2016-CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain
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Transcript of 2016-CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain
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7/25/2019 2016-CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain
1/22
Copyright 2016 American Medical Association. All rig hts reserved.
CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain
United States, 2016
Deborah Dowell, MD,MPH; TamaraM. Haegerich, PhD;Roger Chou, MD
IMPORTANCE Primary care clinicians find managing chronic pain challenging. Evidence of
long-term efficacy of opioids forchronic pain is limited. Opioiduse is associated with serious
risks, including opioid use disorder and overdose.
OBJECTIVE To provide recommendations aboutopioid prescribing for primary care clinicians
treating adultpatients with chronic pain outside of active cancer treatment, palliative care,
and end-of-life care.
PROCESS The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) updated a 2014 systematic
review on effectiveness andrisks of opioids andconducted a supplementalreview on
benefits andharms, values andpreferences, andcosts. CDCused theGrading of
Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) framework to assess
evidence type and determine the recommendationcategory.
EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Evidence consisted of observational studies or randomized clinical trials
with notable limitations, characterized as low quality using GRADE methodology.
Meta-analysis wasnot attempted due to thelimited number of studies,variabilityin study
designs and clinical heterogeneity, and methodological shortcomings of studies. No study
evaluated long-term (1 year) benefit of opioids forchronic pain. Opioids were associated
with increased risks, including opioid use disorder, overdose, and death, with
dose-dependent effects.
RECOMMENDATIONS There are 12 recommendations. Of primary importance, nonopioid
therapy is preferred for treatment of chronic pain. Opioids should be used only when benefits
for pain and function are expected to outweigh risks.Before starting opioids, clinicians should
establishtreatment goals with patients andconsider how opioids will be discontinued ifbenefits do notoutweigh risks. When opioids areused, clinicians should prescribe the lowest
effective dosage, carefully reassess benefits and risks when considering increasing dosage to
50 morphine milligram equivalentsor more per day, and avoidconcurrent opioids and
benzodiazepines whenever possible. Clinicians should evaluate benefits and harmsof
continued opioidtherapy with patients every 3 monthsor more frequently andreview
prescription drug monitoring program data, when available, for high-risk combinations or
dosages. For patients with opioid use disorder, clinicians should offer or arrange
evidence-based treatment, such as medication-assisted treatment with buprenorphine or
methadone.
CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE The guideline is intended to improve communicationabout
benefits andrisks of opioids forchronic pain, improve safety and effectiveness of pain
treatment, and reduce risks associated with long-term opioid therapy.
JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.1464
Published onlineMarch 15, 2016.
Editorials
Author AudioInterview at
jama.com
Related articles and JAMA
Patient Page
Supplementalcontent at
jama.com
Related articles at
jamainternalmedicine.com,
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jamaneurology.com
Author Affiliations: Division of
Unintentional InjuryPrevention,
National Center for InjuryPreventionand Control, Centers for Disease
Controland Prevention, Atlanta,
Georgia.
Corresponding Author: Deborah
Dowell, MD, MPH, Division of
Unintentional InjuryPrevention,
National Center for InjuryPrevention
and Control, Centers for Disease
Controland Prevention,
4770 BufordHwy NE,
Atlanta, GA 30341
Clinical Review & Education
Special Communication
(Reprinted) E1
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7/25/2019 2016-CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain
2/22
Copyright 2016 American Medical Association. All rig hts reserved.
The number ofpeople experiencing chronicpain is substan-
tial, with US prevalence estimated at 11.2% of the adult
population.1Patientsshouldreceiveappropriatepaintreat-
ment based on a careful consideration of the benefits and risks of
treatmentoptions. Opioidsare commonlyprescribed forpain, with
approximately3% to4% ofthe adult USpopulation prescribedlong-
term opioidtherapy.2 Evidence supportsshort-term efficacyof opi-
oids in randomized clinical trialslasting primarily 12 weeks or less,
3
and patients receivingopioid therapy for chronic painreport some
painrelief whensurveyed.4-6However,fewstudieshavebeencon-
ducted to rigorously assess the long-term benefits of opioids for
chronic pain (pain lasting >3 months) with outcomes examined at
least 1 yearlater.7Opioid painmedication usepresentsserious risks.
From 1999 to 2014, more than 165 000 persons died of overdose
relatedtoopioidpainmedicationintheUnitedStates. 8 In2013alone,
an estimated 1.9 millionpersonsabusedor weredependenton pre-
scription opioidpain medication.9Primarycarecliniciansreportcon-
cern aboutopioid pain medication misuse, find managingpatients
with chronic pain stressful, express concern about patient addic-
tion, and report insufficient training in prescribingopioids.10
The CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain
United States,2016, is intended forprimary careclinicians (eg, fam-
ily physicians, internists, nurse practitioners, and physician assis-
tants)whoaretreatingpatientswithchronicpain(ie,painconditions
that typicallylast>3 months or past thetime of normal tissueheal-
ing)in outpatientsettings. Theguideline is intendedto applyto pa-
tients18 years andolderwith chronic pain outside of activecancer
treatment,palliative care,and end-of-life care.Some of the recom-
mendations might be relevantfor acute care settings or other spe-
cialists,such as emergencyphysicians or dentists,but use in these
settings or by other specialists is notthe focus of the guideline.
Theguideline is intendedto improve communicationbetween
cliniciansand patients about therisksand benefitsof opioid therapy
forchronicpain, improve thesafetyand effectivenessof paintreat-
ment,andreducetherisksassociatedwithlong-termopioidtherapy,including opioid use disorder, overdose, and death. Clinical deci-
sion making should be based on a relationship between the clini-
cian and patient andan understanding of thepatientsclinicalsitu-
ation, functioning, and life context. The recommendations in the
guidelineare voluntary,rather thanprescriptive standards. Theyare
basedon emergingevidence,including observationalstudies or ran-
domizedclinicaltrials withnotablelimitations.Clinicians shouldcon-
sider thecircumstancesanduniqueneedsof each patientwhenpro-
viding care.ThisSpecial Communicationdetailsevidence reviewed
by and official recommendations issued by the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) and provides key highlights from a
more extensive guideline; the full guideline with detailed informa-
tionon disclosures and conflict of interest protocols, methods,sci-entificfindings,and recommendationrationalescanbe found in the
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report(MMWR).11
Guideline Development Process
Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development,
and Evaluation Method
CDCused theCDC Advisory Committee on ImmunizationPractices
(ACIP) translation12 of the Grading of Recommendations Assess-
ment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) method for guide-
line development.13 Within the ACIP GRADE framework, the qual-
ityofabodyofevidencewasgraded,andtherecommendationswere
developedand placedinto categories (A or B) based onthe qualityof evidence, balance of benefits and harms, values and prefer-
ences, and resource allocation (Box 1).
CDCobtainedinputfrom experts,stakeholders,the public,peer
reviewers,and a federallychartered advisory committee in the de-
velopmentprocess.CDC drafted a set of recommendations and in-
vited subject matterexperts,primarycare professionalsocietyrep-
resentatives,and state agency representatives (Core Expert Group,
listed atthe endof thearticle)to provideindividual perspectives on
howCDC usedthe evidenceto developthe recommendations. CDC
asked experts toundergo a rigorous process toassess andmanage
possible conflicts of interest; full details on protocols and disclo-
suresarereportedintheMMWR.11CDCalsoengagedpartnersfrom
10 federal agencies and a Stakeholder Review Group of 18 organi-zations (listed at the end of the article) to provide comment. CDC
convened a constituent engagement webinar to obtain additional
perspectivesfrom constituents on thekey recommendations.Toob-
taincomments fromthe publicon thefull guideline,CDC published
anoticeinthe Federal Register(80 FR 77351) announcing theavail-
ability of theguidelineandthe supporting clinical andcontextualevi-
dence reviews for publiccomment. Per the final informationqual-
ity bulletin for peer review(https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites
/default/files/omb/memoranda/fy2005/m05-03.pdf),theguideline
was peer reviewed because it provides influential scientific
Box1. Interpretation of Recommendation Categories
and Evidence Type
Recommendation Categories
Recommendation categories are basedon evidence type, balance
between desirable and undesirable effects,values and
preferences,and resourceallocation (cost).
Category A recommendation: Applies to all persons;mostpatients should receive the recommended course of action.
Category B recommendation: Individual decision making needed;
differentchoiceswill be appropriate for different patients.
Clinicianshelp patients arrive at a decision consistent withpatient
values and preferences and specific clinical situations.
Evidence Type
Evidencetypeis based onstudydesign as well as a functionof
limitationsin studydesign or implementation,imprecision of
estimates,variability in findings, indirectness of evidence,
publicationbias, magnitudeof treatmenteffects, dose-response
gradient, and constellationof plausible biasesthat could
change effects.
Type 1 evidence: Randomized clinical trialsor overwhelming
evidence fromobservational studies.
Type 2 evidence: Randomized clinical trials with important
limitationsor exceptionallystrongevidencefrom observational
studies.
Type 3 evidence: Observational studies or randomized clinical
trialswith notable limitations.
Type 4 evidence: Clinical experience and observations,
observational studies withimportantlimitations, or randomized
clinical trialswith several majorlimitations.
Clinical Review & Education SpecialCommunication CDC Guideline for PrescribingOpioids for ChronicPain, 2016
E2 JAMA Publishedonline March 15, 2016 (Reprinted) jama.com
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https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/memoranda/fy2005/m05-03.pdfhttps://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/memoranda/fy2005/m05-03.pdfhttps://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/memoranda/fy2005/m05-03.pdfhttp://www.jama.com/?utm_campaign=articlePDF%26utm_medium=articlePDFlink%26utm_source=articlePDF%26utm_content=jama.2016.1464http://www.jama.com/?utm_campaign=articlePDF%26utm_medium=articlePDFlink%26utm_source=articlePDF%26utm_content=jama.2016.1464https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/memoranda/fy2005/m05-03.pdfhttps://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/memoranda/fy2005/m05-03.pdf -
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Copyright 2016 American Medical Association. All rig hts reserved.
information. In addition, the National Center for Injury Prevention
andControlBoardof ScientificCounselors(BSC),a federal advisory
committee, established an Opioid Guideline Workgroup (OGW) to
reviewtheguideline(membersoftheBSCandOGWarelistedatthe
endof the article).The OGWissued a reportof observations to the
BSC.At an in-personmeeting, theBSC consideredthe OGWreport,
deliberated on the draft guideline itself, and offered an additional
opportunity for public comment. The BSC voted unanimously tosupport the observations made by the OGW; that CDC adopt the
guideline recommendations that, according to the workgroups
report, had unanimous or majority support; and that CDC further
consider the guideline recommendations for which the group had
mixed opinions. At each stage, CDC reviewed and carefully
considered comments and revised the guideline.
Clinical Evidence Review
To inform the guideline development process, CDC updated a sys-
tematicreviewsponsoredbytheAgencyforHealthcareResearchand
Quality (AHRQ) on the effectiveness and risks of long-term opioid
treatmentofchronicpain7 thataddressedclinicalquestionsaboutef-
fectiveness of long-term opioid therapy for outcomes at least 1 year
later relatedto pain,function,andquality oflife.Theeffectiveness ofshort-term opioid therapy has been established previously. In ran-
domized clinical trials 12 weeks or shorter in duration, opioids were
moderatelyeffectiveforpainrelief,with smallbenefitsfor functional
outcomes; although estimates varied, based on uncontrolled stud-
ies,a high percentageof patients discontinued long-termopioid use
because of lack of efficacy and because of adverseevents.3 Opioids
have uniqueeffects such astoleranceand physical dependencethat
mightinfluenceassessmentsofbenefitovertime.Theseeffectsraise
questionsaboutwhetherfindingsonshort-termeffectivenessofopi-
oid therapy can be extrapolated to estimate benefits of long-term
therapyforchronicpain.Thus,itisimportanttoconsiderstudiesthat
provide data on long-term benefit. For opioid-related harms (over-
dose, fractures, falls, motor vehicle crashes), studies were includedwith outcomes measured at shorter intervals because such out-
comes canoccur early during opioidtherapy.
The review also considered evidence related to initiation and
titration, harms and adverse events, and risk mitigation. CDC up-
datedthe reviewwith morerecent studies.Because long-termopi-
oidusemaybeaffectedbyuseofopioidsforacutepain,CDCadded
a clinical questiononthe effectsof prescribingopioids foracutepain
on long-term use(Box 2).
CDCupdatedthesystematicliteraturesearchusingsearchterms
for opioid therapy, specific opioids, chronic pain, and comparative
study designs; assessed the overall strength of each body of evi-
dence using methodsdevelopedby theGRADEWorkingGroup; and
qualitativelysynthesized results. Completemethodsand datafor the
clinical evidence review, including information about data sources
and searches, study selection, data extraction and quality assess-
ment,datasynthesis,andupdatesearchyieldandnewevidencemay
be found inthe MMWR and associated online appendixes.11
Theupdatedreviewrevealedthatevidenceonlong-termopioid
therapy forchronicpain outside of end-of-life careremainslimited,
withinsufficient evidenceto determinelong-termbenefits,although
evidence suggests risk of serious harms that is dose-dependent.
Table 1 provides a summary of the evidence and thequalityratings
assigned.Fulldetailsonmethodologyandfindingsareavailableinthe
2014AHRQ report7 andthe MMWR report.11 The body of evidence
foreachclinical questionwascategorizedasevidencetype3 or4 (ob-
servational studies or randomized clinicaltrials withnotablelimita-
tionsor clinical experience andobservation).We highlightimportant
findings from thereview for each keyquestion(KQ)below.
KQ1:Effectivenessand Comparative Effectiveness
No study of opioid therapy vs placebo, no opioid therapy, or non-opioid therapy for chronic pain evaluated long-term (1 year) out-
comes related to pain, function, or quality of life. Most placebo-
controlled randomized clinical trials were 6 weeks or shorter in
duration.7
KQ2:Harms and Adverse Events
Long-term opioid therapy was associated with problematic pat-
terns ofopioiduse leadingto clinically significantimpairmentor dis-
tress. Varyingterminologyhas beenused to reflect thispattern, in-
cluding addiction (more informally), opioid abuse and opioid
dependence (perDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Dis-
orders [Fourth Edition][DSM-IV] or International Classification of Dis-
eases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification[ICD-9-CM]), and opi-
oid use disorder (perDSM-5). Such disorders are manifested bysimilar criteria, including unsuccessful efforts to reduce or control
useand useresulting in socialproblemsand a failure tofulfill major
roleobligationsatwork,school,orhome.Disordersaredifferentfrom
tolerance (diminished response to a drug with repeated use) and
physical dependence (adaptation to a drug that produces symp-
toms of withdrawal when the drug is stopped), both of which can
exist without a diagnosed disorder.
Long-termopioidtherapy wasassociated withan increased risk
of an opioid abuse or dependence diagnosis (as defined byICD-
9-CMcodes) vs no opioid prescription.14 In primary care settings,
prevalenceof opioid dependence(usingDSM-IVcriteria)rangedfrom
3%to 26%.15-17 Factorsassociated withincreasedrisk of misuse in-
cluded history of substance use disorder, younger age, major de-pression, and use of psychotropicmedications.16,18Opioiduse was
associated with a dose-dependent increased risk of fatal and non-
fatal overdose19,20 (Table 2). Otherrisks associated withopioiduse
includedcardiovascularevents,28,29endocrinologicharms,30,31and
road trauma.32
KQ3:Dosing Strategies
Initiationoftherapywithanextended-release/long-acting(ER/LA)opi-
oidwas associated with greaterrisk of nonfatal overdose than initia-
tion with animmediate-release opioidin 1 study, with riskgreatestin
thefirst2 weeks after initiation oftreatment.33Three studiesof vari-
ous ER/LA opioids found no clear differences related to pain or
function34-36;thereweremixedfindingsregardingthedifferencesbe-
tween methadone and morphine in overall risk for nonfatal or fatal
overdose,37-39 suggestingthat risks of methadone might vary in dif-
ferent settings. One study found no differences between more lib-
eral dose escalation and maintenance of current doses after 12
months40; evidence on other comparisons related to opioid dosing
strategieswas toolimited to determine effectson outcomes.
KQ4:Risk Assessment and Risk MitigationStrategies
Evidence on the accuracy of risk assessment instruments for pre-
dicting opioid abuseor misuse wasinconsistentfor the Opioid Risk
CDC Guideline for PrescribingOpioids for Chronic Pain,2016 Special Communication ClinicalReview & Education
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Tool41-43 and limited for other risk assessment instruments.41,44,45
No study evaluated the effectiveness of risk mitigation strategies.
KQ5: Effect of OpioidTherapyfor Acute Pain on Long-term Use
Studies examining patientswho underwent low-risk surgery or ex-
perienced low back pain from injury revealed that opioid therapy
prescribed for acutepain was associated with greater likelihood of
long-term use.46,47Comparedwithnoearlyopioiduseforacutelow
backpain,theadjustedoddsratioforreceiving5ormoreopioidpre-
scriptions from 30 to 730days after onset was 2.08 (95% CI,1.55-
2.78)for1 to140 morphine milligramequivalents(MME)perday and
increasedto6.14(95%CI,4.92-7.66)for450MMEormoreperday. 47
Box2. KeyQuestions forthe ClinicalEvidence Review
KeyQuestion1. Effectivenessand Comparative Effectiveness
a. In patients with chronic pain, what is theeffectivenessof
long-term opioid therapy vs placebo or no opioid therapy
for long-term(1 year) outcomes related to pain,function,
andquality oflife?
b. Howdoes effectivenessvary depending on: (1) the specific type
or causeof pain (eg,neuropathic, musculoskeletal [includinglow
back pain], fibromyalgia, sickle celldisease,inflammatory pain,
and headache disorders); (2) patient demographics (eg,age, race,
ethnicity, gender); and (3) patient comorbidities (includingpast
or current alcohol or substanceuse disorders, mental health
disorders, medical comorbidities, and highrisk foraddiction)?
c. In patientswithchronic pain, whatis thecomparativeeffectiveness
of opioidsvs nonopioid therapies (pharmacologicor
nonpharmacologic) on outcomes relatedto pain,function,
andqualityof life?
d. In patients withchronic pain,what is the comparative effective-
nessof opioids plus nonopioidinterventions(pharmacologic or
nonpharmacologic) vs opioids or nonopioidinterventionsalone
on outcomes related topain,function, quality oflife,and dosesof
opioids used?
KeyQuestion2. Harmsand AdverseEvents
a. In patientswithchronic pain, whatarethe risks ofopioids vs
placeboor noopioidon (1)opioidabuse, addiction,and related
outcomes;(2) overdose;and (3)otherharms, including
gastrointestinal-related harms,falls, fractures, motorvehicle
crashes, endocrinologic harms,infections,cardiovascular events,
cognitive harms,and psychologicalharms (eg, depression)?
b. How do harms vary depending on(1) thespecific type or cause of
pain (eg, neuropathic, musculoskeletal [includingback pain],
fibromyalgia, sickle cell disease, inflammatory pain,headache
disorders); (2) patient demographics; (3) patient comorbidities
(including past orcurrent substanceuse disorder orat high risk
foraddiction);and (4) thedoseof opioids used?
KeyQuestion3. Dosing Strategies
a. In patientswithchronic pain, whatis thecomparativeeffectivenessofdifferentmethodsfor initiatingand titrating opioidson
outcomes relatedto pain, function, andquality oflife;risk of
overdose,addiction,abuse, ormisuse; anddosesof opioidsused?
b. In patients withchronic pain,what is the comparative effective-
ness of immediate-release vs extended-release/long-acting
(ER/LA) opioids on outcomes related to pain,function, and
quality oflife;riskof overdose, addiction, abuse,or misuse; and
dosesof opioids used?
c. In patients with chronic pain, what is thecomparative effective-
ness ofdifferent ER/LAopioids on outcomes related to pain,
function,and quality oflife andriskof overdose, addiction,
abuse, or misuse?
d. In patients withchronic pain,what is the comparative effective-
nessof immediate-release plus ER/LAopioidsvs ER/LA opioids
aloneon outcomes related to pain, function, andqualityof life;risk ofoverdose,addiction, abuse,or misuse; anddosesof
opioids used?
e. In patients with chronic pain, what is thecomparative
effectivenessof scheduled, continuous vs as-needed dosing of
opioids onoutcomesrelatedto pain, function, andqualityof life;
risk ofoverdose, addiction, abuse,or misuse; anddoses of
opioids used?
f. In patients with chronic pain on long-termopioid therapy, what is
the comparative effectiveness of doseescalation vs dose
maintenanceor useof dose thresholds on outcomes related to
pain, function, andqualityof life?
g. In patients on long-termopioid therapy, whatis the comparative
effectivenessof opioid rotation vs maintenance of current opioid
therapy onoutcomesrelated to pain, function,and quality of life;
anddoses of opioids used?
h. In patients on long-termopioid therapy, whatis the comparative
effectivenessof different strategies for treating acute
exacerbationsof chronic pain on outcomesrelated to pain,
function,and quality of life?
i. In patients onlong-term opioidtherapy, what arethe effects of
decreasing opioid dosesor of tapering offopioids vs continuation
ofopioids onoutcomesrelated to pain, function,quality oflife,
and withdrawal?
j. In patients on long-term opioid therapy, what is the comparativeeffectivenessof different tapering protocolsand strategies on
measures related to pain,function,quality of life, withdrawal
symptoms, and likelihood of opioid cessation?
KeyQuestion4. RiskAssessment andRisk MitigationStrategies
a. In patients withchronicpain beingconsidered for long-term
opioid therapy, whatis the accuracyof instruments for predicting
riskof opioid overdose, addiction, abuse, or misuse?
b. In patients with chronic pain, what is theeffectivenessof useof
riskpredictioninstrumentson outcomes related to overdose,
addiction,abuse, or misuse?
c. Inpatientswith chronic pain prescribedlong-term opioid therapy,
whatis the effectiveness of risk mitigationstrategies, including
(1) opioid management plans, (2) patient education,(3) urine
drug screening, (4) use of prescription drug monitoring program
data,(5) use of monitoring instruments, (6) morefrequent
monitoring intervals, (7) pill counts, and(8) useof
abuse-deterrent formulations on outcomesrelated to overdose,
addiction,abuse, or misuse?
d. What is the comparative effectivenessof treatmentstrategies for
managing patients with addiction to prescription opioids on
outcomes related to overdose, abuse, misuse, pain,function, and
quality of life?
Key Question5. Effectof OpioidTherapy forAcute Pain
on Long-termUse
a. In patients with acute pain, what arethe effects ofprescribing
opioidtherapyvs not prescribingopioid therapy for acute pain on
long-termopioid use?
Keyquestions1-4 weredeveloped forthe Agency for Healthcare Researchand
Quality review.7
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Ta
ble1.GRADER
at
ingso
fthe
Ev
iden
ce
for
the
Key
Cli
nic
alQ
ues
tionsa
(con
tin
ue
d)
Outcome
Studies
Limitations
Inconsistency
Imprecision
Typeo
f
Eviden
ce
b
OtherFactors
EstimatesofEffec
torFindings
RiskAssessmentandRiskMitigationStrategies(KeyQuestion4)
Diagnosticaccuracyofinstrumentsfor
predictingriskforopioidoverdose,
addiction,
abuse,
ormisuseamong
patientswithchronicpainbeing
consideredforlong-
term
opioidtherapy
OpioidRiskTool
3studiesofdiagnostic
accuracy
(n=496);
newforupdate:
2studiesofdiagnostic
accuracy
(n=320)
Serious
limitations
Veryserious
inconsistency
Serious
imprecision
4
None
identified
Basedonacutoff
scoreof>4(orunspecified),
5studies(2fair-q
uality
,3poor-quality)
reportedsensitivitythatrangedfrom
0.2
0-
0.9
9andspecificitythatrangedfrom
0.1
6-
0.8
8.
Screenerandopioidassessment
forpatientswithpain
,version1
2studiesofdiagnostic
accuracy
(n=203)
Veryserious
limitations
No
inconsistency
Serious
imprecision
3
None
identified
Basedonacutoff
scoreof8
,sensitivitywas
0.6
8andspecifici
tywas0
.38in1study,
fora
positivelikelihood
ratioof1
.11anda
negativelikelihoo
dratioof0
.83
.Basedon
acutoffscoreof>
6,
sensitivitywas0
.73
in1study.
Screenerandopioidassessmentfor
patientswithpain:revised
Newforupdate:
2studiesofdiagnostic
accuracy
(n=320)
Veryserious
limitations
No
inconsistency
Serious
imprecision
3
None
identified
Basedonacutoff
scoreof>3orunspecified
,
sensitivitywas0.25and0
.53andspecificity
was0
.62and0
.73in2studies,
forlikelihood
ratioscloseto1.
Briefriskinterview
Newforupdate:
2studiesofdiagnostic
accuracy
(n=320)
Veryserious
limitations
No
inconsistency
Serious
imprecision
3
None
identified
Basedonahigh-riskassessment
,sensitivity
was0
.73and0
.83andspecificitywas0
.43
and0
.88in2stud
ies,
forpositivelikelihood
ratiosof1
.28and
7.1
8andnegativelikelihood
ratiosof0
.63and
0.1
9.
Effectivenessofriskprediction
instrumentsonoutcomesrelated
tooverdose,
addiction,
abuse,
ormisuseinpatientswith
chronicpain
Outcomesrelatedtoabuse
None
NA
NA
NA
Insuffi
cient
NA
Noevidence.
Effectivenessofriskmitigation
strategies,
includingopioid
managementplans,
patienteducation,
urinedrugscreening,
useof
prescriptiondrugmonitoringprogram
data
,useofmonitoringinstruments
,
morefrequentmonitoringintervals
,
pillcounts
,anduseofabuse-
deterrent
formulations,
onoutcomesrelated
tooverdose,
addiction,
abuse,
ormisuse
Outcomesrelatedtoabuse
None
NA
NA
NA
Insuffi
cient
NA
Noevidence.
Comparativeeffectivenessoftreatment
strategiesformanagingpatientswith
addictiontoprescriptionopioids
Outcomesrelatedtoabuse
None
NA
NA
NA
Insuffi
cient
NA
Noevidence.
(continued)
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Contextual Evidence Review
CDCconducted a contextual evidence review to assist in develop-
ing the recommendations by providing an assessment of the bal-
ance ofbenefitsand harms,values andpreferences, andcost, con-
sistent with the GRADE approach (Box 3). Rapid review methods
wereused to streamlinethe process andobtainevidencequickly(eg,
by limitingdatabase searchesand summarizingstudy qualitybased
on author reports rather thanapplying objectivequalityratingpro-tocols). Full details on methodology, including data sources and
searches, inclusion criteria, study selection,and dataextraction and
synthesis, and findings are available in theMMWRreport.11 In this
article, we summarize benefits and harms of nonopioid therapies
found in theclinicalliterature and harms of opioidtherapy, includ-
ingadditional studies notincludedin theclinicalevidencereview (eg,
studies not restricted to patients with chronic pain).
Severalnonpharmacologicand nonopioid pharmacologictreat-
ments were found to be effective for chronic pain in studies rang-
ing in duration from 2 weeks to 6 months48-66 (Table 3). For ex-
ample,cognitivebehavioral therapy (CBT)had smallpositive effects
on disability and catastrophic thinking.66 Exercise therapy re-
duced pain and improved function in chronic low back pain54; im-
provedfunction andreducedpainin osteoarthritisof theknee51and
hip52; andimproved well-being, fibromyalgiasymptoms,andphysi-
cal function in fibromyalgia.48 Multimodal and multidisciplinary
therapies helped reduce pain and improve function more effec-
tively than single modalities.55,67 Multiple guidelines recom-
mended acetaminophen as first-line pharmacotherapy for
osteoarthritis68-73 or for low back pain74 and nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)as first-line treatmentfor osteoarthri-
tis or low back pain70,74; first- and second-line drugs for neuro-
pathic pain include anticonvulsants (gabapentin or pregabalin),
tricyclicantidepressants,and serotonin-norepinephrinereuptakein-
hibitors (SNRIs).75-78 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have
been associated with hepatic, gastrointestinal, renal, and cardio-
vascular risks.63,73,79
Opioid-relatedoverdose riskwas dose-dependent, withhigher
opioid dosagesassociatedwithincreasedoverdoserisk(Table2).19-27
Compared with dosages of1 to
-
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riskstratificationand mitigation strategies foridentifyingrisky opioid-
taking behaviors and prescribing practices, such as checking pre-
scription drug monitoring program (PDMP) data95 and urine drug
testing,96 as well as co-prescription of naloxone.97 In addition,
methadoneand buprenorphine foropioid use disorder were found
to increase retentionin treatmentand to decrease illicit opioiduseamong patients with opioid use disorder, and some studies sug-
gestthat effectivenessis enhanced whenpsychosocial treatments
are used in conjunction with medication-assisted therapy.98-102
Recommendations
The guideline includes 12 recommendations (Box 5). GRADE
recommendation categories were based on the following
assessment:
Noevidenceshowsalong-termbenefitofopioidsinpainandfunc-
tion vsno opioids forchronicpainwithoutcomesexaminedat least
1 yearlater (withmost placebo-controlledrandomizedclinical trials
6 weeks in duration).
Extensive evidence shows the possible harms of opioids (includ-
ing opioid use disorder, overdose, and motor vehicle injury).Extensive evidence suggests some benefits of nonpharmaco-
logic and nonopioid pharmacologic therapy, with less harm.
Determining When to Initiate or Continue Opioids
forChronic Pain
1. Nonpharmacologic therapy and nonopioid pharmacologic
therapy are preferred for chronic pain. Clinicians should consider
opioid therapy only if expected benefits for both pain and func-
tionareanticipatedtooutweighriskstothepatient.Ifopioidsare
used, they should be combined with nonpharmacologic therapy
Table 2. RelationshipBetween Doseand Overdose
Source Topic Population Primary Outcomes Key Findings
Bohnertet al,27 2016a
Matched case-control studyexamining associationbetween opioid dosage andfatal overdose
Veterans Health Administrationpatients with chronic painreceiving opioid therapy,2004-2009
Unintentional fatal opioidoverdose
24% of controls had dosages >50 MME/d, but59% of cases had dosages above this level.
Bohnertet al,22 2011a
Case-cohort studyexamining the associationbetween prescribed opioid
dosage in MME/d and risk ofopioid overdose death
Veterans Health Administrationpatients receiving opioid therapyfor pain, 2004-2005
Fatal opioid overdose Among patients with chronic pain, receiving20-
-
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and nonopioid pharmacologic therapy, as appropriate. (Recom-
mendationcategory: A; evidence type: 3)
Nonpharmacologictherapy (such as exercisetherapy andCBT)
shouldbeusedtoreducepainandimprovefunctioninpatientswith
chronic pain. Aspects of these approaches canbe used even when
there is limited accessto specialtycare. For example, primary care
clinicians can encourage patients to take an active role in the care
plan and support patientsin engagingin exercise. Nonopioidphar-
macologic therapy (such as NSAIDs, acetaminophen, anticonvul-sants, andSNRIs)should be usedwhen benefits outweighrisks and
should be combinedwith nonpharmacologictherapy. Opioids should
not be consideredfirst-line or routine therapy for chronic painout-
side of activecancer, palliative, andend-of-lifecare, given small to
moderate short-termbenefits,uncertainlong-termbenefits, andpo-
tential for serious harms; althoughevidence on long-termbenefits
of nonopioid therapies is also limited, these therapies are also as-
sociated with short-term benefits, and risks are much lower. This
doesnotmean that patients shouldbe requiredto sequentially fail
nonpharmacologic and nonopioid pharmacologic therapy before
proceedingto opioid therapy. Rather, expected benefits specific to
the clinical context should be weighed against risks before initiat-
ing therapy. In someclinicalcontexts (eg, headache, fibromyalgia),expectedbenefitsof initiatingopioidsare unlikelyto outweighrisks
regardless of previous nonpharmacologic and nonopioid pharma-
cologictherapiesused. Inother situations(eg, seriousillnessin a pa-
tientwithpoorprognosisforreturntopreviousleveloffunction,con-
traindicationsto other therapies,and clinicianand patientagreement
that the overriding goal is patient comfort), opioids might be ap-
propriateregardless of previoustherapies used.If opioidsare used,
theyshouldbe combinedwithnonpharmacologic therapyand non-
opioid pharmacologic therapy, as appropriate, to provide greater
benefits to patients.
2. Before starting opioid therapy for chronic pain, clinicians
should establish treatment goals with all patients, including real-
istic goals for pain and function, and consider how opioid
therapy will be discontinued if benefits do not outweigh risks.
Clinicians should continueopioid therapy only if there is clinically
meaningful improvement in pain and function that outweighs
risks to patient safety.(Recommendation category: A; evidence
type: 4)Before opioid therapy is initiated for chronic pain, clinicians
should determine how effectiveness will be evaluated and should
establish treatment goals with patients. Clinicians seeing new
patients already receiving opioids should establish treatment
goals for continued treatment. Goals should include improvement
in both pain relief and function. However, there are some clinical
circumstances under which reductions in pain without improve-
ment in physical function might be a more realistic goal (eg, dis-
eases typically associated with progressive functional impairment
or catastrophic injuries such as spinal cord trauma). Experts noted
that function can include emotional and social as well as physical
dimensions. In addition, experts emphasized that mood has
important interactions with pain and function. Clinicians may use
validated instruments such as the 3-item Pain average, interfer-
ence with Enjoyment of life, and interference with General activ-
ity (PEG) Assessment Scale103 to track patient outcomes. Clini-
cally meaningful improvement has been defined as a 30%
improvement in scores for both pain and function.104 Because
depression, anxiety, and other psychological comorbidities often
coexist with and can interfere with resolution of pain, clinicians
should use validated instruments to assess for these conditions
and ensure that treatment for these conditions is optimized.
3. Before starting and periodically during opioid therapy,
clinicians should discuss with patients known risks and realistic
benefits of opioid therapy and patient and clinician responsibili-
ties for managing therapy. (Recommendation category: A;
evidence type: 3)Cliniciansshouldensurethatpatientsareawareofpotentialben-
efitsof,harms of, andalternativesto opioids before startingor con-
tinuing opioid therapy. Clinicians are encouraged to haveopen and
honest discussions withpatientsto inform mutual decisionsabout
whether to start or continue opioid therapy. Important consider-
ations include the following:
Be explicit and realistic about expected benefits of opioids, ex-
plainingthat whileopioidscan reduce painduringshort-term use,
there is no good evidence that opioids improve pain or function
with long-term useand that complete reliefof pain is unlikely.
Emphasize improvement in function as a primary goal and that
function canimprove even when pain is stillpresent.
Advise patients about serious adverse effects of opioids, includ-ing potentially fatal respiratory depressionand development of a
potentially serious lifelong opioid use disorder.
Advise patients about common effects of opioids, suchas consti-
pation, dry mouth, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, confusion, tol-
erance, physical dependence, and withdrawal symptoms when
stopping opioids.
Discuss effects that opioids may have on ability to safely operate
a vehicle, particularlywhenopioids areinitiated, whendosagesare
increased,orwhenothercentralnervoussystemdepressants,such
as benzodiazepines or alcohol, are used concurrently.
Box3. Key Areas forthe Contextual Evidence Review
Effectiveness of alternativetreatments, including
nonpharmacologic (eg, cognitivebehavioral therapy, exercise
therapy, interventionaltreatments, multimodal pain treatment)
and nonopioidpharmacologictreatments (eg,acetaminophen,
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antidepressants,
anticonvulsants), including studies of any duration.
Benefitsand harms of opioid therapy (including additionalstudies not included in the clinical evidence review,such as
studies thatwere not restrictedto patients withchronicpain,
evaluatedoutcomesat any duration, performed ecological
analyses, or used observationalstudy designs other thancohort
and case-cohort control studies) related to specific opioids, high-
dosetherapy, co-prescriptionwith other controlled substances,
duration of use,special populations, and potential usefulness of
riskstratificationor mitigationapproaches; in addition to
effectiveness of treatments associated with addressing potential
harms of opioid therapy (opioid use disorder).
Clinician and patient values and preferences related to opioids
and medicationrisks, benefits,and use.
Resource allocation, including costs and economicefficiency of
opioid therapy and riskmitigationstrategies.
Clinical guidelines relevant to opioidprescribing to complementthe Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention recommendations
(eg, guidelines on alternative treatments, guidelines with
recommendations relatedto specificclinician actionssuch as
urine drugtesting or opioid tapering protocols).
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Table 3. Effectiveness and Harms of Nonpharmacologicand Nonopioid Pharmacologic Treatmentsa
Sou rce Topic or Inter ve nti on Par ticipants or Population Primar y Ou tcome s Key Findings St udy Qu ality
Buschet al,48
2007
Exercise training vsuntreated control ornonexercise intervention
Systematic review of 33 RCTswith fibromyalgia patients
Global well-being,selected signs andsymptoms, andphysical function
Exercise training improves globalwell-being and physical function.Supervised aerobic exercise traininghas beneficial effects on physicalcapacity and fibromyalgiasymptoms.
Four studies wereclassified as highquality, 15 asmoderate quality, and14 as low quality
Chaparro
et al,49
2014
Noninjectable opioids vs
placebo or other treatments
Systematic review of 15 RCTs
with patients with chronic lowback pain
P ai n O ne t ri al found t ra ma do l si mi la r t o
celecoxib for pain relief. Two trialsdid not find a difference betweenopioids and antidepressants for painor function.
Low- to
moderate-qualityevidence
Collinset al,50
2000
Antidepressants vs placebo;anticonvulsants vs placebo
Systematic review of 19 RCTs fordiabetic neuropathy orpostherpetic neuralgia
Pain For diab etic neu rop athy, the NN Tfor 50% pain relief was 3.4 forantidepressants (12 trials, 10evaluated TCAs and 3 SSRIs) and2.7 for anticonvulsants (3 trials).For postherpetic neuralgia, the NNTwas 2.1 for antidepressants (3studies evaluating TCAs) and 3.2 foranticonvulsants (1 study evaluatinggabapentin).
The mean and medianquality score forincluded studies was4 on a scale of 1-5
Fransenet al,51
2015
Exercise vs nonexercisegroup (active or notreatment)
Systematic review of 54 RCTs orquasi-randomized trials for kneeosteoarthritis
Reduced joint painor improvedphysical functionand quality of life
Exercise reduced pain, improvedfunction, and improved quality oflife immediately after treatment; instudies providing posttreatmentfollow-up data, improved pain and
function were sustained for 2-6 mo.
High-quality evidencefor reduced pain andimproved quality oflife andmoderate-quality
evidence for improvedfunction
Fransenet al,52
2014
Exercise vs nonexercisegroup (active or notreatment)
Systematic review of 10 RCTs orquasi-randomized trials for hiposteoarthritis
Reduced joint painand improvedphysical functionand quality of life
Exercise reduced pain and improvedfunction immediately aftertreatment; in studies providingposttreatment follow-up data,improved pain and function weresustained for at least 3-6 mo.
High-quality evidencefor reduced pain andimproved function
Huseret al,53
2013
Duloxetine vs placebo;milnacipran vs placebo
Systematic review of 10 RCTs forfibromyalgia patients
Benefits andharms
Duloxetine and milnacipran reducedpain by a small amount comparedwith placebo.
Risk of bias inincluded studies waslow
Haydenet al,54
2005
Exercise therapy vs notreatment, otherconservative treatments
Systematic review consisting of61 RCTs for low back pain
Pain, function Exercise therapy reduces pain andimproves function with smallmagnitudes of effect. Effectivenessof exercise therapy appears to begreater in populations visiting ahealth care provider compared withthe general population.
Only a small numberof studies rated ashigh quality; potentialpublication bias
Lee et al,55
2014
CIM therapies vs single
self-care CIM, nonself-careCIM, usual care/notreatment, othermultimodal program, orother control
Systematic review of 26 RCTs for
management of chronic pain
Pain symptoms Integrative multimodal therapies
resulted in positive, but sometimesmixed, effects on pain symptomscompared with active controls orsingle self-care modalities. Morestudies are needed to make strongconclusions about effectiveness.
Large majority of
poor quality, includingweaknesses inrandomization andallocationconcealment
Lunnet al,56
2014
Duloxetine vs placebo orother controls
Systematic review of 18 RCTs forneuropathic pain, chronic painconditions without identifiedcause, or fibromyalgia
Benefits andharms ofduloxetine
Duloxetine at 60 mg and 120 mgdaily, but not lower dosages, wereeffective in reducing pain indiabetic peripheral neuropathy painand in fibromyalgia.
Moderate-qualityevidence for diabeticneuropathy;lower-qualityevidence forfibromyalgia; somerisk of bias
Mooreet al,57
2009
Pregabalin vs placebo orany active control
Systematic review of 25double-blind RCTs forpostherpetic neuralgia, painfuldiabetic neuropathy, centralneuropathic pain, or fibromyalgia
Analgesic efficacyand associatedadverse events
Pregabalin was effective in patientswith postherpetic neuralgia,diabetic neuropathy, centralneuropathic pain, and fibromyalgiaat doses of 300 mg, 450 mg, and600 mg (but not at 150 mg) daily.NNTs were generally 6 formoderate benefit in postherpeticneuralgia and diabetic neuropathybut 7 for fibromyalgia.
Studies all had Oxfordquality scores basedon randomization,blinding, andreporting of dropout3 (out of maximumof 5)
Mooreet al,58
2014
Gabapentin vs placebo Systematic review of 37 RCTs forneuropathic pain or fibromyalgia
Analgesic efficacyand adverseeffects
Gabapentin was significantly moreeffective than placebo in reducingpain in diabetic neuropathy andpostherpetic neuralgia. Evidencewas insufficient for otherconditions.
Second-tierevidence (some riskof bias, but adequatenumbers in the trials)
(continued)
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Table 3. Effectiveness and Harms of Nonpharmacologic and NonopioidPharmacologic Treatmentsa (continued)
Sou rce Topic or Inter vention Par ticipants or P opu latio n Primar y Outcomes Ke y Findings Study Quality
Roelofset al,59
2008
NSAIDs and COX-2 inhibitorsvs control
Systematic review of 65 RCTs fornonspecific low back pain
Acute low backpain
NSAIDs are more effective thanplacebo for acute and chronic lowback pain without sciatica, but havemore adverse effects. NSAIDs arenot more effective thanacetaminophen but had moreadverse effects. No type of NSAIDs,
including COX-2 inhibitors, wasfound to be more effective thanother NSAIDs.
Mixed high- andlow-quality studies
Saartoet al,60
2010
Antidepressants vs placeboor other controls
Systematic review of 61 RCTs forneuropathic pain
Pain TCAs and venlaf axine have lowNNTs (3.6 and 3.1, respectively) forat least moderate pain relief.
Study quality limitedby insufficientreporting detail
Salernoet al,61
2002
Antidepressants vs placebo Systematic review of 9 RCTs forchronic back pain
Back pain Antidepressants were associatedwith small but significantimprovement in pain severity;improvements in function were notsignificant. Most (6) studiesevaluated TCAs.
Moderate-qualitystudies
Staigeret al,62
2003
Antidepressants vs placebo Systematic review of 7 RCTs inpatients with chronic low backpain
Back pain Four of 5 studies evaluating TCAand tetracyclic antidepressantsfound significant improvement inchronic low back pain. Otherantidepressants studied (2 studiesevaluating SSRIs and 1 evaluatingtrazodone) did not show significant
pain improvement.
Mixed quality (qualityscores ranged from11-19 out of 22)
Trelleet al,63
2011
NSAIDs vs other NSAIDs orplacebo
Meta-analysis of 31 RCTscomparing any NSAID with otherNSAID or placebo for any medicalcondition
Myocardialinfarction, stroke,cardiovasculardeath, death fromany cause
Compared with placebo, NSAIDswere associated with increased riskof myocardial infarction, stroke,and cardiovascular death.
Generally high
Welschet al,64
2015
Opioids (includingtramadol) vs nonopioids(including acetaminophen,NSAIDs/COX-2 inhibitors,mexiletine, anticonvulsants,antidepressants, and musclerelaxants)
Systematic review of 10 RCTs inpatients with neuropathic pain,low back pain, or osteoarthritis
Efficacy (includingvarious painmeasures),tolerability, andsafety
There was no significant differencebetween opioids and nonopioidanalgesics in pain reduction;nonopioids were superior to opioidsin improving physical function andwere better tolerated. Whenpatients from tramadol trials(n randomized = 2788) wereremoved from results of the review,results for pain and function forpatients receiving opioids(morphine) compared withalternative drugs(n randomized = 223) had wide,
overlapping confidence intervals.Improved tolerability for alternativedrugs vs morphine remainedsignificant.
One study had a high,2 studies a moderate,and 7 studies a lowstudy quality
Wiffenet al,65
2014
Carbamazepine vs placeboor other active control
Systematic review consisting of10 RCTs in adults with chronicneuropathic pain or fibromyalgia
Pain relief Carbamazepine provided better painrelief than placebo for trigeminalneuralgia, diabetic neuropathy, andpoststroke pain for 4 weeks.Dizziness and drowsiness werecommonly reported withcarbamazepine. In 4 studies, 65% ofpatients receiving carbamazepine vs27% receiving placebo experienced1 adverse event. In 8 studies, 3%of patients receiving carbamazepinewithdrew because of adverse events(vs 0% taking placebo).
Third-tier evidence(trials involving smallnumbers ofparticipants;considered likely tobe biased, withoutcomes of limitedclinical utility, orboth)
Williamset al,66
2012
Cognitive behavioraltherapy or behavioral
therapy
Systematic review of 42 RCTs forpatients with nonmalignant
chronic pain except headache
Pain, disability,mood, and
catastrophicthinking
Cognitive behavioral therapy wasfound to have small to moderate
effects on pain, disability, mood,and catastrophic thinkingimmediately after treatment whencompared with usual treatment ordeferred cognitive behavioraltherapy, but only effects on moodpersisted at follow-up. Behavioraltherapy had a positive effect onmood immediately after treatment.
Mean quality of studydesign, 15.8 out of
26 (SD 4.3; range,9-24 out of 26)
Abbreviations: CIM,complementary and integrativemultimodal; COX-2,cyclooxygenase 2; NNT, number needed to treat; NSAID, nonsteroidalanti-inflammatory
drug;RCTs, randomizedclinical trials;SSRIs, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors;TCA, tricyclic antidepressants.
a Allthe studies in this table were included in thecontextual evidencereview.
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Discussincreased risks foropioiduse disorder, respiratory depres-sion, and death at higher dosages, along with the importance of
taking only theamount of opioids prescribed.
Reviewincreasedrisks forrespiratorydepressionwhen opioidsare
taken withbenzodiazepines, other sedatives,alcohol, illicit drugs
such as heroin, or other opioids.
Discuss risks to household members and other individuals if opi-
oids are intentionally or unintentionally shared with others for
whom they are notprescribed, includingthe possibility that oth-
ersmightexperienceoverdoseatthesameoratlowerdosagethan
prescribedforthepatientandthatyoungchildrenaresusceptible
to unintentional ingestion. Discuss storage of opioids in a secure,
preferably locked location and options for safe disposal of un-
used opioids.
105
Discuss the importance of periodic reassessment to ensure opi-
oids are helping to meet patient goals andto allow opportunities
for opioid discontinuation and consideration of additional non-
pharmacologic and nonopioid pharmacologic treatment options
if opioids arenot effectiveor areharmful.
Discuss planned use of precautions to reduce risks,including use
ofPDMP information andurine drugtesting.Consider includingdis-
cussion of naloxone use for overdose reversal.
Consider whether cognitive limitationsmight interfere withman-
agementofopioidtherapy(forolderadultsinparticular),andifso,
determine whether a caregivercan responsibly co-managemedi-
cation therapy. Discuss theimportance of reassessing safer medi-
cationuse with both thepatient andcaregiver.
Opioid Selection, Dosage, Duration, Follow-up,
and Discontinuation
4.When startingopioidtherapy forchronicpain,cliniciansshould
prescribeimmediate-releaseopioids instead of extended-release/
long-acting (ER/LA) opioids.(Recommendation category: A; evi-
dence type: 4)
Clinicians should not initiate opioid treatmentwith ER/LA opi-
oids and should not prescribe ER/LA opioids for intermittent use.
In general, avoiding the use of immediate-release opioids in com-
bination with ER/LA opioids is preferable.
When anER/LAopioid is prescribed, usinga product with pre-
dictable pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics is preferred to
minimize unintentional overdose risk.Methadoneshouldnotbe thefirstchoice foran ER/LAopioid. Only
clinicianswho arefamiliar withmethadones uniquerisk profileand
who are prepared to educate and closely monitor their patients
including risk assessment for QT prolongation and consideration
of electrocardiographic monitoringshould consider prescribing
methadone for pain.
Because dosing effects of transdermal fentanyl are often misun-
derstood by both clinicians and patients, only clinicians who are
familiarwith thedosingand absorption propertiesof transdermal
fentanyl andare prepared to educate their patients about itsuse
should consider prescribingit.
5. When opioids are started, clinicians should prescribe the
lowest effective dosage. Clinicians should use caution whenpre-scribing opioids at any dosage, should carefully reassess evi-
dence of individual benefits and risks when considering increas-
ingdosageto 50 morphine milligramequivalents(MME) or more
per day, and shouldavoid increasing dosage to 90 MMEor more
perdayor carefullyjustify a decisionto titrate dosage to90 MME
or more perday. (Recommendation category: A; evidence type:3)
Clinicians should start opioids at the lowest effective dosage,
use caution when increasing opioid dosages, and increase dosage
bythe smallest practical amount.Before increasingtotalopioiddos-
age to50 MME ormore perday, clinicians shouldreassess whether
Table 4. MorphineMilligram Equivalent Doses
for CommonlyPrescribed Opioidsa
Opioidb Conversion Factor
Codeine 0.15
Fentanyl transdermal, g/h 2.4
Hydrocodone 1
Hydromorphone 4
Methadone, mg/d
1-20 4
21-40 8
41-60 10
61-80 12
Morphine 1
Oxycodone 1.5
Oxymorphone 3
Tapentadolc 0.4
a Adapted fromVonKorffM, Saunders K, RayGT, etal. Clin J Pain.
2008;24:521-527, and Interagency Guideline on PrescribingOpioids for Pain.
WashingtonState Agency Medical Directors Group. http://www
.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/Files/2015AMDGOpioidGuideline.pdf.Accessed
February 19,2016.b Alldosesare in mg/d except forfentanyl, whichis g/h. Multiply thedaily
dosagefor each opioidby theconversionfactor to determinethe dose in
morphine milligram equivalents(MME). For example, tablets containing
hydrocodone,5 mg,and acetaminophen,300 mg,taken 4 times a daywould
contain a total of 20mg of hydrocodone daily, equivalent to 20MME daily;
extended-release tablets containingoxycodone, 10 mg, and taken twicea day
would containa total of 20mg of oxycodonedaily, equivalent to 30 MME
daily.
c Tapentadol is a -receptor agonist and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor.
Morphine milligram equivalents are basedon degreeof -receptoragonist
activity, butit is unknown if this drug is associatedwithoverdosein thesame
dose-dependentmanner as observed withmedications thatare solely
-receptor agonists.
Box4. CautionsAbout Calculating MorphineMilligram
Equivalent Doses
Equianalgesicdose conversionsare only estimates and cannot
accountfor individualvariability in geneticsand pharmacokinetics.
Do not use the calculateddose in morphinemilligramequivalents
(MME) to determinethe doses to usewhenconvertingone
opioidto another;when converting opioids, thenew opioidis
typically dosed at substantially lower thanthe calculatedMMEdoseto avoid accidental overdosedue to incomplete
cross-tolerance and individual variabilityin opioid
pharmacokinetics.
Use particular caution with methadonedose conversions
because the conversion factor increasesat higher doses.
Useparticular caution with fentanylbecauseit is dosedin g/h
instead ofmg/d,and itsabsorptionis affectedby heat and
other factors.
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opioids are meetingthe patients treatmentgoals.If a patients opi-
oid dosagefor all sources of opioids combined reaches or exceeds
50 MME per day, clinicians should implement additional precau-
tions, including increased frequency of follow-up and considering
offering naloxone. Clinicians should avoid increasing opioid dos-
ages to 90 MME or more per day or should carefully justify a deci-
sionto increasedosageto 90MME ormore per day based onindi-vidualizedassessmentofbenefitsandrisksandweighingfactorssuch
as diagnosis, incremental benefits for pain and function relative to
harmsas dosagesapproach90 MMEper day, other treatments and
effectiveness, and recommendations based on consultation with
pain specialists. If patients do not experienceimprovement in pain
and functionat 90 MME ormoreper day, or ifthere are escalating
dosage requirements,cliniciansshoulddiscuss other approaches to
painmanagementwith thepatient,consider workingwith patients
to taper opioids to a lower dosageor to taper anddiscontinue opi-
oids, and consider consulting a pain specialist.
Established patients already prescribed high dosages of
opioids (90 MME/d), including patients transferringfromothercli-
nicians, should be offered the opportunity to reevaluate their con-
tinueduse ofopioids athighdosages inlightof recentevidence re-
garding the association of opioid dosage and overdose risk. For
patients who agree to taper opioids to lower dosages, clinicians
should collaboratewith thepatient on a tapering plan.6.Long-termopioiduse oftenbegins withtreatment ofacute
pain. When opioids areused foracutepain, clinicians shouldpre-
scribe thelowest effectivedoseof immediate-releaseopioidsand
should prescribe no greater quantity than needed for the ex-
pected duration of pain severe enoughto require opioids. Three
days orlesswilloftenbe sufficient; more than 7 days willrarelybe
needed. (Recommendation category: A; evidence type:4)
Acute pain can often be managed without opioids. When
diagnosis and severity of nontraumatic, nonsurgical pain are rea-
sonably assumed to warrant the use of opioids, clinicians should
Box5. Centersfor Disease Control and Prevention Recommendations for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic PainOutsideof Active Cancer,
Palliative, and End-of-Life Care
DeterminingWhen to Initiateor Continue Opioids for Chronic Pain
1. Nonpharmacologic therapy and nonopioidpharmacologictherapy
are preferred forchronic pain.Clinicians should consider opioid
therapy only if expectedbenefits for both pain andfunctionare
anticipated to outweigh risksto thepatient.If opioids areused, they
should be combinedwith nonpharmacologic therapy and nonopioid
pharmacologic therapy, as appropriate.
2. Before starting opioid therapy forchronic pain,clinicians should
establishtreatment goalswith all patients,includingrealisticgoals
for pain andfunction, andshould considerhow therapy will be
discontinued if benefits do not outweigh risks. Cliniciansshould
continueopioid therapy onlyif there is clinicallymeaningful
improvement in pain and function thatoutweighs risksto
patient safety.
3. Before starting and periodically during opioid therapy, clinicians
should discuss withpatients known risksand realisticbenefitsof
opioid therapy and patient and clinician responsibilitiesfor
managing therapy.
Opioid Selection,Dosage, Duration,Follow-up,and Discontinuation
4. Whenstartingopioid therapy for chronic pain,clinicians should
prescribeimmediate-release opioids instead of extended-release/
long-acting (ER/LA) opioids.
5. Whenopioids are started, clinicians should prescribe the lowest
effective dosage. Cliniciansshould use caution whenprescribing
opioids at any dosage, should carefullyreassessevidence of
individual benefits and riskswhen increasing dosage to 50 morphine
milligram equivalents (MME) or moreper day, and should avoid
increasing dosageto 90 MME or more perday or carefullyjustifya
decision totitrate dosageto 90 MMEor more perday.
6.Long-termopioid useoften beginswithtreatment of acute pain.
When opioids areusedfor acute pain,clinicians shouldprescribe the
lowest effectivedose of immediate-release opioids and should
prescribeno greater quantity thanneeded forthe expected duration
ofpain severe enoughto require opioids. Threedaysor less willoftenbe sufficient; more than 7 days will rarelybe needed.
7. Cliniciansshould evaluate benefits and harms with patients within
1 to4 weeks ofstartingopioid therapy for chronic pain orof dose
escalation. Cliniciansshould evaluate benefits and harmsof
continuedtherapywith patients every 3 months or morefrequently.
If benefits do not outweighharms of continuedopioid therapy,
clinicians should optimize therapiesand workwith patients to taper
opioids to lower dosages orto taperand discontinue opioids.
AssessingRisk andAddressing Harmsof Opioid Use
8. Before starting and periodically during continuation of opioid
therapy, cliniciansshould evaluate riskfactors foropioid-related
harms. Cliniciansshould incorporate intothe management plan
strategies to mitigate risk, including considering offeringnaloxone
whenfactorsthat increase riskfor opioid overdose, suchas history
of overdose, history of substanceuse disorder, higher opioid
dosages (50 MME/d), or concurrent benzodiazepineuse
are present.
9.Clinicians should review the patientshistoryof controlled
substanceprescriptionsusing state prescription drug monitoring
program (PDMP) data to determinewhetherthe patient is receiving
opioiddosagesor dangerouscombinations that puthim orher at
high riskfor overdose. Cliniciansshould review PDMPdata when
starting opioid therapy for chronic pain and periodically duringopioid therapy forchronic pain,rangingfrom everyprescriptionto
every 3 months.
10.When prescribingopioids forchronic pain,clinicians should use
urinedrug testing before starting opioid therapy and consider urine
drug testing at least annually to assess for prescribedmedications as
well as other controlled prescription drugsand illicit drugs.
11. Cliniciansshould avoidprescribing opioid pain medicationand
benzodiazepinesconcurrently whenever possible.
12. Clinicians should offer or arrange evidence-basedtreatment
(usually medication-assistedtreatment with buprenorphineor
methadonein combination withbehavioral therapies) for patients
with opioid use disorder.
Allrecommendations are categoryA (apply to allpatientsoutside of active
cancer treatment, palliative care, andend-of-lifecare) except recommendation
10 (designated categoryB, withindividualdecision making required);detailed
ratings of theevidencesupportingthe recommendations are providedin the
full guideline publication.11
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prescribe no greater quantity than needed for the expected dura-
tion of pain severe enoughto require opioids, often 3 days or less,
unless circumstances clearly warrant additional opioid therapy.
More than 7 days will rarely be needed. Postsurgical pain is out-
side the scope of this guideline but has been addressed
elsewhere.106 Clinicians should not prescribe additional opioids to
patients just in case pain continues longer than expected. Clini-
cians should reevaluate the subset of patients who experiencesevere acute pain that continues longer than the expected dura-
tion to confirm or revise the initial diagnosis and to adjust man-
agement accordingly. Clinicians should not prescribe ER/LA
opioids for the treatment of acute pain.
7. Clinicians should evaluate benefits and harms with
patients within 1 to 4 weeks of starting opioid therapy for
chronic pain or of dose escalation. Clinicians should evaluate
benefits and harms of continued therapy with patients every 3
months or more frequently. If benefits do not outweigh harms
of continued opioid therapy, clinicians should optimize other
therapies and work with patients to taper opioids to lower dos-
ages or to taper and discontinue opioids. (Recommendation
category: A; evidence type: 4)
Cliniciansshould evaluate patients to assessbenefits andharms
of opioids within1 to 4 weeks of startinglong-term opioidtherapy
or of doseescalation, consider follow-up intervalswithin the lower
end of this range when ER/LA opioids are started or increased or
when total daily opioid dosage is 50 MME per day or greater, and
strongly consider shorter follow-up intervals (within 3 days) when
starting or increasing the dosage of methadone. Clinicians should
regularlyreassess all patients receivinglong-termopioid therapy,in-
cluding patients who are new to the clinician but taking long-term
therapy, at least every 3 months and reevaluate patients exposed
togreater risk ofopioid usedisorderor overdose(eg,patients with
depressionor other mental health conditions, history of substance
use disorder or overdose, taking50 MME/d, taking other central
nervous system depressants) more frequently.Atfollow-up,cliniciansshoulddeterminewhether opioidscon-
tinueto meettreatment goals, includingsustainedimprovementin
pain and function, whether the patient has experienced common
or serious adverse events or has early warning signs of serious ad-
verse eventssuch asoverdose (eg,sedation,slurred speech) oropi-
oid usedisorder (eg,difficulty controlling use),whetherbenefitsof
opioids continueto outweighrisks, andwhetheropioid dosage can
be reduced or opioids canbe discontinued.
Cliniciansshouldwork withpatientsto reduce opioid dosageor
to discontinue opioids when possible if clinically meaningful im-
provements in pain and function are not sustained, if patients are
takinghigh-risk regimens(eg, dosages50MME/doropioidscom-
bined with benzodiazepines) without evidence of benefit, if pa-tientsbelieve benefits no longer outweigh risks or request dosage
reduction or discontinuation, or if patientsexperience overdoseor
other serious adverse events or warning signs of serious adverse
events.
When opioidsarereducedor discontinued,a taper slow enough
to minimize symptoms and signs of opioid withdrawal should be
used. A decrease of10% ofthe original dose per week is a reason-
able starting point; tapering plans may be individualized based on
patientgoalsandconcerns.Slowertapers(eg,10%permonth)might
be appropriateandbettertolerated,particularlywhen patients have
been taking opioids for years. More rapid tapers might be needed
for patients who have overdosed on their current dosage. Clini-
ciansshouldaccess appropriateexpertiseif consideringtapering opi-
oids duringpregnancy because of possible risk tothe pregnant pa-
tient and to the fetus if the patient goes into withdrawal. Primary
care clinicians should collaborate withmental health clinicians and
with other specialists as needed to optimize nonopioid pain man-
agement,as well as psychosocial support foranxietyrelated tothetaper.
Assessing Risk and Addressing Harms of Opioid Use
8. Before starting and periodically during continuation of opioid
therapy, clinicians should evaluate risk factors for opioid-related
harms. Clinicians should incorporate into the management plan
strategies to mitigate risk, including considering offering nalox-
one when factors that increase risk for opioid overdose, such as
historyof overdose, historyof substance usedisorder,higher opi-
oiddosages(50MME/d), or concurrent benzodiazepine use,are
present. (Recommendation category: A; evidence type: 4)
Certain risk factors can increase susceptibility to opioid-
associated harms. Clinicians should avoid prescribing opioidsto pa-
tients with moderate or severe sleep-disordered breathing when-ever possible. During pregnancy, clinicians and patients together
should carefully weigh risks and benefits when making decisions
about whether to initiateopioid therapy. Clinicians caring for preg-
nantwomenreceivingopioidsshouldarrangefor delivery at a facil-
ity prepared to evaluate and treatneonatal opioid withdrawal syn-
drome. Clinicians should use additional caution and increased
monitoringto minimizerisks of opioidsprescribedfor patientswith
renal or hepatic insufficiency, patients 65 years and older, and pa-
tientswith anxiety or depression. Cliniciansshould ensurethat treat-
ment for depression and other mental health conditions is opti-
mized, consulting with behavioral health specialists when needed.
If clinicians consider opioid therapy for patients with drug or alco-
hol usedisorders or for patients with prior nonfataloverdose, theyshould discuss increasedrisks foropioid use disorder andoverdose
with patients, carefully consider whether benefits of opioids out-
weighincreased risks, andincreasefrequencyof monitoring opioid
therapy.
Clinicians should consider offeringnaloxone whenprescribing
opioids to patientsat increasedrisk of overdose, includingpatients
with a history ofoverdose, patients with a history ofsubstance use
disorder, patientstaking benzodiazepineswith opioids,patientsat
risk ofreturningto a high dose towhichtheyare nolonger tolerant
(eg, patients recently released from prison), and patients taking
higherdosages of opioids (50 MME/d). Practices should provide
education on overdose prevention and naloxone use to patients
receiving naloxone prescriptions and to members of their
households.
9.Clinicians should review the patientshistoryof controlled
substance prescriptions using state prescription drug monitor-
ingprogram(PDMP)data to determinewhether thepatient is re-
ceiving opioid dosages or dangerous combinations that put him
orherathighriskforoverdose.CliniciansshouldreviewPDMPdata
whenstartingopioidtherapyforchronicpainandperiodicallydur-
ingopioid therapy forchronic pain, ranging from every prescrip-
tion to every 3 months.(Recommendation category: A; evidence
type: 4)
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Clinicians should review PDMPdata for opioids and other con-
trolledmedicationspatientsmighthavereceivedfromadditional pre-
scribers to determinewhether a patient is receivinghigh total opi-
oiddosages ordangerous combinations (eg,opioids combined with
benzodiazepines)thatput himor herat high risk for overdose. Ide-
ally, PDMP data should be reviewed before every opioid prescrip-
tion. This is recommendedin allstates withwell-functioningPDMPs
and where PDMP access policies make this practicable (eg, clini-cianand delegate access permitted), but it is notcurrentlypossible
in states without functional PDMPs or in those that do not permit
certain prescribers to access them.
If patients are found to have high opioid dosages, dangerous
combinationsof medications, or multiplecontrolledsubstancepre-
scriptions written by different clinicians,severalactions canbe taken
to augment clinicians abilities to improve patient safety:
Clinicians should discuss information from the PDMP with their
patient and confirm that the patient is aware of the additional
prescriptions.
Clinicians should discuss safety concerns,including increasedrisk
forrespiratory depressionand overdose,with patientsfound tobe
receiving opioids from more than 1 prescriber or receiving medi-
cations that increase risk when combined with opioids (eg, ben-
zodiazepines).
Clinicians should avoid prescribing opioids and benzodiazepines
concurrently whenever possible. Clinicians should communicate
with others managing the patient to discuss the patients needs,
prioritizepatient goals, weighrisksof concurrentbenzodiazepine
and opioid exposure, and coordinate care.
Clinicians should calculatethe total MME/d for concurrentopioid
prescriptions. If patientsare found to be receivinghigh total daily
dosagesof opioids,clinicians should discuss their safety concerns
with the patient, consider tapering to a safer dosage, and con-
sider offering naloxone.
Cl