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Rapid Woodfuel Assessment 2017 Baseline for
Bidi Bidi Settlement, Uganda
Woodfuel supply/demand and screening of
scenarios to improve energy access and reduce
environmental degradation
May 2017
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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV
ACRONYMS V
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY VI
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BACKGROUND 1
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 2
1.3 METHODOLOGY 3
1.3.1 AREA OF INTEREST 3
1.3.2 WOOD ENERGY DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 4
1.3.3 BIOPHYSICAL FIELD INVENTORY 5
1.3.4 REMOTE SENSING ANALYSIS 8
1.3.5 DEFINITIONS 11
2. WOODFUEL DEMAND RESULTS 13
2.1 POPULATION AND HOUSEHOLD INFORMATION 13
2.2 WOODFUEL CONSUMPTION FOR COOKING AND HEATING 14
2.3 TECHNOLOGIES AND PRACTICES FOR COOKING 17
2.4 CHALLENGES AND RISKS TO ACCESS WOODFUEL 22
3. WOODFUEL SUPPLY RESULTS 24
3.1 RESULTS FROM THE FIELD MEASUREMENTS 24
3.2 MAPPING THE DISTRIBUTION OF LULC 25
3.3 MAPPING CHANGES IN LULC 27
3.4 BIOMASS MAPPING 27
4. POSSIBLE SCENARIOS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 30
4.1 POSSIBLE SCENARIOS 30
4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 32
5. CONCLUSIONS 35
6. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING 36
7. ANNEX 37
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Acknowledgements
This report was developed by Arturo Gianvenuti, Antonia Ortmann, Eva Kintu and Remi D’Annunzio.
The activities were carried out thanks to the UNHCR financial contribution to the FAO Strategic
Programme 5: Increase the resilience of livelihoods to threats and crises, in the framework of the FAO-
UNHCR “Collaborative partnership for the assessment of woodfuel supply/demand and screening of
improved scenarios to provide support to energy needs of refugees in Bidi Bidi settlement (Uganda)
and reduce forest degradation and deforestation”.
Contributors
Andrea Dekrout, Amare Gebre Egziabher, George William Ilebo, Acacio Jafar Juliao, Paul Quigley,
Agnes Schneidt and Wilfred Wadada (UNHCR); John Begumana Ayongyera, Andrea Borlizzi, Massimo
Castiello, Sergio Innocente, Inge Jonckheere, Damiano Luchetti, Darlene Lutalo, Michela Mancurti,
Giulia Miur, Teopista Nakalema, Mats Nordberg, Simona Sorrenti, Andreas Vollrath and Xia Zuzhang
(FAO); Baker Andreonzi, Charles Ariani, Edwin Beinomugisha, Zabibu Ocogoru and Edward Ssenyonjo
(NFA); Catharine Watson (ICRAF).
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Acronyms
AGB
AOI
DBH
FAO
Aboveground biomass
Area of interest
Diameter at Breast Height
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FGDs Focus Group Discussions
FRA
HH
Global Forest Resources Assessment
Household
IMAD Iteratively Multivariate Alteration Detection
IRC International Rescue Committee
KIs Key informant interviews
LULC
NBS
NFA
Land use/land cover
National Biomass Study
National Forest Authority of Uganda
NGO Non Governmental Organization
OPM Office of the Prime Minister
REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation
SAFE Safe Access to Fuel and Energy
SEPAL
SPGS
System for Earth Observation Data Acquisition Processing and
Analysis for Land Monitoring
Sawlog Production Grant Scheme
UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
VGGT
VHR
Voluntary Guidelines for Governance of Tenure
Very High Resolution
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Executive summary
Uganda is currently host to over one million refugees who have fled from famine, conflict and
insecurity in the neighbouring countries of South Sudan, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (DRC). The recent influx of refugees from South Sudan has prompted one of the most severe
humanitarian emergencies in Uganda and led to the establishment of the Bidi Bidi settlement in
Yumbe District in August 2016. The Bidi Bidi settlement is now the largest refugee-hosting area in the
world with 272 206 refugees settled on approximately 250 km2 of land over a total assigned area of
798 km2. Bidi Bidi refugee settlement constitutes more than half of the population of the host district
Yumbe (484 822 people) (UBOS, 2014). This has increased pressure on the environment due to the
felling of trees for setting up the settlement and for meeting household woodfuel demand for cooking
and heating. As such, a rapid woodfuel assessment was jointly initiated by UNHCR and FAO in March
2017 to assess the supply and demand of woodfuel resources in the area. The methodology included
three phases: 1) an assessment of the woodfuel demand, 2) an assessment of the woodfuel supply,
and 3) the identification of relevant inter-linkages, gaps, opportunities and alternative scenarios. Data
and information were obtained through a combination of desk review of existing documents, field
surveys and remote sensing analysis.
Main findings
- Fuelwood consumption. The findings presented in the woodfuel demand part of this study
highlight an estimated average fuelwood consumption for cooking/heating in Bidi Bidi
settlement of 20.5 kg of air-dried wood per household, or 3.5 kg per person per day. For the
purposes of this study, the daily fuelwood consumption is assumed to remain constant over
the year with no seasonality variations. Although in this case only a minor share is used for
heating, an average daily fuelwood consumption of 3.5 kg per day is considered quite high if
compared to similar situations. For instance, in literature the fuelwood consumption for
cooking alone ranges from 0.7 kg to 3 kg per person per day (Gunning, 2014).
For 272 206 refugees registered in Bidi Bidi settlement, according to the results of the sample
household survey, the rate of fuelwood consumption for the total population of the
settlement is about 952 tonnes per day which corresponds approximately at 347 480 tonnes
of fuelwood per year. Since the camp was opened over approximately seven months ago, the
fuelwood consumption is estimated to be 199 920 tonnes thus far. The food rations of
refugees include mainly maize and beans that require a long time for cooking. The household
survey shows moreover that very few (3%) use charcoal for cooking and the charcoal
consumption since the establishment of the settlement is estimated at 672 tonnes, which
corresponds to 3 360 tonnes of fuelwood.
- Mixed use of traditional and fuel-efficient stoves. It was also observed that many refugees
use wet/green wood which increases the volume of fuelwood consumed. Although a higher
proportion of households (56%) use the traditional 3-stone fire for cooking, the survey
results show that the use of fuel-efficient stoves is not new to the refugees in Bidi Bidi and 43%
of refugee households use an improved mud stove and have knowledge and skills on its
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construction. The host community seems to have a lower adoption of fuel-efficient stoves
than refugees.
- Heavy burden on women. Another key finding is that the burden of fuelwood collection in
Bidi Bidi settlement is entirely on women. Women make an average of four trips in one week
to collect fuelwood and experience a number of constraints. They carry heavy loads of green
wood which sometimes they use before it dries. Women and girls are exposed to multiple
dangers as they walk long distances for fetching fuelwood including attacks by wild animals,
assault and rape by host communities as well as refugees. The shared use of natural resources
overall has an impact on social relations, causing tension and conflicts between host and
refugee communities.
- Woody biomass also sustains other uses. Woody biomass has been cut down by the refugees
also for building shelters and other household constructions. According to the field
measurements carried out in the field, approx. 0.9 m3 of wood poles were used by each
household for construction. Therefore, the estimated woody biomass used for this purpose
by the 101 500 households estimated by the OPM in Bidi Bidi settlement is 91 350 m3 that
corresponds to 63 945 tonnes (assuming an average wood density of 700 kg/m3).
- Total aboveground biomass stock, growth and land cover/land use assessment. The total
aboveground biomass stock is estimated at 734 614 tonnes (air-dried) within the settlement
boundary and at 1 617 953 tonnes including a buffer area of 5 km. Most aboveground
biomass can be found in open woodlands, but also closed woodlands contribute significant
amounts despite their limited coverage in terms of area. The combined use of field
measurements, land use descriptors and remote sensing analysis of radar and optical data
enabled to map the land cover features within the Bidi Bidi settlement boundary and provided
estimates of biomass for each land cover class.
Within the Bidi Bidi settlement area, the closed woodland feature provides the highest level
of biomass density (191 130 tonnes dry matter over an area of 3 356 ha, representing 26% of
the total woody biomass resources available in the settlement). These resources are
concentrated on a small area – at the edge of the settlement in the north-east – which exposes
them to high pressure for use as woodfuel). Conversely, the amount of biomass that could be
found in the open woodland spreading across an area 10 times as big (39 492 ha) represents
about 50% of the total woody biomass available (364 513 tonnes) and has been identified as
the main potential source for fuelwood collection within Bidi Bidi settlement. It should also
be noted that patches of land assigned for agriculture in the settlement contain significant
amounts of biomass resources (18%).
Because of the strong seasonality effects and agricultural practices (burning), the change in
land cover and land use over this short period of time did not show any significant trend in
woody biomass resources change other than that caused by the establishment of the
settlement itself. However, according to the results of woodfuel demand assessment, an
estimated 203 280 tonnes of fuelwood (including charcoal expressed in fuelwood basis) has
been consumed since the establishment of the settlement and this should be compared to
the estimated current 734 614 tonnes of aboveground biomass stock and the annual
aboveground biomass growth of about 33 300 tonnes per year in the settlement area. If the
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5 km buffer area around the settlement boundaries is taken into account, then the estimated
total aboveground biomass stock is 1 588 961 tonnes. It is important to note, however, that
thee area outside the settlement boundaries is also subject to woodfuel demand from the
surrounding host communities.
- Scenarios. By integrating the results from woodfuel demand and supply assessment, the
following future scenarios are projected: 1) Scenario Business As Usual (BAU); 2) Scenario with
improved cookstoves; and 3) Scenario with tree plantations and improved stoves.
(1) Scenario Business as Usual. The woody biomass resources within Bidi Bidi settlement are
scarce and under documented pressure and, with annual fuelwood consumption at 347 480
tonnes, could supply the refugees for only 3 years. This would however be at the cost of a
full depletion of the area in terms of aboveground biomass, representing an issue that needs
to be addressed as soon as possible as refugees already compete with the local communities
for the scarce resources outside the settlement area. Continuous monitoring of these
resources will be needed in the coming months to guide decision making on measures to be
taken to mitigate the pressure.
(2) Scenario with improved cookstoves. The utilization of improved and more energy efficient
cookstoves over of the traditional 3-stone fire can bring fuelwood savings of about 30%
compared to the BAU Scenario. The total fuelwood consumption in Bidi Bidi settlement
would be then about 243 000 tonnes per year instead of 347 480 of BAU Scenario. Under this
Scenario with improved cookstoves, women will also spend less time collecting fuelwood
with more time available for other activities. As the current aboveground biomass growth is
estimated at 33,300 tonnes per year within the settlement area, the annual deficit of woody
biomass growth under this scenario would be 209 700 tonnes. Therefore, according to the
estimated total aboveground biomass stock and annual growth from trees and shrubs within
the settlement area, the total woody biomass resources would supply the current refugees
in Bidi Bidi for 4 years in this scenario.
(3) Scenario with tree plantations and improved cookstoves. To compensate for the annual
biomass loss in the settlement area as result of woodfuel demand, assuming 100% of the
refugee households were to use improved mud stoves (Scenario 2), this scenario includes the
establishment of tree plantations to increase the woody biomass and address the energy
needs for cooking and heating of the refugees. Under this scenario, it is estimated that
between 9 368 and 12 178 hectares would need to be planted with fast growing species
that corresponds to 12-15% of the total land area of Bidi Bidi settlement (798 km2 within
the settlement boundary). Each household would need a minimum area of 50 m x 50 m,
dedicated exclusively to growing timber for fuelwood.
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background
The drivers and impacts of migration and displacement in acute and protracted crisis are intimately
linked to FAO’s global goals of fighting hunger and achieving food security, reducing rural poverty and
promoting the sustainable use of natural resources including forests and other woodlands. Through
this study and its broader partnership with UNHCR, FAO is addressing its Strategic Objective 5
“Increase the resilience of livelihoods to threats and crises”. This collaboration between FAO and
UNHCR, moreover, is a step towards strengthening UN inter-agency support to displaced people and
to improve the management and sustainability of natural resources in these contexts.
FAO and UNHCR are also working in partnership in the Safe Access to Fuel and Energy (SAFE)
framework to identify and implement appropriate solutions to address the challenges faced by crisis-
affected populations, including both displaced and host communities. The SAFE work adopts a holistic
approach which takes into account the mutually reinforcing linkages between energy access and
associated challenges related to nutrition, forests, climate change, health, gender, protection and
livelihoods.
Uganda is currently hosting over a million refugees who have sought protection from famine, conflict
and insecurity in the neighbouring countries of South Sudan, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of
the Congo. Refugees from South Sudan constitute the most severe humanitarian emergency situations
in Uganda. The recent increasing refugee influx from South Sudan led to the establishment of the Bidi
Bidi settlement in Yumbe District, settled in August 2016. Bidi Bidi settlement is the largest refugee-
hosting areas in the world with 272,206 refugees (OPM – Level 1 Registration Statistics, as of 19
December 2016).
Bidi Bidi refugee settlement constitutes more than half the population of the host District of Yumbe
(484,822 people) (UBOS, 2014). This implies an increased pressure on the environment due to the
cutting of trees for setting up the settlement and for household woodfuel consumption.The refugee
management policy in Uganda is characterised by a non-camp, settlement approach, which is widely
regarded as a best practice example for the region. The 2006 Refugee Act and the 2010 Refugee
Regulations grant prima facie refugee status to all South Sudanese and Congolese and facilitate a food
security and emergency agricultural livelihoods strategy, which allows refugees a plot of land for
agricultural use. In addition, the Uganda Refugee policy promotes the integration of life-saving social
services into national government systems. Specifically, the refugee settlements are integrated within
the host communities, granting refugees:
access to the same services (e.g. health facilities) as nationals;
the right to livelihoods and to establish businesses;
the right to go to school;
freedom of movement;
access to allocated land for agricultural use.
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These rights constitute a significant opportunity to protect refugees responding to emergency crises
as well as ensuring the conditions for integrating emergency livelihoods within refugee hosting areas
and local government systems, in addition to building self-reliance and resilience.
Within this context, woodfuel is the major source of rural energy in the country and the consumption
and production of fuelwood is estimated to be around 42.4 million m3 (in 2015) and 1.06 million
tonnes of wood charcoal (FAOSTAT, 2015). About 95% of this is consumed as fuelwood. Uganda faces
significant pressure on its forests and woodlands and suffers from a high rate of deforestation and
land degradation. Drastic changes in forest cover have taken place in Uganda during the past few
decades. According to the Global Forest Resources Assessments (FRA) (FAO, 2015), as much as 2.6
million hectares of forest cover have been lost in a period of just 25 years, which is approximatively
13% of the total land area of Uganda. From 1990 to 2000, the average yearly loss of forest cover
amounted to 88,000 hectares. This annual loss amassed to 111 000 hectares per year between 2000
and 2010, and in the following five years this figure grew to a loss of forest cover amounting to 185 000
hectares per year (FAO, 2015).
Fuelwood is a primary source of energy for refugees in Bidi Bidi settlement; charcoal is used by those
households that can afford it. Although National Forest Authority (NFA) has earmarked trees that should
not be cut, all the other trees within the settlement are being cut down due to the sudden increase of
population in this area and the high woodfuel demand for cooking. The energy need for cooking of
large numbers of refugees in Uganda exacerbates already existing fuelwood overharvesting problem
in the country and increases the high risk of rapid degradation of the surrounding environment
including: soils, forests and other woodlands.
With the high number of people crossing the border from South Sudan to Uganda, there is an urgent
to develop supportive sustainable energy access and forest resources management strategies
targeting both the refugee population of Bidi Bidi settlement and the surrounding host community.
1.2 Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study include:
1. Assess the woodfuel demand (fuelwood and charcoal) for cooking and heating and challenges
related to the collection and use of woodfuel for the refugee population of Bidi Bidi settlement.
2. Identify current technologies/practices in use for cooking in the area of interest and the
associated opportunities and challenges.
3. Assess the potential woodfuel supply in the area of interest: state and changes of
aboveground biomass stock, growth and land cover/land use.
4. Provide recommendations for planning interventions to improve energy access, promote
sustainable forest management and contribute in building resilience of affected populations
in Bidi Bidi settlement.
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1.3 Methodology
This rapid woodfuel assessment builds on the methodology developed in the joint FAO-UNHCR
Technical Handbook “Assessing Woodfuel Supply and Demand in Displacement Settings” (FAO-UNHCR,
2016). The methodology includes three programmatic phases: 1) to assess the woodfuel (fuelwood
and charcoal) demand over the given period of time since the establishment of the settlement
(assuming woodfuel demand is equal to the ongoing woodfuel consumption) and the associated
challenges experienced by the refugees and host community, 2) to assess the woodfuel supply
including the aboveground biomass stock, land cover classification and changes over the period of
time since the establishment of the settlement, and 3) to identify relevant inter-linkages and gaps as
well as to develop possible future scenarios in which improved cookstoves and afforestation
interventions are introduced.
The study involved a combination of desk review of existing documents, field surveys and very high
resolution satellite imagery analysis. Field surveys included the assessment of woodfuel demand in
the refugee settlement and the assessment of the biophysical parameters of forest and other
woodlands. Satellite imagery analysis was performed combining semi-automatic classification of the
land with change detection processes.
1.3.1 Area of interest
The area of interest (AOI, Figure 1) is composed of the area within the settlement boundary and a
surround buffer area of 5 km (estimated as possible area for fuelwood collection outside the
settlement). The settlement boundary comprises an area of 798 km2 within which five zones, covering
a total of 250 km2, were established. The 5 km buffer around the settlement boundary would bring
the total area to 1 617 km2.
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Figure 1: Extent of the area of interest, with the five zones defined by UNHCR and the 5 km overall buffer area around the settlement
1.3.2 Wood energy data collection and analysis
The woodfuel demand assessment was carried out through household quantitative surveys and
qualitative interviews and focus group discussions in the refugee and host communities. The objective
was to provide data and information on fuelwood and charcoal consumption, the average time spent
to collect fuelwood by the household, the types of cooking systems used for cooking and the main
challenges. The process was of a participatory nature with discussions in the field at different stages
between FAO and UNHCR staff; key informant interviews were held with the Office of the Prime
Minister (OPM), District Officials and a team of International Rescue Committee (IRC) Community
Workers to gather specific contextual and complementary information relating to a broader
understanding of environmental and energy factors in Bidi Bidi settlement. The wood energy and
sociocultural data and information were collected by a FAO and UNHCR team with the support of four
enumerators from IRC between 28 February and 3 March 2017. The sampling design for the household
survey involved: i) the selection of the zones within the settlement to be surveyed; ii) an estimate of
the sample size according to the timeframe and resources available; iii) random selection of the
sample.
Four data collectors who are community workers in the settlement were given a quick orientation of
the household survey after which they tested the tools with some initial households under the
supervision of FAO and UNHCR team. Households were then selected randomly in the different parts
of the selected zones within Bidi Bidi settlement; respondents were mainly women, since they had
the knowledge on fuelwood collection and use in the households or the head of households. Data
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collection was carried out in three zones (1, 3, 4) and a total of 72 households were interviewed to
collect quantitative and qualitative data through questionnaire and direct interviews.
In order to quantify the daily woodfuel (fuelwood and charcoal) consumption, the assessment team
weighed the estimated amount of woodfuel for cooking and heating using a digital hanging scale and
in the case of fuelwood they also took note on whether it was wet/green or dry based on a visual
observation of the wood. Further observations were also made and photographs taken of current fuel-
efficient devices that were being used in households. This data was analysed to estimate the average
daily wood consumption per person and this result was scaled up to the settlement level.
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were undertaken in Bidi Bidi settlement as well as in one village of
the host community. Group discussions were conducted with mixed age, social groups and gender.
Key informant interviews (KIs) were held in the settlement as well as with authorities at District level.
During data collection some substantive checking with data collectors was done while still in the
settlement to verify some occurrences. The data from the household survey was then entered and
analysed using Excel sheets for occurrence and proportions as well as cross tabulation of parameters.
The data was compiled in statistics tables and graphics. The data analysis was then supported by the
application of the SAFE Tool – Woodfuel Assessment in Displacement Settings to identify the baseline
situation and to simulate alternative scenarios in which improved cookstoves and tree plantations are
introduced to increase energy efficiency for cooking, reduce energy consumption and increase woody
biomass growth. The alternative possible scenarios analysed in this study include 1) Business as Usual
(BAU) Scenario, 2) Scenario with improved cookstoves to reduce woodfuel demand, and 3) Scenario
with new tree plantations and improved stoves.
1.3.3 Biophysical field inventory
Biophysical field data was used to estimate stocks of fuelwood for different land use/land cover (LULC)
classes. These LULC classes were mapped through remote sensing which allows mapping the
distribution of fuelwood resources and assessing stock changes before and after the establishment of
the refugee settlement.
Sampling design
For the sampling design, a systematic grid with a spacing of 2 km x 2 km was generated over the
settlement area. A first visual interpretation of the grid points was performed to establish a
preliminary stratification of the land cover in the area. This was based on a combination of Sentinel-2
imagery for the beginning of 2017 and freely available very high resolution (VHR) imagery for the time
before the establishment of the settlement.
Data from the National Forest Inventory were then used against the classes found in the AOI to
determine the number of field plots to measure the biomass content of the relevant land cover classes.
Based on the stratification of the relevant classes (Table 5 in the results section), a total of 32 points
were randomly drawn within the settlement boundaries, to be further measured in the field (Figure
2).
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Figure 2: Systematic grid with a spacing of 2 km x 2 km and the 32 final plot locations
Plot design and field data collection
For each of those field points, a circular plot with a radius of 12.6 m was chosen, resulting in an
approximate size of 500 m2. Within the plot, several subplots were measured (Figure 3) so as to follow
the methodology used by the National Forest Inventory.
Within the first quadrant of the plot, all shrubs were measured including base diameter, crown and
average height. For all standing trees (live and dead) of 5 cm diameter and above height, diameter at
breast height (DBH) and tree species were recorded. In the remaining subplots, standing trees with a
diameter of 10 cm and above were measured.
In the plot center, within a radius of 4 m, all saplings and deadwood were measured. Deadwood was
collected and weighed when possible. If the deadwood was too heavy to be measured, but its length
and diameter were recorded.
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Figure 3: Plot design for field inventory
In addition to these dendrometric measurements, the following land cover/land use descriptors were
collected for each plot:
- Slope, orientation, altitude and accessibility
- Major land use and land cover types
- Proportioning of each land cover/land use
- Fire evidence
- Grazing intensity
- Undergrowth type
The biophysical data was collected by specialists of the Inventory team of the National Forestry
Authority of Uganda (NFA) between 28 February and 11 March 2017. The data was recorded using
Open Foris Collect Mobile, an Android App that facilitates fast, intuitive and flexible data collection for
field-based surveys (http://www.openforis.org/tools/collect-mobile.html) (Figure 4).
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Figure 4: Collect Mobile being used for field inventory in Uganda (Uganda National REDD+ Secretariat, MWE)
Estimating biomass stocks and annual increment
Above ground biomass for each plot was calculated from field data using Chave et al. (2014) allometric
equations which are also used for the National Biomass Study (NBS) in Uganda. R scripts already
developed for the NBS for REDD+ were used to estimate stocks. For the final estimates, plot level
results were aggregated by land use/land cover (LULC) class which had been assigned to each plot
during the field inventory. Biomass estimates by LULC class are calculated as mean, with 95%
confidence intervals.
Biomass annual increment were taken from NBS which provides them as average for different LULC
classes for the different agroecological zones of Uganda (Forest Department 2002). Yumbe District
falls into the semi-moist lowland zone.
1.3.4 Remote sensing analysis
The remote sensing analysis aimed at mapping LULC before and after the establishment of the
settlement in order to estimate changes in biomass. LULC was mapped for the whole settlement and
for an additional buffer of 5 km around the settlement boundary. This buffer was applied in order to
take into account possible effects on surrounding areas.
Satellite imagery used
This study relied on freely available satellite imagery through the Sentinel-series of the European
Copernicus programme, namely Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2, and thus combined radar and optical data.
The fusion of both data sources has been shown to improve biomass estimates, especially in open
woodlands as in Northern Uganda (Joshi et al. 2016). The use of very high resolution commercial
optical imagery had been considered, but there was no adequate imagery available covering the full
settlement area neither for the end of 2016 nor the beginning of 2017.
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Radar data
Sentinel-1 is a C-Band SAR satellite. Sentinel-1 data was selected for the period of 1/1/2016 until
15/3/2017, considering both single and dual polarised data. A total of 16 images for Track 102 was
found and has been subsequently downloaded as Level-1 GRD product from Alaska Satellite Facility
server using the Open Foris SAR toolkit interface on the SEPAL platform (https://sepal.io). This data
has been used to create a time-series stack and the subsequent application of a multi-temporal
speckle filter.
Afterwards two separated timescan products were elaborated at 10 m spatial resolution. Since VH
polarised imagery was not available for all the dates of interest, only the VV polarised bands were
considered in this step. The procedure itself consists of taking the time-series stack and creating
descriptive statistics such as the minimum, maximum and average value as well as the standard
deviation and coefficient of variation, calculated in the temporal domain. Dry season images were
chosen for the two timescan products (four images for the beginning of each of 2016 and 2017)
because the SAR signal is not just sensitive to structural attributes, but also to moisture effects. Since
woody vegetation is characterized by low temporal variation and relatively high backscatter values, a
correlation between the timescan products and the biomass can be expected.
Optical data
Sentinel-2 is an optical sensor which captures spectral reflectance of the wavelengths characteristic
for the differentiation of vegetation. Image mosaics (greenest wettest pixel closest to the target date)
at a spatial resolution of 10 m were acquired through Google Earth Engine API for February 2016 and
January 2017 – before and after the establishment of the settlement. February 2016 was chosen
because of seasonal similarities to January 2017.
Figure 5: Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-1 data for the area of interest for beginning of 2017
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Figure 5 (Left): False colour composite of Sentinel-2 mosaic for January 2017, including boundaries of
settlement area and 5 km buffer around. Band 8 (near infrared) is displayed as red, band 4 (red light)
as green and band 3 (green light) as blue. Green vegetation shows as red in this image, grasslands (dry
at this time of year) show as light green/brown, and dark areas are burnt areas.
Figure 5 (Right): Pseudocolour image of Sentinel-1 Gamma0 VV minimum backscatter intensity
timescan layer for January/February 2017. Dark green areas indicate high woody biomass, white areas
no woody biomass.
Image processing for LULC classification and direct biomass estimates
Both Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data were processed to the same spatial extent and resolution (~10 m)
and clipped to a 5 km buffer around the settlement boundary.
The following processing steps were undertaken for each time step:
Processing of Sentinel-1 imagery to same spatial extent and resolution (~10 m) of Sentinel-2 imagery;
For 2017, use of bands 2, 3, 4, and 8 for Sentinel-2 imagery and all four available bands from Sentinel-1 multi-temporal data (mean, min, max, standard deviation). For 2016, use of only bands 2, 3, 4, and 8 for Sentinel-2 because Sentinel-1 data contained artefacts that presented biased results;
Unsupervised classification (50 clusters) run over the imagery for each time period (oft-k-means);
Sieved the clusters to a minimum size of 8 pixels (gdal_sieve.py);
Mean spectral signature calculated for each unique cluster (oft-stat);
RA supervised classification (R package random Forest) run for LULC classification;
Computed statistics of resulting classification images for both settlement area only and buffer area of 5 km around the settlement boundary.
Several training data sets were tested for the supervised LULC classification:
Points visited during the field mission only;
Combination of points from field mission and manually added points;
Hand-drawn polygons.
Dataset 1 was insufficient to derive a sound classification. Dataset 2 provided very good classification
results for January 2017, whereas dataset 3 was deemed most appropriate for February 2016.
Change detection
Independent change detection was performed using the IMAD algorithm (oft-imad.py) between the
two time periods on the Sentinel-2 imagery. This ensured that zones of changes were properly
detected, taking into account issues related to seasonality and the presence of clouds and shadows.
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Tools and software used
Field data was collected using Open Foris Collect Mobile, with its survey developed and database
handled in Open Foris Collect.
Remote Sensing data was processed on SEPAL (System for earth observations, data access, processing
& analysis for land monitoring, https://sepal.io). SEPAL is a cloud-based system developed by FAO that
allows the user easy access to satellite imagery and powerful processing capacities. Details about
software and tools used are listed in Table 1.
Description Software/tool used
Field data collection Open Foris Collect Mobile
Field data database Open Foris Collect
Sentinel-2 acquisition Google Earth Engine API
Sentinel-1 acquisition Open Foris SAR toolkit
Working environment SEPAL Ubuntu 16.04
Processing code Bash 4.3.46
Spatial data processing Open Foris Geospatial Toolkit 1.26.6
Calculations R 3.3.2
Visualization and spatial editing (on local machine) QGIS 2.18.3
Table 1: Software and tools used
1.3.5 Definitions
LULC classes
Wood resources are distributed unevenly between land use/land cover (LULC) classes in the Area of
Interest (AOI). The LULC classes used in this study are similar to the ones used for the National Biomass
Study (NBS) of Uganda (Forest Department 2002). The main classes found in the field inventory were
closed and open woodlands, bushland, grassland and cultivated land. For the LULC mapping, also
bare/open land, water and burnt areas were added. The field plots were unevenly distributed among
the LULC classes with number of sample plots per class ranging from 3 to 20 (Table 5 in the results
section 3.4).
These classes are described as follows according to the NBS (Forest Department 2002, pp. 17-19):
Woodlands – “Wooded areas where trees and shrubs are predominant. There are wet and dry types.
The wet type occurs as a zone along wetlands (riverine forest) and the dry type is found on grass-
covered upland areas. To qualify as woodland the average height of the trees must exceed 4 m”.
Woodlands can be distinguished into closed and open woodlands by their canopy cover. Closed
woodlands have a canopy cover of > 40% whereas open woodlands have one of 10 to 40%.
12
Bushlands – “Refers to vegetation dominated by bush, scrub and thicket growing together as an entity,
but not exceeding an average height of 4 m”.
Grasslands – “Rangelands, grazing grounds, improved pastures and natural savannah grassland.
Various trees - bush/woody vegetation frequently occur on this land, but grass dominates the
landscape”.
Cultivated land/farmland area – “Scattered trees are frequently found in the vicinity of the
homesteads. Examples include fruit trees and various multipurpose trees integrated in the farming
system (agroforestry). Farmland areas including small holder subsistence farm units cover 50-90% of
the land cover of Uganda. The cropping systems include mono- and mixed cropping”.
Bare/open land includes bare soil without or very limited vegetation cover and built-up areas and
settlements without significant amounts of vegetation.
Wood resources
The focus of the study was on classes with potential woodfuel resources. Both bushland and grassland
were found to have very low aboveground biomass stocks and few sample plots and were therefore
aggregated into one class.
The field data captured three main sources of wood resources:
- aboveground biomass (twigs, branches and stems) of shrubs and trees;
- deadwood (both in standing trees and on the ground);
- saplings as a proxy for regeneration potential.
13
2. Woodfuel demand results
The woodfuel demand in Bidi Bidi settlement is concentrated at household level. There are schools in
the settlement but feeding programs are not yet in place. Some fuelwood is used for cooking also at
the refugee reception centre though at very low levels compared to the total consumption at
household level. Furthermore, wood is also used as building material, thus an estimate of woody
biomass extraction for housing the refugees was also considered.
2.1 Population and household information
The current population of Bidi Bidi settlement is estimated at 272 206 refugees (UNHCR - Level 1
Registration to 19 December 2016). All Bidi Bidi settlement dwellers come mainly from five different
ethnicities (i.e. Madi, Peri, Lotuko, Acholi, Dinka) of South Sudan; some speaking similar languages of
Northern Uganda like the Acholi and Madi.
A total of 72 households were randomly selected with 68 females and 4 males interviewed; 11 HH
were male headed; 61 HH were female headed. The majority of people interviewed were female
between 25 and 40 years of age (68%); 38 (53%) were heads of household while the others were
spouses (wife) 25%, daughter (2.8%) and 19% were not specified.
Size of households
The estimated size of household in this study was based on the household survey on a sample of 72
households. The majority of households interviewed range between four and seven members (Figure
6) and the average number of members in a household is estimated at six.
Figure 6: Average household size
Livelihood
More than 66% of the households in the refugee settlement engaged in crop agriculture before the
crisis; only two households had two different sources of income; 22% had been engaged in some
0369
1215182124
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ormore
Household size of the sample
%
People in the household
14
business related to pastoralism, fishing, charcoal production, cooking food, masonry, poultry keeping
and e education; 5% were agro-pastoral, while 3% had members who worked as health workers.
It is important to note that although all 72 households did not mention any number of income/wage
earners, a few households stated having some occasional sources of income. Just over 26% reported
selling food and one household was involved in the sale of fuelwood. The majority of households do
not have any source of income.
Focus group discussions also confirmed that people in the refugee settlement generally do not have
sources of income; the few who try are engaged in petty trade of selling food items and a few
necessities. Makeshift markets were also observed in Bidi Bidi settlement. A few other refugees had
been engaged in a one-time contract of making fuel-efficient devices by NGOs (FGD- F: 6; Zone 4). A
few refugees own some livestock which they sell for a small amount of money.
Some of the refugees have resorted to negative coping mechanisms to meet other household needs,
for example selling solar lamps at UGX 20 000 – 30 000 per lantern (approximately US$ 5-8), and selling
goats and sheep at about 40–50% of market price.
The income opportunities available for refugees also include bread/mandazi (a type of local fried
bread) making, cooking food, for instance a maize and beans-based meal, or petty trade of soap, salt
and sugar, but developing these opportunities need some cash as capital investment which the
refugees do not have under current circumstances.
The majority of households in the host communities depend on natural resources for their main
incomes: agricultural production, selling fuelwood and charcoal and grass for brooms. However, they
have perceived a reduction in the amount of trees in the recent past.
Currently, there is competition for fuelwood and grass for grazing animals and thatching houses
between the refugees and host communities. This can potentially cause conflict and tension.
2.2 Woodfuel consumption for cooking and heating
In this assessment refugee households were asked about the type of fuel used for cooking/heating
and to estimate the average amount of woodfuel they used for cooking and heating in a day. According
to information gathered from the household survey, a considerable amount of fuelwood is consumed
for the preparation of beans that require a long cooking time. Fuelwood is also used to heat water for
children’s baths and to provide heat in the cold mornings or evening. The fuelwood was then weighed
and recorded for both the daily fuelwood consumption for cooking/heating and the specific task of
cooking beans.
The majority of refugee households use only fuelwood (97%) for cooking/heating and only 3% use
charcoal for cooking (Table 2). Currently the majority of the households (96%) collects fuelwood
directly from the surrounding forest and other woodlands; only 4% purchase from the market and 2%
get fuelwood from both the forest and the market.
15
Table 2: Fuel type used in the settlement
Households in the surrounding host community also mostly use fuelwood for cooking, heating water
as well as for brick making to be used as building materials – a practice that is not permitted within
the refugee settlement area. Inside Bidi Bidi settlement, a household receives maize and red sorghum
grain, beans and some other basic food items every month. Usually each household cooks and lights
a fire twice a day.
The average fuelwood consumption in a day for cooking/heating needs, other than cooking beans,
corresponds to 12 kg per household that is equal to 2 kg of fuelwood per day per person. It has been
recorded through household interviews that beans take a very long cooking and yet 83% of refugee
households cook beans at least 4 times in a week. If each household cooks the beans an average of 4
times in a week and distributing the fuelwood consumption on a daily basis, the estimated fuelwood
consumption per person per day for cooking beans is an average of 1.5 kg.
Thus, the overall average fuelwood consumption for cooking/heating is estimated at 20.5 kg per day
per household that corresponds to 3.5 kg of fuelwood per day per person. This figure is considerably
high if compared to similar situations. For instance in literature the fuelwood consumption for cooking
in displacement settings ranges from between 0.7 kg to 3 kg per person per day (Gunning, 2014). The
long time required for cooking the beans is identified as a driver of such high fuelwood consumption.
In addition, it was observed that refugee households occasionally use wet/green wood, which entails
a lower efficiency rate in burning fuelwood. A more in-depth analysis of the current technologies and
practices for cooking is needed to better understand the main drivers of fuelwood consumption.
By scaling up the results from the sample household survey, for 272 206 refugees registered in Bidi
Bidi settlement, the rate of fuelwood consumption is estimated approximately at 952 tonnes per day
with a demand of over 347 480 tonnes of fuelwood per year. Since the displacement setting was
opened (over 7 months ago), the total fuelwood extraction is estimated at about 199 920 tonnes.
Fuel type # HH %
Fuelwood 70 97.2
Charcoal & fuelwood 2 2.8
Total 72 100
16
Figure 7: Members of the refugee settlement estimating and weighing the daily wood consumption
Charcoal
Refugees were not permitted to produce charcoal by the local authorities although they are free to
purchase and use it. During the data collection, the impression was that many were not free to disclose
that they use charcoal out of fear that their use of charcoal would be considered illegal. The household
survey shows that very few of them (3%) use charcoal for cooking with an average consumption of 2.7
kg per day that corresponds to 0.4 kg of charcoal per person/day. Therefore, taking into account 3%
of total refugee population using charcoal, the total charcoal consumption in Bidi Bidi is estimated to
3.2 tonnes per day and 1 170 tonnes per year. Assuming a conversion efficiency of fuelwood to
charcoal of 20%, the total fuelwood consumption is estimated to be approximately at 5 840 tonnes
per year. Since Bidi Bidi settlement was opened the charcoal consumption is estimated to be 672
tonnes, which corresponds to 3 360 tonnes of fuelwood.
Refugees are experiencing a lack of fuelwood and have started devising ways of coping with the
scarcity:
“... sometimes exchange food for charcoal; before crisis most refugees were using fuelwood
but now even smaller pieces of wood, twigs and maize cobs are used”. (Focus Group Discussion,
F&M Refugees)
Other uses of woody biomass
It was noted that wood has been cut down by the refugees also for building shelters and other
household constructions. According to the field measurements carried out in the field, approx. 0.9 m3
of wood poles has been used by each household for house construction. Therefore, the estimated
woody biomass used for this purpose by the 101 500 households registered in Bidi Bidi settlement is
91 350 m3 that corresponds to 63 945 tonnes (assuming an average wood density of 700 kg/m3).
17
Results of woodfuel demand and other woody biomass uses
Since the establishment of Bidi Bidi settlement, the estimated total woody biomass used for fuelwood,
charcoal and building purpose is 267 225 tonnes. Taking into consideration the energy needs of
refugees for cooking and heating in Bidi Bidi settlement, the estimated fuelwood demand is 353 320
tonnes per year (including charcoal on a fuelwood basis) (Table 3).
Baseline wood consumption
Total daily consumption (t)
Total annual consumption (t)
Total consumption since the establishment of
Bidi Bidi (7 months) (t)
Fuelwood 952 347 480 199 920
Charcoal* 16 5 840 3 360
Building material 63 945
Total 968 353 320 267 225
* Expressed on fuelwood basis assuming a conversion efficiency of fuelwood to charcoal of 20%
Table 3: Baseline wood consumption of Bidi Bidi settlement
2.3 Technologies and practices for cooking
The assessment team asked respondents about their experiences with cooking/heating devices, type
and problems experienced before fleeing to Uganda and their current situation. The team also
observed and took pictures of some of the cooking devices used in the settlement and host community.
There are more households in Bidi Bidi settlement using the traditional 3-stone fire (56%) compared
to before the crisis (32%). However, a considerable proportion of households uses an improved mud
stove for fuelwood (40%). From observations however, many households who have the mud stove
still use the 3-stone fire. Additionally, 3% of households use the mud stove for charcoal and only 1.4%
households is currently using the metal charcoal stove compared to 17% before the crisis (Figure 8).
Figure 8: Type of cookstoves used prior to crisis and at the present
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
3-stone Mud stove forfuelwood
Mud stove forcharcoal
Metal stove forcharcoal
Household cookstoves
Prior to crisis Current situation
18
It was observed among the households that the mud stoves for fuelwood used in Bidi Bidi settlement
do not have a standardised make. This means the stove energy efficiency might be different according
to the design used. The household survey results do not actually show a marked difference in
fuelwood consumption between households of the same size using the 3-stone fire and the mud stove.
However, during the focus group discussions, respondents indicated that there is a difference in the
fuel consumed, with the mud stove requiring less. Further investigations are recommended to verify
the energy efficiency of these mud stoves.
Many households in the host community also use the traditional 3-stone fire and a few use some fuel-
efficient devices. However, this assessment did not investigate the different kinds of devices in the
host community.
Figure 9: A community worker cooking beans in her household using the traditional 3-stone fire
From the direct interviews conducted with household in the settlement, it was revealed that many
refugees have knowledge and skills to make and use fuel-efficient mud stoves but with different
adaptations in the design. Some people have received training on the construction and value of fuel-
efficient stoves but a good number of people did not receive training but have copied the mud stove
production from a neighbour or relative.
“My 16 year old daughter constructed the fuel-efficient stove after seeing it at the neighbours”. (FGD-
mixed Refugees, F:3; M:2 Block 11)
“I saw already one mud stove and I thought I could make it myself and that’s how I have and use one; I
first made the bricks and then prepared mud after bricks had dried”. (FGD- F: 6; Zone 4)
“Only three households in the village are using the fuel-efficient stove, they now have time attend to
other household chores and making craft for income”. (Focus Group Discussion, Host Community)
19
The respondents stated that the mud stove protects the fire from the wind effect, requires less wood
than the 3-stone fire and consequently cuts down the fuelwood collection trips saving time for other
productive work.
Figure 10: An improved mud stove used by a refugee household
Figure 11: A woman cooking posho (maize meal) on an improved mud stove (Two-Pot Rocket Lorena)
Problems experienced by the households with different cooking methods
In the current situation the most common problems experienced by refugee households using the 3-
stone fire is the high fuelwood consumption and smoke inhalation. Few households have experienced
high fuelwood cost and undercooked food in the settlement.
20
The host community also experienced the problems of smoke inhalation, high fuelwood
consumption but not undercooked food except when they purchased beans from refugees. This fact
highlights that perhaps the beans provided to refugees are old and therefore require more cooking
time in comparison to the beans produced locally.
“... sometimes food is undercooked if beans are purchased from refugees; lots of fuelwood used” (Luzira
Village Group Discussion, Host Community)
Generally 42% of the households interviewed use a type of mud stove for cooking and they mostly
mentioned the same problems of high fuelwood consumption and smoke inhalation; the fixed mud
stove is not moveable during the rainy season and it may break within one week because of the rain.
The host community who have been trained through GIZ and UNHCR programmes on the construction
of portable mud stoves pointed out some of the disadvantages: it needs to be protected from rain,
but it is heavy to move; it cuts off heat and you are not able to warm yourself in the cold; it can be
stolen; it needs skills to construct; and requires constant maintenance (Focus Group Discussion, Host
Community).
Figure 12: Refugees and host community members working on a CDO project to produce energy saving devices
Compared to the refugee community the adoption of improved fuel-efficient devices is still very low
in the host community; out of the village group discussion with over 30 women and men only three
households were using a fuel-efficient stove for cooking.
From field observations, many households in the Bidi Bidi settlement have the skills to make a fuel-
efficient stove from locally available materials and some of the household members have been
engaged in training and a one-time off paying contract of construction of the portable improved mud
stoves by supportive programme from UNHCR, NGOs and local authorities.
21
A number of people have received training on fuelwood saving techniques both in the refugee and
host community. Some refugee women have received a one-day training, while members of the host
community had just received a one-week training to community groups.
The opportunity of having already trained people can help in sharing knowledge in construction and
use of improved stoves and promoting awareness to get fuel-efficient stoves in every household.
Food preparation methods
In Bidi Bidi settlement the majority of households do not soak or process the beans (74%) before
cooking in any way; 25% stated they soak beans, however key informants explain that “soaking” is
typically for 15 minutes, which is followed by grinding (breaking the beans in smaller pieces) before
cooking.
Table 4: Cooking practices registered in the settlement
According to information gathered through the household survey, beans are a main food in all refugee
households, with the longest cooking time and the highest fuel consumption for their preparation in
comparison to any other type of food. It has been recorded through the household interviews that
beans require a very long cooking time and yet 83% of refugee households cook beans at least 4-5
times in a week.
Soaking overnight greatly reduces the cooking time and fuelwood consumption. Soaking pulses such
as beans also has the additional benefit of increasing their nutritional benefits, and allowing nutrients
to be better absorbed by the body.1 This would also have an impact on fuelwood consumption.
However, many people do not like soaking beans stating that they were not palatable or smell bad;
they would rather go the length of cooking for longer hours than soaking beans.
1 http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5388e.pdf
Preparation of beans #HHs %
# HH who “soak” beans 18 25.0
# HH who don’t soak beans 53 73.6
Missing value 1 1.4
Total 72 100
22
2.4 Challenges and risks to access woodfuel
A number of social and economic vulnerability issues were pointed out as challenges associated with
the collection and use of fuelwood: carrying heavy loads, walking long distances, assault/rape, lack of
tools, fuel costs for some and the burden of household chores.
Fuel collection distance - The responsibility of fuelwood collection falls entirely on women and girls
above 15; they go either with others or on their own. This involves walking up to wherever the
fuelwood may be, cutting it and transporting it back home. Most women walk 2-3 km to collect
fuelwood but some walk up to 5 km and some go up to host community areas to look for fuelwood.
They also expressed that the distance has steadily increased in the past months as the availability of
wood close to the settlement has diminished. Moreover, given to the low availability of woody
biomass, people are increasing the use of green or wet wood and the time take in cutting as well as
drying fuel is a barrier to more efficient cooking practices.
“Women collect fuelwood almost every day; taking 2-3 hours; it is tasking and tiring”. (FGD-
mixed Refugees, F:3; M:2 Block 11)
“...when we came to Bidi Bidi there were many trees around the settlement, now we have to
walk longer distances for round trip it takes 2-3 hours”. (FGD- F: 6; Zone 4)
Wild animal threats – A number of women talked of facing fears of wild animal attacks during
fuelwood collection.
Assault/rape – Refugee women face a number of challenges in looking for fuelwood; they face fears
of being assaulted by the host communities and this may be in form of physical beating, verbal abuse,
or even rape:
“Yesterday two girls were chased by host community members complaining that they should
not collect fuelwood from here”. (FGD-mixed Refugees, F:3; M:2)
“Sometimes people in the host community prevent refugees from collecting fuelwood and
producing charcoal”. (FGD- F:6)
Incidents of rape are reported not only as performed by members of host communities but also within
the refugee settlement.
Lack of tools - According to a key informant and FGDs refugees lack tools such as axes to collect
fuelwood.
“Lack of axes, the machetes are not able to cut, they have broken handles, not easy to use or
mend (lack materials to mend the handles)” (FGD-mixed Refugees, F:3, M:2; Block 11)
However, this might be an indication that the number of small trees has decreased and individuals are
targeting bigger trees, which require more powerful tools.
Poor dietary practices – Before the crisis, refugees cooked a variety of foods including: cassava, millet,
sorghum, maize, sweet potatoes, yams, pumpkin, greens, cabbage, meat and cowpeas. Currently the
only foods mentioned in the refugee settlement were posho/maize and beans with a few having daga
23
fish. Nutrition/dietary needs are compromised within many households only eating posho and beans,
having only two or less meals a day for most (51%) with just 47% of households having three meals in
a day. A typical refugee household in Bidi Bidi will have porridge for breakfast, posho/maize and beans
for lunch. Many households have cut down the meals to two in a day because of the uncertainty of
the food rations to come. Sometimes refugees cope by exchanging food for fuelwood or cooking once
in a day i.e. cook food enough for lunch and keeping the same food for the evening meal.
“Currently most households cook beans, posho, porridge which has been suspended because
the rations have not yet been received”. (FGD-mixed Refugees, F:3; M:2 Block 11)
Conflict and tension - During focus group discussions, a number of issues came up that indicate some
tension in the refugee or host community: competition on the same natural resources, unfulfilled
agreements, shared services and some miscommunication. As natural resources start diminishing,
tensions are growing between the host and refugee communities, particularly since the host
community can no longer access resources within Bidi Bidi settlement. Competition for collecting
fuelwood between the host community and refugees can cause conflict and tensions if not addressed.
The designation of Bidi Bidi as a refugee settlement has led to competition for local natural resources
such as wood for energy and building material as well as grass for thatching and grazing; it has also
cost the host community a part of their grazing lands and sources of thatching material. Both the host
and refugee communities have complained that the other burns the grass or takes their cut fuelwood.
A few misunderstandings have also sprung up causing some tension between the refugee and host
communities on the use of land and water. The refugee community, for example, believes that the
land on which they were settled was purchased and paid for them while the host community lent the
land in exchange for services agreed with the local authorities.
Land and tree tenure – for the establishment of woodlots or tree plantatations there may be
challenges associated to the land tenure system in Yumbe. The majority of land nationwide is under
customary tenure; although farmers on customary land are protected by the law and enjoy security
of tenure there is a need to discuss issues pertaining to tenure of land and trees that may be planted
on different land tenure systems within Yumbe District. Issues need to be agreed upon, with a gender
perspective and represented in a formalized document (refer to VGGT note in recommendations).
The practice of involving end users of both communities (hosts and refugees) in the selection of
multipurpose trees to be planted – already encouraged by UNHCR in reforestation programmes2 –
could alleviate tension, particularly if there are gains beyond fuelwood to be made (e.g. food, fodder,
and shelter) which can meet both subsistence and income needs.
2 http://www.unhcr.org/protect/PROTECTION/438724c42.pdf
24
3. Woodfuel supply results
3.1 Results from the field measurements
Only aboveground biomass and deadwood was targeted in this study as primarily source of woodfuel
and it is the only resource that can be directly inferred from available satellite imagery.
The potential woody biomass for fuel of each LULC class differs significantly in terms of aboveground
biomass, deadwood and number of saplings (Table 5 and Error! Reference source not found.). Similar
verage aboveground biomass in cultivated land and open woodland is in line with findings from NBS
and other field inventory data from Uganda.
LULC class Number of plots surveyed
Trees per ha Aboveground biomass (t/ha)
Deadwood (t/ha)
Saplings per ha
Closed woodland 3 1209 ± 2101 56.96 ± 44.75 1.62 ± 5.46 265 ± 900
Open woodland 20 647 ± 1310 9.23 ± 13.57 17.58 ± 144.73 368 ± 1090
Bushland and grassland
6 394 ± 1095 2.02 ± 5.37 0.64 ± 1.56 133 ± 472
Cultivated land 3 367 ± 1112 12.49 ± 7.38 0.56 ± 1.89 66 ± 225
Table 5: Woodfuel potential of each LULC class including 95% confidence intervals
A total of 43 tree species was recorded in the field data (Annex 1 for complete list of tree and shrub
species). The dominant tree species are Acacia hockii (102 trees), Combretum collinum (67 trees),
Grewia mollis (42 trees) and Combretum fragans (28 trees). A total of 4 shrub species were recorded;
for some shrubs the species could not be identified, mainly due to burning (Annex 1).
Figure 13: Aboveground biomass distribution between LULC classes. The boxplot depicts the median, first
and third quantile and largest and lowest values
25
Estimating growth rates in terms of mean annual increment requires repeated measurements in time
which were not available for Bidi Bidi settlement. However, the NBS provides such figures as national
average and for agroecological zones (Yumbe District falls into the semi-moist lowland zone) (Forest
Department 2002). The growth rates differ widely between LULC classes (Table 6).
LULC class
National mean annual increment
(t/ha)
Semi-moist lowland mean annual increment
(t/ha)
Woodland 5.0 4.2
Bushland 1.0 0.3
Grassland 1.0 1.2
Subsistence Farmland
1.0 1.7
Table 6: Annual increment in t/ha (air-dry matter) from National Biomass Study 2002, as national averages and for moist lowlands (Forest Department 2002)
3.2 Mapping the distribution of LULC
In addition to the four LULC classes present in the field data, three other classes were mapped:
open/bare land, water and burnt areas. Mapping burnt areas separately was necessary because the
optical Sentinel-2 imagery was from the dry season where burnt areas regularly occur in this part of
the country. Open/bare land and water are not present in the field data because they have no
aboveground woody biomass.
The spatial distribution of LULC classes inside the settlement and 5 km around the boundary for 2017
is depicted in Figure 14. Calculated areas per LULC class are available in Table 7.
26
Figure 14: LULC 2017 for Bidi Bidi settlement and 5 km buffer around the settlement boundary
LULC class Area within Bidi Bidi settlement boundary (ha)
Total area including 5 km buffer (ha)
Closed woodland 3 356 8 935
Open woodland 39 492 69 164
Bushland and grassland 18 166 34 185
Cultivated land 10 598 29 829
Bare/open land 3 249 5 101
Burnt areas 4 905 14 352
Water 1 126
Total 79 765 161 693
Table 7: Area of each LULC class within settlement area and in total area with 5 km buffer around the settlement boundary
27
3.3 Mapping changes in LULC
Changes for such a short time frame as in this study (11 months from February 2016 to January 2017)
are very difficult to detect from satellite imagery because they get overridden by changes from natural
(seasonality) and anthropic (agricultural burning practices) origins that are of larger order of
magnitudes (in terms of area) and spatially spread within a complex landscape. With the IMAD change
detection, only changes inside the zones, mainly related to the construction of roads, and seasonal
differences of burnt areas could be detected.
For this purpose, all areas within the settlement boundary which showed bare/open land in 2017 and
other LULC in 2016 and which were above 5 pixels (~ 500 m2) in size were assumed to be changes due
to the camp establishment. This resulted in an estimated total area of 2 295 ha converted from other
LULC to bare/open land through the establishment of the settlement. This area was mainly comprised
of open woodlands with 1 166 ha (Table 8).
LULC class 2016 Area (ha)
Closed woodland 8
Open woodland 1 166
Bushland and grassland 680
Cultivated land 119
Burnt areas 322
Total 2 295
Table 8: Area of LULC in 2016 converted to bare/open land in 2017 through camp establishment
3.4 Biomass mapping
To estimate and map the available wood resources for woodfuel, the mean aboveground biomass is
applied to the respective LULC class. As burnt areas were not measured as such in the biophysical field
inventory, they were assumed to have the same aboveground biomass stock as bush- and grassland
because these LULC types usually burn.
Table 9 shows for each LULC class the area (ha) both within the settlement boundary and including
the 5 km buffer, and the mean aboveground biomass (t/ha). These two are multiplied to derive total
available stock of aboveground biomass. The distribution of the biomass stock is shown on the map in
Figure 15.
28
Figure 15: Distribution of wood resources in Bidi Bidi settlement (Including a 5 km buffer) in January 2017
The total aboveground biomass stock is estimated at 734 614 t for the settlement area and at
1 617 953 t including the 5 km buffer area around the settlement boundary. Most aboveground
biomass can be found in open woodlands, but also closed woodlands contribute significant amounts
despite their limited coverage in terms of area.
29
LULC class Area within settlement boundary (ha)
Total area including 5km buffer (ha)
Mean AGB (t/ha)
AGB stock within settlement (t)
AGB stock within settlement plus 5 km buffer (t)
Closed woodland
3 356 8 935 56.96 191 130 508 965
Open woodland
39 492 69 164 9.23 364 513 638 380
Bushland and grassland
18 166 34 185 2.02 36 695 69 054
Cultivated land
10 598 29 829 12.49 132 369 372 562
Bare/ open land
3 249 5 101 0 0 0
Burnt areas
4 905 14 352 2.02 9 908 28 992
Water 1 126 0 0 0
Total 79 765 161 693 NA 734 614 1 617 953
Table 9: Area, mean AGB and total biomass stock estimates for each LULC class
The establishment of the settlement had a detectable impact on 2 295 ha, which have a total
aboveground biomass stock of 14 725 t (Table 10).
Table 10: Area of LULC in 2016 converted to bare/open land in 2017 through camp establishment and total
aboveground biomass associated with these areas
LULC class 2016 Area (ha) Total aboveground biomass lost (t)
Closed woodland 8 450
Open woodland 1 166 10 763
Bushland and grassland
680 1 373
Cultivated land 119 1 488
Burnt areas 322 651
Total 2 295 14 725
30
4. Possible scenarios and recommendations
4.1 Possible scenarios
Several possible interventions have the potential to improve energy access, minimize environmental
impacts in Bidi Bidi, and bring additional benefits such as livelihood opportunities from multipurpose
tree planting and time spared from reduced collection of fuelwood. Based on the integration of the
results from woodfuel demand and supply assessment, the following future scenarios are developed:
1) Scenario Business as Usual (BAU); 2) Scenario with improved cookstoves; and 3) Scenario with tree
plantations and improved stoves.
(1) Scenario Business as Usual. The rate of fuelwood consumption is estimated at 952 tonnes per day
or 347 480 tonnes per year and the total aboveground biomass stock in the settlement area is
734 614 tonnes with an annual aboveground biomass growth of 33 300 tonnes per year in the
settlement area. By considering only the settlement area, the annual deficit of woody biomass
growth in the targeted area is 314 180 tonnes. The estimated total aboveground biomass stock
and growth from trees and shrubs within the settlement area, in a hypothetical worst case scenario,
can supply fuelwood to the current refugees in Bidi Bidi for 3 years (Table 11Table 10). This would
however be at the cost of a full depletion of the Bidi Bidi settlement area in terms of aboveground
biomass, representing an issue that needs to be addressed as soon as possible as refugees already
compete with the local communities for the scarce resources outside the settlement boundary area.
Year Total fuelwood consumption
(t yr-1)
Total AGB stock (t)
Annual AGB growth (t yr-1)
Annual AGB loss (t yr-1)
1 347 480 734 614 33 300 -314 180
2 347 480 420 434 19 058 -328 422
3 347 480 92 012 4 171 -343 309
4 347 480 --- --- ---
Table 11: Woodfuel supply and demand in BAU Scenario
(2) Scenario with improved cookstoves. Under this scenario woodfuel demand is reduced by using
fuel-efficient cookstoves. Taking into consideration the baseline situation, 56% of households are
currently using the 3-stone fire against to 42% using improved mud stoves, this scenario assumes
that 100% of households will shift to an improved mud stove with 20% thermal efficiency.
Therefore, assuming efficiency of 3-stone fire at 10%, the utilization of improved stove instead of
3-stone fire by 56% of households can result with about 30% of fuelwood savings compared to the
BAU Scenario. The total fuelwood demand in Bidi Bidi settlement is then estimated about 243 000
tonnes per year. Under this scenario with the introduction of improved cookstoves, women will
also spend less time collecting fuelwood with more time available for other activities. As the
estimated annual aboveground biomass growth within the settlement area is about 33 300 tonnes
per year, the annual deficit of woody biomass growth under this scenario would be 209 700 tonnes
(year 1). Therefore, according to the estimated total aboveground biomass stock and annual
31
growth from trees and shrubs within the settlement area, the total aboveground biomass
available can supply the current refugees in Bidi Bidi for 4 years in this scenario (Table 12). This
would however be at the cost of a full depletion of the area in terms of aboveground biomass,
representing an issue that needs to be addressed as soon as possible. Therefore, the utilization of
improved mud stoves by the all refugee households can only delay the deforestation and land
degradation rate resulting from the woodfuel demand for cooking.
Year Total fuelwood consumption
(t yr-1)
Total AGB stock (t)
Annual AGB growth (t yr-1)
Annual AGB loss (t yr-1)
1 243 000 734 614 33 300 -209 700
2 243 000 524 914 23 794 -219 206
3 243 000 305 708 13 858 -229 142
4 243 000 76 566 3 471 -239 529
5 243 000 --- --- ---
Table 12: Woodfuel supply and demand in Scenario with improved cookstoves
(3) Scenario with tree plantations and improved stoves. Another scenario for reducing the
environmental impacts resulting from the woodfuel demand is to increase the woody biomass
production by planting trees in combination with the introduction of improved cookstoves
(Scenario 2). When considering common productive woodlots in Uganda with a MAI that ranges
between 20 and 26 m3 per hectare, and assuming an average wood density of 600 kg/m3, a
biomass expansion factor of 1.5 (to include also bark and branches to the MAI), the total
aboveground biomass increment would range between 18 and 23.4 tonnes per hectare per year.
To compensate the annual biomass loss of 219 206 tonnes (after 2 years) and assuming the tree
plantation becomes productive in the year 3, between 9 368 and 12 178 hectares would need to
be planted with fast growing species that corresponds to 12-15% of the total land area of Bidi Bidi
settlement (798 km2 within the settlement boundary) (Table 13). Each household would need a
minimum area of 50 m x 50 m, dedicated exclusively to growing timber for fuelwood. If this number
of hectares could be planted, this would provide a sustainable source of fuelwood for the existing
population, however this involves considerable costs, land ownership issues, expertise, forest
management, etc. Forest management should focus on maximizing the biomass production in the
short time and tree density can be drastically increased to reach the optimum growth per unit of
surface. Short rotation coppice management can regularly produce fuelwood for long time periods.
Year
Total fuelwood
consumption (t yr-1)
Total AGB from existing
resources (t)
Annual AGB growth from
existing resources (t yr-1)
Min. tree plantation
area (ha)
Annual AGB growth from
tree plantation (t yr-1)
Annual AGB loss
(t yr-1)
1 243 000 734 614 33 300 9 368 0 209 700
2 243 000 524 914 23 794 9 368 0 219 206
3 243 000 305 708 13 858 9 368 219 206 0
4 243 000 286 277 12 977 9 368 219 206 0
5 243 000 265 965 12 056 9 368 219 206 0
Table 13: Woodfuel supply and demand in Scenario with tree plantations and improved stoves
32
It is important to note that experience in reforestation programmes suggests that in order for such
an option to be sustainable and attractive to the end user, tree species should be selected
according to the needs of these users – and multipurpose trees that might fulfil additional needs
(e.g. food, animal fodder or shade) should be integrated in this option3.
The likelihood is that a combination of these interventions will be needed, effective immediately,
to reduce the high woodfuel demand from the refugees of Bidi Bidi settlement and to support a
sustainable woodfuel supply. These include the adoption of fuel-efficient stoves and energy
savings cooking practices at the household level, establishing multipurpose tree planting
programmes, developing forest management plans and promoting woodfuel alternatives (e.g.
agricultural residues, LPG). Such interventions would have the added value of contributing to
climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration and reduction of CO2 emissions. The
carbon sequestrated by forest plantations and the emission reductions from improved cookstoves
could also provide benefits through carbon credits.
4.2 Recommendations
Fuel-efficient cookstoves and energy saving measures
Fuel-efficient cookstoves should be promoted to reduce fuelwood demand with about 30% of
fuelwood savings compared to the BAU Scenario. It is important to increase effectiveness of
programmes to improve the use of fuel-efficient stoves and the adoption of energy efficient cooking
practices through engaging relevant expertise to design community awareness and engagement
programs. A participatory approach should be promoted for planning and monitoring these activities
for the refugee and host communities.
It is important to keep in mind that the selection of appropriate fuel-efficient cookstoves has to take
into consideration several specific factors such as safety, availability of local fuel resources, funding
levels, cooking habits, user acceptability4. An in-depth assessment of the current technologies for
cooking and to improve designs of mud-stoves already in place in the settlement, is needed. Specific
expertise should be engaged. Existing knowledge and skills in construction and use of improved mud
stoves and increasing awareness to get fuel-efficient stoves in every household should be also
encouraged in Bidi Bidi settlement.
In addition, the following energy savings measures are recommended to further reduce fuelwood
consumption for cooking:
- Use, and production, of heat retention boxes and bags using locally available materials should
be promoted, which can reduce fuel consumption by over 40%.
- Use suitable lids for all cooking task helps to contain the heat so that food cooks faster.
- Soak beans and grind or cut food in smaller pieces. For instance, beans need to be soaked
overnight for 8-14 hours and cooked the next day. Soaking makes beans soft so that they will
cook for a shorter time and using much less fuelwood.
3 http://www.unhcr.org/protect/PROTECTION/438724c42.pdf 4 http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadt959.pdf
33
- Dry fuel before use and process into smaller pieces. Using dry wood would increase cooking
energy efficiency, reducing the amount required for cooking with the side benefit of reducing
harmful smoke emissions.
- Share cooking facilities between families.
- The use of traditional clay cooking pot, although more delicate, absorbs and contains heat
longer than a metal pot and once it gets hot the clay pot requires lesser fuel to keep it going
compared to the metal one.
Tree planting and improved forest management
There is a clear risk of high levels of deforestation and land degradation due to the increased woodfuel
demand due to the sudden influx of refugees in Bidi Bidi settlement. It is a priority to improve the
management of existing forests and other woodlands as well as planting trees to increase the woody
biomass production in the settlement and host communities land. Planning, implementing and
monitoring a forest management plan, in consultation with the local and national authorities as well
as with host and refugee communities, needs urgent attention. In addition, forestry and
environmental expertise should be engaged to guide the planning and implementation process and
build capacity and knowledge for longer-term success of the project.
A forest management plan for Bidi Bidi should aim to support the energy needs of refugee and host
communities and at the same time to reduce the environmental and social impacts as result of
overexploitation of the natural resources, deforestation and forest degradation.
Fast growing tree species with short rotation coppice management should be preferred for an early
fuelwood collection but also multipurpose species can boost motivation of the population in taking
care of trees also for other socio-economic benefits and non-wood forest products such as provision
of fruits and fodder, soil conservation, soil fertility, fencing, etc.
Afforestation, reforestation and ecosystem restoration/rehabilitation interventions should be carried
out in a participatory manner with leaders in the different communities giving a particular attention
to the interlinkages between the environmental and different sociocultural aspects. The
establishment of new tree plantations either for fuelwood production or land
restoration/rehabilitation requires the development of a detailed forest management plan including
key elements such as the selection of tree species, planting material, planting schemes, timeframes,
tree nursery management, suitable land in addition to costs of all stages of the programme, tenure
and legal issues, water supply, fertility, human resources, protection of the site, transplanting, tending
operations, harvesting schemes and closed coordination with local government and other actors
engaged in similar programmes in the region.
“Fuelwood-for-work” programmes could be linked to the ongoing UNHCR “cash-for-work”
programmes similar to WFP “food-for-work” programmes. FAO has decades of experiences in
promoting and monitoring forest and tree resource assessment, sustainable energy systems and
enhancement of ecosystem services. In particular, afforestation, reforestation, ecosystem restoration,
agroforestry systems and promotion of improved energy consumption means can contribute to
addressing environmental degradation, deliver integrated solutions and enhancement of resilience
and adaptation.
34
According to the results from the Scenario with tree plantations and improved stoves, to compensate
the annual biomass loss as result of woodfuel demand, between 9 368 and 12 178 hectares would
need to be planted with fast growing species that corresponds to 12-15% of the total land area of Bidi
Bidi settlement.
The focus group discussions revealed that both the refugees and host communities are interested in
planting trees if technical and financial support is provided. Refugees showed interest in tree planting
even through a fuelwood-for-work approach for planting and monitoring trees. They had some
concerns for other tree species citing constraints of termites, livestock destruction, lack of land, poor
soils in the settlement and water stress area. Fuelwood-for-work seems a welcome and feasible idea
for district authorities, UNHCR staff and the refugees themselves.
Gender equity
Like in the host communities there is a clear marked existence of gender norms and inequities that
disproportionately affect women in the refugee settlement. A gender sensitive approach that
addresses existing inequities but at the same time minimizes their potential for negative effects on
programmes work is needed. Women should also be involved in tree plantation programmes through
the selection of trees planted, based on their specific needs. This could eventually be coupled with
training in alternative livelihood strategies.
Conflict sensitivity, resolution and peace building
Conflict sensitivity should be integrated in all programmes of government and humanitarian agencies
and in community structures. In addition conflict resolution and peace building activities should be
promoted among refugees and host communities. Considering that the refugee population are in Bidi
Bidi as a result of conflict, then peace, peaceful co-existence, and reduced tensions between the host
and refugees communities over natural resources are prerequisites for the two communities to
receive and appreciate benefits from the different humanitarian programmes. Peace-building and
conflict sensitivity and tracking should be a significant part of planning, implementation and
monitoring of all agencies working together with the OPM and information could be reported on
during the regular meetings.
Monitoring
The methodology developed can be regularly reproduced for monitoring the woodfuel supply and
demand in refugee-hosting areas. By using free and public satellite imagery the continuous monitoring
of biomass stock changes can be implemented using open source solutions that can be accessed
through the SEPAL platform at https://sepal.io and should be used to regularly update the findings
from this report.
35
5. Conclusions
The refugees in Bidi Bidi settlement as it is are living in a status of acute emergency and are exposed
to a wide array of vulnerabilities. With their livelihoods disrupted, refugees have no source of income,
lack secure access to fuel and energy for cooking which sets off other vulnerabilities like compromised
nutrition, food security, health and protection to the person. The wider community meanwhile is
affected by issues of tension/conflict and eventually irreversible environmental degradation and
climate change. Practical measures need to be undertaken to urgently reduce some of these impacts
through careful participatory planning, implementation and monitoring.
The resources around the area are scarce and under obvious pressure and could hence, in a
hypothetical worst case scenario, supply the refugees for 3 years. This would however be at the cost
of a full depletion of the area in terms of aboveground biomass, representing an issue that needs to
be addressed as soon as possible. Continuous monitoring of these resources will be needed in the
coming months to decision making on measures to be taken to mitigate the pressure.
The likelihood is that a combination of interventions will be needed, effective immediately, to reduce
the high woodfuel demand from the refugees of Bidi Bidi settlement and to support a sustainable
woodfuel supply. These include:
i) introducing fuel-efficient cookstoves and promoting energy savings measures at the
household level;
ii) establishing multipurpose tree planting programmes for building resilience and creating
opportunities for sustainable livelihoods;
iii) developing community based forest resources management plans;
iv) promoting woodfuel alternatives (e.g. agricultural residues, LPG).
Such interventions would also have the added value of contributing to climate change mitigation
through carbon sequestration and reduction of CO2 emissions. The carbon sequestrated by forest
plantations and the emission reductions from improved cookstoves could also provide benefits
through carbon credits.
36
6. References and further reading
Chave, J., Rejou-Mechain, M., Burquez, A., Chidumayo, E., Colgan, M. S., Delitti, W. B. C., Duque, A., Eid, T., Fearnside, P. M., Goodman, R. C., Henry, M., Martinez-Yrizar, A., Mugasha, W. A., Muller- Landau, H. C., Mencuccini, M., Nelson, B. W., Ngomanda, A., Nogueira, E. M., Ortiz-Malavassi, E., Pelissier, R., Ploton, P., Ryan, C. M., Saldarriaga, J. G., Vieilledent, G. (2014). Improved allometric models to estimate the aboveground biomass of tropical trees. Global Change Biology, 20(10), 3177- 3190. FAOSTAT 2015. Data portal. FAO, Rome, Italy. Available at http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home FAO 2015. FRA report, 2015: Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4782e.pdf FAO/UNHCR 2016. Assessing woodfuel supply and demand in displacement settings, by D’Annunzio, R., Gianvenuti, A., Henry, M., Thulstrup, A. Rome, Italy. Available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5762e.pdf Forest Department, Ministry of Water Lands and Environment (2002): National Biomass Study –Technical Report, 113p. GSARS (forthcoming). How to Include a Woodfuel Supplementary Module into Existing Surveys and Derive Woodfuel Indicators. A. Borlizzi, Technical Report no. 3 of the project “Developing a Woodfuel Survey Module for Incorporation into Existing Household Surveys and Censuses in Developing Countries”. Rome, FAO. Gunning, R. 2014. The current state of sustainable energy provision for displaced populations: an analysis. London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, Chatham House. Joshi, N., Baumann, M., Ehammer, A., Fensholt, R., Grogan, K., Hostert, P., Rudbeck Jepsen, M., Kuemmerle, T., Meyfroidt, P., Mitchard, E., Reiche, J., Ryan, C.M., Waske, B. 2016. A Review of the Application of Optical and Radar Remote Sensing Data Fusion to Land Use Mapping and Monitoring. Remote Sensing, 8(1), 70. UBOS 2014. Uganda Population and Housing Census 2014. UNHCR/IUCN 2005. Forest Management in Refugee and Returnee Situations: A Handbook of Sound Practices. Geneva, Switzerland. Available at http://www.unhcr.org/protect/PROTECTION/438724c42.pdf USAID. 2010. Fuel-efficient stove programs in humanitarian settings: an implementer’s toolkit. Washington DC, United States Agency for International Development. Available at http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadt959.pdf Useful Trees and Shrubs for Uganda. Identification and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. By A. B. Katende, Ann Birnie and Bo Tengnas - Kamapala and Nairobi: Regional Soil Conservation Units (RSCU), Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), 1995. Available at http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/b09383.pdf
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7. Annex
Table A1: Tree species list and number of recordings from the field inventory per LULC class.
Tree species
Closed woodland
Open woodland
Bushland and grassland
Cultivated land
Total
Common uses5
Remarks
Acacia hockii 40 51 11 0 102 Firewood, charcoal, medicine (roots), ropes (bark), fencing (dry branches).
The root is used to treat cough.
Acacia macrothyrsa
0 0 0 0 0
Acacia polyacantha
1 2 0 0 3 Firewood, timber (roofing, tables, matches, boxes, carving, musical instruments), live fence.
Acacia sieberiana
1 5 0 0 6 Firewood, charcoal, timber, fodder (leaves), tool handles, N-fixation, gum, fences.
The foliage and fruit are good fodder and particularly important in the dry areas of northern Uganda. Often left in fields for shade.
Antiaris toxicaria
1 0 0 0 1 Timber (veneer, beer canoes), medicine (leaves, roots), bark cloth.
The root or leaves are used to treat mental illnesses. Plant individual trees for shade, as avenue trees or as a pure stand.
Balanites aegyptiaca
0 1 0 0 1 Firewood, charcoal, poles, timber (furniture), utensils, tool handles, food (fruit, leaves), medicine (roots, bark,
An important species for dry areas as it produces fruit in very dry seasons. Improved varieties exist in India. The wood is termite
5 http://www.worldagroforestry.org/products/switchboard/index.php/name_like/Acacia/
38
fruit), mulch, shade, windbreak, gum, fencing (branches), oil (fruit), fish poison.
resistant. The edible fruits are rich in saturated fatty acids which are used as cooking oil. The leaves are eaten by populations in Adjumani and parts of Teso. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259921775_Balanites_Aegyptiaca_L_A_Multipurpose_Fruit_Tree_in_Savanna_Zone_Of_Western_Sudan
Borassus aethiopum
0 0 0 1 1 Firewood, charcoal, poles, timber (roofing, door frames, etc.), tool handles, bee hives, food (fruit, seeds, young seedlings), palm wine (sap of flower shoots), medicine (roots, flowers, oil), fodder (fruit, young leaves), thatch, fibre (leaves), baskets, mats (leaf stalks, leaves), oil (fruit, pulp), brooms, drums.
Elephants eat the fruits, thus distributing the tree. The wood is hard and resistant to termites and fungi. Populations in the Acholi area eat the first root shoot from the seed. The fruit is also edible, tasting like peach.
Borassus egyptian
0 2 0 0 2
Bridelia scleroneura
0 7 0 0 7 Medicinal, the wood makes excellent fuel, termite resistant.
Butyrospermum paradoxum
0 1 0 0 1 Firewood, charcoal, timber, food (seed), fodder, oil (cooking, soap, candles), shade, ornamental.
The shea – a vital source of cooking and “smearing oil” (from the kernel) across northern Uganda, although more in the Acholi/Langi areas than West Nile. The fruit is also edible.Tree survives annual fires and the wood is hard and termite resistant and much sought after for making charcoal.
Celtis africana 2 0 0 0 2 Firewood, charcoal, timber (local construction, farm tools), tool handles, fodder (leaves), shade.
The timber rots and splits easily, but it is very strong and with proper seasoning useful for tool handles and building. Leaves are browsed by animals, including cattle, and the leaves and fruits are important in the diet of black and white colobus monkeys. Does not compete with crops
39
since it has a light shade. It is a tree quite suitable for parks and avenues.
Combretum collinum
20 29 9 9 67 Firewood, charcoal, medicine (leaves, roots), bee forage, fencing (cut branches), firebreaks.
Roots are used to treat diarrhoea and vomiting. Makes very good charcoal. Flowers produce good nectar for honey. Suitable for savannah firebreaks. The hard, durable wood burns well but the living tree is tolerant of grass fires.
Combretum fragrans
1 20 7 0 28
Combretum molle
3 10 3 0 16 Firewood, charcoal, poles, posts, timber (construction), tool handles, medicine (roots, leaves, bark), bee forage, mulch.
There are three East African varieties. The hard yellow wood is useful for tools and burns well giving intense heat. The wood is moderately termite resistant. Medicine from the roots has been used for treating hookworm, snake bite, stomach pains, fever, dysentery and leprosy. The charcoal from this species is highly appreciated in Uganda and its planting should be encouraged.
Combretum sp. 0 2 3 0 5
Dichrostachys cinerea
1 0 0 0 1 Firewood, charcoal, poles, posts, tool handles, medicine (leaves, roots), fodder (leaves, pods), bee forage, nitrogen fixation, soil conservation, fibre (bark), live fence, dry fence.
The tree is not planted near houses because it is very thorny. It can be an aggressive weed, has vigorous root suckers and can form a dense thicket. The timber is very heavy and hard but of quite small size. Pounded roots and leaves are used to treat epilepsy. Suitable for planting on degraded soils. It can be an indicator of overgrazing in low rainfall areas.
Dichrostachys sp.
0 2 0 0 2 Firewood, charcoal, poles, posts, tool handles, medicine (leaves, roots), fodder (leaves, pods), bee forage, nitrogen fixation, soil conservation, fibre (bark), live fence, dry fence.
The tree is not planted near houses because it is very thorny. It can be an aggressive weed, has vigorous root suckers and can form a dense thicket. The timber is very heavy and hard but of quite small size. Pounded roots
40
and leaves are used to treat epilepsy. Suitable for planting on degraded soils. It can be an indicator of overgrazing in low rainfall areas.
Ficus natalensis 1 0 0 0 1 Medicine (leaves), shade, live fence, bark cloth.
Barkcloth used to be made from this tree throughout Uganda. The leaves are used to treat dysentery and sore throats. The tree is also grown as a live fence around homes and at a wide spacing for shade in coffee, cocoa and banana plantations. It is emerging as fodder for zero-grazed cows.
Flueggea virosa 1 0 0 0 1 In parts of Africa, the slender branches are used to make fish traps. The small fruit is sweet and eaten by people, animals and birds when ripe. The roots and fruits are believed to be an effective snakebite remedy. Roots of this plant are also used in some African communities as contraceptives and for the treatment of syphilis, gonorrhoea, rheumatism, sterility, rashes, and an infusion of the root is taken to relieve malaria. The bark is believed to provide a treatment for diarrhoea and pneumonia. http://pza.sanbi.org/flueggea-virosa
Gardenia sp. 0 1 0 0 1
Grewia bicolor 5 0 0 0 5 Firewood, charcoal, timber, tool handles, carving (clubs, javelins, walking sticks), medicine (roots, bark), fodder (leaves, fruit).
Twigs from the tree are used by water diviners to locate underground water. The fruit is edible, sweet and remarkably high in iron. It is especially important for pregnant woman.
Grewia mollis 1 33 0 8 42 Firewood, charcoal, timber, walking sticks, fodder (leaves and fruits), fibre (strings from bark).
Fibres under the bark are made into string for general use and in constructing granaries. The heartwood makes excellent walking sticks and the Acholi use the wood to make spears.
41
Harrisonia abysinica
4 0 0 0 4
Hymenocardia acida
0 1 0 0 1 Firewood, charcoal, poles, medicine (bark, leaves), bee forage, ornamental, fibre (inner bark), oil (flowers, seed), soap (roots), brooms (from saplings).
A beautiful flowering tree with potential as an ornamental in parks and gardens. The wood is pale yellow and has been used for bows. The fibres have been used for fish nets, bead strings and thread to sew barkcloth. The roots contain ethylsalicylate and a saponin making them highly poisonous. An antidote for snakebite and a cough mixture are prepared from leaves, an abortifacient from powdered bark and a root infusion relieves toothache. But great care must be taken when using these medicinal substances.
Khaya senegalensis (Mahogany)
0 3 0 0 3 Firewood, charcoal, timber (heavy construction), soil conservation and improvement.
Khaya senegalensis is a hardier species than other Khaya. It can grow in open savannah as well as in forests and is suitable for Northern and North Western Regions. The timber, which is harder and heavier than that of the other Khaya, can be used for construction such as bridges and for railway sleepers. It is also more termite resistant.
Lannea barteri 0 6 1 0 7 Firewood, charcoal, utensils (durable mortars), live fence.
A species that should be encouraged to improve fuelwood supplies. All Lannea are very fire resistant and coppice easily.
Lannea schweinfurthii
1 0 0 0 1 Firewood, charcoal, timber (stools, chairs, mortars), food (fruit), medicine (leaves, bark, roots), fodder (leaves).
The species is resistant to fire. The fibrous roots, like red-brown wool, have been used for stuffing pillows. Young branches are very flexible and the white wood is soft and light.
Lannea sp. 0 1 0 0 1 Firewood, charcoal, utensils (durable mortars), live fence.
A species that should be encouraged to improve fuelwood supplies. All Lannea are very fire resistant and coppice easily.
42
Lonchocarpus laxiflorus
0 2 0 0 2
Maytenus ovata 1 13 0 0 14
Maytenus sp. 0 0 0 0 0 Firewood, charcoal, timber (local construction), farm tools, medicine (roots), live fence, ornamental.
The wood is red and heavy. The trees grow easily from seed. Raise as a pure stand.
Piliostigma thorningii
0 0 0 1 1 Firewood, charcoal, poles, timber (houses), food (pods), drink (leaves, pods), fodder (pods, shoots), bee forage, medicine (leaves, bark, roots, pods), mulch, soil conservation, ornamental, N-fixation, tannin, dye (pods, seeds, bark, roots), rope (bark, root fibres).
A good tree that can be grown mixed with Annona spp., Grewia spp., and Combretum spp. Competes very little with maize if left in fields and pollarded to reduce shade. The pulp surrounding the seeds is edible and under famine conditions leaves, crushed green pods and seeds have been eaten. Pods and seeds give a blue dye and roasted seeds a black dye.
Pseudocedrela kotschyi
0 5 0 0 5 Firewood, charcoal, timber (joinery), utensils (mortars, etc.), poles, shade, ornamental.
An easy-to-grow species for the semi-arid savannahs. The timber is attractive, resembling mahogany but harder and heavier, and is suitable for high-class joinery. Mortars are made from the trunks. Can be grown in pure stands, for shade, as an avenue tree or interplanted with mangoes, Cassia spp. and cashew nut.
Rhus natalensis 4 1 0 0 5 Firewood, timber (utensils), tool handles, food (fruit), medicine (roots, bark, leaves), fodder, oil (seed), live fence.
A useful tree for semi-arid areas as it is drought resistant. The wood is heavy, hard and very durable. The seed contains up to 60% of a non-drying oil suitable for soap and lubrication. It has also been used as body and hair oil and for softening leather.
Senna sp. 0 0 0 2 2
Sterculia setigera
0 5 0 0 5 Fibre (bark), bee hives (coppice shoots).
Once the bark is removed, the stem dies. The bark is used to make baskets.
Strychnos spinosa
2 1 0 0 3 Firewood, charcoal, timber (furniture, boxes), fodder (leaves), food (fruit),
Although the fruit is edible, seeds are toxic and unripe fruit may be also. The fruit are often
43
medicine (fruit, leaves, bark, roots), musical instruments (dry fruit shell).
eaten by wild animals. The wood is straight- grained and planes well but has not been much used for carpentry in Uganda.
Tamarindus indica
7 0 0 0 7 Firewood, charcoal, poles, timber (furniture, boats, general purposes), food (pulp for drink, fruit, spice), fodder (leaves, fruit), medicine (bark, leaves, roots, fruit), mulch, N- fixation, shade, ornamental, windbreak, tannin (bark).
The dark brown heartwood is hard and heavy, well grained and easy to polish. The pulp is rich in vitamin C. It is recommended for homestead planting and along river banks.
Terminalia glaucens
0 0 0 1 1 Firewood, charcoal, bee hives. Produces excellent charcoal. The timber is yellow-brown, hard, durable and tough and works well.
Unknown 5 0 0 0 5
Unknown Lannea
1 0 0 0 1 Firewood, charcoal, utensils (durable mortars), live fence.
A species that should be encouraged to improve fuelwood supplies. All Lannea are very fire resistant and coppice easily.
Ximenia americana
0 3 0 0 3 Firewood, timber (utensils), tool handles, food (fruit), medicine (roots, bark, leaves), fodder, oil (seed), live fence.
A useful tree for semi-arid areas as it is drought resistant. The wood is heavy, hard and very durable. The seed contains up to 60% of a non-drying oil suitable for soap and lubrication. It has also been used as body and hair oil and for softening leather.
Ziziphus abyssinica
7 0 0 0 7
Firewood, charcoal, timber (furniture, interior work, carving), poles, food (fruit pulp and seed), live fence, bee forage, dye (bark).
The spiny branches make this plant useful as a protective live fence. Leaves and fruit are used elsewhere as fodder. The bark yields a cinnamon-coloured dye. The timber is heavy, hard and resistant to termites and borers.
44
Table A2: Shrub species list and number of recordings from the field inventory per LULC class.
Shrub species
Closed woodland
Open woodland
Bushland and grassland
Cultivated land
Total
Alchornea laxiflora
0 0 0 1 1
Flueggea virosa 9 1 0 5 15 Harrisonia abysinica
6 0 0 0 6
Rhus natalensis 3 0 0 0 3
Unknown 4 10 2 0 16
22 11 2 6 41