Java(Hancock et al., 1992). Ali and Ripley (1983)described the nesting season of white ibis asvariable between June to August in north Indiaand between November and February in southIndia.

Improved breeding conditions due to good rainfavor vigorous reproductive activities (Chavda,1997). A similar phenomenon was observedamong white ibis during the high rainfalls of1994 and 1995. As a result, the next breedingseason commenced just two months after thecompletion of the nesting season in October1994, i.e. in January 1995. During the 1995


breeding episode the highest number of pairs(159) nested and the breeding season continuedto August, making it the longest breeding seasonin the study period. Thus, the immediaterepetition of vigorous reproductive activitieswould have affected the breeding efficiency ofthe white ibis. This could be responsible for thenesting failure in the following year (1996) andfor the fact that very few pairs (15) nested in1997.

Selection of nesting siteOn the commencement of breeding activity,parties of 10 to 50 white ibises, mostly male,begin to fly over the nesting area. While inflight the birds are silent. The flock visits a fewlarge trees, spending approximately 15 to 45minutes on each tree. Finally a nesting tree isselected.

It was observed that the white ibis does not havea very strong site-fidelity. Each breeding seasonthe majority of nesting sites were changed. Theselected nest sites were characterized by asignificantly high richness of the canopy coverthat provides an ideal nesting platform. Themost preferred nesting site was on Prosopischilensis on the island in Krishnakunj Lake inVictoria Park Reserved Forest, where 46.76% ofthe total number of nests during the entire studyperiod were recorded in a single breeding seasonin 1995. The nesting site on the island wasavailable only during that year, as the lakeremained dry during the rest of the study period.In the remaining two nesting seasons, themajority of the nests were recorded in the busycity areas where only Ficus religiosa trees wereavailable. Parasharya (1984) reported a similarphenomenon in the case of reef heron (Egrettagularis), where the scarcity of large trees neartheir foraging sites forced the birds to nest inbusy urban areas. This confirms that certainvegetative characteristics were important in theselection of the nesting habitat by the white ibis.P. chilensis is usually available in the outskirtsof Bhavnagar city, but they were more preferredwhen they were available on safe sites like theisland in Krishnakunj Lake.

The white ibis reused a few nesting sites.Previous experience is also important in habitatselection among the birds (Klopfer, 1963).

Many bird species are reported to remain orreturn to previously used nesting areas(Catchpole, 1972; Greenwood and Harvey,1976; Harvey et al., 1979; Newton, 1979;Aumann, 1989; Warkentin et al., 1991). This isprobably because the familiarity with the areamay permit the birds to take advantage offavorable foraging, predator avoidance andnesting sites that enhanced reproductive success(Hinde, 1956; Greenwood and Harvey, 1982).This seems to be the possible factor for thenesting sites that are frequently used by whiteibis.

Numerous reports exist of the establishment,decline or disappearance of colonies. The dataon the American white ibis (Eudocimus albus)suggests that in some cases the change ofnesting locations, particularly long distancedisplacement, is related to variations in feedingresources (Kushaln, 1975). Colonial nestingbirds of semi-arid environments, includingibises, undergo similar movements (Carrick,1962; Ward, 1969).

Among the white ibis at Bhavnagar, the foodavailability and foraging areas remained almostunchanged throughout the study period, eventhough the majority of the nesting coloniesshifted every breeding season during the studyperiod. This could be to avoid predators and theachieve maximum breeding success.

Nesting tree selectionIn Bhavnagar, 41 trees were recorded near thenesting site. Out of these, white ibis utilized onlynine species of trees for nesting. The maximumnumber of nests were recorded from P. chilensis(46.94%), which was due to the recordednumber of nests (146) in 1995 at the VictoriaPark nesting site, but F. religiosa was alsofrequently used (37.32%), probably because F.religiosa are the only trees that are religiouslyprotected and provide the ideal height andcanopy for the ibis to nest upon. The white ibisis known to build nests on medium-sized treesthat are standing in or near water bodies. Nestsof this species were also found on top ofpartially submerged shrubs (Ali and Ripley,1983). In 1995 when Krishnakunj Lake was full,the ibises nested on the P. chilensis on the islandin the lake. The water around the island provides


safety from ground predators and the tops of P.chilensis form an ideal nesting platform. Thethorny twigs of Prosopis strengthen the nestagainst storm winds and heavy rain. The thickcanopy also prevents the chicks from fallingdirectly to the ground. In all other years duringthe study period, F. religiosa was the preferrednesting tree. The canopy cover of F. religiosaprovides protection by minimizing the directheat from the open sky (Morse, 1980). Inaddition, the dense canopy reduces the thermalstress to the vulnerable young ones, particularlywhen the tree is located away from the water. Awell-covered nest does not require the wingshading provided by the parents to their chicks,which benefits the parents considering theenergy cost.

The nesting colonies observed in Khijadiya BirdSanctuary near Jamnagar and Chhari Dhandharea (Taluka Lakpat) of Kachchh were locatedon a clump of Prosopis trees standing in thewater (Tiwari, J.K. pers. comm.). This suggeststhat nesting on Prosopis trees is an adaptivebehavior as the nests are less likely to collapse.

Nest positionAll the nests on P. chilensis were positioned onthe top of the canopy (n=146), while the nestson F. religiosa were situated on the secondarycrotches and usually nests were supported by anaverage 3.1 twigs (crotches) (SD=1.04, n=50).Usually the nests were situated on the upper sideof the canopy. The mean distance from the treetrunk to the nest was 2.2±0.85m (n=50).

Actually, the position of the nests on a tree wasfound to depend on the characteristics of the treespecies used for nesting. Nests located onTamarind and on Feronia elephantum werepositioned very close to the main trunk in theprimary crotches (n=5) or secondary crotches(n=4). The nests on the remaining tree specieswere located on the secondary crotches (n=10).

Reuse of nestsThe white ibis usually changes nesting sitesevery breeding season, so only 2.92% of thenests were recorded as being reused by the ibisin consecutive breeding seasons. All the reusednests were located on F. religiosa trees at theOld Port Road. All the reused nests of white ibis

were built in the preceding breeding season.Such old nest structures were reused without anyalteration or with only minor renovations.

Reuse of old deserted nests or the taking over ofactive nests has been recorded among many birdspecies as the consequence of a scarcity of nestsites or materials (Dusi, 1968; Burger, 1978a,1978b; Dhinsa, 1983). The white ibisoccasionally (2.92%) reused its conspecificdeserted nests, perhaps to save time and energythat would be invested in building a new nest.The stealing of nest material from adjoiningnests was observed in only six cases so far,usually in the absence of the neighboring birdwhich had gone to collect nesting material.

Extra-pair copulation most often occurs whenthe male is absent from the nest for thecollection of nest material (Frederick, 1987b;Aguilera and Alvarez, 1989). Therefore, the timeand energy saved by reusing a nest could beused by the male for other importantreproductive activities such as protection of thenest and mate guarding.

It was sometimes observed that a few pairswhich were not able to select a proper nestingsite in a colony in a new location were forced toleave and reuse their old nests, making smallcolonies of 3-4 nests in nearby trees. Thus,reusing old nests was apparently an adaptivebehavior among white ibises.

Nesting materialsThe white ibis usually collects the nestingmaterials from various trees to weave a large anduntidy nest (n=5). A total of 25 plant specieswere recorded from the nests. Besides the plantmaterials, iron wires and a small amount ofplastic threads and pieces of plastic bags werealso recorded as being used in nest building.

The major portion of the nesting materialbelonged to the tree on which the nest waslocated (n=5). On an average, 49.98±12.94% ofthe bulk of the nest material was the twigs andleaves of the nesting tree. An average 5.6different species (4 to 8) of nest materialscomprised more than 5% of the bulk of the nest.An exception was a nest on P. chilensis that wascomprised of 3.9% of iron wires. In general the


nests were lined with grass, leaves and plasticthreads.

The number of sticks varied from 180 to 240(x=210.2, SD=22.32, n=5, excluding liningmaterial). Seven to 14 different species ofnesting materials were utilized for a nest.

Size of nestThe diameter of the nest rim ranged from26.65cm to 39.28 cm (x=30.47, SD=1.57, n=5).The depth of the nest cup was 2.12 to 4.22cm(x=3.83, SD=0.68, n=5). The weight of the nestvaried from 391.20g to 902.37g (x=687.81,SD=345.92, n=5).

NidificationDuring the study period, a total of 50 pairs ofwhite ibises were observed building andrenovating nests. It was noticed that the ibisspent about 45 to 240 minutes (180.5±79.28) ina day for nidification. The pairing off started assoon as the birds started roosting on the nestingtree, and the nest building process began justafter sunrise before leaving for foraging. Itrarely took place during the afternoon orevening. Additions of nesting material whilechanging over the shifts was seen during thelater stage of the nesting cycle.

Mating took place often during the nidificationand the sexes could be differentiated andidentified with by the body size, and particularlyfrom the size of the bills. It was observed thatthe male was responsible for collecting all thenesting material, whereas both partnersparticipated in the arrangement of the nestingmaterial. On an average, 14.8±12.4 sticks fornesting material were collected per day. In themajority of cases the nesting material wascollected from the nesting tree.

The whole process of nidification took 12 to 29days (23.09±3.19) to complete the nest. If an oldnest was available, it was used with or withoutrenovation. For renovations additional nestmaterial was added. In such cases the nestconstruction was interrupted and the nestmaterial was not added every day. Therefore itwas difficult to determine the accurate period ofnest building in such cases.

AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the Head of the BioscienceDepartment, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, toDr. D.R. Korat, Principal, Sir P.P. Institute ofScience, and to Mr. D.P. Jhala.

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Author’s address: I.R. Gadhvi: Lecturer, ZoologyDepartment, Sir. P.P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar- 364002, Gujarat, India; V.C. Soni: Professor,Bioscience Department, Saurashtra University,Rajkot - 360005, Gujarat, India.

Erratum

There was a typographical error on the cover of the previous issue of Tigerpaper. The volume numberwas listed as XXXIX:No.1, when it should have been XXIX:No.1.


WILDLIFE SURVEY OF PHAKHEL, PURUNDI,RAKESKHOLA AND DANDAKHOLA (NEPAL)

by Paras Mani Acharya

Introduction

This paper describes the results of a wildlifesurvey conducted to establish baselineinformation on the Phakhel area between 2-8October 1999. Phakhel falls in the Chandragirirange and represents a true midland ecosystemstill rich in wildlife. An approach on foot waspossible for the ecology team and during thesurvey period the team followed the trail passingthrough the forest from Purundi to theDandakhola region. The altitude of the surveyedarea ranged from 1,870 to 2,110 meters aboutsea level.

The present study recorded a total of 16mammal species in the Phakhel area. Rhesusmacaque (Macaca mulatta) , porcupine (Hystrixindica), yellow-throated marten (Martesflavigula), jackal (Canis aureus), rufous-tailedhare (Lepus nigricollis ruficacudatus), orange-bellied squirrel (Dremomys lokriah), barkingdeer (Muntiacus muntjak), jungle cat (Felischaus) and leopard (Panthera pardus) were themost commonly sighted animals. Leopard cat(Felis benghalensis) and Chinese pangolin(Manis pentadactyla) occur in the forests ofPhakhel and are protected in Nepal. Themammals described in this paper include bothactual sightings by the team members andreports by local inhabitants.

There are no Himalayan black bear (Ursusthibetanus) or wild pigs (Sus scrofa) in thePhakhel area. Informants reported that theHimalayan black bear has not been sighted inthe forests of Phakhel since 1989, which may bedue to extreme habitat loss and illicit huntingand poaching. Leopard (Panthera pardus) is acommon predator resident of Phakhel. They mayprey on domestic animals including cattle(calves) that graze in forest areas. According tolocal informants, sightings of leopards weremore frequent in Simpanidol of Dandakhel. It

was reported that in 1999 a leopard had killed 3goats and two calves that were grazing near theforest of Simpanidol of Dandakhola.

The leopard cat is rare and its numbers arerapidly declining due to habitat destruction anddegradation. In July 1999, a leopard cat wasseen in mixed Quercus semicarpifolia forest atDandakhel (Man B. Baiba, pers. comm.). Itreportedly frequently kills poultry in the villagesof Dandakhel.

Another common predator is the jungle cat,which enters villages and raids the poultry.Indian fox (Vulpes benghalensis) and jackalwere frequently seen in the Dudechaur andLamagaon areas.

Barking deer is an important ungulate residentof the forests of Phakhel and common inDandakhel and Kathunge forest. Sightings ofwere higher in the Dandakhel and Kathunge.

The yellow-throated marten is another commonpredator throughout the forests of Phakhel. Thelocal people have reported that it often visits thevillage area and primarily raids poultry. Duringthe survey period, a fresh scat of yellow-throated marten was observed at an altitude of1,770 m.

Porcupine occurs in the rocky cliffs atDandakhel and Chihandanda. Local people saythey are often sighted above 1,920 m.

According to the local people, rhesus macaqueinhabits the mixed Quercus semicarpifolia forestat Chilledol and Talku.

The only flying squirrel that was common wasthe giant flying squirrel, often seen alone atDandakhel.

Avifauna


A total of 159 bird species (122 residents, 10passage migrants, 17 summer visitors, 10 wintervisitors) were recorded from Phakhel, Purandi,Rakaskhola gaon, Dandakhel and Markhu areas.Of these, 116 species are common.

The status of the threatened birds are taken fromBirdLife International’s 1994 publication Birdsto Watch 2, which is the official source forbirds on the IUCN Red List (Collar et al., 1994)and replaces the list in Groombridge (1993).

The observed birds were grouped into threecategories to determine their status, i.e.endangered (E), breeding forest birds withinternationally significant populations (ISP) andnear threatened. The status of nationallythreatened birds is according to BirdsConservation Nepal’s 1996 publicationThreatened Birds of Nepal (Baral et al., 1996).In IUCN terminology (1996), endangeredspecies have a very high risk of extinction in thewild in the near future.

Near threatened species are close to qualifyingfor vulnerable. Threatened species of Nepalinclude two critically endangered, twoendangered, 10 vulnerable and 37 nearthreatened species (Collar et al., 1994). The piedthrush (Zoothera wardii), a species for whichNepal may be especially important , is listed asnear threatened (Collar et al., 1994). Twonationally threatened species were found: grey-sided laughing thrush (Garrulax caerulatus) andthe pigmy blue flycatcher (Muscicapellahodgsoni), which are listed as endangered andvulnerable respectively (Baral et al., 1996).

There are 33 species that are considered to bebreeding forest birds, for which Nepal may holdinternationally significant populations (Inskipp,1989).

Wildlife Conservation Issues

Hunting

Hunting of wildlife by local people is rampant inthe area. Formerly there was one Royal Hunterin Ward No.1 of Phakhel. They particularlytarget the muntjac and the kalij pheasant(Lophura leucomelana). Muzzle loading guns

are popular and are locally made and readilyavailable. Hunting is also done by the military.

Crop depredations

Incidences of crop raiding by wildlife in thePhakhel area are reported to be high. Damage ismainly done by rhesus macaques, porcupine,and orange-bellied squirrel. The major cropsaffected are maize, potato and soybean.According to local informants, porcupines aremore of a problem at elevations between 1,900-2,100 m.

Villagers in Phakhel VDC complain that theHimalayan tree pie (Dendrocitta formosae) andmagpies (Urocissa flavirostris and U.erythrorhyncha) cause considerable damage tomaize crops in the area.

Local farmers chase and shoot the animals toprevent damage. The affected crop areas adjointhe forest area.

Livestock depredations

Depredations to livestock are caused mainly byleopards, yellow-throated martens and junglecats. Livestock depredations by leopards is highin the area, suggesting that leopards arecommon. They commonly prey on calves, goatsand oxen.

Charcoal making

Charcoal making practices by the Tamang areintense in the forests of Phakhel VDC. Charcoalmakers prefer mostly Angeri (Lyonia ovalifolia)to make charcoal and this tree species is nowthreatened. Lately the charcoal makers have alsobegun to use Quercus semicarpifolia,Rhododendron arboreum and Pinus roxburghii.It is estimated that 16 trees are needed toproduce 50 kg of charcoal.

References

Acharya, P.M. 1999. Study of wildlife in theChandragiri and Phulchowki Mountains. Areport submitted to the Bagmati IntegratedWatershed Management Study Project,Kathmandu, Nepal.


Baral, H.S., Inskipp, C., Inskipp, T.P. and U.R.Regmi. 1996. Threatened birds of Nepal. BirdConservation Nepal and the Department ofNational Parks and Wildlife Conservation,Kathmandu.

Collar, N.J., Crosby, M.J. and A.J. Stattersfield.1994. Birds to watch 2: the world list ofthreatened birds. BirdLife Conservation SeriesNo.4. BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.

Groombridge, B. (Ed.) 1993. 1994 IUCN Red Listof Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland,Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.

HMG, Nepal. 1977. National Parks and WildlifeConservation Act 2029 (1973). Ministry of Lawand Justice, Kathmandu.

Inskipp, C. 1989. Forest birds of Nepal.International Council for Bird Preservation.Monograph No.4, Cambridge, U.K.

IUCN. 1996. 1996 IUCN Red List of ThreatenedAnimals. IUCN Publication, Gland,Switzerland.

Author’s address: Biratnagar Municipality, Ward#4,Morang Koshi Zone, Nepal.

Table 1: Phakhel breeding bird species for which Nepal may hold internationally significant populations

Species Reported or observed in 1999

Black-throated jay (Garrulus lanceolatus)Striated bulbul (Pycnonotus striatus)White-browed tit babbler (Alcippe vinipectus)Nepal babbler (Alcippe nipalensis)Scaly breasted wren babbler )Pnoepyga albiventer)Black-chinned babbler (Stachyris pyrrhops)Grey-cheeked warbler (Seicercus poliogenys)Large-billed leaf warbler (Phylloscopus magnirostris)Grey-headed warbler (Seicercus xanthoschistos)Chestnut-headed ground warbler (Tesia castaneo-coronata)Aberrant bush warbler (Cettia flavolivaceus)Rufous-caped bush warbler (Cettia brunnifrons)Orange-barred leaf warbler (Phylloscopus pulcher)Black-faced warbler (Abroscopus schisticeps)Golden bush roin (Erithacus chrysaeus)Pied ground thrush (Zoothera wardii)Plain-backed mountain thrush (Zoothera mollissima)Grey-winged blackbird (Turdus boulboul)White-tailed nuthatch (Sitta himalayensis)Nepal tree creeper (Certhia nipalensis)Black-capped sibia (Heterophasia capistrata)Yellow-naped yuhina (Yuhina flavicollis)Stripe-throated yuhina (Yuhina gularis)Rufous-vented yuhina (Yuhina occipitalis)Grey-backed shrike (Lanius tephronotus)White-throated laughing-thrush (Garrulax albogularis)Black-faced laughing-thrush (Garrulax affinis)Striated laughing-thrush (Garrulax striatus)Yellow-bellied flowerpecker (Dicaeum melanoxanthum)Yellow-bellied fantail flycatcher (Rhipidura hypoxantha)White-browed blue flycatcher (Muscicapa superciliaris)

x++xxx++x+x+xxx+++xxxx++xxxxxx

x = observed; + = reported

Table 2: Protected Mammals, Birds & Reptiles in Nepal

Scientific Name Common Name Status

IUCN CITES


MammalsSus salvaniusAilurus fulgensAntilope cervicapraBos gaurusBos mutusBubalus arneeCanis lupusCaprolagus hispidusCervus duvauceliElephas maximusFelis lynxHyaena hyaenaMacaca assamensisManis pentadactylaMoschus chrysogasterOvis ammonPanthera tigrisPanthera unciaPantholops hodgsoniPardofelis nebulosaPlatanista gangeticaPrionailurus bengalensisPrionodon pardicolorRhinoceros unicornisTetracerus quadricornisUrsus arctosBirdsBuceros bicornisCatreus wallichiiCiconia ciconiaCiconia nigraGrus grusHoubaropsis bengalensisLophophorus impejanusSypheotides indicaTragopan satyraReptilesGavialis gangeticusPython molurusVaranus flavescens

Pigmy hogRed pandaBlackbuckGaurWild yakWild water buffaloTibetan wolfHispid hareSwamp deerAsiatic elephantLynxStriped hyaenaAssamese monkeyChinese pangolinHimalayan musk deerGreat Tibetan sheepBengal tigerSnow leopardTibetan antelopeClouded leopardGangetic dolphinLeopard catSpotted lingsangOne-horned rhinocerosFour-horned antelopeBrown bear

Great horned hornbillCheer pheasantWhite storkBlack storkCommon craneBengal floricanImpeyan pheasantLesser floricanCrimson-horned pheasant

GharialAsiatic rock pythonGolden monitor lizard

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CONSERVATION OF ANIMALS IN HANOI ZOO

by Nguyen The Chan

Hanoi Zoological Gardens is one of the twolargest zoos of Vietnam (Hanoi Zoo and SaigonZoo). Founded in 1976, the zoo is located in thewestern part of Hanoi, 6 km from the city center,with an area of 21 ha.

Nowadays, Hanoi Zoo is managing and raisingover 800 animals, belonging to 93 speciesincluding: 36 mammal species, 50 bird species,7 reptile/amphibian species. The responsibility

of the zoo is the conservation, breeding anddisplay of some of the rare animals of Vietnam.

Hanoi Zoo has been an official member ofSEAZA since 1993 and is affiliated with 30zoos and world conservation organizations.

Some of animals successfully bred and raised inHanoi Zoo are listed below:

AvesS Red jungle fowl (Gallus g. gallus)S True silver pheasant (Lophura n. nycthemera)S Vietnam pheasant (Lophura hatinhensis)S Edward’s pheasant (Lophura edwardsi)S Siamese fireback pheasant (Lophura diardi)S Indochinese green peafowl (Pavo muticus imperator)S Ostrich (Struthio camelus)S Rhea ( Rhea americana)

MammaliaS Slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus)S Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)S Pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina leonina)S Stump-tailed macaque (Macaca artoides)S Hatinh langur (Presbytis phayrei crepusculus)S White-cheeked gibbon (Hylobates concolor lencogennis)S Vietnam sika deer (Cervus nippon pseudaxis)S Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor)S Przewalski’s wild horse (Equus przewalskii)S Owston’s palm civet (Chrotogale owstoni)S Masked palm civet (Paguma larvata)S Common palm civet (Paradoxurus hemaphroditus)S Binturong (Arctictis binturong)

In the near future, Hanoi Zoo also hopes to alsobreed Indochinese tiger (Panthera tigriscorbetti), Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa),

Golden cat (Felis temmincki), Asiatic black bear(Selenarctos thibetanus) and Phayre’s langur(Trachypithecus phayrei).

The author is Curator, Hanoi Zoological Gardens, Thu Le, Badinh, Hanoi, Vietnam.

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Forest News 1

FOREST NEWSVol.XVI:No.2

INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF MOUNTAINS IN ASIA-PACIFIC

Mountain areas in the Asia-Pacific region areimportant sources of water, energy and biologicaldiversity, while also providing resources such asagricultural and forestry products, minerals, andrecreational sites. Mountain environments are,however, immensely fragile. Their steep slopes,and vertical dimensions make them susceptible tosoil erosion, landslides, and loss of habitats andbiodiversity. Mountains also pose significantchallenges to those who live among them. Povertyis endemic among mountain-dwellers because ofthe harsh physical environment, isolation, relativefailure to transfer knowledge and technology tomountain communities, and the marginalisation ofethnic minorities.

The United Nations has proclaimed 2002 as theInternational Year of Mountains (IYM) to increaseawareness of the global importance of mountainecosystems. FAO has been assigned the role oflead agency in collaboration with governments,NGOs and other UN organizations.

International eventsIYM in Asia and the Pacific will be celebratedthrough a number of international events. The firstmajor event in Asia was a symposium on TheConservation of Mountain Ecosystems held at theUnited Nations University's Tokyo headquarterson 1 February. The UNU events brought together400 environmentalists, researchers and UN stafffrom around the world in an effort to furtherunderstand the status of mountain systems amidglobal change, the pressures facing mountains andthe responses of indigenous groups and mountainsocieties.

Representatives of the Himalayan region will meetin Yuksam, India, in April to establish direct linksbetween the populations of the various Himalayan

regions and facilitate sharing experiences in socio-economic development. This meeting will be inpreparation for the Second World Meeting ofMountain Populations, to be held later in the year,in Quito, Ecuador. Other up-coming eventsinclude:C High Summit 2002, an international

conference linking events from the highestmountain in each of seven continental regions,will be convened 6-10 May. This majorglobal event will feature an interactive videoconference broadcast simultaneously fromlocations situated near some of the world'shighest peaks. In the Asia-Pacific region,broadcasts will be made from Mt. Everest inNepal and Mt. Cook in New Zealand.

C An International Conference of MountainChildren will be held in Uttaranchal, India, 15- 23 May. This conference will bring togetherchildren from more than 50 mountaincountries to help contribute to a global agendafor IYM.

C Celebrating Mountain Women will be held inOctober 2002 in Thimphu, Bhutan. Thisconference will bring together indigenouswomen, donor agencies, policymakers andplanners, entrepreneurs, and researchers toshare insights related to the problems andprogress of mountain women. An actionprogramme will be developed to helpovercome neglect and poverty that plaguemany mountain areas of the world.

C Sustainable mountain development will be akey agenda item at the Twenty-Sixth FAORegional Conference for Asia and the Pacificto be held in Kathmandu, 13-17 May 2002.

National initiativesA range of national activities are also being heldthroughout the Asia-Pacific region, including the

Forest News2

following:C In Hong Kong, IYM was launched in early

January with an opening ceremony andassociated hiking festival at Cheung Sheung -a hill village in the West Sai Kung CountryPark. A series of Country Park ExploringHikes were held every Sunday in January andFebruary, with participants awardedInternational Year of Mountain badges.

C A Snowy Mountains Biodiversity Blitz washeld in Jindabyne, Australia, 12-13 January.The Blitz gathered experts from all fields ofbiological sciences to make an inventory of allthe different types of organisms in a targetarea encompassing the variety of ecosystemsbetween the Thredbo Valley Floor and thesummit of Mt. Kosciuszko.

C In the Philippines, the Makiling Center forMountain Ecosystems and collaborativepartners launched national activities on theslopes of Mt Makiling. A National MountainsClean-Up Campaign and MountaiNetPhilippines (a website on Philippinemountains) were initiated.

C A month-long course in Community-basedTourism for Conservation and Development,was held in Thailand, in February.

C A Nomad Festival was held in Pakistan, 7-8April, to celebrate and encourage interactionwith nomadic people from the high mountainsof Kashmir and from Northern Areas ofPakistan. The Festival arranged productdisplays, as well as discussions of problemsrelated to education, health care and livestock.

C A Summer Adventure Camp is planned inBhutan in mid-May. Forty Indianschoolchildren (winners of a quizcompetition) will be taken to the mountains toexperience trekking, camping and study of thevaried flora and fauna of the Himalayas.

C The Mount Everest Golden Jubilee, in Nepal,will commence 12 months of activities tocelebrate the 50th anniversary of the firstascent of Everest.

C In Yunnan, China, a Mountain Festival topromote cultural diversity and showcasemountain activities and mountainenvironments will be held in late-August.

To date, 12 countries in the Asia-Pacific region

have established national committees for the IYMor are in the process of doing so. Countries withIYM national committees are: Bangladesh,Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Japan, Republic ofKorea, Laos, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, SriLanka and Viet Nam.

Related activitiesA variety of IYM-linked conferences are alsoplanned in Asia. These include:C International Seminar on Mountains.

Kathmandu, Nepal. 6-8 March; C Quaternary Climate, Tectonics and

Environment of the Himalaya: Comparisonwith other Regions. Nainital, India. 11-15March;

C Benefits Beyond Boundaries in East Asia,Yangminshan National Park, Taiwan Provinceof China. 18-24 March;

C National Seminar on Conservation of EasternGhats. Hyderabad, India. 24-26 March;

C Symposium on Mountain Geography. Tokyo,Japan. 29 March;

C The Changing Face of Pastoralism in theHindu Kush Himalayas-Tibetan PlateauHighlands Regional Strategy Workshop.Lhasa, China. 12-19 May;

C Risk Management and SustainableDevelopment in the Mountains of CentralAsia: An International Symposium. Gilgit,Pakistan. 5-7 June;

C III MMSEA Conference: Mountain IndigenousKnowledge, Sustainable Livelihoods, andCreative Means of Resources Governance.Lijiang, China. 25-28 August;

C Mountain Infrastructure and TechnologyConference. How can mountain communitiesaccess technology and infrastructure toimprove their livelihoods? Pakistan. 26-30August; and

C NGOs as Key Players in the SustainableDevelopment of Mountains in the Hindu-KushHimalaya Region. Rawalakot, Pakistan. 10-11 September.

Further details of events and activities areavailable at the International Year of Mountainswebsite: http://www.mountains2002.org/

Forest News 3

EFFECTIVENESS OF DIRECT INCENTIVES FOR FORESTPLANTATION DEVELOPMENT QUESTIONED

The Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) iscurrently undertaking a comprehensive multi-country study on the “Impact of incentives on thedevelopment of forest plantation resources in theAsia-Pacific region.” The study is covering ninecountries (Australia, China, India, Indonesia,Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, Thailand,U.S.A.). The results will be presented to the 19th

Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission,scheduled to meet in Mongolia in August 2002.

From 19 to 21 March 2002, FAO organized aworkshop in Manila, Philippines, bringingtogether the main authors of the country studies todiscuss the progress of the work and to provideguidance for the completion of the studies. TheForest Management Bureau of the PhilippinesDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources (FMB/DENR) provided logisticalsupport.

Although it is early to offer firm conclusions,several issues have emerged from the preliminaryfindings. The general context and socio-economicenvironment explain to a considerable extent theeffectiveness of direct and indirect incentives andinvestors’ interest in plantation establishment.High interest rates, low wood prices, lack ofsuitable planting areas and the financialattractiveness of alternative land uses (e.g., oilpalm plantations) discourage investments in forestplantations by the private sector. This emphasizesthe importance of the enabling environment,including solid and timely research. Goodgovernance, clear land tenure, national securityand market development are all major aspects thatinvestors (small- and large-scale) consider beforemaking decisions, and often have a greaterinfluence than direct incentives such as freeseedlings or inexpensive credit.

The example of New Zealand highlights the

importance of mindsets and attitudes. As long aspeople view forests as a barrier to development ordo not foresee significant financial opportunities,it remains difficult to attract investors to forestplantations. In a similar vein, it is essential tofollow up plantation-friendly policies withstrategies and action plans. In too many countries,it can be observed that policies—with frequentlyambitious targets—are in place but little is done interms of translating them into action.Furthermore, is was observed that somedisincentives or barriers to tree planting are sodominant that even—at first glance—attractivelooking incentives remain ineffective.

In some countries, actual or perceived negativesocial impacts also have turned investors awayfrom growing trees. Conflicts with local peopleincreases risks and jeopardizes returns toinvestments. In extreme cases, plantations havebeen burned by those people who were promisedemployment but instead lost access to land theyconsidered their own.

Analyzing the impacts of direct and indirectincentives on forest plantation development isvery challenging. The effects of particularincentives change over time and they are oftenmasked by developments outside the control ofinvestors (e.g., the financial crisis that hit manyAsian countries during the second half of 1997).The task of impact assessment is particularlydifficult because effective monitoring mechanismsare lacking in most countries. Some plantationsthat were heavily subsidized exist only on paper.Due to poor monitoring, the extent to whichincentives have been abused is often unknown,further complicating the task of assessing cost-effectiveness of incentives.

Forest News4

LACK OF ACCURATE AND RELEVANT INFORMATION LIMITSFOREST POLICY REVIEWS

Senior forestry officials from Bhutan, Cambodia,India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan,Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand came togetherwith FAO experts and a representative of theEuropean Commission (EC) for the secondworkshop of the EC-FAO Partnership Programmeon Information and Analysis for SustainableForest Management during the second EC-FAOPartnership Programme workshop held from 22 to24 January, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Themeeting reviewed the progress of the Programme,which is implemented in 13 South and SoutheastAsian countries, discussed future activities toimprove forestry statistics, and agreed on acommon approach for new forest policy studies.

The EC-FAO project is promoting sustainableforest management in South and Southeast Asiathrough policies that integrate the economic,environmental and social aspects of forestry. Theimmediate objective is to improve nationalcapacities to collect, compile and disseminatereliable and up-to-date forestry information inthese countries.

The first part of the workshop dealt with theprogress of the EC-FAO Partnership Programmewhile the remaining two days were reserved forforest policy related issues. In general, theparticipants were satisfied with the EC-FAOPartnership Programme’s progress. By the end of2001, more than 50 activities, most of them pilotstudies had been initiated. Most studies are stillongoing and expected to be completed during thesecond quarter of 2002.

Participants recommended that the EC-FAOPartnership Programme focus in 2002 on trainingactivities. The first training course will beorganized by the Forest Survey of India (FSI)from 22 to 26 April 2002 in Dehra Dun, India.The training, for which FSI has recently developeda training manual, will focus on cost-effective

methods for assessing trees outside forests (TOF).

An important output of the Programme is theestablishment of a network of national statisticalcorrespondents. Participants agreed to set up thenetwork to strengthen national and regionalstatistics and promote sharing of informationamong South and Southeast Asian countries and tofacilitate communication between FAO andindividual countries. Selected correspondents willbe invited to a forestry statistics training course tobe held in Bangkok from 20 to 24 May 2002.

During the course of the workshop, the 11representatives of the participating countriespresented overviews on forest policies and recentpolicy reviews in their respective countries. Albeitthe considerable differences among countries inAsia with regard to the importance of forestry tothe national economy and environmental andsocio-economic indicators, some common trendsin forest policies can be observed. Over the lasttwo decades, forest policies have been shaped bythe problems of deforestation, the widening gapbetween timber supply and demand, therecognition that forests are a source of diversegoods and services besides timber, and the trendtowards decentralization, devolution andprivatization of forest management. A commonproblem is that the lack of accurate, relevant andup-to-date information, critical for assessing theimpact of previous forest policies. The countrypresentations provided sufficient food for thoughtand first inputs to major forest policy studies thatwill be supported by the EC-FAO PartnershipProgramme.

For more information about the EC-FAOPartnership Programme or for obtaining a copy ofthe workshop proceedings please contact ThomasEnters, Forestry Sector Analysis Specialist, [email protected].

1Auke Koopmans served as Wood Energy Conservation Specialist with RWEDP from 1995 to 2000, and as ChiefTechnical Adviser for the program from 2000 to 2001.

Forest News 5

WOOD ENERGY - LESSONS LEARNED

Contributed by Auke Koopmans1

The FAO - Regional Wood Energy DevelopmentProgramme (RWEDP) was operational for over 16years, assisting its member countries with variouswood energy-related issues ranging from planning,utilization of resources, conservation, thepromotion of wood as a modern source of energyfor power generation, etc. The programmeterminated at the end of 2001, so at this point intime it may be worthwhile to take a step back andreflect upon the lessons learned with regard towood energy, in particular during the last phase ofthe programme (1995-2001).

RWEDP confirmed and systematicallydocumented the important ongoing roles of woodfuels, which serve the daily needs of more thanone billion people in the region (i.e. about 40percent of the regional population). In allcountries, wood energy is the largest singlesupplier of energy. Most of the users are fromrelatively poor rural households, though a greatmany users also live in urban areas and areincluded in relatively well-to-do income groups.The consumption patterns are complicated andclosely linked with local socio-economic,environmental and institutional patterns. In manyways wood energy plays a key role in rurallivelihoods in general and in food security inparticular. RWEDP has also confirmed (but this isstill not widely appreciated) that wood energybusinesses make a substantial contribution toincome generation for a considerable number ofpeople living in rural as well as urban areas.

Unfortunately, although the situation hasimproved over time, a number of constraintsrelated to wood and other biomass energy sourcespersist, for example within the legal,

infrastructural and institutional framework.Authorities in the sectors concerned have beenslow to acknowledge the important social andeconomic characteristics of wood energy. On onehand energy departments exhibit a tendency tofocus only on electricity and fossil fuels,neglecting what they consider the “traditionalfuels”, and many energy staff ignore the not-so-glamourous woodfuels, which they hardlyrecognize as a form of renewable energy. Forestrydepartments, on the other hand, often look atwoodfuel as simply a marginal by-product.Forestry staff still have limited knowledge of thelatest climate and greenhouse gas issues related totree growth and woodfuel use. Unfortunately,agriculture departments take no interest inwoodfuel whatsoever, even though mostwoodfuels originate from agricultural land. Andregrettably, many NGOs are ill informed about theroles and implications of wood energy, thoughsome do excellent work. This overall institutionalneglect, combined with numerous misconceptions,has tended to result in governments toleratingwood energy at best rather than developing it to itsfull potential. Besides the constraints mentionedearlier, the most pressing social problemsassociated with wood energy are undoubtedly thepotential severe adverse health impacts for users,in particular women, children, etc., who spendconsiderable time around cooking fires in poorlyventilated surroundings.

A number of relatively new and importantfindings have also been documented by RWEDP.These include, but are not limited to the fact that,contrary to common belief, woodfuel consumptionwill remain at a high level for the foreseeablefuture. This prospect alone should justify

Forest News6

increased attention from policy makers. It has alsobeen further substantiated that generally speaking,no direct correlation exists between wood energyconsumption and income per capita, since for mostpeople the supply of new forms of energy likeelectricity and gas complements rather thansubstitutes for wood/biomass fuels. Nor is thereany compelling evidence of a direct link betweenwoodfuel use and deforestation in most places2. Infact, evidence points to the importance of non-forest areas like agricultural land, common land,trees around houses, along roads, etc. as keysources of woodfuel supplies. In many cases over50 percent of the woodfuel supplies are derivedfrom these non-forest areas. RWEDP has furtherdocumented that the economic value of woodenergy is much higher than generally assumed (i.e.equivalent to about US$ 30 billion per year in theregion). Unfortunately, as woodfuel is notassociated with powerful stakeholders orconcentrated cash flows, government decisionmakers and private sector organizations haveaccorded it a low priority, despite its considerablevalue3.

Of a more qualitative nature are the followingfindings. Woodfuel supply practices can very wellsupport local environmental management. It hasbecome obvious that wood and other biomassenergy issues should be addressed simultaneouslybecause of their many inter-linkages in terms ofsocio-economics, substitutability, andtechnologies for processing and use. At present,most households, commercial establishments andindustries still use inefficient or inappropriatewood/biomass energy technologies. The majorityof household stoves currently in use generateemissions which cause serious health hazards andalso contribute unnecessarily to greenhouse gases.Fortunately, cost-effective stove technologies withreduced emission characteristics thatsimultaneously mitigate health hazards and

climate risks are being designed. The same appliesto institutional stoves, which are still very muchunderdeveloped even in terms of cost-effectiveness. Space heating requirements (e.g. inwinter and at higher altitudes) need specialistattention, which is as yet rarely available.Furthermore, loose biomass residues, which arepiling up at processing sites, can be developedmuch further as a source of energy. Cost-effectiveimprovements in wood fuel use are possible insmall-scale industries and some progress isalready being made, but extensive efforts todisseminate such improvements are required.Improvements in charcoal production are alsopossible, but the constraints are very muchdetermined by the local social and economicfactors and by restrictive legislation. At the sametime, activities to introduce improved conversiondevices and technologies represent a powerful andcost-effective option for mitigating the emission ofgreenhouse gases, something becomingincreasingly important considering globalconcerns regarding the detrimental effects theseemissions may have on climate.

The abundance of information generated andcompiled by RWEDP has important conceptualimplications. By now it should be well understoodthat there is no general link between fuel wood useand deforestation, and the so-called “fuel woodgap theory” is false. Furthermore, woodfuel is nota marginal product and its use is not phasing out4.Woodfuel is not just a traditional commodityserving poor people, and it does not “trap peoplein poverty”, as was ventured so dramatically bythe World Bank some time ago. Althougheconomic development is advancing in the region,woodfuel is not currently being replaced bymodern energy forms, but is rather beingcomplemented by these. The majority of wood andother biomass fuels are being sustainably grownand their fuel cycle does not make a netcontribution to the world’s greenhouse gases when

2 It is now being more widely acknowledged thatdeforestation is mainly due to the conversion of forest landinto agricultural land, in addition to logging practices.3 Woodfuel is generally collected and traded in smallquantities in most of the region’s countries, which makes thevalue of this commodity less visible than the moreconcentrated cashflows associated with timber.

4 A cause of this misconception may be that energy expertsusually represent the trends of wood energy consumption asa share of total energy consumption, which only shows thatother forms of energy use are increasing at a faster rate, notthat wood fuels are phasing out!

Forest News 7

proper combustion technologies are applied. Theproblem is not the wood/biomass fuel as such, butrather the poor technologies being used in theregion. In fact, the choice of technology is notsimply either traditional or modern, as acontinuous range exists from more traditional tomore modern applications of woodfuels. Thesolution is not to leap-frog from one type ofapplication to another but rather to develop thewhole spectrum of traditional and modernapplications.

The above conceptual understanding has led to achange in the paradigms underlying the work inwood energy development. In the context ofsustainable development, the change has beenfrom “wood energy as a suspect” to “wood energyas an ally”. In the social context it has becomeclear that rather than a general focus on povertyalleviation, there needs to be a specific focus onalleviating the adverse health effects of currentwoodfuel technologies throughout South Asia, andespecially in mountainous regions. In the contextof national economies, wood/biomass energy isnow changing from a neglected sub-sector to asector offering numerous economic opportunities.

Some further important conceptual issuesoriginated from RWEDP’s collaboration with itsmember countries. For instance, woodfuel flowstudies have proved to be essential forunderstanding local situations and for formulatingadequate policies. The supply aspects ofwoodfuels are as crucial as the consumptionaspects in terms of the rural socio-economy (viz.the income earning from woodfuel businesses).Woodfuel should be looked upon as a legitimatecrop, though with a much longer gestation periodthan common agricultural crops. On theconsumption side, it has been found that for themajority of households, fuel saving is not asufficient argument to invest in an improved stove.This fact has been poorly understood by numerouswell-intentioned rural development programmes inthe past decades. Moreover, RWEDP has foundthat many of the so-called “improved stoves”constitute no improvement at all in terms of healthrisks and sometimes not even in terms of fuelsavings. The former is largely owing to a lack of

knowledge amongst stove designers, and the latterto limited skills amongst stove builders forsecuring the fuel-saving features of the stovedesign. Quality control of the production anddissemination of improved stoves requiresextensive efforts.

Policy development is supported by informationand skill development. Short-term trainingsessions provide a useful instrument for raisingawareness and enhancing skills for wood energydevelopment. However, it was found that few, ifany, regular training institutes exist in Asia thatcan offer comprehensive training that integratesthe multi-disciplinary aspects of wood energy.Fortunately, many high-level specialists areavailable in the region and these specialists havebeen invited to provide inputs into trainingprogrammes which were conceptualised andintegrated by RWEDP experts. This approachappears to be a workable formula. For thedissemination of information on wood energy, theinternet has become a powerful medium, inaddition to periodic newsletters and otherpublications.

In all its training activities, RWEDP has had tostrike a balance between enhancing skills bymeans of a “cookbook approach” and pushing tostimulate critical and independent thinking.Interestingly, with respect to the gender aspects ofwood energy, RWEDP found it possible andeffective to conduct training sessions withouttaking sides in frantic gender debates.

With regard to its 16 member countries, RWEDPhas experienced excellent co-operation with thenational focal points and departments concerned.Obviously, national institutions do not easilychange their prevailing bureaucratic practicesbecause of a time-bound project with exhaustibleresources. It is, therefore, not surprising thatimportant inter-sectoral linkages between woodenergy and forestry, energy, agriculture,environment, rural development, industry, scienceand technology, public health and others, inpractice could not be institutionalized at thenational level. Inter-sectoral national committeescan make useful comments, but they are hardly

Forest News8

suited to take up responsibility or even play asound advisory role. Institutional realities furtherdictate that chief executives and seniorgovernment staff frequently change to otherpositions, which jeopardises the institutionalcontinuity for co-operation with a long-termproject. The risks are less when a firm lead role isallocated to one single sector (e.g. onedepartment).

It has been RWEDP’s experience that the strengthof a regional project lies in a specific phase of itsdevelopment (e.g. a phase during which basicinformation is acquired and spread, policies areadjusted, and/or technology and skills aretransferred throughout the entire region). In suchsituations, the cooperation of neighboringcountries supported by an international agency cangenerate the necessary momentum and transferinformation, technology and skills in a cost-effective manner. Building on such a foundation,further assistance can focus on sub-regionalcommon issues or even national problems.However, in order to instigate a policy changeregarding wood energy development by nationalor sub-national governments, intensive advice andsupport to the department in charge is required,and this is something that a large regional projectlike RWEDP may not always be able to provide.

As stated above, the agriculture sector is laggingin giving attention to woodfuels produced onagricultural land. However, more studies areneeded on the potential of biomass cropprocessing residues as useful energy sources.Furthermore, the potential of logging waste andwood industry residues as a source of energyneeds more attention, and the role of “scrap wood”as a common source of woodfuel must bemeasured. In some areas, agro-forestry practiceshave proven to be instrumental in the supply ofwood and other biomass fuels. Such productionsystems seem to have great benefits far beyond

crops and fuels, although a lot is yet to be studiedand tested in agro-forestry (this quest may have itsparallel in Western countries where agro-forestryis being rediscovered as a tool for environmentalmanagement). Though wood energy use can bereasonably well planned even with limited firmdata, more information is needed to support area-based wood energy planning and policy making.The LEAP model provides a useful tool for area-based studies as well as macro-level energyplanning. A recent update enables the model toaccommodate environmental aspects of the fuelcycles. On the wood/biomass energy consumptionside, extensive efforts to transfer and disseminatea variety of improved technologies are very muchneeded. Again, it must be stated that mitigating theadverse health impacts of wood combustion is theprime social priority. In several countries,government policies towards wood/biomassenergy need to be consolidated and the skills fortheir implementation further strengthened.

Post-RWEDP

After the closure of RWEDP on 31 December2001, wood energy information including theRWEDP wood energy database, will remainavailable on the RWEDP website, which willremain operational for at least another two years.RWEDP studies, reports, training materials andmanuals have been widely disseminated and arebeing kept at numerous documentation centers inthe region. They can also be downloaded from theRWEDP website (http://www.rwedp.org) anddocuments and reports still in print can beobtained as hard copies. In addition, theinformation contained on the RWEDP website isalso available on CD-ROM. For furtherinformation, please contact Mr. Patrick Durst([email protected]) at the FAO RegionalOffice for Asia and the Pacific in Bangkok,Thailand.

1S. Appanah is Senior Programme Adviser for the Forestry Research Support Programme for Asia and the Pacific(FORSPA).

Forest News 9

SETTING RESEARCH PRIORITIES FOR VIETNAM’S FIVEMILLION HECTARE REFORESTATION PROGRAM

Contributed by S. Appanah1

The Forest Research Support Programme for Asiaand the Pacific (FORSPA) recently joined theCenter for International Forestry Research(CIFOR), Swedish International DevelopmentCooperation Agency (Sida) and Vietnam’sMinistry of Agriculture and Rural Development toorganize a workshop on setting research prioritiesfor Vietnam’s Five Million Hectare ReforestationProgram. The workshop was organized 20-22November 2001 in Dalat in response to Vietnam’scall to the donor community to support themassive reforestation program. It was recognizedthat success of the program would requireappropriate research support, but priority researchareas would first have to be identified before thedonors could take suitable action.

Around 40 participants from various governmentagencies, international donor and technicalagencies and NGOs attended the workshop. Threepapers were presented. The first ( “Background onForest Research,” by Dr. Do Dinh Sam) providedan overview of forest research in Vietnam,including a historical perspective, presentcapacity, funding, focus and past achievements.The second paper (“Issues Related to ForestResearch,” by P. Guizol and J. Blakeney)reviewed current research needs in Vietnam andhighlighted the main issues, including: 1) the needto broaden research beyond the biophysical andinclude policy and socio-economic topics; and 2)alternative approaches to conducting and fundingresearch. The third paper (“External Links &Experience in Prioritizing Forest Research,” by S.Appanah) provided information on relevant

research results available in the region, theregional agencies that can support initiatives inVietnam, and the prioritization procedures to beemployed for the workshop exercise.

Group work identified the relevant research topicsand the prioritization methodology. The workshopthen identified criteria for prioritizing research,which included the urgency of the research, itsimpact on the reforestation program and itstechnical feasibility. Following this, the researchapproaches and suitable collaborators wereidentified. The results of the exercise wereproduced in the form of a matrix of researchtopics, priority, approach and collaborators.

The workshop built on a two-year Forest SectorSupport Program process which produced theknowledge gaps and needs as the starting point.Vietnamese researchers and research usersfollowed a process that first required them toidentify the research needs and prioritize them.This collaborative, demand-driven approach toidentifying research topics differed from thetraditional process of “defining research,requesting funds and receiving funds.” Theworkshop further balanced the inputs ofVietnamese researchers and research users, withinputs from international researchers, forestrysector donors and NGOs. The results of theworkshop will be further reviewed by experts andsubmitted to the donor community forconsideration. The details of the discussions andprioritization exercise will be published in March2002.

1Clynt Wells is a forest harvesting Consultant, based in Australia.

Forest News10

IMPLEMENTING A CODE OF PRACTICE FOR FORESTHARVESTING IN MYANMAR

By Clynt Wells1

In 2000, the Forest Department of Myanmar (FD)and Myanmar Timber Enterprises (MTE)developed a National Code of Forest HarvestingPractices (CoHP) in Myanmar modeled on theCode of Practice for Forest Harvesting in the Asia-Pacific. In October 2001, at the request of the FD,the Regional Model Forest Project (RMFP)provided the services of Mr. Clynt Wells to assistin the planning and implementation of a pilotCoHP demonstration. To introduce the Code, itwas decided to undertake a trial implementation atthe Paukkhaung model forest in Pyay District.

Logging in Myanmar is somewhat unusual in thatthe majority of the annual harvest of some 3.5million cubic meters of teak and other hardwoodsis carried out using elephants. Typically, trees aremarked and teak is girdled two years prior tologging. Most trees are felled by ax and crosscutsaw before extraction to a landing by elephant.Logs are either loaded onto trucks for transport orfloated down streams. This approach to harvestingposes quite different issues relative to the largelyheavy machinery-based logging of the Asia-Pacific Code. Myanmar, through the FD andMTE, has a long-standing tradition of forestmanagement and over 100 years of expertise inelephant logging.

The following strategy was adopted for thedemonstration:C field assessment of implementation needs and

development of implementation guidelines;C preparation of implementation material such

as field guides;C conducting a training course for officers

involved in the pilot implementation;C pilot implementation at Paukkhaung forest;

and C an implementation review and development of

revised guidelines for general Codeimplementation.

In October 2001, Mr. Clynt Wells (FAOconsultant), U Kyaw Htun of the FD and U KhinZaw of MTE, along with other FD and MTE staffconducted a field assessment of present practicesand code implementation needs in the proposeddemonstration area.

A Code-check was prepared as a checklist ofrequired standards, and current practices wereassessed and conformance to the code standardsnoted. Where differences or problems existed, thematter was discussed and solutions proposed. Theassessment indicated that:C Myanmar has a well developed institutional

framework with well trained professionalstaff.

C The relationship between the FD (forestcustodian) and MTE (timber harvestingagency) is professionally cooperative andfocused towards improvement.

C In areas controlled by the FD, currentpractices are well documented and generallysound.

C The initial Code of Practice is basically sound,but minor adjustments are needed to enhanceits relevance.

The assessment highlighted the advantages ofelephant extraction. In comparison to tractorlogging, elephant extraction has very low impactin moving logs to the landing. Elephants wereobserved dragging logs uphill on a low angle tothe contour along a trail that was less than 1 meter

Forest News 11

in width. This narrow track, unless used manytimes, suffers very limited disturbance and isunlikely to be a source of soil erosion.

Overall, given the inherently low impact ofelephant extraction, it was recommended thatMyanmar adopt a full Reduced Impact Loggingapproach to harvesting. This would include allaspects including inventory, yield calculation andregeneration. Such guidelines will have to beadapted to the Myanmar situation. With this inplace, Myanmar harvesting has the potential to be

low impact, and not just reduced impact.

Since the assessment, pocket field guides havebeen prepared to combine both the Code standardsand the recommended implementation guidelinesin a simple and convenient field book. These,together with operator pocket guides, will be usedas the basis for a training program and the pilotimplementation. To initiate implementation, aninitial training exercise on the use of the fieldguides was carried out in January 2002.

Forest News12

FAO SUPPORTS DEVELOPMENT OF NEW FORESTRY LAWFOR VANUATU

The Vanuatu Parliament passed new forestrylegislation in November 2001. The New ForestryAct was drafted with technical and financialassistance from FAO under the TechnicalCooperation Programme. The new act wasdeveloped through wide consultations withstakeholders including chiefs, landowners andwomen’s representatives, NGO groups, thenational government, provincial governments andforest industry representatives.

The new act covers a wider range of issues thanthe previous act, including:C a new forestry lease arrangement, which aims

to encourage plantation development;C enhanced mechanisms for increasing

government revenue;

C establishment of a new Forestry Board tooversee all development within the forestrysector; and

C provision for a Forestry Sector Plan, whichwill institutionalize a clear system forplanning of the forestry sector.

The act sets out a transparent structure foridentifying land and forest resource owners forparticular concession areas, designed to reduce thefrequency and severity of land disputes. It alsocovers controls on export of live or dead plantmaterial.

For further information, please contact theDirector of Forests, PMB 064, Port Vila,Vanuatu; [email protected]

Forest News 13

WORKSHOP ON STRATEGIC PLANNING ON FORESTRYNanning, Guangxi, China PR, 26-29 March 2002

A workshop on strategic planning on forestry washeld in Nanning, Guangxi, on 26-29 March 2002,jointly organized by FAO, the State ForestryAdministration of China, and the Department ofForest of Guangxi, with support from theGovernments of Germany, Sweden and theRepublic of Korea. Fifty-seven persons fromChina, DPR Korea, Mongolia and the Republic ofKorea participated in the workshop.

The main objective of the workshop was tofacilitate a better understanding and to publicizeand disseminate the contents of the Commissionon Sustainable Development/IntergovernmentalPanel on Forests Proposals for Action (CSD/IPF),including forestry strategic planning, and todiscuss mobilisation of partners for theimplementation of the national forest programme(NFP) approach. The aims of the workshop wereas follows:C to discuss several aspects of forestry planning,

including strategic planning, information,research, regional co-operation, and theimportance of non-wood forest products forsustainable forest management;

C to publicize the CSD/IPF Proposals forAction, to share the experience of the Six-Country Initiative in putting the CSD/IPFProposals for Action into practice;

C to discuss mobilisation of partners in NFPimplementation;

C to inform the workshop participantsconcerning the recent international initiativeson forests and forestry, including the NationalForest Programme Facility (NFPF) and todiscuss how the new initiatives can be adoptedat national levels;

C to discuss the political process - involvingpartners and stakeholders, consensus building,utilization of information and monitoring; and

C to share information on the status and progressof forestry planning in China, DPR Korea,Mongolia and the Republic of Korea.

Conclusions and recommendations

The experiences of China, DPR Korea, Mongoliaand the Republic of Korea shared at the workshopprovided valuable lessons of practical andconceptual nature to the participants and to theresource persons.

Strategic forestry planning, within the NFPframework or other similar systems is animportant means of addressing the problems of theforestry sector. The vital components of strategicplanning, covering both strategy of planning andplanning of strategies, include among others:reliable and comprehensive information;involvement of all relevant stakeholders (or asmany stakeholders as possible); analysis of thepast trends and present situation; policy reforms toaddress inadequacies and weaknesses; outlookanalysis and scenario setting on the basis of policyimperatives and assumptions; establishingobjectives/goals; research and technologydevelopment; structuring of programs andactivities (projects); intensive articulation;institutional strengthening or reforms/reorientation as required; resource mobilizationefforts; measures for inter-sectoral co-ordination/collaboration; participatory monitoring andevaluation and above all ensuring politicalcommitment.

There are no universally applicable guidelines orprescriptions for NFP processes. It is situation/context specific. However, adopting certainprinciples to be followed in the process would beuseful. These, among others, would include:

C national sovereignty and the need for national

Forest News14

NFP initiatives;C informed and organized participation of

stakeholders, and intensive articulation anddeliberation;

C in the absence of an absolute consensus theaim should be for effective conflictmanagement, which requires distinguishingthe practical from the emotional, andunderstanding the limits and thresholds ofpractical effectiveness;

C paradigm shifts from timber-orientedmanagement to ecosystem management, andfrom top down to participatory approachesneed to be clearly understood; and

C while the NFP process is an important tool toachieve forest policy objectives, one shouldnot be too enamored by it, to the extent ofdisregarding the quality and timeliness ofproduct and its relevance to achievingestablished objectives.

The need to control deforestation and forestdegradation is a key rationale and prime objectiveof NFPs and the achievement of that objective,along with sustainable forest management andutilization, is both a criteria and an indicator of thesuccess of NFPs.

Resources for forestry development are scarce.Official development assistance (ODA) andforeign investment in forestry has been unstableand falling. Against this background, innovationsfor resource mobilization, efficiency in manage-ment and ensuring an enabling environment toattract investment assume paramount importance.

The following recommendations/ suggestionsemerged from the workshop discussions:C establish an effective mechanism and related

institutional arrangements for Northeast Asiaregional co-operation in forest and forestry,

with the participation of China, DPR Korea,Japan, Mongolia and the Republic of Korea;

C formulate and implement regional projectscovering the developing countries ofNortheast Asia on capacity building,technology transfer, forest conservation andinstitutional strengthening;

C provide opportunities to representatives of theproposed Northeast Asia regional co-operation initiative to study the developmentof similar co-operative arrangements in otherparts of the world through study tours,fellowships and other arrangements;

C request support of the National ForestProgramme Facility to organize a regionaltraining workshop on preparation of projectproposals for the benefit of countries of theNortheast Asia Region;

C provide support for conducting a workshop onstrategic planning in forestry in the DPRKorea in May 2002, which may be attendedby representatives of the other countries ofNortheast Asia;

C invite DPR Korea, which currently is not amember of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission, to attend the forthcomingsession in August 2002 in Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia, as an observer;

C the workshop strongly urged that FAO takenecessary action on the above recommend-ations, particularly those relating to aNortheast Asia regional co-operation in thefield of forestry; and

C it was further suggested that China, as the hostcountry of the workshop, should report theoutcome and recommendations to theforthcoming session of the APFC, inUlaanbaatar, Mongolia. Mongolia may alsosuitably include this information in its countryreport to the APFC session.

“If you want to plant for a year, plant a cereal.If you want to plant for a decade, plant a fruit tree.If you want to plant for a century, plant a forest.”

– Chinese proverb –

Forest News 15

ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CHIPS AND CLIPS

MAJOR NEW WORLD BANK FORESTRYPROJECT FOR PAPUA NEW GUINEA

The World Bank recently approved US$34 million(US$17.36 million in loan and US$17 million ingrant) for the Papua New Guinea Forestry andConservation Project. The project has fourcomponents: Landowner Forest Decision-Making;Conservation Trust Fund; Sustainable ForestManagement; and Environmental Assess-ment andMonitoring. The project will improve managementand conservation of important forest ecosystems inone of the world’s most biodiversity-rich regions,and increase the well-being of forest owners. Itwill also assist the Government to establish strictmechanisms to stop illegal and non-authorizedtimber harvesting, and ensure greater transparencyin timber licensing.– Inter Press Service –

DONORS COMMIT TO SUPPORTVIETNAM’S REFORESTATION PROGRAM

Eighteen international donors pledged to supportVietnam’s Five Million Hectare ReforestationProgram over the next 10 years. In January,donors signed an agreement committing to workcooperatively with the Government of Vietnam inreforestation, protection of the naturalenvironment, and efforts to reduce rural poverty.– Vietnam News Brief Service –

GOLD MEDAL FOR CONSERVATIONIST

Dr. Suwanna Gauntlett, an Americanconservationist working in Cambodia, has beenawarded a Gold Medal for NationalReconstruction and Rehabilitation by Cambodia'sPrime Minister. Dr Gauntlett has worked with theCambodian Department of Forestry to create aspecial Mobile Unit to combat poaching and theillegal trade in wildlife throughout the country. Ina six-month period the mobile unit rescued morethan 5,000 live animals from wildlife traders and

released 95 percent of these into the wild. In thepast 12 months the mobile unit has also detainedmore than 200 poachers and illegal loggers, andconfiscated 74 chainsaws and over 8,000 snaretraps. The Gold Medal is the highest award thatcan be bestowed on an individual in Cambodia.– Environment News Service –

DUTCH BANKS COMMIT TO FORESTCONSERVATION

Three of the Netherlands’ top banks – ABNAMRO Bank, Rabobank, and Fortis Bank – havedecided to stop or substantially restrict thefinancing of the development of oil palmplantations for which existing tropical forests arecleared.– Focus on Finance News –

THAILAND REJECTS DEBT-FOR-NATURESWAP

The Government of Thailand opted not to sign upto a Tropical Forest Conservation Fund, proposedby the United States. The United States offered toreduce outstanding loans to Thailand, if the ThaiGovernment would establish the Fund, along witha Tropical Forest Conservation Board. It wasproposed that around US$10 million would beallocated to the fund over a 28-year period.Discussions between the two countries founderedover requirements that the US have tworepresentatives on the TFC Board. Thailand alsoexpressed concern over the carbon creditimplications of the deal.–The Nation –

REDUCED SARAWAK TIMBER HARVEST

Sarawak has been reducing the amount of timberharvested in its forests for the past several years.Chief Minister Tan Sri Abdul Taib Mahmud toldan environmental awards ceremony that Sarawakwas harvesting not more than 9.25 million cubic

Forest News16

metres per annum. The decline in natural forestproduction is expected to be offset by theestablishment of forest plantations.–RECOFTC E-letter –

PAPUA NEW GUINEA LOG EXPORTS AT ALOW

Log exports from Papua New Guinea were at a 10-year low in 2000, according to latest official data.Log volumes declined by around 22 percent of theprevious year, to 1.56 million cubic metres.Export earnings from log exports declined by evenmore, falling from US$144 million to US$89million, on the back of soft international logprices. Declining log export volumes are linked toWorld Bank structural adjustment loanrequirements that placed a moratorium on newlogging projects and promoted high export taxes.– National/PINA Nuis Online –

THAILAND'S COMMUNITY FORESTRYBILL

Thailand's Senate has voted to approve the long-awaited community forest bill, but added a crucialclause prohibiting community forests in protectedforests including national parks, wildlifesanctuaries and watershed areas. The communityforest bill, if passed into law, will allowcommunities to participate more fully in themanagement of forests for their own benefit whilehelping to conserve forests for the country'soverall welfare. The prohibition on communityforests in protected forests is, however, a majorchange in the philosophy of the bill, since itimplies that communities should not be entrustedwith forest management responsibilities forconservation purposes.– Bangkok Post –

AFPA OPPOSES ILLEGAL LOGGING

The American Forest and Paper Association(AFPA) has approved a declaration committing toefforts to stamp out illegal logging worldwide.AFPA says that, as well as being bad for theworld's forests, illegal harvesting undermines

consumer confidence that the forest products aremade from trees harvested in an environmentallyresponsible manner. – Environment News Service –

JAPAN'S IMPORTS OF TROPICAL LOGS

Reflecting declining tropical log production inseveral countries, Japan's imports of tropical logswere markedly lower in 2001. The country'stropical log imports in 2001 totalled a fraction lessthan 2 million cubic metres, 34 percent less than in2000. Imports declined from Sabah (down 33percent), Papua New Guinea (down 46 percent),Solomon Islands (down 22 percent) and Sarawak(down 88 percent). – ITTO Tropical Timber Market Report –

TIMBER PRODUCTION IN CHINA

Domestic timber production in China totalledaround 51 million cubic metres in 2001, acontinuation of a trend of declining production inresponse to the Natural Forest ProtectionProgramme. Production from forest plantations,however, increased by 8 percent, to 31.5 millioncubic metres, or 62 percent of the national plannedproduction of timber. China also imported almost17 million cubic metres of logs.– ITTO Tropical Timber Market Report –

SHAWL SEIZURE REVEALS ILLEGALWILDLIFE TRADE

New Delhi police recently seized 80 shahtooshshawls in a raid that nabbed some of the biggestshahtoosh traders in Delhi. The shawls are madefrom the underwool of the rare Tibetan antelope,found in the remote mountain plateaus of Tibetand Western China. The Tibetan antelope is listedin Appendix I of CITES; however, the illegal tradein the prized shawls constitutes a major threat toits survival. An estimated 240 antelopes wouldhave been killed to provide sufficient wool tomanufacture the confiscated shawls, which arevalued at approximately US$5,000 each.– Terragreen –

Forest News 17

FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR

13-17 May 2002. Kathmandu Nepal. FAO Regional Conference for Asia and the Pacific. Contact: T.C. Ti, Senior FoodSystems Economist, FAO/RAP, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4195;Fax: (66-2) 6974445; E-mail: [email protected]

20-24 May 2002, Bangkok, Thailand. Workshop on Forest Products Statistics. Organized by the EC-FAO PartnershipProgramme. Contact: Thomas Enters, Forestry Sector Analysis Specialist, FAO/RAP/ Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 679-4328; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

31 May - 12 June 2002. Lin’an, China. Lin’an Best Practices Workshop. Organized by the Regional Model ForestProject and the Lin’an Secretariat. Contact: Tang Hon Tat, Chief Technical Officer, Regional Model Forest Project, FAORegional Office for Asia and the Pacific; Maliwan Mansion, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4220; Fax: (66-2) 697-4432; E-mail: [email protected]

May/June 2002. Tacloban, Philippines. Policy Review Synthesis Workshop. Contact: Tang Hon Tat, Chief TechnicalOfficer, Regional Model Forest Project, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific; Maliwan Mansion, Bangkok10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4220; Fax: (66-2) 697-4432; E-mail: [email protected]

June 2002 (provisional). Tacloban, Philippines. Terminal PSC and Regional Model Forest Workshop. Contact: TangHon Tat, Chief Technical Officer, Regional Model Forest Project, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific;Maliwan Mansion, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4220; Fax: (66-2) 697-4432; E-mail: [email protected]

10-13 June 2002. Rome, Italy. World Food Summit: five years later. More information is available at the followingwebsite: www.fao.org/worldfoodsummit/

8-12 July 2002. Fujian, China. Field Training Course on Designing Local Auditing Systems for Sustainable ForestManagement in China. Contact: S. Appanah, Senior Programme Adviser, Forestry Research Support Programme forAsia and the Pacific, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific; Maliwan Mansion, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel:(66-2) 697-4136; Fax: (66-2) 697-4411; E-mail: [email protected]

26-30 August 2002. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. 19th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission. Contact: PatrickDurst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2)697-4139; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

2-11 September 2002. Johannesburg, South Africa. World Summit on Sustainable Development (“Rio+10"). Moreinformation is available at the following website: www.johannesburgsummit.org

7-10 October 2002. Bringing Back the Forests: Policies and Practices for Degraded Lands and Forests. KualaLumpur, Malaysia. Organized by APAFRI, FAO, FORSPA, FRIM and IUFRO. Contact: Dr. Sim Heok Choh, ForestResearch Institute Malaysia, Kepong, 52109, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Tel: 6003-62722516; Fax: 603-62773249; E-mail: [email protected]; Website: apafri.upm.edu.my

21-28 September 2003. XII World Forestry Congress. Québec City, Canada. Contact: Secretariat General, XII WorldForestry Congress 2003, P.O. Box 7275, Québec City, Canada G1G 5E5; E-mail: [email protected]

FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as part of TIGERPAPER. This issueof FOREST NEWS was compiled by Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP.

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

Readers who are interested in obtaining any of the following publications can order up to three titles. For copies, please write to: Forestry Section, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand

1. Leucaena Psyllid in the Asia Pacific Region:

Implications for its Management in Africa (RAPA Publication 1994/13)

2. Asia-Pacific Tropical Forestry: Ecological Disaster or Sustainable Growth? (RAPA Publication 1994/18)

3. Workshop Report: Reform of the Forestry Sector: Towards a Market Orientation in China, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, and Vietnam (RAPA Publication 1995/4)

4. Beyond Timber: Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions of Non-Wood Forest Products in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 1995/13)

5. A Guide to the Identification of Diseases and Pests of Neem (Azadirachta indica) (RAP Publication 1995/41)

6. Non-Wood Forest Products in Bhutan (RAP Publication 1996/6)

7. Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Profiles: Second Edition (APAN Field Doc. No.4/RAP Publication 1996/20)

8. The Khao Kho Story: Reclaiming the Barren Hills of Thailand's Central Highlands (RAP Publication 1996/27)

9. Reports Submitted to the Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus - Vol.II (RAP Publication 1996/44)

10. Forests and Forest Management in Mongolia (RAP Publication 1997/4)

11. Non-wood Forest Products: Tropical Palms (RAP Publication 1997/10)

12. Gone Astray: The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity (RAP Publication 1997/16)

13. Directory of Selected Tropical Forestry Journals and Newsletters (2nd Edition) RAP Publication 1997/17 - FORSPA Publication No.19/1997.

14. Forest Dependent Survival Strategies of Tribal Women: Implications for Joint Forest Management in Andhra Pradesh, India (RAP Publication 1997/24)

15. Labor-Intensive Harvesting of Tree Plantations in the Southern Philippines (RAP Publication 1997/41)

16. Ecotourism for Forest Conservation and Community Development (RAP Publication 1997/42

17. Leasing Degraded Forest Land: An Innovative Way to Integrate Forest and Livestock Development in Nepal (RAP Publication 1998/4)

18. Carbon Dioxide Offset Investment in the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector: Opportunities and Constraints (RAP Publication 1998/9)

19. Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - Executive Summary: The Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study (RAP Publication 1998/22)

20. Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study

21. Regional Strategy for Implementing the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific 22. Trees Commonly Cultivated in Southeast Asia - An Illustrated Field Guide 2nd Edition. (RAP Publication 1999/13) 23. Decentralization and Devolution of Forest

Management in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2000/1 - RECOFTC Report No.18)

24. Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission Fifty Years (RAP Publication 2000/2

25. Development of National-level Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Dry Forests in Asia: Workshop Report (RAP Publication 2000/07); Background Papers (RAP Publication 2000/08)

26. Forests Out of Bounds: Impacts and Effectiveness of Logging Bans in Natural Forests in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication 2001/08); Executive Summary (RAP Publication 2001/10)

27. Regional Training Strategy: Supporting the Implementation of the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication 2001/15)

28. Trash or Treasure? Logging and Mill Residues in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2001/16)

29. Proceedings of the International Conference on Timber Plantation Development

30. Information and Analysis for Trees Outside Forests in India (Working Paper No.1. EC-FAO Partnership Programme)

31. Monograph on benzoin (Balsamic resin from Styrax species) (RAP Publication: 2001/21) 32. Applying Reduced Impact Logging to Advance

Sustainable Forest Management (RAP Publication: 2002/14

33. Non-Wood Forest Products in 15 Countries of Tropical Asia - An Overview (EC-FAO Partnership Programme)

34. In Support of Forestry Statistics (Workshop Proceedings No.3. EC-FAO Partnership Programme)

35. Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission 19th Session (RAP Publication: 2002/21 FO/APFC/2002/REP

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