2010 -Top Six Toxins-report

7/28/2019 2010 -Top Six Toxins-report

1/76

12 Cases ofClean Up and Success

Blacksmith Institutes

World Worst PollutedPlaces Report 2009

Six pollutants that jeopardize the

health of tens of millions of people

Lead

MercuryChromium

ArsenicPesticides

Radionuclides

Top Six Toxic Threats

Blacksmith Institutes

Worlds Worst PollutionProblems Report 2010

Produced in collaboration with Green Cross Switzerland


2/76

This document was prepared by the staff of Blacksmith

Institute in par tner shi p with Gre en Cross Switzerla nd with

input and review from a number of experts and volunteers, to

whom we are most grateful.

Primary Authors:

Andrew McCar tor, J. D.

Dan Becker, B.A.

Contributions:

David Han rah an M. Sc, Bret Ericson M. Sc, And rea Th ome n, Ric hard

Fulle r, Dona ld Jones, Ira May, and Jac k Carava nos Ph.D.

Special Thanks To:

Nat halie G ysi , Andrea Walt er, Dr. Stephan Robinson, Triple

Smart, Blacksmith Institute Technical Advisory Board Members,

Blacksmith Institute staff, and Green Cross Switzerl and staff.

Contact:

For questions, comme nts and feedb ack, please con tact Blacksmith

Ins titute in New York City:

Blacksmith Institute

2014 Fi fth Avenue

New York, NY 10035

1 (212) 647-8330

Inf o@blacksmithinstitute. org

Med ia inquiries sho uld be direc ted to Bret Er icson, bre t@

blacksmithinstitute.org

Med ia inquiries in Europ e should be dir ected to Nat halie Gys i at:Green Cross Switzerland

Fabrikstra sse 17

8005 Zurich, Switzerland

+41 (0) 43 499 13 10

[email protected]

This report is available online atwww.worstpolluted.org


3/76

Table of Contents

Letter from Blacksmith Institute Founder and President

Introduction

Understanding Pollution in 2010

About the 2010 Report

Summary of the Top Six Toxic ThreatsThe 2010 Conference on Legacy Pollution in Developing Countries

Blacksmith Institutes Ongoing Effort to Identify and Assess Polluted Sites

Introduction

Why Conduct an Assessment of Polluted Places?

Scope of the Work

The Site Assessment Process

The Blacksmith Index

Conclusion


Lead

Mercury

Chromium

Arsenic

Pesticides

Radionuclides

Conclusion

Building on Past Reports

Revealed in the Data: Results of Ongoing Assessment Work

An International Plan to Deal with Polluted Hotspots: The Health and Pollution Fund

Within Our Lifetimes: Dealing with the Worst Sites

Appendix

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

4

5

5

6

79

12

12

13

14

16

17

18

19

19

33

39

44

48

55

62

62

63

64

64

66

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

3


4/76

Dear Reader:Letter from Blacksmith Institute Founder and President

2010 has been an important year in our

ongoing eort to identify and clean up sitescontaminated by toxic pollution and reducethe devastating health impacts it causes.So far this year, Blacksmith Institutes eldinvestigators have identied and evaluatednearly 1,000 new polluted sites in low- andmiddle-income countries. While these newdata are a great resource, we are saddened torealize that the scope of this problem may begreater than any of us previously thought.

Fortunately, 2010 has been a year of signicantprogress, and the international communityis starting to recognize the importance ofthis global issue. In September, BlacksmithInstitute hosted an international conference inBellagio, Italy, where leaders from multilateralorganizations and environmental ministriesconvened to share knowledge and outlinefuture steps to address pollution problems.

Ministers and representatives fromdeveloping countries presented the scope

of toxic pollution in their own countries,

and acknowledged that the problem is apriority for their respective Ministries ofEnvironment. The participants concludedthat an international response to deal withthese issues is needed. Interim solutionsmust be implemented while a longer-termstrategy, such as a fund to specically addressremediation of legacy pollution, is developed.Seeing so many inuential leaders and policy-makers gathered to tackle this important issueprovided great hope for the future. We hopethat this report increases the global awarenessof some of the most damaging pollutants andinspires people to join us in this ght. Ourpast successes in cleaning up these sites areconcrete and measurable, and if scaled up,could be used as models to remediate siteson a global scale. There is still much work todo, but we believe this is an issue that can besolved in our lifetime, and one that can improvethe lives of more than one hundred millionpeople.

Richard FullerPresident - Blacksmith Institute


5/76

IntroductionUnderstanding Pollution in 2010

The global health impacts fromtoxic pollutants suchas heavy metals, pesticides and radionuclides, are

greater than previously thought. Today, more than100 million people are estimated to be at risk fromtoxic pollution at levels above international healthstandards. This is a public health issue as salient astuberculosis, malaria, and HIV/AIDS, and one thatshould receive considerable attention and resources.

Toxic pollution causes immense harm to humans,especially children. Health impacts includephysical and mental disabilities, reduced IQ, organdysfunction, neurological disorders, cancers,reduced life expectancy, and in some cases, death.These pollutants exacerbate other health concernsby weakening the bodys immune system, renderingit more susceptible to disease. An initial exposureto toxic pollution can be the undocumented causeof later illnesses, including respiratory infections,tuberculosis, gastrointestinal disorders, andmaternal health problems. In addition, while mosttoxic pollution is localized, some pollutants, such asmercury and persistent organic pollutants (POPs),are transboundary and end up in food chains inoceans and distant countries.

The risk that toxic pollution poses to humans was

tragically demonstrated by the lead poisoningdisaster that unfolded in Nigeria earlier this year.In the spring of 2010, doctors from Mdecins SansFrontires (also known as Doctors Without Borders)discovered an outbreak of lead poisoning in several

villages in northern Nigeria. Men from the villageshad brought rock containing gold ore into the

villages from small-scale mining operations. Thevillagers did not know that the ore also contained

extremely high levels of lead. The ore was crushedinside village compounds, spreading lead dustthroughout the community. The scope of thecontamination was unprecedented. More than160 people died as a result of lead exposure, andhundreds more became ill. Children under theage of ve were the most severely aected. Thesituation in these villages is now improving thanksto the work of the Nigerian Government, BlacksmithInstitute, Mdecins Sans Frontires, TerraGraphicsEnvironmental Engineering, and other local andinternational actors. This tragedy should serve asa reminder to us all that toxic pollution is not anabstract problem for future generations, but an acute

challenge that impacts millions of lives today.

While the challenges are great, recent successesprovide hope for a cleaner future. BlacksmithInstitute and its partners have implemented over40 successful cleanup projects. The case studies inthis report highlight some of the strategies availableto reduce health impacts from toxic pollution, anddemonstrate that this is a problem we can solve.

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

5


6/76

About the 2010 Report

The 2010 report follows a series of annual reportsreleased by Blacksmith Institute and Green CrossSwitzerland. In 2006 and 2007, the organizationsreleased reports highlighting the worlds worstpolluted places. A report from 2008 described thetop ten worst pollution problems, and in 2009, theorganizations released a report highlighting casestudies of successful cleanup projects. The 2010report revisits the subject of pollution problems, butdraws upon the substantial volume of research theorganizations have conducted on polluted sites overthe last two years to identify the specic pollutantsthat are causing the most harm.

Unlike the 2008 report, which covered generalpollution issues such as urban air quality andground water contamination, the 2010 reportprovides detailed descriptions of the six toxicpollutants that impact the greatest number ofpeople. Since 2008, Blacksmith Institute has

increased its ongoing eorts to identify a signicantportion of the polluted places in low- and middle-income countries and conduct eld assessmentsto understand the risks at each site. To date, theorganization has identied 2,000 polluted sitesin 40 countries, and has conducted in-countryassessments at over 1,000 of these sites. This researchhas provided Blacksmith Institute and Green CrossSwitzerland a more sophisticated understanding ofthe scope of toxic pollution globally, and allows forthe greater detail found in the 2010 report.

The 2010 report begins by providing an in-depthlook at Blacksmith Institutes eorts to identify andevaluate polluted sites. The rst section of the reportoutlines the need for this type of research, the scopeof the work, and the methods used to identify andevaluate polluted sites.

The second section of the report focuses on thesix toxic pollutants that have the greatest impacton human health. The list of the top six toxic

An Industrial steel processing complex

A woman clears trash from a pondcontaminated with chromium


7/76

threats was generated using research from siteassessments conducted by Blacksmith Instituteeld investigators. The number of people currentlyestimated to be at risk from these sites exceeds 56million; however, this number will rise as more sitesare evaluated. Blacksmith Institute estimates thattoxic pollution could jeopardize the health of morethan one hundred million people globally. Thecontamination at the majority of these sites comesfrom the six pollutants proled in this report.

The pollutants highlighted here are rankedaccording to Blacksmith Institutes current estimatesof the number of people at risk from known sitescontaminated by each pollutant. In order ofpopulation at risk, the key pollutants are lead,mercury, chromium, arsenic, pesticides andradionuclides. Each of these pollutants is proledin a section that denes the basic nature of thepollutant, common pathways to humans, knownhealth risks, industrial contexts in which the materialis used or produced, and strategies for cleanup.These chapters also include case studies of site

remediation projects.

Summary of the Top Six Toxic Threats

The six pollutants proled in this report were selectedon the basis of the number of people that BlacksmithInstitute estimates are at risk from sites impacted bythese contaminants. The population estimates arebased on the research conducted by eld investigatorsas part of our ongoing eort to identify and evaluatepolluted sites in low- and middle-income countries.

1.Lead:

Lead is a naturally occurring heavy metal and apowerful neurotoxin. Lead is often released duringmetal smelting and mining, and is a key componentin car batteries. Lead can exist in air, water, soil,and food and can enter the human body throughinhalation, ingestion or dermal contact. The healtheects of lead exposure can include neurologicaldamage, reduced IQ, anemia, nerve disorders, anda number of other health problems. The eectsof lead are most severe in children, and at highconcentrations, lead poisoning can cause death.

2.Mercury:Metallic mercury, the elemental or pure form, is asilver-white metal that is liquid at room temperatureand commonly seen in thermometers. Mercuryis often used in the production of chlorine gas,caustic soda, batteries, and electrical switches, andis also used to extract gold from ore. A person canbe exposed to mercury through air, water, food, ordermal contact. Mercury is a powerful neurotoxinand can cause severe damage to the brain and

Oil dumped at a ship-breaking site

Estimated Population at Risk at

Identied Sites* (million people)

108.67.33.73.43.3

Estimated Global Impact**

(million people)

18-2215-1913-175-95-85-8

* Population estimates are preliminary and based on an ongoing global assessment of polluted sites

** Estimated global impact is extrapolated from current site research and assessment coverage

The Top Six Toxic Threats

Top Six Toxic

Threats:

1. Lead 2. Mercury 3. Chromium

4. Arsenic 5. Pesticides 6. Radionuclides

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

7


8/76

kidneys. Inhalation of mercury can also cause lung,stomach, and intestinal damage, and even death dueto respiratory failure.

3.Chromium:Chromium is a naturally occurring heavy metal thatis commonly used in industrial processes. Althoughit can be released through natural forces, themajority of the environmental releases of chromium

are from industrial sources. The industries withthe largest contribution to chromium levels includeleather tanning operations, metal processing,stainless steel welding, chromate production, andchrome pigment production. Chromium can existin air, water, soil, and food, and common exposurepathways include ingestion, inhalation, and dermalcontact. The primary health impacts from chromiumare damage to the gastrointestinal, respiratory, andimmunological systems, as well as reproductive anddevelopmental problems. Chromium is a knownhuman carcinogen.

4.Arsenic:Arsenic is a naturally occurring element that isfrequently characterized as a metal, despite havingproperties of both a metal and a nonmetal. Arsenicis often found in rocks that contain other valuablemetals, such as copper and lead. When smeltersheat this ore to retrieve the other metals, the arseniccan be released into the air. Arsenic can exist in air,water, soil, or food, and all of these present potentialpathways for human exposure. Arsenic has longbeen recognized as a poison, and large oral dosescan cause death. Lower doses of arsenic can cause

decreased production of red and white blood cells,and arsenic poisoning is often characterized byvisible changes in the skin. Arsenic contamation ofground water is a signicant problem in South Asia.

5.Pesticides:Pesticides are those substances, often chemicalin nature, that are used with the intent to repel oreliminate species that have an adverse eect onagricultural or horticultural production. Pesticides

are also used to ght tropical diseases like malaria.A pesticide can be classied as an insecticide,herbicide, fungicide, nematocide, and molluscicide.A signicant volume of the pesticides used each

year is washed away by rainfall into nearby surfaceand ground water, and water is a common exposurepathway. Studies on chronic health eects ofpesticide exposure indicate the potential for thesechemicals to have neurological, reproductive, and

dermatological impacts.

6.Radionuclides:Radionuclides occur naturally in soil and rocks as aconsequence of radioactive decay. While they can bereleased through natural cycles, most environmentalreleases are the consequence of industrial processes.Common sources of radionuclide exposure includeuranium mining and mine waste dumps, nuclearweapons production and testing, processes relatedto nuclear energy production, and the production ofradiological products for medical use. When radiationstrikes a living organisms cells, it can damage thosecells. If radiation aects a signicant number of cells,the organism may eventually develop cancer, and athigh doses, radiation can cause death.

Kids at a waste canal containing chromium


9/76

Note on Population Estimates and PollutantRankings

Blacksmith Institutes global assessment of pollutedplaces is an ongoing eort, and the research thathas been conducted to date is preliminary. Over thenext several years the assessment will expand andthe population estimates may change to reect newresearch. The site assessment process has not identiedor evaluated all polluted sites in low- and middle-income countries. Population estimates that BlacksmithInstitute has used to generate this list and rank thepollutants are based on in-country site assessmentsconducted by eld researchers.

The 2010 Conference on Legacy Pollution inDeveloping Countries

At a conference hosted by Blacksmith Institute incollaboration with the Asian Development Bankand the World Bank, 31 senior-level participants

gathered from 16 dierent organizations todiscuss toxic pollution and health risk in low-and middle-income countries. In attendancewere ve Ministries of Environment (Indonesia,Mexico, Philippines, Senegal and Ukraine), three

multilateral development banks (World Bank,Asian Development Bank, and Inter-AmericanDevelopment Bank), three donor agencies (CanadianInternational Development Aid Agency (CIDA),Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA),European Commission (EC), and three UN agencies(UNEP, UNIDO and WHO), as well as BlacksmithInstitute and TerraGraphics environmentalconsulting rm.

The purposes of the conference were 1. To presentthe scope of toxic pollution in developing countries,highlighting the challenges of pollution and itshuman health eects, using new data collectedby the Blacksmith Institute in collaboration withUNIDO, and with funding from multilateral partners;2. To look in-depth at success stories, remediationeorts and current programs in place addressingtoxic pollution, remediation and eects on health;and 3. To explore next steps in the short-term tolong-term to promote awareness of toxic pollution,its health eects and a global response.

Blacksmith Institute presented the preliminaryresults of its ongoing eort to identify and assesspolluted sites, which works with local experts in over40 countries to identify highly contaminated siteswith signicant health risk. The assessment process

A ship-breaking site in Bangladesh

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

9


10/76

has revealed thousands of places where health isendangered, with an estimated population at riskof over 56 million people. Blacksmith Institute

estimates that the total population at risk globallycould exceed 100 million people. The size of thepopulation at risk implies a public health problemthat is of signicance in the global health arena.

The conference acknowledged that the internationalcommunity poorly understands the area of toxicpollution, and that more work must be done toassess hotspots in Africa, the Middle East, Centraland Eastern Europe, and Latin America - regionswhere the assessment eort currently lacks funding.The Asia Pacic region was much better covered dueto ADBs contribution, which mandated a focus onthat region. Other agencies presented their currenteorts and successful programs as case studies.

Ministers and representatives of developingcountries presented the scope of toxins in theirown countries, acknowledging that the problemis one of priority for their respective Ministries ofEnvironment. Participants indicated varying levelsof national capacity within their Governments todeal with these issues. Mexico, for example, is

very active in both collecting data on hotspots andimplementing remediation projects, and can act as a

model to emulate. Other countries, such as Senegal,Indonesia, and the Philippines, have political willbut few resources or internal national capacity toaddress the problems of toxic pollution.

The representatives at the conference concluded thatan international response to deal with these issuesappropriately is needed, and that there should be

interim solutions while a longer-term strategy (tocreate a fund to specically address remediation oflegacy polluted sites and emergencies) is developed.Initiating such a Fund requires more research withregard to its scope, housing, and implementationmethodology. More work is also needed todetermine appropriate types of toxic sites that couldmake use of the Fund. At the minimum, it would beavailable for remediation of compelling legacy sitesin Least Developed Countries; for emergencies (suchas the case of severe poisoning in Zamfara, Nigeria);and for technical assistance and capacity building inother developing countries.

Artisanal pollution should receive considerableattention, and could be best integrated into thedevelopment agenda because of its clear ties topoverty and livelihoods issues. Emphasis wasalso placed on the fact that a holistic approachdealing with chemicals throughout their lifecycleshould be employed, and that remediation workshould be closely coordinated with UN agencies(especially UNEP) eorts in this regard. The groupagreed that it made sense that Blacksmith Institute,as an established leader in this eld, would be an

appropriate agency to continue to lead eorts todevelop these plans.

Burning e-waste at a site in Ghana


11/76

The following general priorities were dened:

1.There is a need to raise awareness in theinternational community of toxics issues, data andremediation eorts. UN and multilateral agenciescan facilitate introduction of these topics in theirgoverning councils, conferences, and meetingsof the member states or states parties at theConventions dealing with chemicals and toxics. Thelink to health must be made clear.

2.Finance, health, and environment agencies inrecipient countries are responsible for setting theirown development agendas, and need to be educatedabout the scope of toxins within their countries inorder to pursue international resources. Data fromthe polluted site assessment process needs to beclearly presented to recipient country agencies, anda plan of action should be developed in each countryfor implementation of projects.

3.Current eorts must be coordinated, to maximizeresources, and all options for a long-term fundshould be researched and presented. This shouldinclude working within existing mechanisms, suchas the UNEP Chemicals Financing Initiative, GEF, theBasel, Stockholm, and POPS Conventions, SAICM,the Montreal Protocol, the new Mercury treaty

under development, as well as existing fundingmechanisms. Sharing of information, knowledgeand experience, especially reviewing dierentfunding models is important.

4.Additional research in Africa, Latin America,Middle East and Central and Eastern Europe iscritical to better understanding the global scope.

5.Sensitivity of data should be resolved wherepossible and eorts made to be use data in a morepublic way to raise awareness, and thus insert theseissues into the development agenda.

6.National capacity in developing countries iscrucial to identify hotspots with human healthimpacts and deal with these issues through policyeorts, regulations and remediation activities.Eorts must continue to build this capacity, and toshare knowledge and technology.

7.Financial support to pursue the above activitiesis crucial and necessary. All options should beexplored, including working with private industryand foundations in addition to the internationalcommunity.

A child scavenges at a site in Senegal

contaminated with lead

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

11


12/76

Introduction

The 2010 Worlds Worst Pollution Problems Reporthighlights six of the most dangerous and prevalenttoxic pollutants. This list was generated fromresearch conducted as part of Blacksmith Institutes

ongoing eorts to identify and assess a signicantportion of the polluted sites in low- and middle-income countries. To date, sites have been assessedin over 40 countries. An estimated 56 million peopleface potential health risks from these sites, a numberthat increases daily as new sites are identied andevaluated.

Context

While polluted sites in high-income countriesare generally well researched and mapped, lessdocumentation has taken place in low- and middle-income countries. This information gap has madeit dicult for the international community toengage in targeted remediation eorts to reducerisks to human health. To address this problem, theBlacksmith Institute has partnered with Green CrossSwitzerland and several multilateral organizations toconduct a survey of polluted sites in those countriesthat could benet most from increased monitoringand site evaluation.

Objectives

Blacksmith Institute aims to document sites in low-and middle-income countries where pollution levelsexceed international standards and pose a risk tohuman health. Field investigators identify sites ofconcern, describe the primary pollutant(s) at thesite, analyze the pathway from the pollution sourceto humans, quantify the potential number of people

at risk, measure the concentration of the pollutant(s)at the site, and rate the potential severity of theexposure.

Methodology

Blacksmith Institutes assessment work relieson the research of over 160 eld investigators,15 regional coordinators, and a team of in-housetechnical experts and researchers who revieweld reports for quality and accuracy. Sites areidentied by investigators and coordinators, partnerorganizations, media outlets, and by anonymoussuggestion. Once a polluted site is identied,a eld investigator conducts a site visit, takesenvironmental samples for laboratory analysis, andsubmits an Initial Site Assessment report.

Blacksmith Institutes Ongoing Effort toIdentify and Assess Polluted Sites


13/76

Why Conduct an Assessment of Polluted Places?

In high-income countries, industries are generallywell-regulated and the eects from legacy pollutionare mitigated by cleanup mechanisms such as theU.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA)Superfund Program. By contrast, low- and middle-income countries often do not have the regulatoryframework to adequately monitor toxic pollution,nor do they have the resources necessary to clean uppolluted sites.

The international community can contribute tolocal eorts to clean up these sites. However,such contributions are limited by a lack ofunderstanding of the scope of the problem and anuncertainty about how to identify and prioritizecleanup projects. Blacksmith Institutes eorts to

identify and assess polluted sites can facilitatecollaborative international eorts to clean up thesesites and reduce the risks they pose. Each site isgiven a Blacksmith Index score from 1 to 10, whichindicates the severity of the problem at the site (a1 representing a lower risk, and a 10 indicatingan extreme risk). This model is based on theHazard Ranking System developed for theSuperfund Program. The Blacksmith Index score

uses site data such as the concentration levels of themain pollutant relative to international standards,the pathway to humans, and the estimatedpopulation at risk. The Blacksmith Index provides amechanism for prioritizing cleanup efforts andallocating resources to those sites that causethe most harm.

Municipal and industrial waste

owing through an urban center

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

13


14/76

Scope of the Work

The scope of Blacksmith Institutes site assessmentwork is limited to sites in low- and middle-incomecountries, where point source toxic pollutionexceeds international concentration standards,and where there is a clear impact to humanhealth. Sites that do not meet all of these criteriaare not evaluated. There are many serious andtroubling pollution problems around the worldthat fall outside of this scope, including sewageand greenhouse gas emissions. Excluding thesesites from the Blacksmith Institutes assessmentprocess is not meant to diminish the severity or

importance of these issues, but rather to focus onthe area of Blacksmith Institutes expertise and onthose problems that are causing immediate harm tohuman health.

Geographic Scope

Not all low- and middle-income countries areincluded in the assessment process. In general,the assessment targets low- and middle-incomecountries as dened by the World Bank. However,sites in certain countries are not evaluated due tooperational hurdles or a lack of applicable sites. Forexample, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Iraq,

A canal ows with water contaminated with

chromium and municipal waste


15/76

and Sudan, will not be evaluated in-person becauseof ongoing conict or potentially unsafe conditionsfor investigators. Other countries, such as NorthKorea, Myanmar, and Somalia, are excluded becausetheir governments are perceived as uncooperative,too unstable, or non-existent. Countries with verysmall populations, such as island states or countrieswith a small industrial base are also excluded. Inaddition, Lithuania, Turkey, and the Balkan states

are not high priorities for investigation becauseof increased attention to environmental problemsin these countries by organizations such as theEuropean Commission and the United NationsEnvironment Programme. To date, investigatorshave evaluated sites in over 40 low- and middle-income countries. Additional countries will beadded and assessed as the program continues.

Scope Limited to Point Source Pollution

Point source pollution refers to pollution that isemitted from a single xed location. An exampleof point source pollution is smoke emitted from afactory chimney, while non-point source pollutionincludes exhaust from cars. Cars do not have xedlocations, and thus it would be impossible to tracepollution back to a single car. The scope of theassessment process is limited to sites suering from

point source pollution because these sites can beidentied, evaluated by an investigator, and targetedfor a tailored site cleanup plan.

Scope Limited to Toxic Pollutants

Although there are many types of pollution thatcause harm to humans, animals, and ecosystems,the site assessment process focuses only on those

dened as toxic by the Blacksmith InstituteTechnical Advisory Board. Notably, this denitionexcludes sewage, many types of municipal waste,biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygendemand, and greenhouse gasses. The majority ofsites identied by the assessment process to dateare contaminated by heavy metals, pesticides, otherpersistent organic pollutants (POPs), radionuclides,poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), respirableparticulates, and dioxins.

Scope Limited to Pollution ConcentrationsAbove Health Standards

Blacksmith Institute receives many publicnominations for potential sites to evaluate.However, the scope of the assessment processis limited to those sites where environmentalsampling shows pollution concentrations above

Leather skins at an Indian tannery

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

15


16/76

international standards and guidelines. Therecommended maximum concentration levels usedin Initial Site Assessments are set by the WorldHealth Organization (WHO), (US EPA), the EuropeanCommission, and other recognized authorities.

Scope Limited to Sites That Pose HealthRisks

The scope of this eort is also limited to sites thathave the potential to adversely impact humanhealth. The site evaluation process does notignore other factors, such as ecosystem or wildlifedegradation, but these impacts are secondary todirect and immediate human health concerns.Blacksmith Institute recognizes that environmentaldamage at any level can have a negative impact onhuman health. However, this project aims to addressthose sites that pose the most direct and urgenthealth threats.

The Site Assessment Process

The site assessment process is executed jointly bythe Blacksmith Institute and the United Nations

Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO),with funding from Green Cross Switzerland andother partners. The site assessment process beganin 2009, and will continue through 2011.

Site assessments are typically conducted by in-country eld investigators hired to conduct on-siteevaluations, collect environmental samples, andconduct stakeholder interviews. Over 160 eldinvestigators have been hired and trained to date.Each investigator undergoes a three-day in-countrytraining session with Blacksmith Institute sta andtechnical experts that is designed to familiarizeinvestigators with sampling techniques, recordingmethods, and other site assessment protocols.On the nal day of training, investigators andBlacksmith Institute sta conduct a site visit todemonstrate the proper assessment process at acontaminated site.

To ensure that the type of information collectedat each polluted site is uniform, investigatorsrecord their research ndings in a standardizeddocument called an Initial Site Assessment (ISA).Each ISA contains pollutant concentration data fromenvironmental sampling, GPS coordinates, an estimateof the number of people at risk, a site description,a description of the industry type that is responsiblefor the release of the pollution, and many othercategories of information. Investigators work

under the supervision of regional coordinators, whoare recognized experts in their eld and typicallypossess a Masters Degree in a physical or biologicalscience, a Ph.D., or an M.D.


17/76

Once an ISA is submitted to Blacksmith Instituteshome oce in New York, in-house researchers andtechnical advisors review the assessment for clarityand accuracy. An expert from Blacksmith InstitutesTechnical Advisory Board conducts a final review and addscomments about potential remediation strategiesand estimated cleanup costs.

The Blacksmith Index

Each polluted site that Blacksmith Instituteinvestigates receives a score from 1 to 10 based onthe Blacksmith Index (BI). The Index provides abasic numerical value for the risk associated withany site that has been subject to an Initial SiteAssessment (ISA). The values provided are relativerather than absolute, and are intended to provideinput to the process of setting priorities across sitesThe Index is based on the widely used Source-Pathway-Response model of risk assessment. AtBlacksmith Institute, this approach is referred to asthe Pollution-Pathway-People model. The algorithmwas initially developed with the input and advice fromthe Blacksmith Institute Technical Advisory Board(TAB) members for the first Worlds Worst Reportin 2006, and has been refined subsequently. Itcalculates a value (an integer from 1 to 10) usingstandardized basic information collected in the ISA.

Index Formulation

BI = f [(Potential population at risk); (Severity ofpollution); (Intensity of Exposure); (Allowance for

severe and persistent toxins)]

An e-waste recycling site

in Accra, Ghana

A boy playing in tannary scraps

containing chromium

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

17


18/76

Renement

In mid-2010, Blacksmith reviewed the formulationof the model in light of the increasing number ofsites that had been assessed and the wide rangeof information that had become available. Acalibration exercise was carried out with theinvolvement of TAB members. A sample of variedprojects were evaluated by the Board, using thestandard ISA information, and these projectswere ranked separately using the Index. TheIndex results were compared with the rankings fromthe TAB members and adjustments were applieduntil the BI consistently reflected the judgmentsof the TAB. The adjusted formulation is nowbased on the sum of the log of the population, thelog of the severity, and the other two factors. Thisformulation provides consistent rankings, in termsof risks to human health, across the wide range ofsites.

Application

The Blacksmith Index value is calculated for eachsite, using standard data elds from the InitialSite Assessment. Each site is reviewed for internal

consistency to ensure that the BI value reectsthe overall character of the site and the scale ofthe reported impacts. It must be emphasized thatthe Index provides a relative ranking of sites andis intended to help in setting priorities for moredetailed investigation. It is not, of itself, a judgmenton the health impacts of any one site.

Conclusion

The ongoing global assessment process is the rstattempt to identify and assess sites contaminatedwith toxic pollution on a global scale. The researchfrom this eort promises to increase our understandingof the scope of toxic pollution and our ability to communicatethe global impact. Going forward, the Blacksmith Indexwill be powerful tool to identify and prioritize sitesfor in-depth analysis and remediation. The site identificationand evaluation process will continue throughout thenext twelve months, and additional information anddata from this process will be available in 2011.

Tannery efuent owing into a house


19/76

Lead

Estimated Population At Risk At Identied Sites:10 Million People

Estimated Global Impact:

18 to 22 Million People

Introduction

Lead is a toxic heavy metal that aects the lives ofmillions of people every year. Lead occurs naturallyin the Earths crust and is mined for use in productssuch as pigment in paints, dyes and ceramic glazes;caulk; pesticides; ammunition; pipes; weights;cable covers; car batteries; and sheets to protectpeople from radiation. Lead is often combined withother metals to form alloys, and, until recently, wascommonly added to gasoline to increase octaneratings.

Environmental levels of lead have been increasingfor hundreds of years, and are only just startingto decrease in response to greater awareness ofits harmful eects. Today, much of the lead incirculation exists in car batteries, also called usedlead-acid batteries (ULAB). Of the six million tonsof lead that are used annually, approximately

three quarters go into the production of lead-acidbatteries. [] Of these batteries, 97% are eventuallyrecycled to retrieve the lead. [] The high levels ofrecycling are, in part, due to the increase in leadprices over the last 15 years.

In low- and middle-income countries, commonindustrial sources of lead pollution include mining,


primary and secondary metal smelting, steal andiron production, car battery recycling, and theproduction of pigments. Lead that is released intothe air is brought back to Earth by precipitation oras particulate matter falling to land or surface water.Once lead reaches the top layer of soil, it tends toadsorb to soil particles that can be blown aroundas dust or be tracked throughout a community bypeople walking in the impacted area. The lead in

the soil can also reach surface water bodies as partof storm water runo. Water movement through thesoil can transport lead to ground water, which isused for drinking water and crop irrigation.

Lead often enters the environment through releasesduring the mining process for lead and other metals,as well as from factories that make, use, or recycle

[] H. Roberts. Changing Patterns in Global Lead Supply and Demand. Journal of Power Sources 116.1-2, (2003): 2331.

[] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Toxicological Prole for Lead. Georgia: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2007.

ULABs being transported for recycling

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

19


20/76

lead or lead compounds. Lead can also be releasedinto the air by burning coal, oil, or lead-containingwaste. Once lead is on the ground it can remainin the upper layer of soil for many years. Lead canmigrate into ground water supplies, particularlyin areas that receive acidic or soft rainwater.Furthermore, levels of lead can build up in plantsand animals when the surrounding environment iscontaminated.

Common Exposure Pathways and Health Risks

Lead typically enters the body through ingestion,inhalation, or by mother-to-child transmission in-utero or via breast milk. Although it is possible forlead to enter the body through contact with skin,this pathway is not commonly associated with highconcentrations in the body. Once lead enters thebody, it moves from the blood to the soft tissues andorgans, and eventually reaches the bones and teeth.Lead can be stored in bone for up to 30 years.[3]

The health eects of lead poisoning are both acuteand chronic, and are particularly severe in children,the most exposed group.[4] These adverse impactscan include neurological damage, reduced IQ,anemia, muscle and joint pain, loss of memory andconcentration, nerve disorders, infertility, increasedblood pressure, and chronic headaches. because oftheir smaller size, even small amounts of lead in thebodies of children can be associated with long-termneurological and cognitive defects. When womenwho are pregnant are exposed to lead, it can resultin damage to the fetus and eventual birth defects.

At high concentrations, lead poisoning can causeseizures and death.

Acute lead poisoning commonly results from peopleinhaling lead particles in dust or through ingestionof lead-contaminated dirt. [5] This was the casearound the Haina ULAB recycling facility Hainain the Dominican Republic, where at least 28% ofchildren required immediate treatment for leadexposure, and 5% had blood-lead levels that putthem at risk for neurological damage. [6]

The extraordinary danger that lead poses wasrecently highlighted by a catastrophe in Dakar,Senegal, where between November 2007 and March2008, 18 children died from acute lead poisoningdue to lead dust and soil exposure from ULABrecycling. Until the contamination was discovered,the main economic activity in the Dakar communityof Thiaroye Sur Mer was ULAB recycling. Initialtests of children living in the area found an averageblood-lead level of 129.5 g/dL, drastically exceeding

the United States Centers for Disease Control andPrevention action level of 10 g/dL.[7]

[3] Ibid.

[4] B. Kaul and H. Mukerjee. Elevated Blood Lead and Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin Levels of Children near a Battery-Recycling Plant in Haina, Dominican

Republic. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 5.4, 1999.

[5] United Nations Environment Programme. New Basel Guidelines to Improve Recycling of Old Batteries. Available at http://www.unep.org/Documents.

Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=248&ArticleID=3069&l=en, May 22, 2002.

[6] B. Kaul, et al. Follow-up Screening of Lead-Poisoned Children near an Auto Battery Recycling Plant, Haina, Dominican Republic. Environmental

Health Perspectives 107.11 (1999): 917920.

[7] P. Haefliger, et al. Mass Lead Intoxication from Informal Used Lead-Acid Battery Recycling in Dakar, Senegal. Environmental Health Perspectives 117.10

(2009): 15351540.

Children swimming in a creek

contaminated with lead


21/76

Industrial Sources of Lead Pollution - ULABRecycling

Industry OverviewLead-acid batteries are the oldest form of recharge-able battery. These simple electrochemical units arecomposed of lead plates that rest in a bath of sulfuricacid that is contained within a polypropylene or

polyethylene plastic casing. Because of their largepower-to-weight ratio and low costs, lead-acid bat-teries are extremely common in motor devices, andthus are frequently referred to as car batteries.

Although these batteries can be charged multipletimes, eventually this cycle places stress on the leadplates, which begin to deteriorate. Over the courseof multiple recharges, the unit can no longer prop-erly store energy for a prolonged period. However,because of variation in the units production andoperating conditions, there is no set number ofrecharges one battery can take before its use is com-

promised. [8] Once units cease to be eective, theyare often sent to a ULAB recycler.

[8] Department of the Environment and Heritage. Used Lead Acid Batteries: Factsheet. Australian Government. Available at http://www.environment.

gov.au/settlements/chemicals/hazardous-waste/publications/lead-acid-fs.html, August 2005.

[]H. Roberts. Changing Patterns in Global Lead Supply and Demand. Journal of Power Sources 116.1-2, (2003): 2331.

[]Trade and Environment. A Teaching Case: The Basel Ban And Batteries. Available at http://www.commercialdiplomacy.org/case_study/case_

batteries.htm, 2002.

Global Context

Of the total volume of lead used annually, 76%goes toward the production of lead-acid batteries.[] Recycled lead is a valuable commodity, and therecovery of lead from ULABs can be a signicantsource of income. The market for reclaiming leadfrom these batteries has been growing globally, especially in many low- and middle-income countries. In

order to make a protable business from recoveredlead, many of these countries have entered into thebusiness of buying these units in bulk. The batteriesare often shipped over long distances, primarily fromhigh-income countries, that produce, use, and col-lect the spent batteries for reprocessing. []

Several factors have heightened the risks posed byULAB recycling. One factor that compounds ULABrisks is the increase in population density in urbancenters in low and middle-income countries whereinformal recycling takes place. In addition, thecumulative eect of high unemployment rates and

increased car ownership has lead to the prolifera-tion of informal ULAB recycling. Currently, ULABrecycling occurs in almost every city in low- andmiddle-income countries. In addition to beinglocated in these densely populated urban regions,ULAB recycling and smelting operations are oftenperformed with few environmental safety controlsand with little understanding of the risks involved.

According to the Basel Convention on the Controlof Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastesand Their Disposalan international treaty designedto reduce the movement of hazardous wastes to lowand middle-income countriesULABs are a danger-

Lead bars at a ULAB recycling site

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

21


22/76

ous source of pollution. [] When the recyclingoperation is informal and small-scale, recyclersoften break batteries open by hand or with an axe. Inmany cases, informal battery recycling is a subsis-tence activity undertaken in homes and backyards.

Because global demand for lead is high, ULAB recy-cling is an economically valuable activity and a largesource of recycled lead. This high level of recycling

eectively reduces the volume of lead dumped intolandlls and minimizes the need to mine lead ore,but it also leads to dangerous conditions around re-cycling facilities. The lack of education about healthrisks, combined with a lack of resources, leads todangerous working conditions at ULAB recycling fa-cilities and severe health risks to local populations.

Exposure Pathways from ULAB Sites

Occupational exposure to lead is common in theinformal ULAB recycling business. In the mostcommon scenario, the battery acidwhich contains

particulates of leadis dumped on the ground, in awaste pile, or in local water sources. As the valuablelead plates from within the unit are melted, lead ashis emitted into the air and can be inhaled or gatheron clothing and surfaces. One study in Pakistanfound that children of lead recyclers were more atrisk of lead overexposure than other groups, indicat-ing that the probable source of the exposure wasdust on the parents clothing brought in from work. []

In general, children are at high risk of exposure tolead at ULAB sites. They often come into contactwith lead when playing on the waste furnace slagand when handling rocks or dirt containing theheavy metal. Their close proximity to the groundmeans that children have more interaction withcontaminated soil and dust. The most commonroute of exposure for children is ingestion, as lead

dust often covers clothing, food, soil, and toys whereindividuals eat, sleep, and play. Exposure to con-taminated water is another pathway for lead fromULAB recyclers to enter the body. In Trinidad, mostof the existing cases of lead poisoning in childrenstem from contaminated surface and groundwaterused for bathing, drinking, and cooking. [3]

What is Being Done

Blacksmith Institute is implementing cost-eectiveremediation projects at ULAB recycling sites in theDominican Republic, Senegal, Jakarta, Manila,and other locations around the world. The eortsfocus on eliminating exposure to lead from informalULAB recycling through several steps. These stepsinclude: monitoring lead levels in blood (primarilyin children); partnering with local governments,NGOs, and community leaders to conduct educa-tion programs about the dangers of lead poisoningand ULAB recycling; excavating contaminated soiland removing toxic soil and dust in and around

homes; and either formalizing the recycling processor providing other sources of income for those whopreviously have depended on this activity.

[]Basel Convention. United Nations Environmental Programme. The Basel Convention at a Glance. Available at http://www.basel.int/convention/

bc_glance.pdf, 2005.

[] D.A. Khan, et al. Lead Exposure and its Adverse Health Effects among Occupational Workers Children. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 2010.

[3]T.I. Mohammed, I. Chang-Yen, and I. Bekele. Lead Pollution in East Trinidad Resulting from Lead Recycling and Smelting Activities. Environmental

Geochemistry and Health 18.3 (1996): 123128.

Testing soil for lead content


23/76

Used Lead-Acid Battery Recycling in Dakar, Senegal

In March 2008, Blacksmith Institute was contactedabout the death of 18 children under age ve inthe neighborhood of Thiaroye Sur Mer in Dakar,Senegal. These children all died from acute leadpoisoning due to consistent exposure to leaddust in the air, soil and water. The source of leadexposure was quickly determined to be the informalrecycling and disposal of ULABs. This practice wasa popular way to supplement domestic income,

and was typically undertaken by the women of thecommunity. Because this activity was taking placein an informal, domestic setting, the practice wasunregulated, often in open-air settings, and exposedsome 40,000 people to lead dust.

Upon learning of the death of the 18 children, theSenegalese government worked to shut down theseillegal lead battery-smelting operations. BlacksmithInstitute sta tested the blood-lead levels of 41children. 100% of the children had blood-leadlevels over 10 g/dL, with several over 150 g/dL.The World Health Organization states that anytest indicating a blood-lead level over 70 g/dL inchildren is cause for the declaration of a medicalemergency.

Project Strategies

This project has engaged Blacksmith Institute, theSenegalese government, the University of DakarsToxicology department, as well as the SenegaleseMinistry of Health. The latter two partners havedeveloped an educational program in conjunctionwith local religious and village authorities to convey

the dangers and potential persistence of exposureto lead. On a medical level, the World HealthOrganization has already committed to treatingthose who have already been exposed, and the localgovernment has initiated remediation eorts totreat the soil with funding from Blacksmith Instituteand other partners. Policy changes are also ineect that are aimed at eliminating the market forinformal ULAB recycling by better regulating batterycollection, transportation, storage, and recyclingpractices. The Senegalese Department of WomensAairs is also working to develop alternate sources

of income, helping to reduce the economic incentiveto turn toward informal ULAB recycling.

Outcomes and Follow-Up

Following the intervention by Blacksmith Instituteand its local partners, the contaminated area hasnow been remediated. Soil lead concentrations havebeen drastically reduced from the extreme highs of

400,000 ppm, or 40% lead. While children betweenthe ages of 1 and 5 exhibited blood-lead levelsin excess of 150 g/dL in early 2008, the averageblood-lead level in that age group has been reducedto 53.5 g/dL with the downward trend continuing.Similar decreases were seen across other age groups,pointing to an overall downward trend in blood-leadlevels across the board--a signicant achievementin a community that was previously in danger ofexperiencing widespread lead poisoning.

Mean blood-lead levels in Thiaroye Sur Mer

among three age groups.

Over 2,500 cubic meters of impacted soil wereremoved during this project by local contractors

and community labor under direct supervision ofthe Ministry of the Environment and BlacksmithInstitute technical experts. Local women whowere trained and guided by Blacksmith TechnicalAdvisory Board members have decontaminated morethan 80 homes.

The nal phase of cleanup is now complete, andthe blood-lead levels of children will continue tobe monitored. In addition, a new ULAB collectioncenter has been constructed, and is now being usedto manage batteries in a safe manner.

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

23


24/76

Used Lead-Acid Battery Recycling in Haina, Dominican Republic

Bajos de Haina is a community in the DominicanRepublic that is situated very close to an abandonedlead smelter. In 2000, the Dominican Secretary ofEnvironmental and Natural Resources identiedHaina as a national site of signicant concern.According to the UN, the population showedindications of lead poisoning. Over 90% of Hainasresidents were found to have elevated blood-leadlevels.

Paraiso de Dios is a community located in themunicipality of Haina, seven kilometers westof the capital, Santo Domingo, and just west ofthe bridge crossing the Haina River. The formerMetaloXsa Lead-Acid Battery Recycling facilityoccupieds a 0.45-hectare site, which is locatedon the top of a hill with a view of the Rio Haina,about 300 meters south, which drains directly intothe Bay of Haina. A lack of environmental safetycontrols at the MetaloXsa facility had causedsubstantial contamination of the surrounding soiland waterways. Three sides of the site are borderedby homes with dirt oors. Paraiso de Dios is veryhilly, and rainwater runo from this site travels eastand south through a highly populated residentialneighborhood to the Rio Haina and then to theBay of Haina. Lead levels in soil throughout thecommunity exceeded US EPA limits for lead by over10,000 times, some reaching a lead content of 50%.

Project Strategies

Terragraphics Environmental Engineering, inpartnership with Blacksmith Institute and theInter-American Development Bank, designed

an intervention for the site with an approximatetimeline of two years. In 2007, Blacksmith ledthe formation of a stakeholder group, conductedmeetings with possible funders, and initiatedcommunity outreach and education programs.The stakeholder group consisted of the Ministryof the Environment and Natural Resources,the Autonomous University of Santo Domingo,MetaloXsa, and community members, among others,and met regularly to discuss project progress andbuild consensus on appropriate intervention and

remediation activities. In the rst year, Blacksmithheld community education days encouragingcommunity members to adopt appropriatesafeguards to mitigate their lead exposure, andconducted additional blood testing.

Excavation of the site occurred from December 2008through February 2009. Over 6000 cubic metersof principal threat material were removed from thecommunity and transported to an industrial site for

storage in an environmentally sound, monitoredpit adjacent to another lead smelter for futureprocessing. In conjunction with the Ministry ofEnvironment and Natural Resources, local crewsand contractors were hired and trained, a processenacted to build capacity within the DominicanRepublic to perform hazardous waste removaloperations, the rst of its kind in the country.In addition to removing waste from the formalindustrial site, community walkways and backyardswere also excavated and backlled with clean sandand soil. The main pit where the majority of thewaste was stored became a public park in late 2009.

In mid 2010, a second round of soil excavationswas conducted in contaminated houses and streetssurrounding the main site. Under the supervision ofTerragraphics Environmental Engineering, another4,000 cubic meters of soil with elevated lead levelswere removed and disposed of properly.

Outcomes and Follow Up

Blacksmith Institute, along with its partnerorganizations, was able to successfully remove the

sources of environmental pollution in Haina. Thephysical remediation of the polluted soil at thissite successfully reduced exposure levels. Crewsof local laborers were involved throughout theprocess, laying the groundwork for a sustainablesolution. Blacksmith continues to monitor theblood-lead levels of the children in the community.Additionally, by educating the public about thedangers of lead pollution and ULAB recycling, thepossibility of recurrence of lead pollution at thisscale is diminished.


25/76

Industrial Sources of Lead Pollution Miningand Smelting

Industry Overview

Two main forms of smelting exist: primary smelting,which involves the processing of mineral ore, andsecondary smelting, which reprocesses scrap metals.Both of these processes have the potential to release

heavy metals into the surrounding environment.In addition, the mines from where these metal areextracted often produce piles of waste rock wherelead can be blown away as dust or leach into localwaterway systems.

Lead often exists in rocks and soil that contain othervaluable metals targeted for extraction and smelt-ing. During the process of removing and processingore, the accompanying lead is often released intothe environment. Metals rened through smeltinginclude copper, nickel, lead, zinc, silver, cobalt, andcadmium, among others. Smelting involves the use

of heat and a chemical reducing agent, typically acarbon source such as coke or charcoal. The pro-

[4] S. Dudka and D.C. Adriano. Environmental Impacts of Metal ore Mining and Processing: A review. Journal of Environmental Quality 26.3, (1997):

590602.

[5]S.A. Carn, et al. Sulfur Dioxide Emissions from Peruvian Copper Smelters Detected by the Ozone Monitoring Instrument. Geophysical Research

Letters. 34, 2007.

[6]Ch. Beauman, Chris. STEEL: Climate Change Poses Stern Challenge, October 8, 2007.

[7]Secondary smelting of nonferrous metals: Impacts, Risks and Regulations. National Center for Manufacturing Sciences: Environmental Roadmapping

Initiative. Available at http://www.ecm.ncms.org/ERI/new/IRRsecsmelt.htm, March 27, 2003.

[8]International Finance Corporation. Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines: Base Metal Smelting and Rening. World Bank Group, April 30,

2007.

cess, invoking the carbon, changes the oxidationstate of the metal by removing oxygen from the ore,which leaves behind the metal. Because many oresare not pure, a chemical cleaning agent such aslimestone is used to remove impurities.

Global Context

Metal extraction and smelting can be a highly pol-

luting industrial activity. Emissions from primarysmelting facilities contribute heavily to globalemissions of lead, as well as arsenic, cadmium, andchromium. [4] Certain facilities have been knownto emit large quantities of other air pollutants suchas hydrogen uoride, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogenoxide, and various processes among smelters can re-lease large volumes of sulfuric acid into the environ-ment. [5] Estimates from one source concluded thatsteel production alone within this industry accountsfor 5 to 6% of global anthropogenic carbon dioxideemissions. [6]

Metal smelting and rening facilities also emitparticulate matter, contaminated euents, and solidwastes. Many heavy metals are often released asne particles, either through a chimney or indirectlythrough other stages of the smelting process. Or-ganic vapors and sulfur oxides, which are a result ofthe secondary smelting process, can contaminate theair with smog, ne airborne particles, and carbonmonoxide. [7]

The additional rock removed from the ore, which isknown as slag, often contains signicant amounts ofcontaminants. Slag piles and euents from smeltingfacilities also release numerous acids from waste pitsinto nearby water bodies. [8]

Scrap metal recycling

Tailings from a mine piled next to a town

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

25


26/76

Exposure Pathways from Mining andSmelting

Humans are exposed to contaminants from metalextraction and smelting facilities through inhalationand ingestion. The inhalation of pollutants occursas a consequence of the gases and ne particlesthat are released. Layers of this dust can also settleand accumulate in nearby agricultural soil, whichcontaminates crops. Vegetation studies in Chinademonstrate that crops such as corn, when grownnear smelters, can accumulate heavy metals such aslead and cadmium. [] One study, done near a zinc

smelter, found that the concentrations of mercury,lead, cadmium, and zinc in 20 dierent vegetablesexceeded guidelines for safe human consump-tion, especially for children. [] The polluted soilcan also contaminate livestock, another potentialexposure pathway to humans. [] Furthermore, dis-carded liquid and solid waste can contaminate both

[] Xiangyang Bi, et al. Allocation and Source Attribution of Lead and Cadmium in Maize (Zea mays L.) impacted by smelting emissions. Environmental

Pollution 157.3 (2009): 834839.

[]Na Zheng, Qichao Wanga, and Dongmei Zheng. Health Risk of Hg, Pb, Cd, Zn, and Cu to the Inhabitants around Huludao Zinc Plant in China via

Consumption of Vegetables. Science of the Total Environment 383.1-3 (2007): 8189.

[]Qiu Cai, et al. Food Chain Transfer of Cadmium and Lead to Cattle in a Lead-Zinc Smelter in Guizhou, China. Environmental Pollution 157.11 (2009):

30783082.

[]L. Carrizales, et al. Exposure to Arsenic and Lead of Children Living near a Copper-Smelter in San Luis Potosi, Mexico: Importance of Soil

Contamination for Exposure of Children. Environmental Research 101.1 (2006): 110.

[3]F. Serrano. Environmental Contamination in the Homes of La Oroya and Concepcion and its Effects in the Health of Community Residents. Division

of Environmental and Occupational Health. School of Public Health. Saint Louis University, February 2008.

ground water and surface water resources.

Workers in these metal processing plants and smelt-ers often have a higher risk of exposure to thesepollutants than other groups, primarily because theycome into direct contact with the substances usedthroughout the rening process. Dermal exposurefrom contaminated soil can have lasting health impacts,especially in children. In the community of Morales,Mexicolocated near a copper-smelterover 90%of soil samples exceeded the safe guideline for leadand arsenic contamination. Because of this, the vastmajority of children in this community had concentrations

of lead in their blood that exceeded the Center forDisease Control and Preventions action level. []Additionally, in La Oroya, Peru, a lead smelter operatingsince 1992 has been targeted as the source of highlevels of lead in the blood of children. A 2002 studyfound that 80% of children had blood-lead levels two tothree times higher than the WHO guideline levels. [3]

A pile of lead slag left open to

the elements


27/76

What is Being Done

Today, processing plants and smelters can bedesigned and operated in a manner that limits the

release of airborne and waterborne contaminantsto very low levels. However, such initiatives arecostly, and therefore many facilities, especiallywhere regulation is not strictly enforced, do not meetsafety standards. Older smelters in low- and middle-income countries frequently lack emission controltechnologies, and while some components can beupgraded to meet modern standards, these too arecostly.

Old or abandoned smelters often have legacy pollu-tion in the surrounding soil and river sediments fromthe lifetime of the plants operation. Dust contain-

ing heavy metals often spreads toxic pollutants overwide areas, resulting in serious environmentaldamage. Remediation of such areas has to be fo-cused on removing or curtailing the source of thepollution and then tackling the key pathways thataffect the local population.

Blacksmith Institute has initiated several success-ful projects to reduce health risks from smeltersand clean up legacy lead pollution. These eorts,described in part in the accompanying case studies,

typically involve the following project steps: 1) meetwith local stakeholders to form partnerships andbuild on local knowledge; 2) identify the pollutionsource; 3) measure and monitor the concentrationlevels of the pollutant in the environment and in theaected population; 4) identify and prioritize the areasthat require physical cleanup; 5) create a cleanup plan;6) implement the cleanup plan with local contractors;and 7) monitor the area and aected population toevaluate the impact of the project and the need forfurther action.

Blacksmith Institute does not initiate or implement

cleanup projects alone, but rather works with localpartners and contractors who are often responsible for thephysical cleanup. This model allows Blacksmith Instituteto support the project through technical assistance, plan-ning, and resources, while allowing the community tobuild its capacity to solve local pollution problems.

Used lead-acid bateries (ULABs)

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

27


28/76

Smelter Cleanup in Rudnaya Pristan and Dalnegorsk

People in the Rudnaya River Valley, Russia, expe-rience alarmingly high rates of cancer and otheracute, chronic conditions as a result of several dier-ent types of industrial pollution. Outdated miningtechniques have resulted in cadmium, zinc, lead,boron, and sulfur contaminating the entire city ofDalnegorsk, aecting the air, soil, water, homes, andcrops. Neighboring Dalnegorsk is the second largestcity in the region, Rudnaya Pristan, which is builtaround a lead smelting facility and a seaport, and isalso among the most lead-contaminated sites in Rus-sia. Citizens of Rudnaya Pristan have high rates ofacute respiratory diseases and neurological damage.

Zinc and lead ores were mined in Dalnegorsk andtransported in open cars to Rudnaya Pristan forsmelting, a practice that ended only four years ago.The areas between the two towns, as well as thetowns themselves, have been literally dusted withlead and cadmium, two of the most potent naturallyoccurring neurotoxins, for nearly 100 years. Theheavy metal pollution has contaminated most of theRudnaya River Valley. Approximately 50% of chil-dren randomly tested in this region showed abnor-mally high blood-lead levels despite the discontinua-tion of lead smelting in the area.

Age

Under 2 years of age

3-6 years of age

7-12 years of age

Over 12 years of age

Blood-Lead Levels in Local Children

Mean Blood-Lead Level

22.55+2.12 g/dL

25.00+3.95 g/dL

17.16+2.7 g/dL

9.53+3.16 g/dL

Percentage over 10 g/dL

100%88.9%

85.7%

0%

Project Strategies

The success of this project hinged on a collec-tive eort to both assess the sources of continuingcontamination and to promote outreach and educa-tional eorts regarding the hazards of lead poisoningand heavy metal pollution. Success was measuredin terms of stopping the continued elevation ofchildrens blood-lead levels, with an eye towardlowering the average level of exposure as much aspossible.

Eorts to curb continued lead poisoning involved

the identication and cleanup of the most heav-ily frequented childrens play areas. The lead andcadmium-contaminated areas were mapped alongthe entire valley, allowing the local partners andBlacksmith Institute to make targeted and pertinentrecommendations to the residents of the RudnayaValley along with more concerted eorts towardremediation.

Following the successful identication of the majorproblem areas, local partners were able to removeand safely dispose of 2,000 to 3,000 cubic meters ofcontaminated soil from six heavily tracked kinder-

gartens (three sites in Dalnegorsk, two in RudnayaPristan, and one site in Serzhantovo) and one sum-mer camp, Camp Chaika.

Following the physical removal of the contaminantsfrom childrens spaces, the next step was carefulmedical assessment and monitoring. Blood-leadtests were administered throughout the area to quan-tify the extent of the contamination and identify themost signicantly aected areas. 120 families withchildren with severely elevated blood-lead levelswere presented with literature on how to reduce the


29/76

negative impact of heavy metal exposure. They werealso provided with food additives to facilitate theremoval of heavy metals from their systems.

While the most aggressive and hands-on care wasgiven only to the most signicantly aected childrenand their families, over 5,000 families were givenpamphlets educating parents on how to limit expo-sure to lead and other heavy metals. Informationon the hazards of heavy metal poisoning was alsodisseminated through mass media outlets, and inpopular childrens books.


The results of these eorts have been very promising.Prior to the 2007 heavy metal awareness campaignand reduction of environmental pollutants, 22% ofthe children of Dalnegorsk and 65% of the childrenin Rudnaya Pristan had blood-lead levels greaterthan the acceptable WHO guideline (10 g/dL). Ofthose same children, about 2% in Dalnegorsk and24% in Rudnaya Pristan had very high blood-leadlevels (over 20 g/dL). Just two years later, in 2009,the number of children with lead levels over 10 g/dL dropped to 9% in Dalnegorsk, and the numberwith high lead levels (over 20 g/dL) dropped to lessthan 1%. In Rudnaya Pristan, results were not quiteas dramatic, likely due to the greater severity of lead

contamination in that area. In Rudnaya Pristan,while the overall number of children exhibitinglead levels above 10 g/dL only dropped to 64%,the number with high levels (over 20 g/dL) diddrop considerably to 14%. Those children whoexhibited decreased blood-lead levels did so onan average of nearly 50%.

As promising as these results have been in Dal-negorsk, Rudnaya Pristan still remains heavilyaected by lead pollution. Currently, upwardsof 50% of their children still have a blood-leadlevel of over 10 g/dL, and further remediation isurgently needed.

Testing blood-lead leve

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

29


30/76

Kabwe Lead Smelter Cleanup

Kabwe, the second largest city in Zambia, has apopulation of 300,000. It is located about 130kmnorth of the nations capital, Lusaka. It is one of sixcities situated around the Copperbelt, which was

once Zambias thriving industrial base. In 1902, richdeposits of lead were discovered in the mine and asmelter was constructed in the center of the town.Ore veins with lead concentrations as high as 20%have been mined deep into the earth, and a smeltingoperation was set up to process the ore. Mining andsmelting operations were running almost continu-

ously until 1994 without the government addressingthe potential danger of lead. The mine and smelter,owned by the now-privatized Zambia ConsolidatedCopper Mines, are no longer operating, but have lefta city with hazardous concentrations of lead in soiland water.

While in operation, there were no pollution lawsregulating emissions from the mine and smelter. Inturn, air, soil, and vegetation were all subject to con-tamination, and ultimately, over decades, millions of

lives were aected. Recent ndings reveal the extentto which lead has aected the health of Kabwecitizens. In Kabwe, blood-lead concentrations of 300g/dL have been recorded in children, and recordsshow average blood-lead levels were between 60 and120 g/dL.

Project Strategies

Kabwes decades of contamination required acomplex cleanup strategy. Blacksmith Institute hashelped the situation by establishing a local NGO,Kabwe Environmental and Rehabilitation Founda-tion (KERF), whose function is to bring educationaland healthcare services into each community. AtBlacksmith and KERFs urging, the World Bank pro-

vided a $15 million grant for cleanup purposes, anda subsequent $5 million in funding also was securedfrom the Nordic Development Fund. These results

demonstrate that Blacksmiths initiatives can beleveraged to enable large contributions from majorglobal institutions to allow for the remediation ofserious pollution-related problems.

With Blacksmith providing technical assistance andresources, the governments Copperbelt Environ-ment Project (CEP) has worked to determine themagnitude, sources, and pathways of human leadexposure, as well as to improve public awarenessin order to end future contamination. In 2003, theybegan educational outreach to inform the public of


31/76

behavioral and hygiene changes that would reducetheir risk of lead exposure; at times, these haveproven to be as simple as preventing children fromplaying in the dirt and rinsing dust o plates beforemeals. CEP has also revealed the critical importanceof empowering local citizens with better access toclean water, which will free them from reliance ontainted sources. Some areas of Kabwe required dras-tic remediation, at times calling for entire neighbor-hoods to relocate. The CEP has conducted a cleanupof the highest threat level contaminated soils, in-

cluding a contaminated canal and a great number oftoxic hotspots in neighborhoods throughout the city.

The CEP is implementing a comprehensive programon risk communication and humanitarian develop-ment. Since its inception, the CEP has been imple-menting an intensive community outreach programaimed at raising awareness as well as providingsimple messages on how to avoid lead exposure.This program also strengthens local communityorganizations and connects them with governmentinitiatives. Working closely with the local authori-ties, 10 community development sta members have

been partnered with the CEP, and its actions arebased on a community facilitator model, wherecommunity facilitators or volunteers from eachaected area are closely involved in the implementa-tion of projects.


The Kabwe Lead Education Program is now beingimplemented in schools, where the CEP is workingclosely with the Ministry of Education to reach themore than 20,000 children in the areas signicantlypolluted with lead. This program revolves arounda localized curriculum about lead dangers andproper safety precautions. Another aspect of theprogram, the Green-is-Clean campaign, promotesplanting grass cover, thereby reducing potentiallead exposure through loose soil and dust.

A medical management program has also beendeveloped and is being implemented to reduce theelevated blood-lead levels in children. Presently,

this medical intervention targets children foundwith elevated blood-lead levels during the citywidesurvey.

A total of 160 children with blood-lead levels above 45g/dL were targeted for the household interventionprogram. Out of these, 38 children with levels above 70g/dL are already in the program, and the CEP contin-ues to scale up the number of children that it serves. Insupport of all these eorts, the CEP has also embarkedon a water project to provide the local community withuncontaminated water sources. The project is alsodeveloping playgrounds and parks in all impactedcommunities that, when completed, will be safe andlead-free play areas for children. Additionally, twoPublic Information Centers have been built, and moreare slated for construction. These centers will serve aseducational and community outreach headquarters.

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

31


32/76

Lead Poisoning in Zamfara State, Nigeria

In early 2010, doctors from Mdecins Sans Frontires(MSF) were conducting eld visits in Zamfara State,in northwest Nigeria, when they noticed an absenceof children in several villages. When these doc-tors inquired with the local population about thelow numbers of children, they were told that mostchildren had died unexpectedly. This was reportedto the State Health Authorities, who invited interna-tional specialists to investigate the cause of death.Investigations led by the US Centers for Disease Con-trol and Prevention (CDC), in collaboration with Fed-eral and Zamfara State authorities, MSF, BlacksmithInstitute, and the WHO, revealed that the outbreak

was caused by acute lead poisoning. The sourcewas massive environmental contamination from theinformal processing of lead-rich ore to extract gold.Men from the villages had brought rocks containinggold ore into the villages from small-scale miningoperations; however, the villagers did not know thatthe ore also contained extremely high levels of lead.The ore was crushed inside village compounds,spreading lead dust throughout the community.Blacksmith Institute joined a CDC eld investiga-tion that measured blood-lead concentrations in 113samples from young children in the villages of Yar-

galma and Dareta. The results showed that 100% ofthe children had blood-lead levels exceeding 10 g/dL (the international standard for the maximum safelevels of lead in blood), 96% exceeded 45 g/dL, and84% exceeded 70 g/dL. It was also discovered thatthere were 78 deaths in Yargalma (30% of the popu-lation was less than 5 years old in the village) and40 deaths in Dareta (20% of the population was lessthan 5 years old), totaling 118 deaths in these two

communities since the beginning of the year. 95% ofall deaths were in children under the age of ve.As of September 2010, it was estimated that a total of2,500 children have life-threatening levels of lead intheir blood. Further investigation identied at leastve additional villages where similar ore processingactivities are common. In many areas in all villagessampled, including family homes and compounds,the soil lead concentration exceeded 100,000 ppm,far above the recommended maximum of 400 ppmconsidered acceptable for residential areas. Inges-tion of contaminated soil has been the primarypathway of lead exposure.

Project Strategies

Throughout 2010, the State and Federal healthauthorities of Nigeria have partnered with WHO,CDC, MSF, and the Blacksmith Institute to addressthis problem. MSF has oered chelation therapyatreatment for removing lead from the bodyto anychildren testing at critical levels. To ensure the chil-dren do not return to homes contaminated with lead,Blacksmith Institute is conducting environmentaldecontamination and remediation in several villagesin collaboration with local authorities. Local men

are being paid to assist with the cleanup operations.Cleanup crews take contaminated soil to a landllsite and bring clean replacement soil to the villages.In addition to soil removal, thorough removal of dustfrom all interior spaces and compounds is essential.Children who have undergone a course of chelationtherapy and are ready for discharge from the treat-ment centre must return to a clean environment.This project was ongoing at the time this report was written.


33/76

Mercury

Estimated Population At Risk At Identied Sites:

8.6 Million People

Estimated Global Impact:

15 to 19 Million People

Introduction

Mercury is a heavy metal that has signicant impactson human health. Mercury comes in three formsmetallic, inorganic, and organiceach with its owndegree of toxicity and particular exposure pathways.Metallic mercury is the pure elemental form of themetal, and is extracted from cinnabar ore. Afterbeing heated to above 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit,mercury is rened into its liquid form, which isused in products such as thermometers, electricityswitches, dental llings; in the production of causticsoda and chlorine gas; and is used to extract goldfrom ores containing gold. Another primary form ofthe metal is organic mercury, most commonly knownas methylmercury, and produced when elementalmercury combines with carbon. This is the form ofthe pollutant that can contaminate food chains.

Mercury naturally enters the environment throughthe breakdown of minerals into soil, which is thendispersed through the movement of air and water.Since the start of the industrial revolution in the 18thcentury, the release of mercury into the environmenthas been heavily amplied. Currently, the

anthropogenic release of mercury accounts for up totwo-thirds of the total mercury in the environment. [4]

Other common sources of mercury pollution inthese countries include industrial mining, chemicalmanufacturing, solid waste disposal, and metalssmelting. Most of these activities involve the heatingof mercury, which releases it into the air in vaporform. The mercury is then transported in dust by

wind. Mercury can settle into soil or surface watersthrough rainfall, and often is washed away fromthese sites along with tailings and sediments intolocal water bodies. Once in an aquatic ecosystem,elemental mercury can be transformed intomethylmercurya powerful neurotoxinby bacteriaand can bioaccumulate and move up the food chain.

People are commonly exposed to mercury throughthe inhalation of vapors produced through theburning of mercury in these various industrialactivities; however, many are also exposed tomethylmercury through the consumption ofcontaminated food products such as sh. Once

mercury enters the human body, it can permanentlydamage the brain, kidneys, and the developmentof a fetus. Exposure to methylmercury cancause arthritis, miscarriages, respiratory failure,neurological damage, and even death. Childrenare most at risk of mercury exposure, especiallyin regions adjacent to small- and large-scale goldmines.

[4] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Toxicological Prole for Mercury. Georgia: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1999.

Mercury used by artisnal gold miners

Worlds Worst

Pollution Problems

2010

33


34/76

Common Exposure Pathways and Health

Risks

Mercury is released into the environment both asa vapor from burning processes and as a liquidthat contaminates water and soil. In occupationalsettings such as mining sites, workers are primarilyexposed to elemental mercury in the form of these

vaporsit is estimated that around 80% of exposureto mercury is through this pathway. [5] People arealso exposed to mercury through dermal contact, asthe contaminant can be absorbed through the skin.

The use of mercury in industrial processes and

products also allows small amounts of the heavymetal to contaminate soils and local water bodies.One study of small-scale mining in Peru estimatedthat one or two grams of mercury were beingreleased into the surrounding environment for everygram of gold produced. [6] Mercury is also releasedinto the environment through the produciton anddisposal of fertilizers, fungicides, and solid wastes.These materials allow mercury to then settle inrivers, lakes, and streams, where it can remain for

years.

Once in a water system, microorganismsprocess mercury, an activity that initiates thecontamination of ecosystems and food chains byconverting elemental mercury into methylmercury.Methylmercury can then accumulate in the fatty tissuesof sh, mollusks, and other food sources, upon which manycommunities depend for their livelihoods. Additionally,some studies have found that livestock feeding onmercury-contaminated elds can also become apotential source of exposure to humans. [7]

Each of these pathways exposes people to the

acute and chronic eects of mercury. Exposure cancause severe developmental problems in childrenand fetuses, kidney problems, arthritis, memoryloss, miscarriages, psychotic reactions, respiratoryfailure, neurological damage, and death. In termsof the magnitude of these impacts, one study foundthat over half of artisanal gold miners in two regionsof Indonesia were diagnosed with chronic mercuryintoxication. [8] However, even less exposedgroupsmineral processors and the generalpopulation living near mining siteswere alsofound to have high levels of mercury exposure.

As the most direct pathway, the inhalation ofmercury vapor allows the pollutant to reach thebrain, potentially causing permanent damage tothe brain, the kidneys, and fetal development.Children are the most vulnerable population tomercury exposure, and are particularly at risk fordevelopmental problems. Research also suggeststhat breast-feeding can be a source of mercuryexposure to infants. []

There is a growing body of scientic evidencethat mercury exposure can negatively impact thehuman immune system. [3][3] In particular,one study has observed an association betweenimmune system disorders and exposure to bothorganic and elemental mercury. [3] Fieldworkin northern Brazil, where artisanal gold mining iswidespread, shows preliminary results that indicatean association between these immunologicchanges and vulnerability to infectious diseasessuch as malaria. [33]

[5] Ibid.

[6]Earth Report. Slum at the Summit. Television Trust for the Environment. Available at http://www.tve.org/earthreport/archive/doc.cfm?aid=1623,

2004.[7]R.T. Chibunda and C.R. Janssen. Mercury Residues in Free-Grazing Cattle and Domestic Fowl form the Artisanal Gold Mining Area of Geita District,

Tanzania. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A: Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment 26.11 (2009): 14821487.

[8]St. Bose-OReilly, et al. Health Assessment of Artisanal Gold Miners in Indonesia. Science of the Total Environment 408.4 (2010): 713725.

[]St. Bose-OReilly, et al. Mercury in Breast Milk A Health Hazard for Infants in Gold Mining Areas? International Journal of Hygiene and

Environmental Health. 211.56 (2008): 615623.

[3]Li Sweet and J.T. Zeliko. Toxicology and Immunotoxicology of Mercury: A Comparative Review in Fish and Humans. Journal of Toxicology and

Environmental Health. Part B, Critical Reviews 4.2 (2001): 161205.

[3]P. Moszczynski. Immunological Disorders in Men Exposed to Metallic Mercury Vapour. A Review. Central European Journal of Public Health 7.1

(1999): 1014.

[3]R.M. Gardner, et al. Mercury Induces an Un

2010 -Top Six Toxins-report

Documents

Transcript of 2010 -Top Six Toxins-report